UNIT 1 DEFINITION, FACTORS TO BE

CONSIDERED, NATURE AND

CLASSIFICATION OF OD
INTERVENTIONS
Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Meaning of Organisational Development
1.2.1 Definition of OD
1.2.2 Characteristics of OD
1.2.3 Process of OD
1.2.4 Role of Consultant in OD
1.2.5 Objectives and Values of OD

1.3 Definition and Concept of OD Interventions

1.3.1 Factors of OD Interventions
1.3.2 Readiness for Change
1.3.3 Capability to Change
1.3.4 Cultural Context
1.3.5 Capabilities of the Change Agent
1.3.6 Contingencies Related to the target of Charge

1.4 Organisational Issues

1.4.1 Rules for Implementation

1.5 Nature and Classification of Organisational Development Interventions

1.5.1 Human Processes
1.5.2 Techno Structural
1.5.3 Human Resource Management
1.5.4 Intervention Based on the Underlying Causal Mechanisms

1.6 Major “Families” of OD Intervention Activities

1.7 Let Us Sum Up
1.8 Unit end Questions
1.9 Suggested Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit we will be dealing with organisational development. We start with Meaning
of organisational development, definition, characteristics and process of OD. We
then discuss the role of a consultant in organisational development. The next section
deals with OSD interventions in which we start with definition and concept of of OD
interventions. Then we discuss the various factors that are associated with OD
interventions. Then the discussion passes on to the readiness for change and OD
interventions. Whether the organisation has the capability to change and what the
cultural contexts in which the OD intervention is to be taken up and how the cultural
factors affect OD interventions. Then we take up the capabilities opf the change 5
OD Interventions agent. Following this we deal with organisational issues, and the the implementation
rules thereof. We then discuss the nature and classification of OD intervention and
deal with human processes, the techno structural factors and the management of
human resources. Finally we discuss the major aspects of the OD intervention activities

1.1 OBJECTIVES
After completing this unit, you will be able to:
 Define and give the meaning of organisational development;
 Describe the characteristics of OD;
 Explain the Process of OD;
 Analyse the role of consultant in OD;
 Elucidate the objectives and values of OD;
 Define and conceptualise OD Interventions;
 Delineate the factors of OD interventions;
 Analyse the readiness for change through OD;
 Discuss the organisational issues;
 Classify the organisational interventions; and
 Elucidate the major families of OD intervention activities.

1.2 MEANING OF ORGANISATIONAL

DEVELOPMENT
Change has become a way of life for most organisations. Pressures from increasing
competition, globalisation, technological developments and other forces have created
an environment that rewards organisations that are capable of identifying trends and
issues and responding quickly to them. The element of HRD that can best enable
organisations to embrace and manage change is organisation development. It is not
entirely clear as to who coined the term “Organisation Development” but in all
probability it was Robert Blake, Herbert Shephard and Jane Mouton. The OD
movement gained tremendous momentum by 70s and is increasingly applied throughout
the globe in the present day. It has now been evolved into accepted field of study
and professional practice. It has been estimated that in USA alone more than 5000
persons refer themselves as OD practitioners. Early OD efforts primarily addressed
first order change that is, making moderate adjustments to the organisation, its people
and its processes. Today the demands of the organisation are so great that the
second order change is required in many instances. The fundamental nature of work
and organisation is changing.
Organisation development most frequently referred to as OD is a systematic and
practical approach to launching and defusing change in organisations. It is not a one
time training or development program but is an ongoing and cycling process. It is a
complex educational strategy which aims to bring about a better fit between human
beings who work in organisations and expect things to take place as they visualise
and the busy, unrelenting environment, with its insistence on adapting to changing
times. OD is employed as “comprehensive strategy for organisation improvement”.

6
1.2.1 Definition of OD Definition, Factors to be
Considered, Nature and
Organisational development is a process that is an identifiable flow of interrelated Classification of OD
Interventions
events moving overtime towards goals of organisational improvement and individual
development. It is a journey and not a destination. Organisational development is an
effort planned, organisation – wide and managed from the top to increase organisation
effectiveness and health through planned interventions in the organisation’s processes
using behavioural science knowledge (Beckhard, 1996). Organisational development
is a response to change, a complex educational strategy intended to change the
beliefs, attitudes, values and structure of organisations so that they can better adapt
to new technologies, markets and challenges and the dizzying rate to change itself
(Bennis,1969). OD can be defined as a planned and sustained effort to apply
behavioural science for system improvement, using reflexive, self analytic methods.
(Schmuck and Miles, 1971). The aims of OD are…enhancing congruence between
organisational structure, processes, strategy, people and culture, developing new and
creative organisational solutions and developing the organisations self renewing capacity.
(Beer, 1980). OD is a systematic application of behavioural science knowledge to
the planned development and reinforcement of organisational strategies, structures
and processes for improving organisation’s effectiveness. (Cummings and Worley,
1993). To sum up, Organisational Development is a long-term effort, led and
supported by top management, to improve an organisation’s visioning, empowerment,
learning and problem-solving processes, through an ongoing, collaborative management
of organisation culture – with special emphasis on the culture of intact work teams
and other team configurations- using the consultant- facilitator role and the theory
and technology of applied behavioural science, including action research.
The field of OD is so rapidly changing that in few years the label of OD may be
applied to somewhat different set of activities. Every program is unique as every
organisation has unique problems and opportunities. Organisational development is
both a professional field of social action and an area of scientific inquiry. The practice
of OD covers a wide spectrum of activities with a lot of variations. It emphasises
both macro and micro organisational changes: macro changes are intended to ultimately
improve the effectiveness of the organisation, whereas micro changes are directed at
individuals, small groups and teams. The fundamental difference between organisational
development and other organisation improvement programs is found in the OD
consultant’s role and relationship to clients.

1.2.2 Characteristic of OD
1) Long Range Effort: OD is not designed to solve short term temporary or
isolated problems. It is long term approach meant to elevate the organisation to
a higher level of functioning by improving the performance and satisfaction of
organisation members.
2) Broad Based: OD is used broadly to describe a variety of change programs.
It essentially deals with big picture – The Organisation.
3) Dynamic Process: OD includes the effort to guide and direct change as well
as to cope with or adopt to impose change.
4) System View: OD utilises system thinking. It is based on an open, adaptive
system concept. It recognises organisation structure and management performance
are mutually interdependent. The organisation is treated as an interrelated whole
and no part of the organisation can be changed without affecting other parts.
7
OD Interventions 5) Research Based: Most OD interventions are research based, not just introspect
employees rather collect data, evaluate and take decisions.
6) Goal Setting and Planning: Since OD is concerned with the entire organisation,
the change agents define goals of the group and will see to it that together they
all work to achieve the goal.
7) Normative re-educative strategy: OD is based on the principle that “norms
fond the basis of behaviour and change is re-educative process of replacing old
by new ones”.

1.2.3 Process of OD
1) Plan the changes and the process of change, necessarily, in consultations with
the trained and experienced consultants/behavioural experts by advising the top
management and seek their approval. It is primarily initiated by the top
management.
2) Change the attitudes and habits of individuals, particularly, in the areas of
interpersonal behaviour.
3) Create a team culture in the organisation.
4) Work out appropriate new structures.
5) Solve short term day-to-day and long term problems involving external and
internal change.

1.2.4 Role of a Consultant in Organisational Development

OD consultants establish a collaborative relationship of relative equality with the
organisation members as they together identify and take action on problems and
opportunities. The role of the OD consultant is to structure activities to help organisation
members learn to solve their own problems and learn to do it better over time. They
do not provide solutions to the problems but create learning situations in which
problems are identified and solutions are developed. The aim of leaving the organisation
members better able to solve their own problems is a distinctive feature of organisation
development. As an organisational development consultant, the person is devoted to
developing organisations and the people in them through planned change. This includes
working with individuals, teams and large systems.
The organisational development contultant (OD consultant) can take a variety of
approaches to the role ranging from expert to process consultant. They can operate
from the process consultant model which means that the consultant partners with his
clients to identify problems and create solutions. The point of this approach is to
leave the client system more capable of diagnosing and solving its own problems in
the future. Rather than foster dependency, the consultant’s aim is to foster independence.
By its nature, OD consulting is fresh and unique to each client situation. Many
organisations need outside help to continue or improve their operations. As an
organisational development consultant, the person’s role is to assist the company in
determining what its main problems are, how to cope effectively with them, and how
to manage any resistance to changes.
One of the first roles of an organisational development consultant is to identify,
quantify, and accurately describe problems within the company. This is not as easy
8 as it sounds. The issues often are complex, multifaceted, and intertwined with one
another. Observation and employee questionnaires are two tools consultants often Definition, Factors to be
Considered, Nature and
use to determine areas of trouble. Classification of OD
Interventions
Solving a company’s problems is at the heart of organisational development consulting.
After changes are recommended, consultants advise employers on the best way to
implement them while causing the least amount of disruption to the business’s day-
to-day operations.
One of the greatest challenges faced by organisational development consultants is
helping employees accept any changes that are recommended. Consultants should be
encouraged to make employees part of the change process whenever possible,
valuing the input they provide. Employees are less likely to resist changes that they
helped implement.

1.2.5 Objectives and Values of OD

OD is way of looking at the whole humanistic side of organisational life. OD
emphasises on the human dimension of an organisation consisting of main humanistic
values: 1) Opportunities to people to function like human beings rather than be
treated as mere inputs. 2) Opportunities for individual and the organisation to develop
to their full potential. 3). Increasing the effectiveness of individual and organisation.
4) Creating an organisational environment that generates exciting and challenging
work. Thus it focuses on the following objectives:
1) Improving mutual trust and emotional support among all the employees.
2) Promoting, in a healthy manner, incidences of intra-group and inter-group
confrontations.
3) Creating a culture in which authority is based on knowledge and skills.
4) Encouraging open communication bottom up, top down, sideways and diagonally.
5) Increasing the level of enthusiasm and satisfaction among the employees.
6) Promoting problem solving culture.
7) Improving individual employee participation and group participation to plan and
implement.
8) To find Synergistic solutions to problem with greater frequency.
Self Assessment Questions
1) What is the role of the consultant in Organisation Development Intervention?
a) Team building b) Group Development
c) Structuring activities d) Behaviour modification
2) OD objectives do not focus on which of the following?
a) Promoting problem solving culture b) find synergistic solutions
c) open communication d) Survey feedback
3) The organisation is treated as an interrelated whole and no part of the
organisation can be changed without affecting other parts is ————
a) Sensitivity training b) goal setting
c) Group development d) Systems view
9
OD Interventions
1.3 DEFINITION AND CONCEPT OF OD
INTERVENTIONS
OD interventions are sets of structured activities in which selected organisational units
(target groups or individuals) engage in a task or a sequence of tasks with the goal
of organisational improvement and individual development. Interventions constitute
the action thrust of organisation development. Behind every program is an overall
game plan or intervention strategy. This plan integrates the problems or opportunity
to be addressed, the desired outcomes of the program, and the sequencing and
timing of the various interventions. Intervention strategies are based on diagnosis and
the goals desired by the client system. The number of OD intervention is not small
but they all vary in range and depth into the penetration into the organisational system
and the purpose they serve. Most of the OD interventions are inherited from the
predecessor – the Human Relation Movement. OD intervention is not a management
development, not exclusively concerned with people, not a no fail formula, not aimed
at simply making organisation more productive and efficient, not gimmick or Fad, not
a separate discipline.
The different interventions are needed to serve different purposes in the organisation.
It is difficult to classify OD interventions because of their overlapping and interrelated
nature, for instance French and Bell designated 12 families of intervention. OD
practitioner employs any one or range of these interventions depending on the nature
of the problem. They are:
Diagnostic, Team building, Intergroup Activities, Survey Feedback Method, Education
and Training Programs, Techno Structural Activity, Process consultation, The
Management Grid, Mediation and Negotiation Activities, Coaching and Counseling
and Career planning and goal setting activities..

1.3.1 Factors of OD Interventions

In OD, three major criteria define an effective intervention:
1) the extent to which it fits the needs of the organisation;
2) the degree to which it is based on causal knowledge of intended outcomes; and
3) the extent to which it transfers change-management competence to organisation
members.
The first criterion concerns the extent to which the intervention is relevant to the
organisation and its members. Effective interventions are based on valid information
about the organisation’s functioning; they provide organisation members with
opportunities to make free and informed choices; and they gain members’ internal
commitment to those choices. Valid information is the result of an accurate diagnosis
of the organisation’s functioning. It must reflect fairly what organisation members
perceive and feel about their primary concerns and issues. Free and informed choice
suggests that members are actively involved in making decisions about the changes
that will affect them.
It means that they can choose not to participate and that interventions will not be
imposed on them. Internal commitment means that organisation members accept
ownership of the intervention and take responsibility for implementing it. If interventions
are to result in meaningful changes, management, staff, and other relevant members
10
must be committed to carrying them out. The second criterion of an effective Definition, Factors to be
Considered, Nature and
intervention involves knowledge of outcomes. Because interventions are intended to Classification of OD
produce specific results, they must be based on valid knowledge that those outcomes Interventions
actually can be produced. Otherwise there is no scientific basis for designing an
effective OD intervention. Unfortunately, and in contrast to other applied disciplines
such as medicine and engineering, knowledge of intervention effects is in a rudimentary
stage of development in OD. Much of the evaluation research lacks sufficient rigor
to make strong causal inferences about the success or failure of change programs.
Moreover, few attempts have been made to examine the comparative effects of
different OD techniques. All of these factors make it difficult to know whether one
method is more effective than another.
Despite these problems, more attempts are being made to assess systematically the
strengths and weaknesses of OD interventions and to compare the impact of different
techniques on organisation effectiveness. The third criterion of an effective intervention
involves the extent to which it enhances the organisation’s capacity to manage change.
The values underlying OD suggest that organisation members should be better able
to carry out planned change activities on their own following an intervention. They
should gain knowledge and skill in managing change from active participation in
designing and implementing the intervention. Competence in change management is
essential in today’s environment, where technological, social, economic, arid political
changes are rapid and persistent. They include the following are situational factors
that must be considered in designing any intervention: the organisation’s readiness for
change, its change capability, its cultural context, and the change agent’s skills and
abilities.

1.3.2 Readiness for Change

Intervention success depends heavily on the organisation being ready for planned
change. Indicators of readiness for change include sensitivity to pressures for change,
dissatisfaction with the status quo, availability of resources to support change, and
commitment of significant management time. When such conditions are present,
interventions can be designed to address the organisational issues uncovered during
diagnosis. When readiness for change is low, however, interventions need to focus
first on increasing the organisation’s willingness to change.

1.3.3 Capability to Change

Managing planned change requires particular knowledge and skills, including the
ability to motivate change, to lead change, to develop political support, to manage
the transition, and to sustain momentum. If organisation members do not have these
capabilities, then a preliminary training intervention may be needed before members
can engage meaningfully in intervention design.

1.3.4 Cultural Context

The national culture within which the organisation is embedded can exert a powerful
influence on members’ reactions to change, so intervention design must account for
the cultural values and assumptions held by organisation members. Interventions may
have to be modified to fit the local culture, particularly when OD practices developed
in one culture are applied to organisations in another culture. For example, a team-
building intervention designed for top managers at an American firm may need to be
modified when applied to the company’s foreign subsidiaries.
11
OD Interventions 1.3.5 Capabilities of the Change Agent
Many failures in OD result when change agents apply interventions beyond their
competence. In designing interventions, OD practitioners should assess their experience
and expertise against the requirements needed to implement the intervention effectively.
When a mismatch is discovered, practitioners can explore whether the intervention
can be modified to fit their talents better, whether another intervention more suited
to their skills can satisfy the organisation’s needs, or whether they should enlist the
assistance of another change agent who can guide the process more effectively. The
ethical guidelines under which OD practitioners operate requires full disclosure of the
applicability of their knowledge and expertise to the client situation. Practitioners are
expected to intervene within their capabilities or to recommend someone more suited
to the client’s needs.

1.3.6 Contingencies Related to the Target of Change

OD interventions seek to change specific features or parts of organisations. These
targets of change are the main focus of interventions, and researchers have identified
two key contingencies related to change targets that can affect intervention success:
the organisational issues that the intervention is intended to resolve and the level of
organisational system at which the intervention is expected to have a primary impact.

1.4 ORGANISATIONAL ISSUES

Organisations need to address certain issues to operate effectively. These issues
along with the OD interventions are intended to resolve them. It shows the following
four interrelated issues that are key targets of OD interventions:
1) Strategic issues: Organisations need to decide what products or services they
will provide and the markets in which they will compete, as well as how to
relate to their environments and how to transform themselves to keep pace with
changing conditions. These strategic issues are among the most critical facing
organisations in today’s changing and highly competitive environments. OD
methods aimed at these issues are called strategic interventions. The methods
are among the most recent additions to OD and include integrated strategic
change, mergers and acquisitions, trans-organisational development, and
organisation learning.
2) Technology and structure issues: Organisations must decide how to divide
work into departments and then how to coordinate among those departments
to support strategic directions. They also must make decisions about how to
deliver products or services and how to link people to tasks. OD methods for
dealing with these structural and technological issues are called techno-structural
interventions and include OD activities relating to organisation design, employee
involvement, and work design.
3) Human resources issues: These issues are concerned with attracting competent
people to the organisation, setting goals for them, appraising and rewarding their
performance, and ensuring that they develop their careers and manage stress.
OD techniques aimed at these issues are called human resources management
interventions.
4) Human process issues: These issues have to do with social processes occurring
among organisation members, such as communication, decision making,
12 leadership, and group dynamics. OD methods focusing on these kinds of issues
 are called human process interventions; included among them are some of the Definition, Factors to be
Considered, Nature and
most common OD techniques, such as conflict resolution and team building. Classification of OD
Interventions
1.4.1 Rules for Implementation
There are rules for managing the implementation process.
1) Maximize diagnostic data: In general, interventions will provide data needed to
make subsequent intervention decisions should come first.
2) Maximize effectiveness: Interventions should be sequenced so that early
intervention enhances the effectiveness of subsequent interventions.
3) Maximize efficiency: Interventions should be sequenced to conserve organisation
resources such as time, energy and money.
4) Maximize speed: Interventions should be sequenced to maximize the speed
which ultimate organisational improvement is attained.
5) Maximize relevance: Interventions that management sees as most relevant to
indicate problems should come first.
6) Minimize Psychological and organisational strain: A sequence of intervention
should be chosen that is least likely to create dysfunctional effects such as and
insecurity, distrust, dashed expectations, psychological damage to people, and
anticipated and unwanted effects on organisational performance.
Self Assessment Questions 2
1) Interventions will provide data needed to make subsequent intervention decisions
should come first to————.
a) Maximize efficiency b) Maximize diagnostic data
c) Maximize relevance d) Maximize speed
2) These ———————— are among the most critical facing organisations in
today’s changing and highly competitive environments.
a) Technology issues b) Cultural issues
c) Human resource issues d) Strategic issues
3) Issues that have to with social processes occurring among organisation members,
such as communication, decision making, leadership, and group dynamics are—
—————-
a) Human process issues b) Technology issues
d) Cultural issues d) Strategic issues

1.5 NATURE AND CLASSIFICATION OF OD

INTERVENTIONS
Different interventions have different dynamics; they do different things because they
are based on different casual mechanisms. It is important to know the underline
casual mechanisms of interventions to ensure the interventions fit the desire outcome.
Interventions do different things; they cause different things to happen. One
13
intervention’s major result may be increasing interaction and communication between
OD Interventions parties. Other interventions’ major results may be increasing feedback, or increasing
accountability. These differential results are often exactly what is needed to produce
change in the particular situations. There are some of the results one can expect from
OD intervention: Feedback, Awareness of changing socio cultural norms or
dysfunctional current norms, increased interaction and communication, Confrontation,
education, participation, increased accountability, increased energy and optimism.
Following are some of the OD interventions given under four major classifications:

1.5.1 Human Processes

T group, process consultation, third party intervention, team building, organisational
confrontation meetings, survey research.

1.5.2 Techno Structural

Formal structural change, differentiation and integration, cooperative union-management
projects, total quality management, kaizen, quality circles, work design.

1.5.3 Human Resource Management

Goal setting, performance appraisal, reward systems, career planning and development,
managing work force diversity, employee wellness.
Strategic: Integrated strategic management, culture change, strategic change, self
designing organisations.

1.5.4 Interventions Based On the Underlying Causal

Mechanisms
Robert Blake and Jane Mouton identified the following types of interventions based
on the underlying causal mechanisms:
1) Discrepancy intervention, which calls attention to a contradiction in action or
that then, leads to exploration.
2) Theory intervention, where behavioural science knowledge and theory are
used as plain present behaviour and assumptions underlying the behaviour.
3) Procedural intervention, which represents a critiquing of how something is, be
done to determine whether the best methods are being used.
4) Relationship intervention, which focuses attention on interpersonal relations
(particularly those where there are strong negative feelings) and surfaces the
exploration and possible resolution.
5) Experimentation intervention, in which two different action plans are tested
for consequences before a final decision on one is made.
6) Dilemma intervention, in which an imposed or emergent dilemma is used to
force examination of the possible choices involved and assumptions underlying
them
7) Perspective intervention, which draws attention away from immediate actions
and demands and allows a look at historical background, context and future
objectives order to assess whether or not the actions are “still on target”.
8) Organisational structure intervention, which calls for examination and
14 evaluation structural causes for organisational ineffectiveness.
9) Cultural intervention, which examines traditions, precedents, and practices- Definition, Factors to be
Considered, Nature and
the of the organisation’s culture- in a direct, a focused approach. Classification of OD
Interventions
1.6 MAJOR “FAMILIES” OF OD INTERVENTION
ACTIVITIES
The inventory of OD interventions is quite extensive. We will explore several
classification schemes here to help you understand how interventions “clump” together
terms of (1) the objectives of the interventions, and (2) the targets of the interventions.
Becoming familiar with how interventions relate to one another is useful for planning
the overall OD strategy. The major “families” of OD intervention activities are:
1) Diagnostic Activities: Fact finding activities designed to ascertain the state of
the system. The status of a problem, the “way things are.” Available methods
range from projective devices such as “build a college that represents your
place in this organisation” to the more traditional data collection methods f
interviews, questionnaires, surveys, meetings, and examining organisational
records.
2) Team Building Activities: Activities designed to enhances the effective operation
of system teams. These activities focus on the task issues, such as the way
things are done, the skills and resources needed to accomplish tasks, the quality
of relationship among the team members or between members and the leader,
and how well the team gets its job done.
3) Intergroup Activities: Activities designed to improve the effectiveness of
interdependent groups-groups that must work together to produce a common
output.
4) Survey Feedback Activities: Activities that rely on questionnaire surveys to
generate information that is then used to identify problems and opportunities.
5) Education and Training Activities. Activities designed to improve individual’s
skills, abilities and knowledge. Several activities are available and several
approaches possible.
6) Techno structural or Structural Activities: Activities designed to improve the
effectiveness of organisational structures and job designs. The activities may
take the form of (a) experimenting with new organisation structures and evaluating
their effectiveness in terms of specific goals or (b) devising new ways to bring
technical resources to bear on problems.
7) Process Consultation Activities: Activities that “help the client to perceive
understand and act upon process events which occur in the client’s environment.”
These activities perhaps more accurately describe an approach, a consulting
mode in which the client gains insight into the human processes in organisation
and learns skills in diagnosing and managing them.
8) Grid Organisation Development Activities: Activities developed by Robert
Blake and Jou Mouton, which constitute a six phase change model involving the
total organisations internal resources are developed to conduct most of the
programs, which may take from to five years to complete.
9) Third- party Peacemaking Activities: Activities conducted by a skilled
consultant (the third party). Designed to “help two members of an organisation
manage their interpersonal conflict”. 15
OD Interventions 10) Coaching and Counseling Activities: Activities that entail the consultant or
other organisation member working with individual to help (a) define learning
goals, (b) learn how others see their behaviour, and (c) learn new behaviours
to help them better achieve their goals.
11) Life and Career Planning Activities: Activities that enable individuals to focus
on their and career objectives and how to go about achieving them. Structured
activities include producing life and career inventories, discussing goals and
objective and assessing abilities, needed additional training and area of strength
and deficiency.
12) Planning and Goal Setting Activities: that include theory and experience in
planning and goal setting problem-solving models, planning paradigms, ideal
organisations status real organisation “discrepancy” models, and the like.
13) Strategic management Activities: Activities that help key policymakers to
reflect systematically on the organisation’s basic mission and goals and
environmental demands, thrums and opportunity and to engage in long-range
action planning of both a reactive and active nature.
14) Organisational Transformation Activities: Activities that involve large scale
system change activities designed to fundamentally change the nature of the
organisation.
Self Assessment Questions 3
1) Which of these is not labeled as Organisation Development Intervention?
a) Team building b) Group Development
c) Process consultation d) Behaviour modification
2) ——————————is an intervention that helps to motivate people to
contribute towards a future that is desirable.
a) Behaviour modifications b) Visioning
c) Sensitivity Training d) Survey feedback
3) Activities designed to improve the effectiveness of organisational structures
and job designs are————
a) Tecno structural activity b) Team building activity
c) Coaching and counseling activities d) Inter group activity

1.7 LET US SUM UP

Each of these families of intervention includes many activities. They involve both
conceptual material and actual experience with the phenomenon being studied. Some
families are directed toward specific, targets, problems or processes. Another way
to classify OD interventions is by the primary target of the intervention, for example,
individuals, dyads and triads, teams and group, intergroup relations, and the total
organisational.

16
 Definition, Factors to be
1.8 UNIT END QUESTIONS Considered, Nature and
Classification of OD
1) “Organisational development has become imperative in view of dynamics of Interventions
external environmental conditions and internal tensions and strain”. Justify this
statement.
2) What is an OD Intervention? Discuss its concept and nature.
3) Describe the factors to be considered for OD interventions.
4) Discuss the types of interventions based on the underlying causal mechanisms
given by Robert Blake and Jane Mouton.
5) Elucidate the major “families” of OD intervention activities.

1.9 SUGGESTED READINGS

Cummings, T.G. &Worley, C.G., Organisational Development and Change,
Thomson: Singapore.
Desimone, R.L., Werner, J.M. & Harris, D.M., Human Resource Development,
Thomson: Singapore.
Dwivedi,R.S, Human Relations And Organisational Behaviour: A Global
Perspective, Macmillan:ND
French, Wendell L & Bell, Cecill H Jr.: Organisational Development: Behavioural
Science Interventions For Organisational Improvement, Pearson ND (LDA)
Tosi, LH, Mrero, NP & Rizzo, John R: Managing Organisational Behaviour,
Blackwell: Oxford

17