NATIONAL INSTIUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

WARANGAL
INDIA

ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS

LABORATORY MANUAL,
Dept. of Physics
BASICS FOR ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS LABS

1. BASIC ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS

1.1 RESISTOR

1.2 COLOUR CODING OF RESISTOR

1.3 TYPES OF RESISTORS

1.4 CAPACITOR

1 .5 COLOUR CODING OF CAPACITORS

1.6 COLOUR CODING OF INDUCTORS

2. CIRCUIT SYMBOLS
3. STUDY OF CRO
4. STUDY OF FUNCTION GENERATOR

5. STUDY OF REGULATED POWER SUPPLY

6. TYPES OF CIRCUIT BOARD

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1. BASIC ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS

1.1. RESISTOR

A Resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as a

circuit element. The current through a resistor is in direct proportion to the voltage across the
resistor's terminals. This relationship is represented by Ohm's law:

Where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is the potential difference
measured across the conductor in units of volts, and R is the resistance of the conductor in units of
ohms.

The ratio of the voltage applied across a resistor's terminals to the intensity of current in the circuit
is called its resistance, and this can be assumed to be a constant (independent of the voltage) for
ordinary resistors working within their ratings.

1.2. COLOUR CODING OF RESISTOR

Colour Codes are used to identify the value of resistor. The numbers to the Colour are identified in
the following sequence which is remembered as BBROY GREAT BRITAN VERY GOOD
WIFE (BBROYGBVGW) and their assignment is listed in following table.

Black Brown Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Violet Grey White
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Table 1: Colour codes of resistor

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Figure 1: Procedure to find the value of Resistor using Colour codes

Resistor Color Codes: Resistors are devices that limit current flow and provide a voltage drop in
electrical circuits. Because carbon resistors are physically small, they are color-coded to identify
their resistance value in Ohms. The use of color bands on the body of a resistor is the most common
system for indicating the value of a resistor. Color-coding is standardized by the Electronic
Industries Association (EIA).

Use the Resistor Color Code Chart (above) to understand how to use the color code system. When
looking at the chart, note the illustration of three round resistors with numerous color code bands.
The first resistor in the chart (with 4 bands) tells you the minimum information you can learn from a
resistor. The next (a 5-band code) provides a little more information about the resistor. The third
resistor (a 6-band) provides even more information. Each color band is associated with a numerical
value.

How to read a typical 4-band, 5-band and 6-band resistor: 4-Band: Reading the resistor from
left to right, the first two color bands represent significant digits , the third band represents the
decimal multiplier, and the fourth band represents the tolerance. 5-Band: The first three color bands
represent significant digits, the fourth band represents the decimal multiplier, and the fifth band
represents the tolerance. 6-Band: The first three color bands represent significant digits, the fourth
band represents the decimal multiplier, the fifth band represents the tolerance, and the sixth band
represents the temperature coefficient.

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Definitions of color bands: The color of the multiplier band represents multiples of 10, or the
placement of the decimal point. For example: ORANGE (3) represents 10 to the third power or
1,000. The tolerance indicates, in a percentage, how much a resistor can vary above or below its
value. A gold band stands for +/- 5%, a silver band stands for +/-10%, and if there is no fourth band
it is assumed to be +/- 20%. For example: A 100-Ohm 5% resistor can vary from 95 to 105 Ohms
and still be considered within the manufactured tolerance. The temperature coefficient band specifies
the maximum change in resistance with change in temperature, measured in parts per million per
degree Centigrade (ppm/°C).

Example (from chart): Let’s look at the first resistor on the chart. In this case, the first color band is
BROWN. Following the line down the chart you can see that BROWN represents the number 1. This
becomes our first significant digit. Next, look at the second band and you will see it is BLACK.
Once again, follow the line down to the bar scale; it holds a value of 0, our second significant digit.
Next, look at the third band, the multiplier, and you will see it is ORANGE. Once again, follow the
line down to the bar scale; it holds a value of 3. This represents 3 multiples of 10 or 1000. With this
information, the resistance is determined by taking the first two digits, 1 and 0 (10) and multiplying
by 1,000. Example: 10 X 1000 = 10,000 or 10,000 Ohms. Using the chart, the fourth band (GOLD),
indicates that this resistor has a tolerance of +/- 5%. Thus, the permissible range is: 10,000 X .05 =
+/- 500 Ohms, or 9,500 to 10,500 Ohms.

1.3. TYPES OF RESISTORS

1. Carbon Resistors

2. Wire wound Resistors

Carbon Resistors

There are many types of resistors, both fixed and variable. The most common type for electronics
use is the carbon resistor. They are made in different physical sizes with power dissipation limits
commonly from 1 watt down to 1/8 watt. The resistance value and tolerance can be determined from
the standard resistor color code.

A variation on the color code is used for precision resistors which may have five colored bands. In
that case the first three bands indicate the first three digits of the resistance value and the fourth band
indicates the number of zeros. In the five band code the fifth band is gold for 1% resistors and silver
for 2%.

Figure 2: Images of Carbon Resistors

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Wire Wound Resistors

Wire wound resistors are commonly made by winding a metal wire, usually nichrome, around a
ceramic, plastic, or fiberglass core. The ends of the wire are soldered or welded to two caps or rings,
attached to the ends of the core. The assembly is protected with a layer of paint, molded plastic, or
an enamel coating baked at high temperature. Because of the very high surface temperature these
[6]
resistors can withstand temperatures of up to +450 °C. Wire leads in low power wire wound
resistors are usually between 0.6 and 0.8 mm in diameter and tinned for ease of soldering. For higher
power wire wound resistors, either a ceramic outer case or an aluminum outer case on top of an
insulating layer is used. The aluminum-cased types are designed to be attached to a heat sink to
dissipate the heat; the rated power is dependent on being used with a suitable heat sink, e.g., a 50 W
power rated resistor will overheat at a fraction of the power dissipation if not used with a heat sink.
Large wire wound resistors may be rated for 1,000 watts or more.

Because wire wound resistors are coils they have more undesirable inductance than other types of
resistor, although winding the wire in sections with alternately reversed direction can minimize
inductance. Other techniques employ bifilar winding, or a flat thin former (to reduce cross-section
area of the coil). For the most demanding circuits, resistors with Ayrton-Perry winding are used.

Applications of wire wound resistors are similar to those of composition resistors with the exception
of the high frequency. The high frequency response of wire wound resistors is substantially worse
than that of a composition resistor.

Figure 3: Images of Carbon Resistors

1.4. CAPACITOR

A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component used

to store energy electro statically in an electric field. By contrast, batteries store energy via chemical
reactions. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical
conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator); for example, one common construction consists of
metal foils separated by a thin layer of insulating film. Capacitors are widely used as parts of
electrical circuits in many common electrical devices.

When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static electric field develops
across the dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one plate and negative charge on the other
plate. Energy is stored in the electrostatic field. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single

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constant value, capacitance. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential
difference between them. The SI unit of capacitance is the farad, which is equal to one coulomb per
volt.

Figure 4: Electrolytic capacitors of different voltages and capacitance

Figure 5: Solid-body, resin-dipped 10 μF 35 V Tantalum capacitors.

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1.5. COLOUR CODING OF CAPACITORS

In general, a capacitor consists of two metal plates insulated from each other by a dielectric. The
capacitance of a capacitor depends primarily upon its shape and size and upon the relative
permittivity εr of the medium between the plates. In vacuum, in air, and in most gases, εr ranges
from one to several hundred..

One classification of capacitors comes from the physical state of their dielectrics, which may be gas
(or vacuum), liquid, solid, or a combination of these. Each of these classifications may be subdivided
according to the specific dielectric used. Capacitors may be further classified by their ability to be
used in alternating-current (ac) or direct-current (dc) circuits with various current levels.

Capacitor Identification Codes: There are no international agreements in place to standardize

capacitor identification. Most plastic film types (Figure1) have printed values and are normally in
microfarads or if the symbol is n, Nanofarads. Working voltage is easily identified. Tolerances are
upper case letters: M = 20%, K = 10%, J = 5%, H = 2.5% and F = ± 1pF.

Figure 6: Plastic Film Types

A more difficult scheme is shown in Figure 2 where K is used for indicating Picofarads. The unit is
picofarads and the third number is a multiplier. A capacitor coded 474K63 means 47 × 10000 pF
which is equivalent to 470000 pF or 0.47 microfarads. K indicates 10% tolerance. 50, 63 and 100
are working volts.

Figure 7: Pico Farads Representation

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Ceramic disk capacitors have many marking schemes. Capacitance, tolerance, working voltage and
temperature coefficient may be found. Capacitance values are given as number without any
identification as to units. (uF, nF, pF) Whole numbers usually indicate pF and decimal numbers such
as 0.1 or 0.47 are microfarads. Odd looking numbers such as 473 is the previously explained
system and means 47 nF

Figure 8: Ceramic Disk capacitor

Figure 9: Miscellaneous Capacitors

Electrolytic capacitor properties

There are a number of parameters of importance beyond the basic capacitance and capacitive
reactance when using electrolytic capacitors. When designing circuits using electrolytic capacitors it
is necessary to take these additional parameters into consideration for some designs, and to be aware
of them when using electrolytic capacitors

1. ESR Equivalent series resistance: Electrolytic capacitors are often used in circuits where
current levels are relatively high. Also under some circumstances and current sourced from them
needs to have low source impedance, for example when the capacitor is being used in a power
supply circuit as a reservoir capacitor. Under these conditions it is necessary to consult the
manufacturers‟ datasheets to discover whether the electrolytic capacitor chosen will meet the
requirements for the circuit. If the ESR is high, then it will not be able to deliver the required
amount of current in the circuit, without a voltage drop resulting from the ESR which will be
seen as a source resistance.
2. Frequency response: One of the problems with electrolytic capacitors is that they have a
limited frequency response. It is found that their ESR rises with frequency and this generally
limits their use to frequencies below about 100 kHz. This is particularly true for large capacitors,
and even the smaller electrolytic capacitors should not be relied upon at high frequencies. To
gain exact details it is necessary to consult the manufacturer‟s data for a given part.
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3. Leakage: Although electrolytic capacitors have much higher levels of capacitance for a
given volume than most other capacitor technologies, they can also have a higher level of
leakage. This is not a problem for most applications, such as when they are used in power
supplies. However under some circumstances they are not suitable. For example they should not
be used around the input circuitry of an operational amplifier. Here even a small amount of
leakage can cause problems because of the high input impedance levels of the op-amp. It is also
worth noting that the levels of leakage are considerably higher in the reverse direction.
4. Ripple current: When using electrolytic capacitors in high current applications such as the
reservoir capacitor of a power supply, it is necessary to consider the ripple current it is likely to
experience. Capacitors have a maximum ripple current they can supply. Above this they can
become too hot which will reduce their life. In extreme cases it can cause the capacitor to fail.
Accordingly it is necessary to calculate the expected ripple current and check that it is within the
manufacturer‟s maximum ratings.
5. Tolerance: Electrolytic capacitors have a very wide tolerance. Typically this may be -50% +
100%. This is not normally a problem in applications such as decoupling or power supply
smoothing, etc. However they should not be used in circuits where the exact value is of
importance.
6. Polarization: Unlike many other types of capacitor, electrolytic capacitors are polarized and
must be connected within a circuit so that they only see a voltage across them in a particular
way.

The physical appearance of electrolytic capacitor is as shown in Figure 5.The capacitors themselves
are marked so that polarity can easily be seen. In addition to this it is common for the can of the

capacitor to be connected to the negative terminal.

Figure 10: Electrolytic capacitor

It is absolutely necessary to ensure that any electrolytic capacitors are connected within a circuit
with the correct polarity. A reverse bias voltage will cause the center oxide layer forming the
dielectric to be destroyed as a result of electrochemical reduction. If this occurs a short circuit will
appear and excessive current can cause the capacitor to become very hot. If this occurs the
component may leak the electrolyte, but under some circumstances they can explode. As this is not
uncommon, it is very wise to take precautions and ensure the capacitor is fitted correctly, especially
in applications where high current capability exists.

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1.6. INDUCTORS

Self-Inductance of a Coil
Inductance is the name given to the property of a component that opposes the change of current flowing
through it and even a straight piece of wire will have some inductance. Inductors do this by generating a self-
induced emf within itself as a result of their changing magnetic field.

In an Electrical Circuit, when the emf is induced in the same circuit in which the current is changing this
effect is called Self-induction, ( L ) but it is sometimes commonly called back-emf as its polarity is in the
opposite direction to the applied voltage.
When the emf is induced into an adjacent component situated within the same magnetic field, the emf is said
to be induced by Mutual-induction, ( M ) and mutual induction is the basic operating principal of
transformers, motors, relays etc. Self inductance is a special case of mutual inductance, and because it is
produced within a single isolated circuit we generally call self-inductance simply,Inductance.
The basic unit of measurement for inductance is called the Henry, ( H ) after Joseph Henry, but it also has the
units of Webers per Ampere ( 1 H = 1 Wb/A ).
Lenz’s Law tells us that an induced emf generates a current in a direction which opposes the change in flux
which caused the emf in the first place, the principal of action and reaction. Then we can accurately
define Inductance as being: “a coil will have an inductance value of one Henry when an emf of one volt is
induced in the coil were the current flowing through the said coil changes at a rate of one ampere/second”.
In other words, a coil has an inductance, ( L ) of one Henry, ( 1H ) when the current flowing through it
changes at a rate of one ampere/second, ( A/s ) inducing a voltage of one volt, ( VL ) in it. This mathematical
representation of the rate of change in current through a coil per unit time is given as:

Where: di is the change in the current in Amperes and dt is the time taken for this current to change in
seconds. Then the voltage induced in a coil, ( VL ) with an inductance of L Henries as a result of this change
in current is expressed as:

Note that the negative sign indicates that voltage induced opposes the change in current through the coil per
unit time ( di/dt ).
From the above equation, the inductance of a coil can therefore be presented as:

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Inductance of a Coil

Where: L is the inductance in Henries, VL is the voltage across the coil and di/dt is the rate of change of
current in Amperes per second, A/s.
Inductance, L is actually a measure of an inductors “resistance” to the change of the current flowing through
the circuit and the larger is its value in Henries, the lower will be the rate of current change.
We know from the previous tutorial about the Inductor, that inductors are devices that can store their energy
in the form of a magnetic field. Inductors are made from individual loops of wire combined to produce a coil
and if the number of loops within the coil are increased, then for the same amount of current flowing through
the coil, the magnetic flux will also increase.
So by increasing the number of loops or turns within a coil, increases the coils inductance. Then the
relationship between self-inductance, ( L ) and the number of turns, ( N ) and for a simple single layered coil
can be given as:

Self Inductance of a Coil

Where:

 L is in Henries

 N is the Number of Turns

 Φ is the Magnetic Flux Linkage

 Ι is in Amperes
This expression can also be defined as the flux linkage divided by the current flowing through each turn. This
equation only applies to linear magnetic materials.

Inductance Example No1

A hollow air cored inductor coil consists of 500 turns of copper wire which produces a magnetic flux of
10mWb when passing a DC current of 10 amps. Calculate the self-inductance of the coil in milli-Henries.

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 Inductance Example No2

Calculate the value of the self-induced emf produced in the same coil after a time of 10mS.

The self-inductance of a coil or to be more precise, the coefficient of self-inductance also depends upon the
characteristics of its construction. For example, size, length, number of turns etc. It is therefore possible to
have inductors with very high coefficients of self-induction by using cores of a high permeability and a large
number of coil turns. Then for a coil, the magnetic flux that is produced in its inner core is equal to:

Where: Φ is the magnetic flux linkage, B is the flux density, and A is the area.
If the inner core of a long solenoid coil with N number of turns per metre length is hollow, “air cored”, then
the magnetic induction within its core will be given as:

Then by substituting these expressions in the first equation above for Inductance will give us:

By cancelling out and grouping together like terms, then the final equation for the coefficient of self-
inductance for an air cored coil (solenoid) is given as: Where:

 L is in Henries

 μο is the Permeability of Free Space (4.π.10-7)

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 N is the Number of turns

 A is the Inner Core Area (π.r 2) in m2

 l is the length of the Coil in metres

As the inductance of a coil is due to the magnetic flux around it, the stronger the magnetic flux for a given
value of current the greater will be the inductance. So a coil of many turns will have a higher inductance value
than one of only a few turns and therefore, the equation above will give inductance L as being proportional to
the number of turns squared N2.
As well as increasing the number of coil turns, we can also increase inductance by increasing the coils
diameter or making the core longer. In both cases more wire is required to construct the coil and therefore,
more lines of force exists to produce the required back emf. The inductance of a coil can be increased further
still if the coil is wound onto a ferromagnetic core, that is one made of a soft iron material, than one wound
onto a non-ferromagnetic or hollow air core.

Ferrite Core
If the inner core is made of some ferromagnetic material such as soft iron, cobalt or nickel, the inductance of
the coil would greatly increase because for the same amount of current flow the magnetic flux generated
would be much stronger. This is because the material concentrates the lines of force more strongly through
the softer ferromagnetic core material.
So for example, if the core material has a relative permeability 1000 times greater than free
space, 1000μο such as soft iron or steel, then the inductance of the coil would be 1000 times greater so we can
say that the inductance of a coil increases proportionally as the permeability of the core increases. Then for a
coil wound around a former or core the inductance equation above would need to be modified to include the
relative permeability μr of the new former material.
If the coil is wound onto a ferromagnetic core a greater inductance will result as the cores permeability will
change with the flux density. However, depending upon the ferromagnetic material the inner cores magnetic
flux may quickly reach saturation producing a non-linear inductance value and since the flux density around
the coil depends upon the current flowing through it, inductance, L also becomes a function of current flow, i.
In the next tutorial about Inductors, we will see that the magnetic field generated by a coil can cause a current
to flow in a second coil that is placed next to it. This effect is called Mutual Inductance, and is the basic
operating principle of transformers, motors and generators. Different types of inductors are shown below for
the understanding

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Inductor is just coil wound which provides more reactance for high frequencies and low reactance
for low frequencies.
Molded inductors follow the same scheme except the units are usually micro henries. A brown-
black-red inductor is most likely a 1000 uH. Sometimes a silver or gold band is used as a decimal
point. So a red-gold-violet inductor would be a 2.7 uH. Also expect to see a wide silver or gold band
before the first value band and a thin tolerance band at the end. The typical Colour codes and their
values are shown in Figure 6.

1000uH (1millihenry), 2% 6.8 uH, 5%

Figure 11: Typical inductors Colour coding and their values.

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2. CIRCUIT SYMBOLS
Wires and connections
Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component
Wire To pass current very easily
from one part of a circuit to
another.
Wires joined This symbol is used in
circuit diagrams where wires
cross to show that they are
connected (joined). The
'blob' is often omitted at T-
junctions, but it is vital to
include it at crossings.
Wires not joined In complex circuit diagrams
it is often necessary to draw
wires crossing even though
they are not connected. I
prefer to use the 'hump'
symbol shown on the right
because the simple crossing
on the left looks like a join
where you have forgotten to
add the 'blob'!
Power Supplies
Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component
Cell Supplies electrical energy.
Single cells are often
wrongly called a battery, but
strictly a battery is two or
more cells joined together.
Battery Supplies electrical energy. A
battery is more than one cell.

DC supply Supplies electrical energy.

AC supply Supplies electrical energy.

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 Lamps, Heater, Motor, Bell, Buzzer
Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component
Lamp (lighting) A transducer which converts
electrical energy to light.
This symbol is used for a
lamp providing illumination,
for example a car headlamp
or torch bulb.
Lamp (indicator) A transducer which converts
electrical energy to light.
This symbol is used for a
lamp which is an indicator,
for example a warning light
on a car dashboard.
Heater A transducer which converts
electrical energy to heat.
Motor A transducer which converts
electrical energy to kinetic
energy (motion).
Bell A transducer which converts
electrical energy to sound.

Buzzer A transducer which converts

electrical energy to sound.

Switches
Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component
Push Switch A push switch allows current
(push-to-make) to flow only when the button
is pressed. This is the switch
used to operate a doorbell.
Push-to-Break Switch This type of push switch is
normally closed (on), it is
open (off) only when the
button is pressed.

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 On-Off Switch SPST = Single Pole, Single
(SPST) Throw.
An on-off switch allows
current to flow only when it
is in the closed (on) position.
2-way Switch SPDT = Single Pole, Double
(SPDT) Throw.
A 2-way changeover switch
directs the flow of current to
one of two routes according
to its position. Some SPDT
switches have a central off
position and are described as
'on-off-on'.
Dual On-Off Switch DPST = Double Pole, Single
(DPST) Throw.
A dual on-off switch which
is often used to switch mains
electricity because it can
isolate both the live and
neutral connections.
Reversing Switch DPDT = Double Pole,
(DPDT) Double Throw.
This switch can be wired up
as a reversing switch for a
motor. Some DPDT switches
have a central off position.

Resistors
Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component
Resistor A resistor restricts the flow
of current, for example to
limit the current passing
through an LED. A resistor
is used with a capacitor in a
timing circuit.

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 Variable Resistor This type of variable resistor
(Rheostat) with 2 contacts (a rheostat) is
usually used to control
current. Examples include:
adjusting lamp brightness,
adjusting motor speed, and
adjusting the rate of flow of
charge into a capacitor in a
timing circuit.
Variable Resistor This type of variable resistor
(Potentiometer) with 3 contacts (a
potentiometer) is usually
used to control voltage. It
can be used like this as a
transducer converting
position (angle of the control
spindle) to an electrical
signal.
Variable Resistor This type of variable resistor
(Preset) (a preset) is operated with a
small screwdriver or similar
tool. It is designed to be set
when the circuit is made and
then left without further
adjustment. Presets are
cheaper than normal variable
resistors so they are often
used in projects to reduce the
cost.

Capacitors
Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component
Capacitor A capacitor stores electric
charge. A capacitor is used
with a resistor in a timing
circuit. It can also be used as
a filter, to block DC signals
but pass AC signals.

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 Capacitor, polarised A capacitor stores electric
charge. This type must be
connected the correct way
round. A capacitor is used
with a resistor in a timing
circuit. It can also be used as
a filter, to block DC signals
but pass AC signals.
Variable Capacitor A variable capacitor is used
in a radio tuner.

Trimmer Capacitor This type of variable

capacitor (a trimmer) is
operated with a small
screwdriver or similar tool. It
is designed to be set when
the circuit is made and then
left without further
adjustment.
Diodes
Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component
Diode A device which only allows
current to flow in one
direction.
LED A transducer which converts
Light Emitting Diode electrical energy to light.

Zener Diode A special diode which is

used to maintain a fixed
voltage across its terminals.
Photodiode A light-sensitive diode.

Transistors
Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component

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 Transistor NPN A transistor amplifies
current. It can be used with
other components to make an
amplifier or switching
circuit.
Transistor PNP A transistor amplifies
current. It can be used with
other components to make an
amplifier or switching
circuit.
Phototransistor A light-sensitive transistor.

Audio Devices
Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component
Microphone A transducer which converts
sound to electrical energy.

Earphone A transducer which converts

electrical energy to sound.

Loudspeaker A transducer which converts

electrical energy to sound.

Amplifier An amplifier circuit with one

(general symbol) input. Really it is a block
diagram symbol because it
represents a circuit rather
than just one component.
Meters and Oscilloscope
Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component

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 Voltmeter A voltmeter is used to
measure voltage.
The proper name for voltage
is 'potential difference', but
most people prefer to say
voltage!
Ammeter An ammeter is used to
measure current.

Galvanometer A galvanometer is a very

sensitive meter which is used
to measure tiny currents,
usually 1mA or less.
Ohmmeter An ohmmeter is used to
measure resistance. Most
multimeter's have an
ohmmeter setting.
Oscilloscope An oscilloscope is used to
display the shape of
electrical signals and it can
be used to measure their
voltage and time period.
Other Symbols
Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component
LDR A transducer which converts
Light Dependent Resistor brightness (light) to
resistance (an electrical
property).
Thermistor A transducer which converts
temperature (heat) to
resistance (an electrical
property).
Inductor A coil of wire which creates
(Coil, Solenoid) a magnetic field when
current passes through it. It
may have an iron core inside
the coil. It can be used as a
transducer converting

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 electrical energy to
mechanical energy by
pulling on something.
Transformer Two coils of wire linked by
an iron core. Transformers
are used to step up (increase)
and step down (decrease) AC
voltages. Energy is
transferred between the coils
by the magnetic field in the
core. There is no electrical
connection between the
coils.
Relay An electrically operated
switch, for example a 9V
battery circuit connected to
the coil can switch a 230V
AC mains circuit.
NO = Normally Open,
COM = Common,
NC = Normally Closed.
Fuse A safety device which will
'blow' (melt) if the current
flowing through it exceeds a
specified value.
Aerial A device which is designed
(Antenna) to receive or transmit radio
signals. It is also known as
an antenna.
Earth A connection to earth. For
(Ground) many electronic circuits this
is the 0V (zero volts) of the
power supply, but for mains
electricity and some radio
circuits it really means the
earth. It is also known as
ground.

23 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

3. STUDY OF CRO

An oscilloscope is a test instrument which allows us to look at the 'shape' of electrical signals by
displaying a graph of voltage against time on its screen. It is like a voltmeter with the valuable extra
function of showing how the voltage varies with time. A graticule with a 1cm grid enables us to take
measurements of voltage and time from the screen.

The graph, usually called the trace, is drawn by a beam of electrons striking the phosphor coating of
the screen making it emit light, usually green or blue. This is similar to the way a television picture
is produced.

Oscilloscopes contain a vacuum tube with a cathode (negative electrode) at one end to emit electrons
and an anode (positive electrode) to accelerate them so they move rapidly down the tube to the
screen. This arrangement is called an electron gun. The tube also contains electrodes to deflect the
electron beam up/down and left/right.

The electrons are called cathode rays because they are emitted by the cathode and this gives the
oscilloscope its full name of cathode ray oscilloscope or CRO.

A dual trace oscilloscope can display two traces on the screen, allowing us to easily compare the
input and output of an amplifier for example. It is well worth paying the modest extra cost to have
this facility.

Figure 1: Front Panel of CRO

24 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

 BASIC OPERATION:

Figure 2: Internal Blocks of CRO

Setting up an oscilloscope:
Oscilloscopes are complex instruments with many controls and they require some care to set up and
use successfully. It is quite easy to 'lose' the trace off the screen if controls are set wrongly.
There is some variation in the arrangement and labeling of the many controls. So, the following
instructions may be adapted for this instrument.

1. Switch on the oscilloscope to warm up (it takes a minute or two).

2. Do not connect the input lead at this stage.
3. Set the AC/GND/DC switch (by the Y INPUT) to DC.
4. Set the SWP/X-Y switch to SWP (sweep).
5. Set Trigger Level to AUTO.
6. Set Trigger Source to INT (internal, the y input).
7. Set the Y AMPLIFIER to 5V/cm (a moderate value).
8. Set the TIMEBASE to 10ms/cm (a moderate speed).
9. Turn the time base VARIABLE control to 1 or CAL.

25 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

 10. Adjust Y SHIFT (up/down) and X SHIFT (left/right) to give a trace across the middle of
the screen, like the picture.
11. Adjust INTENSITY (brightness) and FOCUS to give a bright, sharp trace.

The following type of trace is observed on CRO after setting up, when there is no input signal
connected.

Figure 3: Absence of input signal

Connecting an oscilloscope:
The Y INPUT lead to an oscilloscope should be a co-axial lead and the figure 4 shows its
construction. The central wire carries the signal and the screen is connected to earth (0V) to shield
the signal from electrical interference (usually called noise).

Figure 4: Construction of a co-axial lead

26 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

Most oscilloscopes have a BNC socket for the y input and the lead is connected with a push and
twist action, to disconnect we need to twist and pull. Professionals use a specially designed lead
and probes kit for best results with high frequency signals and when testing high resistance
circuits, but this is not essential for simpler work at audio frequencies (up to 20 kHz).

Figure 5: Oscilloscope lead and probes kit

Obtaining a clear and stable trace:

Once if we connect the oscilloscope to the circuit, it is necessary to adjust the controls to obtain a
clear and stable trace on the screen in order to test it.

1. The Y AMPLIFIER (VOLTS/CM) control determines the height of the trace. Choose a
setting so the trace occupies at least half the screen height, but does not disappear off the
screen.
2. The TIMEBASE (TIME/CM) control determines the rate at which the dot sweeps across the
screen. Choose a setting so the trace shows at least one cycle of the signal across the screen.
Note that a steady DC input signal gives a horizontal line trace for which the time base
setting is not critical.
3. The TRIGGER control is usually best left set to AUTO.

The trace of an AC signal with the oscilloscope controls correctly set is as shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6 : Stable waveform

27 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual
Measuring voltage and time period
The trace on an oscilloscope screen is a graph of voltage against time. The shape of this graph is
determined by the nature of the input signal. In addition to the properties labeled on the graph, there
is frequency which is the number of cycles per second. The diagram shows a sine wave but these
properties apply to any signal with a constant shape

Figure 7: Properties of Trace

1. Amplitude is the maximum voltage reached by the signal. It is measured in volts.

2. Peak voltage is another name for amplitude.
3. Peak-peak voltage is twice the peak voltage (amplitude). When reading an
oscilloscope trace it is usual to measure peak-peak voltage.
4. Time period is the time taken for the signal to complete one cycle.
It is measured in seconds (s), but time periods tend to be short so milliseconds (ms) and
microseconds (µs) are often used. 1ms = 0.001s and 1µs = 0.000001s.
5. Frequency is the number of cycles per second. It is measured in hertz (Hz), but frequencies
tend to be high so kilohertz (kHz) and megahertz (MHz) are often used. 1kHz = 1000Hz and
1MHz = 1000000Hz.

Frequency = 1
Time period

Time period = 1
Frequency

1. Voltage: Voltage is shown on the vertical y-axis and the scale is determined by the Y
AMPLIFIER (VOLTS/CM) control. Usually peak-peak voltage is measured because it can
be read correctly even if the position of 0V is not known. The amplitude is half the peak-peak
voltage.

28 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

Voltage = distance in cm × volts/cm

B) Time period: Time is shown on the horizontal x-axis and the scale is determined by the
TIMEBASE (TIME/CM) control. The time period (often just called period) is the time for one cycle
of the signal. The frequency is the number of cycles per second, frequency = 1/time period.

Time = distance in cm × time/cm

29 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

4. STUDY OF FUNCTION GENERATOR

A function generator is a device that can produce various patterns of voltage at a variety of
frequencies and amplitudes. It is used to test the response of circuits to common input signals. The
electrical leads from the device are attached to the ground and signal input terminals of the device
under test.

Figure 1: A typical low-cost function generator.

Features and controls :

Most function generators allow the user to choose the shape of the output from a small number of
options.

1. Square wave - The signal goes directly from high to low voltage.

Figure 2: Square wave

30 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

The duty cycle of a signal refers to the ratio of high voltage to low voltage time in a square wave
signal.

1. Sine wave - The signal curves like a sinusoid from high to low voltage.

Figure 3: Sine Wave

1. Triangle wave - The signal goes from high to low voltage at a fixed rate.

Figure 4: Triangular Wave

The amplitude control on a function generator varies the voltage difference between the high and
low voltage of the output signal. The direct current (DC) offset control on a function generator varies
the average voltage of a signal relative to the ground.

31 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

The frequency control of a function generator controls the rate at which output signal oscillates. On
some function generators, the frequency control is a combination of different controls. One set of
controls chooses the broad frequency range (order of magnitude) and the other selects the precise
frequency. This allows the function generator to handle the enormous variation in frequency scale
needed for signals.

How to use a function generator

After powering on the function generator, the output signal needs to be configured to the desired
shape. Typically, this means connecting the signal and ground leads to an oscilloscope to check the
controls. Adjust the function generator until the output signal is correct, then attach the signal and
ground leads from the function generator to the input and ground of the device under test. For some
applications, the negative lead of the function generator should attach to a negative input of the
device, but usually attaching to ground is sufficient.

32 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

5. STUDY OF REGULATED POWER SUPPLY

There are many types of power supply. Most are designed to convert high voltage AC mains
electricity to a suitable low voltage supply for electronic circuits and other devices. A power supply
can by broken down into a series of blocks, each of which performs a particular function. For
example a 5V regulated supply:

Figure 1: Block Diagram of Regulated power supply

Each of the blocks is described in more detail below:

Transformer: Steps down high voltage AC mains to low voltage AC.

Rectifier: Converts AC to DC, but the DC output is varying.
Smoothing: Smooths the DC from varying greatly to a small ripple.
Regulator: Eliminates ripple by setting DC output to a fixed voltage.

Dual Supplies: Some electronic circuits require a power supply with positive and negative outputs
as well as zero volts (0V). This is called a 'dual supply' because it is like two ordinary supplies
connected together as shown in the diagram. Dual supplies have three outputs, for example a ±9V
supply has +9V, 0V and -9V outputs.

Figure 2: Dual Supply

33 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

6. TYPES OF CIRCUIT BOARD

1. Breadboard: This is a way of making a temporary circuit, for testing purposes or to try out
an idea. No soldering is required and all the components can be re-used afterwards. It is easy
to change connections and replace components. Almost all the Electronics Club projects
started life on a breadboard to check that the circuit worked as intended. The following figure
depicts the appearance of Bread board
in which the holes in top and bottom stribes are connected horizontally that are used for power
supply and ground connection conventionally and holes on middle stribes connected vertically. And
that are used for circuit connections conventionally.

Figure 1: Bread board

1. Strip Board:

Figure 2: Strip Board

Stripboard has parallel strips of copper track on one side. The strips are 0.1" (2.54mm) apart and

34 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

there are holes every 0.1" (2.54mm). Stripboard requires no special preparation other than cutting to
size. It can be cut with a junior hacksaw, or simply snap it along the lines of holes by putting it over
the edge of a bench or table and pushing hard.

Printed Circuit Board: A printed circuit board, or PCB, is used to mechanically support and
electrically connect electronic components using conductive pathways, tracks or traces etched from
copper sheets laminated onto a non-conductive substrate. It is also referred to as printed wiring board
(PWB) or etched wiring board. A PCB populated with electronic components is a printed circuit
assembly (PCA), also known as a printed circuit board assembly (PCBA).

Printed circuit boards have copper tracks connecting the holes where the components are placed.
They are designed specially for each circuit and make construction very easy. However, producing
the PCB requires special equipment so this method is not recommended if you are a beginner unless
the PCB is provided for you.

Figure 3: Printed Circuit Board

PCBs are inexpensive, and can be highly reliable. They require much more layout effort and higher
initial cost than either wire-wrapped or point-to-point constructed circuits, but are much cheaper and
faster for high-volume production. Much of the electronics industry's PCB design, assembly, and
quality control needs are set by standards that are published by the IPC organizati

35 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

1. P-N JUNCTION DIODE CHARACTERISTICS

2. ZENER DIODE CHARACTERISTICS

3. CB CHARACTERSTICS OF A TRANSISTOR

4. CE CHARACTERSTICS OF A TRANSISTOR

5. HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER WITH & WITHOUT FILTER

6. FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER WITH & WITHOUT FILTER

7. FET CHARACTERISTICS

8. h-PARAMETERS OF CE CONFIGURATION

9. TRANSISTOR CE AMPLIFIER

10. TRANSISTOR CC AMPLIFIER

11. COMMON SOURCE (FET) AMPLIFIER
SILICON-CONTROLLED RECTIFIER (SCR)
12. CHARACTERISTICS
13. UJT CHARACTERISTICS
14. RC COUPLED AMPLIFIER
15. RC PHASE SHIFT OSCILLATOR
16. BRIDGE RECTIFER
17. CURRENT-SERIES FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER
18. VOLTAGE-SERTES FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER

36 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

 1. P-N JUNCTION DIODE CHARACTERISTICS

AIM:
1. To observe and draw the Forward and Reverse bias V-I Characteristics of a P-N Junction
diode.
2. To calculate static and dynamic resistance in forward and reverse Bias Conditions
APPARATUS:
P-N Diode 1N4007
Regulated Power supply (0-15V)
Resistor 1KΩ
Ammeters (0-200mA, 0-200µA)
Voltmeter (0-20V)
Breadboard
Connecting wires
THEORY:
A p-n junction diode conducts only in one direction. The V-I characteristics of the diode
are curve between voltage across the diode and current through the diode. When external voltage
is zero, circuit is open and the potential barrier does not allow the current to flow. Therefore, the
circuit current is zero. When P-type (Anode is connected to +ve terminal and n- type (cathode) is
connected to –ve terminal of the supply voltage, is known as forward bias. The potential barrier
is reduced when diode is in the forward biased condition. At some forward voltage, the potential
barrier altogether eliminated and current starts flowing through the diode and also in the circuit.
The diode is said to be in ON state. The current increases with increasing forward voltage.
When N-type (cathode) is connected to +ve terminal and P-type (Anode) is connected
–ve terminal of the supply voltage is known as reverse bias and the potential barrier across the
junction increases. Therefore, the junction resistance becomes very high and a very small current
(reverse saturation current) flows in the circuit. The diode is said to be in OFF state. The reverse
bias current is due to the minority charge carriers.

37 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
FORWARD BIAS:

REVERSE BIAS:

38 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

MODEL GRAPH:

PROCEDURE:
FORWARD BIAS:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. For forward bias, the RPS +ve is connected to the anode of the diode and RPS –ve is
connected to the cathode of the diode,
3. Switch on the power supply and increases the input voltage (supply voltage) in steps.
4. Note down the corresponding current flowing through the diode and voltage across the
diode for each and every step of the input voltage.
5. The reading of voltage and current are tabulated.
6. Graph is plotted between voltage and current.

39 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

OBSERVATIONS:

S.NO Vf (V) If (mA)

PROCEDURE:
REVERSE BIAS:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. For reverse bias, the RPS +ve are connected to the cathode of the diode and RPS –ve is
connected to the anode of the diode.
3. Switch on the power supply and increase the input voltage (supply voltage) in steps
4. Note down the corresponding current flowing through the diode voltage across the diode
for each and every step of the input voltage.
5. The readings of voltage and current are tabulated
6. Graph is plotted between voltage and current.

OBSEVATIONS:

S.NO Vr (V) Ir (mA)

40 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

 Calculations:
Calculation of Static and Dynamic Resistance for a given diode.
In forward bias condition:

Static Resistance , Rs = Vf/If =

Dynamic Resistance, RD = ∆Vf/ ∆If =
In Reverse bias condition:

Static Resistance , Rs = VR/IR =

Dynamic Resistance, RD = ∆VR/ ∆IR =

PRECAUTIONS:

1. All the connections should be correct.

2. Parallax error should be avoided while taking the readings from the Analog meters.

RESULT: The static and dynamic resistances of the PN Junction Diode are calculated from the
forward and reverse bias Characteristics.

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. Define depletion region of a diode.
2. What is meant by transition & space charge capacitance of a diode?
3. Is the V-I relationship of a diode Linear or Exponential?
4. Define cut-in voltage of a diode and specify the values for Si and Ge diodes.
5. What are the applications of a p-n diode?
6. Draw the ideal characteristics of P-N junction diode.
7. What is the diode equation?
8. What is PIV?
9. What is the break down voltage?
10. What is the effect of temperature on PN junction diodes?

41 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

 2. ZENER DIODE CHARACTERISTICS

AIM:

1. To observe and draw the static characteristics of a zener diode

2. To find the voltage regulation of a given zener diode

APPARATUS:
Zener diode – ECZ5V1
Regulated Power Supply (0-15V)
Voltmeter (0-20V)
Ammeter (0-200mA)
Resistor (1KΩ)
Breadboard
Connecting wires
THEORY:

A zener diode is heavily doped p-n junction diode, specially made to operate in the break
down region. A p-n junction diode normally does not conduct when reverse biased. But if the
reverse bias is increased, at a particular voltage it starts conducting heavily. This voltage is called
Break down Voltage. High current through the diode can permanently damage the device. To
avoid high current, we connect a resistor in series with zener diode. Once the diode starts
conducting it maintains almost constant voltage across the terminals whatever may be the current
through it, i.e., it has very low dynamic resistance. It is used in voltage regulators.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

SUPPLY SIDE:

LOAD SIDE:

42 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

 PROCEDURE:
SUPPLY SIDE:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. The Regulated power supply voltage is increased in steps.
3. For different input voltages (Vi) corresponding output voltages (Vo) are observed and
then noted in the tabular form.
4. A graph is plotted between input voltage (Vi) and the output voltage (Vo).

LOAD SIDE:
1. Connection are made as per the circuit diagram
2. The load is placed in full load condition and the output voltage (Vo), load current (IL) are
measured.
3. The above step is repeated by decreasing the value of the load in steps.
4. All the readings are tabulated and a graph is plotted between load current (IL) and the
output voltage (Vo).

OBSERVATIONS:-
SUPPLY SIDE:-
S.NO Vi (V) Vo (V)

43 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

 LOAD SIDE:-

S.NO IL (V) Vo(V)

MODEL GRAPH:
SUPPLY SIDE:

LOAD SIDE:

CALCULATIONS:
The percentage regulation is given by the formula
% Regulation = (VNL-VFL) /VFLX100
VNL=Voltage across the diode, when no load is connected.
VFL=Voltage across the diode, when load is connected.

44 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The terminals of the zener diode should be properly identified
2. While determined the load regulation, load should not be immediately shorted.
3. Should be ensured that the applied voltages & currents do not exceed the ratings of the
diode.

RESULT: Regulator characteristics of zener diode are obtained and graphs are plotted for
load and supply side. The percentage regulation of the Zener Diode is _______

VIVAQUESTIONS:

1. What type of temp coefficient does the zener diode have?

2. If the impurity concentration is increased, how does the depletion width get
effected?
3. Does the dynamic impendence of a zener diode vary?
4. Explain briefly about avalanche and zener breakdowns.
5. Draw the zener equivalent circuit.
6. Differentiate between line regulation & load regulation.
7. Which region zener diode can be used as a regulator?
8. How the breakdown voltage of a particular diode can be controlled?
9. What type of temperature coefficient does the Avalanche breakdown has?
10. By what type of charge carriers the current flows in zener and avalanche
breakdown diodes?

45 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

 3. CB CHARACTERSTICS OF A TRANSISTOR

AIM: To observe and draw the input and output characteristics of a transistor connected in
common base configuration.

APPARATUS:
NPN-Transistor, BC107
Regulated Power Supply (0-15V)
Voltmeter (0-20V)
Ammeters (0-200mA)
Resistor, 1KΩ
Breadboard
Connecting wires

THEORY:
A transistor is a three terminal active device. The terminals are emitter, base, collector.
In CB configuration, the base is common to both input (emitter) and output (collector). For
normal operation, the E-B junction is forward biased and C-B junction is reverse biased.
In CB configuration, IE is +ve, IC is –ve and IB is –ve. So,
VEB=f1 (VCB,IE) and
IC=f2 (VCB,IB)
With an increasing the reverse collector voltage, the space-charge width at the output
junction increases and the effective base width „W‟ decreases. This phenomenon is known as
“Early effect”. Then, there will be less chance for recombination within the base region. With
increase of charge gradient with in the base region, the current of minority carriers injected
across the emitter junction increases. The current amplification factor of CB configuration is
given by,
α= ∆IC/ ∆IE

Input Resistance, ri = ∆VBE /∆IE at Constant VCB

Output Résistance, ro = ∆VCB /∆IC at Constant IE

46 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. For plotting the input characteristics, the output voltage VCE is kept constant at 0V and for
different values of VEB note down the values of IE.
3. Repeat the above step keeping VCB at 2V, 4V, and 6V.All the readings are tabulated.
4. A graph is drawn between VEB and IE for constant VCB.

OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. For plotting the output characteristics, the input IE is kept constant at 10mA and for
different values of VCB, note down the values of IC.
3. Repeat the above step for the values of IE at 20 mA, 40 mA, and 60 mA, all the readings
are tabulated.
4. A graph is drawn between VCB and IC for constant IE

47 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

 OBSERVATIONS:
INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

VCB=0V VCB=1V VCB=2V

S.No
VEB(V) IE(mA) VEB(V) IE(mA) VEB(V) IE(mA)

OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

IE=2mA IE=4mA IE=6mA

S.No
VCB(V) IC(mA) VCB(V) IC(mA) VCB(V) IC(mA)

48 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

MODEL GRAPHS:
INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

PRECAUTIONS:

3) The supply voltages should not exceed the rating of the transistor.
4) Meters should be connected properly according to their polarities.

RESULT: The Current gain of the Transistor in CB is ______ , the input Resistance is
_____ and the output Resistance is ______.

49 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What is the range of α for the transistor?

2. Draw the input and output characteristics of the transistor in CB configuration.
3. Identify various regions in output characteristics.
4. What is the relation between α and β?
5. What are the applications of CB configuration?
6. What are the input and output impedances of CB configuration?
7. Define α (alpha).
8. What is early effect?
9. Draw Circuit diagram of CB configuration for PNP transistor.
10. What is the power gain of CB configuration?

50 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

 4. CE CHARACTERSTICS OF A TRANSISTOR

AIM:
1. To draw the input and output characteristics of transistor connected in CE
Configuration
2. To find β of the given transistor and also its input and output Resistances

APPARATUS:
NPN-Transistor (BC107)
Regulated Power Supply (0-15V)
Voltmeters (0-20V)
Ammeters (0-200μA), (0-200mA)
Resistors 1KΩ
Breadboard
Connecting wires

THEORY:
A transistor is a three terminal device. The terminals are emitter, base, collector. In
common emitter configuration, input voltage is applied between base and emitter terminals and
output is taken across the collector and emitter terminals. Therefore the emitter terminal is
common to both input and output.
The input characteristics resemble that of a forward biased diode curve. This is expected
since the Base-Emitter junction of the transistor is forward biased. As compared to CB
arrangement IB increases less rapidly with VBE. Therefore input resistance of CE circuit is
higher than that of CB circuit.
The output characteristics are drawn between Ic and VCE at constant IB. the collector
current varies with VCE unto few volts only. After this the collector current becomes almost
constant, and independent of VCE. The value of VCE up to which the collector current changes
with V CE is known as Knee voltage. The transistor always operated in the region above Knee
voltage, IC is always constant and is approximately equal to IB.
The current amplification factor of CE configuration is given by
Β = ΔIC/ΔIB

Input Resistance, ri = ∆VBE /∆IB (μA) at Constant VCE

Output Résistance, ro = ∆VCE /∆IC at Constant IB (μA)

51 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
INPUT CHARECTERSTICS:
4. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
5. For plotting the input characteristics the output voltage VCE is kept constant at 1V and
for different values of VBE. Note down the values of IC
6. Repeat the above step by keeping VCE at 2V and 4V.
7. Tabulate all the readings.
8. plot the graph between VBE and IB for constant VCE

OUTPUT CHARACTERSTICS:
6. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram
7. for plotting the output characteristics the input current IB is kept constant at 10μA and for
different values of VCE note down the values of IC
8. repeat the above step by keeping IB at 75 μA, 100 μA
9. tabulate the all the readings
10. plot the graph between VCE and IC for constant IB

52 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

 OBSERVATIONS:
INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

VCE = 1V VCE = 2V VCE = 4V

S.NO
VBE(V) IB(μA) VBE(V) IB(μA) VBE(V) IB(μA)

OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

53 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

 MODEL GRAPHS:
INPUT CHARACTERSTICS:

OUTPUT CHARECTERSTICS:

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The supply voltage should not exceed the rating of the transistor
2. Meters should be connected properly according to their polarities

RESULT: The input and output characteristics of transistor connected in CE configuration have
been observed and the β of the transistor is calculated as _____ and its input and output
Resistances are ______ and ________.

54 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

 VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What is the range of β for the transistor?

2. What are the input and output impedances of CE configuration?
3. Identify various regions in the output characteristics.
4. What is the relation between α and β?
5. Define current gain in CE configuration.
6. Why CE configuration is preferred for amplification?
7. What is the phase relation between input and output?
8. Draw diagram of CE configuration for PNP transistor.
9. What is the power gain of CE configuration?
10. What are the applications of CE configuration?

55 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

 5. HALF WAVE RECTIFIER WITH & WITHOUT FILTER

AIM: To examine the input and output waveforms of half wave Rectifier and also
calculate its load regulation and ripple factor.
1. with Filter
2. without Filter

APPARATUS:
AC Supply 12V
PN Diode, 1N4007
Capacitor, 470μF
Variable Resistor (0-10) KΩ
Connecting wires
Breadboard
Multimeter

THEORY:
During positive half-cycle of the input voltage, the diode D1 is in forward bias and
conducts through the load resistor R1. Hence the current produces an output voltage across the
load resistor R1, which has the same shape as the +ve half cycle of the input voltage. During the
negative half-cycle of the input voltage, the diode is reverse biased and there is no current
through the circuit. i.e., the voltage across R1 is zero.
The net result is that only the +ve half cycle of the input voltage appears across the load.
The average value of the half wave rectified o/p voltage is the value measured on dc voltmeter.
For practical circuits, transformer coupling is usually provided for two reasons.
1. The voltage can be stepped-up or stepped-down, as needed.
2. The ac source is electrically isolated from the rectifier. Thus preventing shock hazards in
the secondary circuit.

The efficiency of the Half Wave Rectifier is 40.6%

Theoretical calculations for Ripple factor:

Without Filter:
Vrms=Vm/2
Vm=2Vrms
Vdc=Vm/П
2
Ripple factor r = √ (Vrms/ Vdc ) -1 =1.21
56 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual
With Filter:
Ripple factor, r=1/ (2√3 f C R)

CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS:
WITHOUT FILTER:

WITH FILTER:

PROCEDURE:
2. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
3. Connect the primary side of the transformer to ac mains and the secondary side to the
rectifier input.
4. By the multimeter, measure the ac input voltage of the rectifier and, ac and dc voltage at the
output of the rectifier.
5. Find the theoretical of dc voltage by using the formula,

Vdc=Vm/π

Where, Vm=2Vrms, (Vrms=output ac voltage.)

The Ripple factor is calculated by using the formula

57 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

 r=ac output voltage/dc output voltage.

REGULATION CHARACTERSTICS:
2. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
3. By increasing the value of the rheostat, the voltage across the load and current flowing
through the load are measured.
4. The reading is tabulated.
5. Draw a graph between load voltage (VL and load current ( IL ) taking VL on X-axis and IL
on y-axis
6. From the value of no-load voltages, the % regulation is calculated using the formula,

%Regulation = [(VNL-VFL) /VFL]*100

OBSERVATIONS:
WITHOUT FILTER:

RL Vac Vdc Ripple Factor % Regulation

(KΩ) (Volts) (Volts) = Vac/ Vdc (VNL-VFL)/VFL *100

WITH FILTER:

RL Vac Vdc Ripple Factor % Regulation

(KΩ) (Volts) (Volts) = Vac/ Vdc (VNL-VFL)/VFL *100

MODEL GRAPHS:

58 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

HALFWAVE RECTIFIER (WITH & WITHOUT FILTER):

PRECAUTIONS:

1. The primary and secondary side of the transformer should be carefully identified
2. The polarities of all the diodes should be carefully identified.
3. While determining the % regulation, first Full load should be applied and then it should be
decremented in steps.

RESULT: The ripple factors for Half wave Rectifier with and without load and the load
regulation has been calculated.
VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What is the PIV of Half wave rectifier?

2. What is the efficiency of half wave rectifier?
3. What is the rectifier?
4. What is the difference between the half wave rectifier and full wave
5. What is the o/p frequency of Bridge Rectifier?
6. What are the ripples?
7. What is the function of the filters?
8. What is TUF?
9. What is the average value of o/p voltage for HWR?
10. What is the peak factor?

59 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

 6. FULL WAVE RECTIFIER WITH & WITHOUT FILTER

AIM: To examine the input and output waveforms of Full Wave Rectifier and also
calculate its load regulation and ripple factor.

1. with Filter
2. without Filter

APPARATUS:
AC Supply (12V-0-12V)
PN Diodes 1N4007
Capacitor 470μF
Connecting Wires
Variable resistor (0-10) KΩ
Breadboard
Multimeter
THEORY:
The circuit of a center-tapped full wave rectifier uses two diodes D1&D2. During positive
half cycle of secondary voltage (input voltage), the diode D1 is forward biased and D2is reverse
biased. The diode D1 conducts and current flows through load resistor R L. During negative half
cycle, diode D2 becomes forward biased and D1 reverse biased. Now, D2 conducts and current
flows through the load resistor RL in the same direction. There is a continuous current flow

through the load resistor RL, during both the half cycles and will get unidirectional current as
show in the model graph. The difference between full wave and half wave rectification is that a
full wave rectifier allows unidirectional (one way) current to the load during the entire 360
degrees of the input signal and half-wave rectifier allows this only during one half cycle (180
degree).

THEORITICAL CALCULATIONS:
Vrms = Vm/ √2
Vm =Vrms√2
Vdc=2Vm/П
(i)Without filter:
2
Ripple factor, r = √ (Vrms/ Vdc ) -1 = 0.812
(ii)With filter:
Ripple factor, r = 1/ (4√3 f C RL)

60 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
WITHOUT FILTER:

WITH FILTER:

PROCEDURE:
2. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
3. Connect the ac mains to the primary side of the transformer and the secondary side to the
rectifier.
4. Measure the ac voltage at the input side of the rectifier.
5. Measure both ac and dc voltages at the output side the rectifier.
6. Find the theoretical value of the dc voltage by using the formula Vdc=2Vm/π
7. Connect the filter capacitor across the load resistor and measure the values of Vac and
Vdc at the output.
8. The theoretical values of Ripple factors with and without capacitor are calculated.
9. From the values of Vac and Vdc practical values of Ripple factors are calculated. The
practical values are compared with theoretical values.

61 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

OBSERVATIONS:
WITHOUT FILTER:

RL Vac Vdc Ripple Factor % Regulation

(Ohms) (Volts) (Volts) = Vac/ Vdc (VNL-VFL)/VFL *100

WITH FILTER:

RL Vac Vdc Ripple Factor % Regulation

(Ohms) (Volts) (Volts) = Vac/ Vdc (VNL-VFL)/VFL *100

MODEL GRAPHS:
FULLWAVE RECTIFIER (WITH & WITHOUT FILTER):

62 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

 PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. Connect the ac mains to the primary side of the transformer and the secondary side to
the rectifier.
3. Measure the ac voltage at the input side of the rectifier.
4. Measure both ac and dc voltages at the output side the rectifier.
5. Find the theoretical value of the dc voltage by using the formula Vdc=2Vm/П
6. Connect the filter capacitor across the load resistor and measure the values of Vac and
Vdc at the output.
7. The theoretical values of Ripple factors with and without capacitor are calculated.
8. From the values of Vac and Vdc practical values of Ripple factors are calculated. The
practical values are compared with theoretical values.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. The primary and secondary side of the transformer should be carefully identified.
2. The polarities of all the diodes should be carefully identified.

RESULT: The ripple factors for Full wave Rectifier with and without load and the load
regulation has been calculated.

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. Define regulation of the full wave rectifier?

2. Define peak inverse voltage (PIV)? And write its value for Full-wave rectifier?
3. If one of the diode is changed in its polarities what wave form would you get?
4. Does the process of rectification alter the frequency of the waveform?
5. What is ripple factor of the Full-wave rectifier?
6. What is the necessity of the transformer in the rectifier circuit?
7. What are the applications of a rectifier?
8. What is meant by ripple and define Ripple factor?
9. Explain how capacitor helps to improve the ripple factor?
10. Can a rectifier made in INDIA (V=230v, f=50Hz) be used in USA (V=110v, f=60Hz)?

63 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

 7. FET CHARACTERISTICS
AIM:
1. To draw the drain and transfer characteristics of a given FET.
2. To find the drain resistance (rd) amplification factor (μ) and TransConductance (gm) of
the given FET.
APPARATUS:
JFET (BFW11), Regulated Power Supply (0-15V), Voltmeter (0-20V),
Ammeter (0-200mA), Breadboard, Connecting wires
THEORY:
A FET is a three terminal device, having the characteristics of high input impedance and less
noise, the Gate to Source junction of the FET s always reverse biased. In response to small applied
voltage from drain to source, the n-type bar acts as sample resistor, and the drain current increases
linearly with VDS. With increase in ID the ohmic voltage drop between the source and the channel
region reverse biases the junction and the conducting position of the channel begins to remain
constant. The VDS at this instant is called “pinch of voltage”.

If the gate to source voltage (VGS) is applied in the direction to provide additional reverse
bias, the pinch off voltage ill is decreased. In amplifier application, the FET is always used in the
region beyond the pinch-off.
FET parameters:
AC Drain Resistance, rd = ∆VDS / ∆I D at constant VGS
Tran conductance, gm = ∆ID /∆VGS at constant VDS
Amplification, µ = ∆VDS/∆VGS at constant ID
Relation between above parameters
µ = rd * gm
The drain current is given by

ID = IDSS(1-VGS/VP)^2
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

64 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

PROCEDURE:
2. All the connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
3. To plot the drain characteristics, keep VGS constant at 0V.
4. Vary the VDD and observe the values of VDS and ID.
5. Repeat the above steps 2, 3 for different values of VGS at 0.1V and 0.2V.
6. All the readings are tabulated.
7. To plot the transfer characteristics, keep VDS constant at 1V.
8. Vary VGG and observe the values of VGS and ID.
9. Repeat steps 6 and 7 for different values of VDS at 1.5 V and 2V.
10. The readings are tabulated.

OBSERVATIONS:
DRAIN CHARACTERISTICS:

VGS=0V VGS=-1V VGS=-2V

S.NO
VDS(V) ID(mA) VDS(V) ID(mA) VDS(V) ID(mA)

TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS:

VDS =0.5V VDS=1V VDS =1.5V

S.NO
VGS
VGS (V) ID(mA) (V) ID(mA) VGS (V) ID(mA)

MODEL GRAPH:

65 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

 DRAIN CHARACTERISTICS:

TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS:

RESULT: The drain and transfer characteristics of a FET are drawn.

PROCEDURE:

66 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

 1. All the connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. To plot the drain characteristics, keep VGS constant at 0V.
3. Vary the VDD and observe the values of VDS and ID.
4. Repeat the above steps 2, 3 for different values of VGS at 0.1V and 0.2V.
5. All the readings are tabulated.
6. To plot the transfer characteristics, keep VDS constant at 1V.
7. Vary VGG and observe the values of VGS and ID.
8. Repeat steps 6 and 7 for different values of VDS at 1.5 V and 2V.
9. The readings are tabulated.
10. From drain characteristics, calculate the values of dynamic resistance (rd)
11. From transfer characteristics, calculate the value of transconductace (gm)
12. And also calculate Amplification factor (μ).

PRECAUTIONS:

1. The three terminals of the FET must be care fully identified

2. Practically FET contains four terminals, which are called source, drain, Gate,
substrate.
3. Source and case should be short circuited.
4. Voltages exceeding the ratings of the FET should not be applied.

RESULT: The drain resistance (rd) is ____, the amplification factor (μ) is ______and the
Transconductance (gm) of the given FET.

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What are the advantages of FET?

2. What is the difference between FET and BJT?
3. Explain different regions of V-I characteristics of FET.
4. What are the applications of FET?
5. What are the types of FET?
6. Draw the symbol of FET.
7. What are the disadvantages of FET?
8. What are the parameters of FET?

67 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

 8. h-PARAMETERS OF CE CONFIGURATION

AIM: To calculate the h-parameters of a transistor in CE configuration.

APPRATUS:

Transistor BC 107

Resistors 100 K Ώ, 100 Ώ

Ammeter (0-200µA), (0-200mA)

Voltmeter (0-20V) - 2Nos

Regulated Power Supply (0-30V, 1A) - 2Nos

Breadboard

THEORY:

INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

The two sets of characteristics are necessary to describe the behavior of the CE
configuration one for input or base emitter circuit and other for the output or collector emitter
circuit.

In input characteristics the emitter base junction forward biased by a very small voltage
VBB whereas collector base junction reverse biased by a very large voltage VCC. The input
characteristics are a plot of input current IB Vs the input voltage VBE for a range of values of
output voltage VCE. The following important points can be observed from these characteristics
curves.

2. The characteristics resemble that of CE configuration.

3. Input resistance is high as IB increases less rapidly with VBE

4. The input resistance of the transistor is the ratio of change in base emitter voltage ΔV BE
to change in base current ΔIB at constant collector emitter voltage ( VCE) i.e...
Input resistance or input impedance hie = ΔVBE / ΔIB at VCE constant.

68 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

 OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

A set of output characteristics or collector characteristics are a plot of out put current
IC VS output voltage VCE for a range of values of input current IB .The following important
points can be observed from these characteristics curves:-

The transistor always operates in the active region. I.e. the collector current

IC increases with VCE very slowly. For low values of the VCE the IC increases rapidly with a
small increase in VCE .The transistor is said to be working in saturation region.

Output resistance is the ratio of change of collector emitter voltage ΔV CE , to change in

collector current ΔIC with constant IB. Output resistance or Output impedance hoe = ΔVCE /
ΔIC at IB constant.

2. Input Impedance hie = ΔVBE / ΔIB at VCE constant

3. Output impedance hoe = ΔVCE / ΔIC at IB constant
4. Reverse Transfer Voltage Gain hre = ΔVBE / ΔVCE at IB constant
5. Forward Transfer Current Gain hfe = ΔIC / ΔIB at constant VCE

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

69 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

 PROCEDURE:

1. Connect a transistor in CE configuration circuit for plotting its input and output
characteristics.
2. Take a set of readings for the variations in IB with VBE at different fixed values of output
voltage VCE.
3. Plot the input characteristics of CE configuration from the above readings.
4. From the graph calculate the input resistance hie and reverse transfer ratio hre by taking
the slopes of the curves.
5. Take the family of readings for the variations of IC with VCE at different values of fixed
IB.
6. Plot the output characteristics from the above readings.
7. From the graphs calculate hfe and hoe by taking the slope of the curves.

TABULAR FORMS:

INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

VCE=0V VCE=6V
S.NO
VBE(V) IB(μA) VBE(V) IB(μA)

70 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

 OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

IB = 20 µA IB = 40 µA IB = 60 µA
S.NO
VCE (V) IC(mA) VCE (V) IC(mA) VCE (V) IC(mA)

MODEL GRAPHS:

INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

\
71 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual
 OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

72 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

 RESULT:

The H-Parameters for a transistor in CE configuration are calculated from the input and
output characteristics.
1. Input Impedance hie =
2. Reverse Transfer Voltage Gain hre =
3. Forward Transfer Current Gain hfe =
4. Output conductance hoe =

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What are the h-parameters?

2. What are the limitations of h-parameters?
3. What are its applications?
4. Draw the equivalent circuit diagram of h- parameters?
5. Define h- parameter?
6. What is the general formula for input impedance?
7. What is the general formula for Current Gain?
8. What is the general formula for Voltage gain?

73 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

 9. TRANSISTOR CE AMPLIFIER

AIM:
a. To Measure the voltage gain of a CE amplifier
b. To draw the frequency response curve of the CE amplifier

APPARATUS:
Transistor BC107
Regulated Power Supply (0-15V)
Function Generator
CRO
Resistors - 10KΩ, 1KΩ, 4.7KΩ
Variable Resistor – 100KΩ
Capacitors 22µF, 47µF
Breadboard
Connecting Wires

THEORY:
The CE amplifier provides high gain &wide frequency response. The emitter lead is
common to both input & output circuits and is grounded. The emitter-base circuit is forward
biased. The collector current is controlled by the base current rather than emitter current. The
input signal is applied to base terminal of the transistor and amplifier output is taken across
collector terminal. A very small change in base current produces a much larger change in
collector current.
When +VE half-cycle is fed to the input circuit, it opposes the forward bias of the circuit
which causes the collector current to decrease, it decreases the voltage more –VE. Thus when
input cycle varies through a -VE half-cycle, increases the forward bias of the circuit, which
causes the collector current to increases thus the output signal is common emitter amplifier is in
out of phase with the input signal.

74 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in circuit diagram
2. Apply the input of 20mV peak-to-peak and 50Hz frequency using function generator.
3. Measure the Output Voltage VO (p-p).
4. Tabulate the readings in the tabular form.
5. The voltage gain can be calculated by using the expression Av= (V0/Vi)
6. For plotting the frequency response the input voltage is kept Constant at 20mV peak-to-peak
and the frequency is varied from 50Hz to 1MHz Using function generator.
7. All the readings are tabulated and voltage gain in dB is calculated by using the expression
Av=20 log10 (V0/Vi)

8. A graph is drawn by taking frequency on x-axis and gain in dB on y-axis on Semi-log graph.

The band width of the amplifier is calculated from the graph using the expression,
Bandwidth, BW=f2-f1
Where f1 lower cut-off frequency of CE amplifier, and
Where f2 upper cut-off frequency of CE amplifier

The bandwidth product of the amplifier is calculated using the expression

Gain Bandwidth product = (3dB mid-band gain) X (Bandwidth)

75 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

OBSERVATIONS:
FREQUENCY RESPONSE:

Output Gain in dB
Frequency (Hz) Input voltage (vi)
voltage (v0) Av = 20 log10 (v0/vi)

MODEL WAVEFORMS:
INPUT WAVEFORM:

OUTPUT WAVEFORM:

76 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

 FREQUENCY RESPONSE:

RESULT:
The voltage gain and frequency response of the CE amplifier are obtained. Also gain
bandwidth product of the amplifier is calculated.

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What is phase difference between input and output waveforms of CE amplifier?

2. What type of biasing is used in the given circuit?
3. If the given transistor is replaced by a p-n-p, can we get output or not?
4. What is effect of emitter-bypass capacitor on frequency response?
5. What is the effect of coupling capacitor?
6. What is region of the transistor so that it is operated as an amplifier?
7. How does transistor act as an amplifier?
8. Draw the h-parameter model of CE amplifier.
9. What type of transistor configuration is used in intermediate stages of a multistage
amplifier?
10. What is early effect?

77 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

 10. TRANSISTOR CC AMPLIFIER
AIM:
a. To measure the voltage gain of a CC amplifier
b. To draw the frequency response of the CC amplifier

APPRATUS:
Transistor BC 107 -1No.
Regulated Power Supply (0-30V) -1No.
Function Generator -1No.
CRO -1No.
Resistors 33KΩ, 3.3KΩ, 330Ω, -1No.Each
1.5KΩ, 1KΩ, 2.2KΩ & 4.7KΩ

Capacitors 10µF -2Nos

100µF -1No.
Breadboard
Connecting wires
THEORY:
In common-collector amplifier the input is given at the base and the output is taken at the
emitter. In this amplifier, there is no phase inversion between input and output. The input
impedance of the CC amplifier is very high and output impedance is low. The voltage gain is
less than unity. Here the collector is at ac ground and the capacitors used must have a negligible
reactance at the frequency of operation. This amplifier is used for impedance matching and as a
buffer amplifier. This circuit is also known as emitter follower.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

78 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in circuit diagram
2. Apply the input of 20mV peak-to-peak and 50Hz frequency using function generator.
3. Measure the Output Voltage VO (p-p).
4. Tabulate the readings in the tabular form.
5. The voltage gain can be calculated by using the expression Av= (V0/Vi)
6. For plotting the frequency response the input voltage is kept Constant at 20mV peak-to-peak
and the frequency is varied from 50Hz to 1MHz Using function generator.
7. All the readings are tabulated and voltage gain in dB is calculated by using the expression
Av=20 log10 (V0/Vi)
8. A graph is drawn by taking frequency on x-axis and gain in dB on y-axis on Semi-log graph.

The Bandwidth of the amplifier is calculated from the graph using the expression,
Bandwidth BW=f2-f1
Where f1 is lower cut-off frequency of CC amplifier f2 is
upper cut-off frequency of CC amplifier

The gain Bandwidth product of the amplifier is calculated using the expression,
Gain -Bandwidth product = (3dB mid-band gain) X (Bandwidth)

OBSERVATIONS:
FREQUENCY RESPONSE:

Gain in dB
Frequency (Hz) Input Voltage (Vi) Output Voltage ( V0)
Av = 20*log10(Vo/Vi)

79 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

MODEL WAVEFORMS:
INPUT WAVEFORM:

OUTPUT WAVEFORM:

FREQUENCY RESPONSE:

RESULT:
The voltage gain and frequency response of the CC amplifier are obtained. Also gain
Bandwidth product is calculated.

80 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

 VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What is phase difference between input and output waveforms of CE amplifier?

2. What type of biasing is used in the given circuit?
3. If the given transistor is replaced by a p-n-p, can we get output or not?
4. What is effect of emitter-bypass capacitor on frequency response?
5. What is the effect of coupling capacitor?
6. What is region of the transistor so that it is operated as an amplifier?
7. How does transistor act as an amplifier?
8. Draw the h-parameter model of CE amplifier.
9. What type of transistor configuration is used in intermediate stages of a multistage
amplifier?
10. What is early effect?

81 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

 11. COMMON SOURCE (FET) AMPLIFIER

AIM:
1. To find the frequency response and bandwidth of agiven single stage FET amplifier.
2. To find the Bandwidth.

APPARATUS:
JFET - BFW11
Resistors - 1 KΩ, 10 KΩ, 10 KΩ, 470 Ω
Capacitors -
Regulated Power Supply – (0-15V)
Signal Generator
CRO
THEORY:
A field-effect transistor (FET) is a type of transistor commonly used for weak-signal
amplification (for example, for amplifying wireless (signals). The device can amplify analog or
digital signals. It can also switch DC or function as an oscillator. In the FET, current flows along
a semiconductor path called the channel. At one end of the channel, there is an electrode called
the source. At the other end of the channel, there is an electrode called the drain. The physical
diameter of the channel is fixed, but its effective electrical diameter can be varied by the
application of a voltage to a control electrode called the gate. Field-effect transistors exist in two
major classifications. These are known as the junction FET (JFET) and the metal-oxide-
semiconductor FET (MOSFET). The junction FET has a channel consisting of N-type
semiconductor (N-channel) or P-type semiconductor (P-channel) material; the gate is made of the
opposite semiconductor type. In P-type material, electric charges are carried mainly in the form
of electron deficiencies called holes. In N-type material, the charge carriers are primarily
electrons. In a JFET, the junction is the boundary between the channel and the gate. Normally,
this P-N junction is reverse-biased (a DC voltage is applied to it) so that no current flows
between the channel and the gate. However, under some conditions there is a small current
through the junction during part of the input signal cycle. The FET has some advantages and
some disadvantages relative to the bipolar transistor. Field-effect transistors are preferred for
weak-signal work, for example in wireless, communications and broadcast receivers. They are
also preferred in circuits and systems requiring high impedance. The FET is not, in general, used
for high-power amplification, such as is required in large wireless communications and broadcast
transmitters.

82 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

 Field-effect transistors are fabricated onto silicon integrated circuit (IC) chips. A single IC can
contain many thousands of FETs, along with other components such as resistors, capacitors,
and diodes.
A comman source amplifier FET amplifier has high input impedance and a moderate voltage
gain. Also, the input and output voltages are 180 degrees out of Phase.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
3. As per the design specifications, connect the circuit as shown.
4. Set the frequency of I/P signal at 5 KHz and increase the amplitude, till O/P gets
distorted. The value of I/P signal is maximum signal handling capacity.
5. Set I/P signal at a constant value, less than the maximum signal handling capacity, vary
frequency in the range 50Hz to 1MHz and find O/P voltage for each and every frequency.
6. Calculate voltage gain at each and every frequency.
7. Plot the frequency versus gain and determine fH and fL.
8. Calculate bandwidth fH - fL.
9. Procedure for measuring input impedance: Set the signal generator frequency at 2KHz
and measure Vs and Vi. Then Ii = Vs - Vi / RS. I/P
impedance = Vi / Ii

8. Procedure for measuring O/P impedance: Open the O/P circuit and measure voltage (V
open) across O/P using CRO. After connecting variable resistor at O/P terminals, vary the
resistance to make the O/P (V open) become to half of its value. Then existing resistance
is its O/P resistance.

83 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

OBSERVATIONS:

Gain in dB
S. No Frequency (Hz) O/P voltage (V0) Gain (V0/ VI)
20*log10(V0 / VI)

MODEL WAVEFORMS:

FREQUENCY PLOT:
A graph is plotted between f on X – axis and 20*log10 (V0 / VI) on Y-axis on a semi-log
sheet. It will be as shown in figure.
BW = fH – f L

PRECAUTIONS:
1. All the connections should be tight.
2. Transistor terminals must be identified properly

RESULT: The 3-dB Bandwidth of the CS Amplifier is _____.

84 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

 VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is the difference between FET and BJT?
2. FET is unipolar or bipolar?
3. Draw the symbol of FET?
4. What are the applications of FET?
5. FET is voltage controlled or current controlled?
6. Draw the equivalent circuit of common source FET amplifier?
7. What is the voltage gain of the FET amplifier?
8. What is the input impedance of FET amplifier?
9. What is the output impedance of FET amplifier?
10. What are the FET parameters?
11. What are the FET applications

85 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

 12. SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIER (SCR)
CHARACTERISTICS

AIM: To draw the V-I Characteristics of SCR

APPARATUS:

SCR - TYN616
Regulated Power Supply (0-15V)
Resistors 10kΩ, 1kΩ
Ammeter (0-200) mA
Voltmeter (0-20V)
Bread Board
Connecting Wires
THEORY:

It is a four layer semiconductor device being alternate of P-type and N-type silicon. It
consists of 3 junctions J1, J2, J3 the J1 and J3 operate in forward direction and J2 operates in
reverse direction and three terminals called anode A, cathode K, and a gate G. The operation of
SCR can be studied when the gate is open and when the gate is positive with respect to cathode.

When gate is open, no voltage is applied at the gate due to reverse bias of the junction J2
no current flows through R2 and hence SCR is at cutt off. When anode voltage is increased J 2
tends to breakdown. When the gate positive, with respect to cathode J 3 junction is forward
biased and J2 is reverse biased .Electrons from N-type material move across junction J3 towards
gate while holes from P-type material moves across junction J3 towards cathode. So gate
current starts flowing, anode current increase is in extremely small current junction J2 break
down and SCR conducts heavily. When gate is open thee break-over voltage is determined on

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 the minimum forward voltage at which SCR conducts heavily. Now most of the supply voltage
appears across the load resistance. The holding current is the maximum anode current gate
being open, when break over occurs.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:

1. Connections are made as per circuit diagram.

2. Keep the gate supply voltage at some constant value
3. Vary the anode to cathode supply voltage and note down the readings of voltmeter and
ammeter. Keep the gate voltage at standard value.
4. A graph is drawn between VAK and IAK.

OBSERVATIONS:

S.No VAK(V) IAK ( µA)

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 MODEL GRAPH:

CALCULATIONS:

Threshold Voltage =

Holding Current =

RESULT: The V-I Characteristics of the SCR have been plotted.

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What the symbol of SCR?

2. In which state SCR turns of conducting state to blocking state?
3. What are the applications of SCR?
4. What is holding current?
5. What are the important type‟s thyristors?
6. How many numbers of junctions are involved in SCR?
7. What is the function of gate in SCR?
8. When gate is open, what happens when anode voltage is increased?
9. What is the value of forward resistance offered by SCR?
10. What is the condition for making from conducting state to non conducting state?

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 13. UJT CHARACTERISTICS

AIM: To observe the characteristics of UJT and to find the negative resistance region and to
calculate the Intrinsic Stand-Off Ratio (η).

APPARATUS:
Regulated Power Supply (0-15V)
UJT 2N2646
Resistors 10kΩ, 47Ω, 330Ω
Multimeter
Breadboard
Connecting Wires
THEORY:

A Uni-junction Transistor (UJT) is an electronic semiconductor device that has only one
junction. The UJT Uni-junction Transistor (UJT) has three terminals, an emitter (E) and two
bases (B1 and B2). The base is formed by lightly doped n-type bar of silicon. Two ohmic
contacts B1 and B2 are attached at its ends. The emitter is of p-type and it is heavily doped. The
resistance between B1 and B2, when the emitter is open-circuit is called inter-base resistance.
The original uni-junction transistor, or UJT, is a simple device that is essentially a bar of N type
semiconductor material into which P type material has been diffused somewhere along its
length. The 2N2646 is the most commonly used version of the UJT.

Circuit symbol

The UJT is biased with a positive voltage between the two bases. This causes a potential
drop along the length of the device. When the emitter voltage is driven approximately one diode
voltage above the voltage at the point where the P diffusion (emitter) is, current will begin to

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 flow from the emitter into the base region. Because the base region is very lightly doped, the
additional current (actually charges in the base region) causes (conductivity modulation) which
reduces the resistance of the portion of the base between the emitter junction and the B2
terminal.

This reduction in resistance means that the emitter junction is more forward biased, and
so even more current is injected. Overall, the effect is a negative resistance at the emitter
terminal. This is what makes the UJT useful, especially in simple oscillator circuits. When the
emitter voltage reaches Vp, the current starts to increase and the emitter voltage starts to
decrease. This is represented by negative slope of the characteristics which is referred to as the
negative resistance region, beyond the valley point; RB1 reaches minimum value and this
region, VEB proportional to IE.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:

1. Connection is made as per circuit diagram.

2. Output voltage is fixed at a constant level and by varying input voltage corresponding
emitter current values are noted down.
3. This procedure is repeated for different values of output voltages.
4. All the readings are tabulated and a graph is plotted between VEE and IE for different values
of VBE.

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MODEL GRAPH:

OBSEVATIONS:

VBB=1V VBB=2V VBB=3V

S.No
VEB(V) IE(mA) VEB(V) IE(mA) VEB(V) IE(mA)

CALCULATIONS:

VP = ηVBB + VD

η = (VP-VD) / VBB

η = ( η1 + η2 + η3 ) / 3

RESULT:

The characteristics of UJT are observed and the values of Intrinsic Stand-Off Ratio is
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is the symbol of UJT?

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 2. Draw the equivalent circuit of UJT?
3. What are the applications of UJT?
4. Formula for the intrinsic stand off ratio?
5. What does it indicates the direction of arrow in the UJT?
6. What is the difference between FET and UJT?
7. Is UJT is used an oscillator? Why?
8. What is the Resistance between B1 and B2 is called as?
9. What is its value of resistance between B1 and B2?
10. Draw the characteristics of UJT?

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 14. RC COUPLED AMPLIFIER

AIM:
1. To calculate voltage gain,
2. To observe frequency response.

APPARATUS:
NPN Transistor BC107
Resistors - 3.3KΩ, 33KΩ, 330Ω, 1KΩ
Capacitors - 100uF, 10uF
Bread Board,
Regulated power supply (0-15V),
CRO

THEORY:
This is most popular type of coupling as it provides excellent audio fidelity. A coupling
capacitor is used to connect output of first stage to input of second stage. Resistances R1, R2,

RE form biasing and stabilization network. Emitter bypass capacitor offers low reactance paths
to signal coupling Capacitor transmits ac signal, blocks DC. Cascade stages amplify signal and
overall gain is increased total gain is less than product of gains of individual stages. Thus for
more gain coupling is done and overall gain of two stages equals to A = A1 * A2
A1 = voltage gain of first stage
A2 = voltage gain of second stage.
When ac signal is applied to the base of the transistor, its amplified output appears across
the collector resistor RC. It is given to the second stage for further amplification and signal
appears with more strength. Frequency response curve is obtained by plotting a graph between
frequency and gain in dB .The gain is constant in mid frequency range and gain decreases on
both sides of the mid frequency range. The gain decreases in the low frequency range due to
coupling capacitor CC and at high frequencies due to junction capacitance CBE.

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 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
1. Apply input by using function generator to the circuit.
2. Observe the output waveform on CRO.
3. Measure the voltage at
a. Output of first stage
b. Output of second stage.
4. From the readings calculate voltage gain of first stage, second stage and overall gain of
two stages. Disconnect second stage and then measure output voltage of first stage
and calculate voltage gain.
5. Compare it with voltage gain obtained when second stage was connected.
6. Note down various values of gain for different frequencies.
7. A graph is plotted between frequency and voltage gain.

94 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

 OBSERVATIONS:

Voltage Gain
Frequency (Hz) I/P Voltage (Vi) O/P Voltage (Vo)
AV = 20 log10(Vo/Vi) dB

MODEL WAVEFORMS:
INPUT WAVEFORM:

FIRST STAGE OUTPUT:

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 SECOND STAGE OUTPUT:

FREQUENCY RESPONSE:

RESULT:
Thus voltage gain is calculated and frequency response is observed along with loading
affect.

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 15. RC PHASE SHIFT OSCILLATOR

AIM: To calculate the frequency of the RC phase shift oscillator & to measure the phase angles
at different RC sections.

APPARATUS:
Transistor BC107
Resistors - 10KΩ, 8KΩ or 10KΩ, 22KΩ, 1.2KΩ, 100KΩ
Capacitors - 0.001µf, 10µF, 1µf
Regulated power Supply – (0-15V)
CRO

THEORY:

RC-Phase shift Oscillator has a CE amplifier followed by three sections of RC phase

shift feedback Networks the output of the last stage is return to the input of the amplifier. The
values of R and C are chosen such that the phase shift of each RC section is 60º.Thus The RC
ladder network produces a total phase shift of 180º between its input and output voltage for the
given frequencies.
Since CE Amplifier produces 180 º phases shift the total phase shift from the base of the
transistor around the circuit and back to the base will be exactly 360º or 0º. This satisfies the
Barkhausen condition for sustaining oscillations and total loop gain of this circuit is greater
than or equal to 1, this condition used to generate the sinusoidal oscillations. The frequency of
oscillations of RC-Phase Shift Oscillator is,
⁄

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:

1. Make the connection as per the circuit diagram as shown above.

2. Observe the output signal and note down the output amplitude and time period (Td).
3. Calculate the frequency of oscillations theoretically and verify it practically (f=1/Td).
4. Calculate the phase shift at each RC section by measuring the time shifts (Tp) between
the final waveform and the waveform at that section by using the below formula.

OBSERVATIONS:

THEORITICAL CALCULATIONS:
.
R = 10KΩ, C = 0.001 μf
PRACTICAL CALCULATIONS:

Td =

98 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

 MODEL WAVE FORMS:
OUT PUT WAVEFORM:

0
OUT PUT WAVEFORM: θ = 60

0
OUT PUT WAVEFORM: θ = 120

0
OUT PUT WAVEFORM: θ = 180

RESULT:
The frequency of RC phase shift oscillator is calculated and the phase shift at different
RC sections is noted.
99 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual
 16. BRIDGE RECTIFER

AIM: To calculate the ripple factor of a bridge rectifier, with and without filters.

APPARATUS:
Breadboard
Diodes, 1N4007
Variable Resistor, (0-10) KΩ
Capacitor 470μF
Multimeter
Connecting Wires

THEORY:

The bridge rectifier is also a full-wave rectifier in which four p-n diodes are connected in
the form of a bridge fashion. The Bridge rectifier has high efficiency when compared to half-
wave rectifier. During every half cycle of the input, only two diodes will be conducting while
other two diodes are in reverse bias.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
WITHOUT FILTER:

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WITH FILTER:

PROCEDURE:
11. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
12. Connect the ac main to the primary side of the transformer and secondary side to the
bridge rectifier.
13. Measure the ac voltage at the input of the rectifier using the multi meter.
14. Measure both the ac and dc voltages at the output of the Bridge rectifier.
15. Find the theoretical value of dc voltage by using the formula.

OBSERVATIONS:
WITHOUT FILTER:

RL Vac Vdc Ripple Factor % Regulation

(KOhms) (Volts) (Volts) = Vac/ Vdc (VNL-VFL)/VFL *100

WITH FILTER:

RL Vac Vdc Ripple Factor % Regulation

(KOhms) (Volts) (Volts) = Vac/ Vdc (VNL-VFL)/VFL *100

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 MODEL WAVEFORM:

RESULT: The Ripple factor of Bridge rectifier is with and without filter calculated.

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 17. CURRENT-SERIES FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER
AIM: To measure the voltage gain of current - series feedback amplifier.

APPARATUS:
NPN Transistor BC107
Breadboard
Regulated Power Supply (0-15V)
Function Generator
CRO
Resistors 33kΩ, 3.3kΩ, 330Ω, 1.5kΩ, 2.2k Ω, 4.7k Ω, 1 k Ω
Capacitors 10µF, 100µF

THEORY:
When any increase in the output signal results into the input in such a way as to cause the
decrease in the output signal, the amplifier is said to have negative feedback. The advantages of
providing negative feedback are that the transfer gain of the amplifier with feedback can be
stabilized against variations in the hybrid parameters of the transistor or the parameters of the
other active devices used in the circuit. The most advantage of the negative feedback is that by
using this, there is significant improvement in the frequency response and in the linearity of the
operation of the amplifier. This disadvantage of the negative feedback is that the voltage gain is
decreased. In Current-Series Feedback, the input impedance and the output impedance are
increased. Noise and distortions are reduced considerably.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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 PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per circuit diagram.
2. Keep the input voltage constant at 20mV peak-peak and 1 KHz frequency. For different
values of load resistance, note down the output voltage and calculate the gain by using the
expression
3. Av = 20*log10 (V0 / Vi ) dB

4. Remove the emitter bypass capacitor and repeat STEP 2.And observe the effect of
feedback on the gain of the amplifier.
5. For plotting the frequency the input voltage is kept constant at 20mV peak-peak and the
frequency is varied from 100Hz to 1MHz.

6. Note down the value of output voltage for each frequency. All the readings are

tabulated and the voltage gain in dB is calculated by using expression Av = 20log (V0 /
Vi ) dB

7. A graph is drawn by taking frequency on X-axis and gain on Y-axis on semi log graph
sheet
8. The Bandwidth of the amplifier is calculated from the graph using the expression
Bandwidth B.W = f2 – f1.
9. Where f1 is lower cutoff frequency of CE amplifier

10. f 2 is upper cutoff frequency of CE amplifier

11. The gain-bandwidth product of the amplifier is calculated by using the expression

Gain-Bandwidth Product = (3dB mid-band gain) X (Bandwidth).

OBSERVATIONS:

VOLTAGE GAIN:

Output Voltage Output Voltage Gain(dB)

Gain(dB) with
S.NO (Vo) with (Vo) without feedback without
feedback feedback feedback

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 FREQUENCY RESPONSE:

Gain in dB
S.NO Frequency (Hz) Output Voltage (Vo) Gain A = Vo/Vi
20log10(Vo/Vi)

MODEL WAVEFORM:

FREQUENCY RESPONSE:

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 RESULT:

The effect of negative feedback (Current-Series Feedback) on the amplifier is observed.

The voltage gain and frequency response of the amplifier are obtained. Also gain-bandwidth
product of the amplifier is calculated.

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 18. VOLTAGE-SERTES FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER

AIM: To study the effect of voltage series feedback on gain of the Amplifier.

APPARATUS:

NPN-Transistor BC107
Breadboard
Regulated Power Supply (0-15V)
Function Generator
CRO
Resistors 33kΩ, 3.3kΩ, 1.5kΩ, 1kΩ, 2.2k Ω, 4.7k Ω, 330Ω
Capacitors 10µF, 100µF

THEORY:

When any increase in the output signal results into the input in such a way as to cause the
decrease in the output signal, the amplifier is said to have negative feedback. The advantages of
providing negative feedback are that the transfer gain of the amplifier with feedback can be
stabilized against variations in the hybrid parameters the transistor or the parameters of the other
active devices used in the circuit.
The most advantage of the negative feedback is that by using this, there is significant
improvement in the frequency response and in the linearity of the operation of the amplifier. This
disadvantage of the negative feedback is that the voltage gain is decreased. In Voltage-Series
feedback, the input impedance of the amplifier is decreased and the output impedance is
increased. Noise and distortions are reduced considerably.

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 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per circuit diagram.
2. Keep the input voltage constant at 20mV peak-peak and 1kHz frequency.For different
values of load resistance, note down the output voltage and calculate the gain by using the
expression
Av = 20*log10 (V0 / Vi ) dB
3. Add the emitter bypass capacitor and repeat STEP 2.And observe the effect of Feedback
on the gain of the amplifier
4. For plotting the frequency the input voltage is kept constant at 20mV peak-peak and the
frequency is varied from 100Hz to 1MHz.
5. Note down the value of output voltage for each frequency. All the readings are
tabulated and the voltage gain in dB is calculated by using expression
Av = 20log(V0 / Vi ) dB
6. A graph is drawn by taking frequency on X-axis and gain on Y-axis on semi log graph
sheet
7. The Bandwidth of the amplifier is calculated from the graph using the expression

108 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual

 Bandwidth B.W = f2 – f1.

Where f1 is lower cutoff frequency of CE amplifier

f 2 is upper cutoff frequency of CE amplifier

The gain-bandwidth product of the amplifier is calculated by using the expression

Gain-Bandwidth Product = (3dB mid-band gain) X (Bandwidth).

OBSERVATIONS:

VOLTAGE GAIN:

Gain(dB)
Output Voltage Output Voltage (Vo) Gain(dB) with
S.NO without
(Vo) with feedback without feedback feedback feedback

FRQUENCY RESPONSE:

Gain in dB
S.NO Frequency (Hz) Output Voltage (Vo) Gain A = Vo/Vi
20*log10(Vo/Vi)

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MODEL WAVEFORMS:

RESULT:

The effect of negative feedback (Voltage - Series Feedback) on the amplifier is observed.
The voltage gain and frequency response of the amplifier are obtained. Also gain-bandwidth
product of the amplifier is calculated.

110 | Page Dept. of Physics, NITW EDC Lab Manual