T RE A TI S E

AL G E B R A
.
”
xf .

s
9

BY ‘
E S TI N I, sJ . .

Author fAnalytica l Geo metr y

o , an d E leme ntary Algebra .

P ROFE S S OR m GE O RGE TOWN CO LL E GE .

B A L T I MO R E
PUB L I S HE D B Y JO H N M UR PH Y
K
No . 178 MAR E T S TREET .

PI T T S B U QU I G L E Y .

Sold by B ooks
eller s g ener a lly .

1855 .

(b
 En tered according to A t od comm
c it: the ym 1855, b y
JOHN MURPH Y b 00 .

in the Clerk’ sOf

fi ce ofthe District Court ofthe t
Uni ed State sf
or the

tern Distr ict ofMarylan d.

Eas

m am a BY L. J
OHNSON b 00.
 PR E FACE .

TH I S treatise m ay b e co n sid ered asa se quel t o the s mall Ele

m en t ary Algeb ra who se secon d edition l revise d an d en large d
, , ,

hasj u st pre ce de d the prese n t p u b licatio n H o wever it isn o t so

.
,

con n e cte d with the Elem en t ary Algeb ra that it might n ot b e

taken alon e for it doe s n ot depe n d on the fo rm er in an y ofits
,

parts an d is complet e as far as is allowe d b y the n ature o fa

, ,

b o ok d e stin e d f o r the us e oftho s e who desire to b e in itiate d in

the stu dy ofAlgeb r a .

The re ad er eve n b e f ,o re per u s i g the pre sen t in tr o ductio n has

n ,

pr ob ab ly no ticed the differen ce oftype in ten ded to separ ate those,

subje ctswhich ar e m o re acces sib le to p u p ilsat lar ge f ro m those

which su ppo se in the stu d en t e ither qu icker p ar tsor alre ady so m e
a dvan ce m e n t in the s tudy o fAlgeb r a That ist o say the mo st .
,

elem en tary prin ciples adapted even for tho se who for the first ,

tim e ope n a b oo k o fAlgeb r a ar e prin ted in larger type : the

, ,

o ther par ts which en te a little m ore in to the secrets ofthe

, r

sc ie n ce ar e prin t e d in sm aller char act ers

, .

We b eg the read er how ever to ob serve fi rst that the u n d er

, , , ,

stan d in g e v en ofthe m o st elem en tary prin ciplesofAlgeb ra an d

G e o m e try suppo ses alwaysa cer t ain d egree o fap titu d e O fthis .
,

o n e w ho f o r a y tim e hashad exper ie n ce o fthe t e dio u slab o u r o f

n

teachin g w ill ren der witho u t hesitation ab u nd ant t est im ony

, , , .

An other ob servatio n to b e m ade is that the sep aration ado p ted,

in the prese n t tre atise with d istin ction o ftype doe sn o t tr ace a
, ,

lim it to b e scru pu lou sly f o llo w e d so that the t e acher or the s

, tu
d e n t b e c om pelle d to go o ver all that isprin t e d in large character s
b ef o re co m m e n ci g the re s
n t B ut it is left to the d isc e tio n of
. r

the t e acher to e t er m o re o r le ss in t o the subje ct w here an d

n , ,

whe n he will j u dg e fi t to d o so The t e acher isf

. ully aw are that
he m ust u n qu e stio n ab ly lab o u r an d m u st no t b e satisfi e d m erely
,

3
4 PRE FACE .

with what he is t o te ach, b u t he sho ld kn o w m u ore He u ch m .

sh ou ld b e m ast er o fthe subje ct d , an b e co m pe t e t t o adap t it t o

n

the c ap city o fhis p p ils

a u .

The Tre atise is divid e d i to tw o p ar ts the fi r st o fw hich co n ,

n

tai salgeb r ic l per tio s w ith several q u estio s a d d o ctr i es

n a a o a n ,
n n n

c o ect e d with them so th t e ch sectio n m ay pr o ve co mple t e in its

nn ,
a a

ow n subjec t d th i co ve ie c e o f re tu r i g else where t o

, an e n n n n n n

sp e k f m att er lef
a o t fi ishe d b e f o re m y b e avo ide d
un n The , a .

sam e m e tho d isf ollow e d i th sec o d p ar t ofw hich w e w ill im

n e n ,

m ed iat ely s y few w o r d s

a W it h this m etho d every thi g is
a .
, n

pu t i its ow p l ce so t h t y e wh w o uld go over the

n n a , a an on o

w ho le u in t err p t e dly might h ve the ad v

n u t age ofo rder an d a an ,

ofs eei g t si gle gl ce all th t e ach subje ct em b r aces N ay

n , a a n an , a .
,

the sam e d va tag es m y b e e j oye d b y tho se also who w ill b e

a n a n

a b le to o verc o m e the fi r st difii c lties t se c d or thir d re adi g u a a on n .

Thism e tho d w e b elieve h s lso the dv a tag e o f c o t r ac ti g

, , a a a n n n

the b ulk ofthe v olu m e w hich the sam e subjec t s disor d erly sc at
, ,

ter ed w o uld re d er m uch l r ger

,
n a .

The se co d p ar t c o t i s the m o st i dispe s b le t heor ies o f

n n a n n n a

e quatio s pro po r tio s a d pro gre ssio n s log rithms a d som e

n ,
n ,
n , a , n

few pr i c ip le so
n the serie s The doctri e o fe q u atio shasb een
n . n n

tre te d m ore cop iou sly than the o ther s o t so mu ch o accou t

a , n n n

ofitsim por t a ce asb e c aus e it isw ell adapt ed to give an ide Of

n , a

algeb r aic a lysis a d t hu s prep re the mi d o f the st ud en t

na ,
n a n

w ho w o u ld af ter war dsapply him selfto higher s t u dies .

G EORGETOWN COLLEGE, July, 1855 .

 CO N TE N TS .

I m n onucr o nr ART ICLE

M athe matics: its o bj ect, an d v ar io u s

Alg eb r a : itso bj e ct an d g en er ali ty

— its
N u m er ical r elation so f

Relatio n o f op p osition s an d
t
Op p o site q uan ti i e s— ho w m u tually in flu en ced .
Co e fi cien t an d similar
S ig n so f addition an d sub tr actio n
E q uatio n san d
Mon o mialsan d p olyn o mials.
Memb er s o f
C on stan t an d var iab le q u antities.
Mod ifi cation o f q u an titi es— their mu t
u al

D ivisio n o f the

FIRS T P RT A .

AL G E B RAI C O PE RATIO N S .

C HAPTE R L — D E FIN ITI ON S AND O PE RATION S ON M O N O MIAL S .

ART 1. . Add itio n an d S ub tr a ctio n .

Alge b r aic an d ar ithm etical ad di tion

D efi nition o f algeb ra ic add i i on t

D if
fer en t cases

Rules 1 an d

D o ctr ine of signs—

p ro d uc t of sg
-
i ns

E x amp lesan d p r ob le m s . .

L e tter su se d for unkn o wn

N um er ical valu e san d g en eral char acter of alg eb r aical
S u b tr a cti o n .
-
D ifi er en ce—d efi nition— r es
‘
ul ofs ig n s.. t
Rule, an d gen er al
5
6 CO N TE N T S .

p ass

Cr i ter ion o fm agn i u d e. t 26

T wo f
old t
acc ep a ti on of n u mb er s 27
T he ter m z er o tak en asa m er e ter m of co m p ar ison 27
E xa mp lesan d p r o b lems 27
ART 2 M ultip lica ti o n a n d D ivisi o n — Multzp li ca ti o n 28
'

. . .

t
I n what m ul ip li ca tion con sists 28
V ar io u s m ann er s ofre p r e sen tin g th e p r o du ct. 29
D e fi n i tion o f n um er ical multip lication . 29
Case o f the m u ltip lier, who le nu mb er , an d 29
Con se qu e n ce c on cern in g the sig n of p r o d u c t 29
Case o fthe m u ltip lier 30
Case o f the mu ltip lier f
r acti o n al 30
Case o f the ir r atio n al 30
t
Ar i hm e tical r ul e ap p lica ble to q uan titie s 30
Mu tu al in flu en ce of 31
Rule of 31
o r m s o f th e
V m io u s f n u m er ical va lu e o f q u a n titie s 31
o r m ulas o f n u m er ica l
G en er al f 32
H o w the ar ithm e tic a l r u le so fm u ltip lica tio n f
o llo w f
r cm the dfi iti
e n on 32
M echan ica l a r tifi ce , sho w in g the aliq u o t p ar t of a f
r actio n 33
The m ultip lican d m ay b eco me the m ultip lier , an d v ice ve r sa, wi tho u t
af
f t
ec in g th e p r o d u c t

Factor s, w ho le n u mb er s, a
n d o ther

G en er al in f
e r en ce

T he p r o d uc t o f an y n u mb er o f ter m sis the same, w hate ve r b e the or

d er o fthe f a c to r s .

S ig n to b e giv en to the p r o d uc t of se ve r al f
ac t or s— th
r e e cases

Rule
Pr o du ct o fr ep ea te d f
ac tor s— e xp on en t

E x am p le san d
D ivi sio n — I tsd efi n i tio n
Algeb r aical e xp r e ssio n o f d ivisio n
Ru le — n u mer ical

C o m p ou n d
T he ir p r o d u c t an d
Re d u cti o n o f r e sultsto a simp ler f
or m

R e d uctio n to the same d en o m in ator

E x am pl e s an d p r o b lem s
ART 3 . . F o r ma ti o n fP0 we re
o a nd E x tr a cti o n o fR o o ts
Po wer s —W hat .
p o wer is r o o t, e xp o n en t, d e gr e e, p owe r
a —

Fo r mation o f p o wer s, e m b ac
r in g all case s o f n um er i cal valu e s, itsd e

scrip io n t an d
 CO NTENTS . 7
PAGE

App ar en t p o wer s " 48

Po wer s o f . 48
Pr o d u ct o f p o w er s —oase of the e x p on en t s w hole n u mb e r s
’
49
e o f the e xp on e n t sf nu mb er s
’
cas r a cti o n al 49
Gen eral i n f
er en ce an d r ule.. 50
Pr o d uc t o fp o wer swhen the sam e e x p on e n t isap p lie d to d if
fer en t r o o ts 5 0

In f
eren ce an d 50
Po wer so f 50
Inf
e r en ce an d 52
S i mp lifi cation o f e xp on en tial f — difi er en t
'

r a ctio n s c ases 52
E x traction o f r o o ts i sthe inv er se o p er a tio n o fr aisin g to a 55
S ig n san d n o m en cla tu r e 56
The r oot of a q uan tity m ay b e r ep re sen te d by a f
r actio nal e xp o n en t

g iv en to the sam e
Fr a cti o n al in d e x o f the
A r ad ical havin g a f
r actio n al in d e x ca n b e tr an sf
o r m e d in to on e hav
in g a who le n u m b er f
o r itsi n d e x

Pr o d uct o f r o o ts— d if
fer en t ca ses.

The in d e x o f the r o o t an d tha t o fthe q u an tity u n d e r the r ad ical sign

m ay b e mu ltip lied or di vid e d b y the sam e qu an ti ty or
D if
fer e n t ca se se mb r ace d by a r a d ical

Im agin ar y r a d i calso r

O p er ati on s on i mag in ary q u an tities

I rr atio n al r ad icalsan d
Gr e ate st co m m o n m easu r e of

Pr ime n u mb er s

H ow a p r im e n u mb er can accu r ately divid e the p r o d u ct o f tw o o th er

64
A p r im e n umb e r div idin g a p r o d u ct, d ivid esat leas t on e o fthe f
actor s 65

Po wer so ff r action al e xp r e ssion s 66

I r r atio n al 67
A Ser ie so f r ation al or assign ab le n um b er s m ay b e con cei ved ap

p r e achin g t
co n san tly to an y irr atio n al
Miscellan eou s

C H APTE R [L — OPE R ATION S ON PO LY N O MI AL S .

ART . 1 . Addi ti o n and

Re duc tion o fsim ilar ter ms— r ule an d

S u b tr a cti o n —
. Rule— e x am p les.

ART 2 . . Mu ltip lica tio n and w wn .

Ru le an d

Rule o fsi gn s
8 CON TE N T S .

Re mark o n co mm on

E xamp leso f
S in g ular p r op er ty o f n u mb er s
D ivisi o n — Po lyno mials
.

Op er ati o n exp la in e d

Rule an d e xa mp le s

Rem ar k co n cer n in g th e ar ran g emen t of

The divid en d divisib le b y itsdivi sor

n o t e x a ctly

N umb er o f the ter m s o f the in d efi n ite "

orm
The q u o tien t o fthe same f asthe i ma gin ary e xp res
'

sio n s di
vid ed

b y o n e an o ther
ART 3 . . Fo r ma ti o n ofPo we r s a n d E x tr a cti o n fR o o ts
o

or mula
N ewton ian f .

G en er al ter m
S q uare an d cu b e o f an y b in omial.
Bin o mial theo r em
S in gular p r o p er ty o f the co efii cien tso f the

Perm utatio n s
Co r ollary

O n so m e p r op er ty of n u mb er s— heorem t
E vo lu tion o f the b in o mial whe n the e xp on e n t '

1sn ega tiv e

E x tr a c ti o n ofRo ma — The r oo t ofa p o lyn om ial an o ther p olyn o mial

— E xam le
p
T he p r o cessto fi n d the sq u ar e r o o t o f an y p olyn omial is alwaysthe
sam e
General rule f
or the t
e x r action o fsquare ro o tso fp o lyn o mials.— Ex
amp les

Ex t tirac o n of squ are r o o ts o f nu mb er s

Pr ac tical r u les

Polyn om ial ex p r e ssio n o f the square o fa n u mb er

E xtr ac tio n of cub ical r o o tso f

Ex t
r a ction o f cub ical r oo tsof n u mb ers

S ECOND P RT A .

AL GE B RAIC T H E ORIE S .

C H APTE R L — E QU ATI ON S .

D ivision o fthe chap te r

Prac i cal t r ules

K n o wn an d unk n o wn q uan t1t1e s

D ete r minate an d in d ete r mina e t
 C O NTEN TS . 9
PAGE

ART 1
. . E q u a ti o n s ofthe fi r st d egr ee 1 19
G en eral f
o r mu la t
o fd e term in a e e quation softhe fir st 1 20
R esolu tio n o f an y d eter minate equ ation o fthe t
fir s d e gr ee.— Rule 120
E xam p le s an d 12 1
I n d e ter min ate e q ua tion so fth e fi r st dg e r ee 122
E quatio n sc on tain in g se ver al u nk n o w n 12 3
D if
f t
eren m e tho ds ofr esolu io n t — t
Fir s, b y comp ar ison 124
Eli m ination b y sub stitu tion 1 25
E limination b y add ition an d sub tracti o n 12 7
The sam e m e tho d sap p licab le to all cases 128
I nc o m p atib le e q u ati on s 128
Rule san d ex amp les 12 9
Prob lems —
gen er al rule 13 1
AR T 2
. . E q u a ti on softhe seco n d d egr ee 1 35
G en er al f t
or mula o f the d ete r mina e eq u a i on so fthe s t
econ d d egr e e 135
G en er al rule 1 36
Resolu ion t o f th e g en er al 13 7
Fir st case.— Rule an d exam p les 1 37
S eco n d case 1 38
Real an d im agin ary roo ts 1 39
E xamp le san d p r o b le m s 14 ]
14 2
ART 3
. .
p er ti es ofd eter mi n ed eq ua ti o n s oftiny
On so me p ro 1 44
Pr elim in ary theo r e ms 144
G en er al fo r mula o f a d eter min e d equ ation of any d e gree 14 7
E q uati on sr e so lvab le with at least on e r eal r o o t 14 7
t
E q u a ion sr e solvab le with at leas
t two r eal r o o ts. 14 7
When e qu atio n sc an n o t be r esolved with r eal r o ots, th y e ar e r esolva

b le wi th one or m or e imagin ar y
An y d e ter min e d e q u atio n o f an y d e gr ee a d mitso f a s man y r o o tsas

ther e ar e un itsin the d e g r ee o f the e qu ation

C o n n e ction b etween the ro o tsan d the co ef

fi cien tso f an y d eter min ed
e quatio n
C or o llar ie s— Case
. o f on e or m or e r o o tseq u al to z er o

S ign s o f the r o otschan g ed

R o o tsmultip lied an d d en om in ator se lim in ate d

The su mso fv ariou sp o wer s o f the r oo ts can b e kn own, th
al ou gh the
r o o ts th ms l
e e v esar e

Cor ollar y an d cr iter ion

ART 4
. . R eso lu ti o n f d eter min a te
o e qua ti o n s o fthe thi r d an d fo ur th
d egr ee, havi ng r ea l co e
fi ci en ta

G eneral f
or mu laso f the e uatio n so fthe thir d
q
10 CO N TE N TS .

Roo tsofthe g en er al e qu atio n o f the thir d d egree

t
R eso lu ion of the sam e g en er al eq u ation
The fi r s t co n d i ti o n alway sf
ulfi ll e d , b ut not the secon d

G en er al r em ar k

E qu a ti o ns ofthe fo ur th d egr ee .

t
Quali y of the r oo s: ho w fou n d t ou t

C HAPTE R I L — R ATI OS , PR O PO RTIO N S , AND PRO G RE S SIO N S .

D ivision of the chap er, an d t d e fi n itio n s

ART . 1. Ar i thmetica l R a tio s, Pr op o r ti o ns, a nd P r ogr essio ns
B o tto m— D efi n ition san d pr op er y t
Pr op o r ti o m .— S imp le ar ithm e ical t
Co n tinual an d co m p o u n d

Pr ogr essions— T er msofan . u n limited

d Ex m
S um— E xam p les
H ow an d when the ter m s ofa p r o gr ession may b e f oun — pl a e

ART 2 . . Ge o me tr ica l R a tio s, Pr op o r tio ns, a n d

R a tio a — D e fin ition san d p r op er y
. t
t
V ar iab le ra i o s— dir ec an d r ecip r ocal t term s

t
Co n in ual g e o m e trical ra io s t
t
D irec an d r e cip r ocal co mp oun d ra tios— Theo r em .

P r op o r ti ons— S imp le g eometrical p r op or tions

.

G eneral p r op er ie s t
C on tin u al an d comp oun d
p ro p or tions
O ther p r op erties o f geo m etri cal p r op or ion s t
N um erical p r op o r tion s, the fi r s r atio o fwhich is t
P r og r essi o na — T ermsof an y geo me r ical p r o gr e ssion
. t ..

G en er al f
or mu la

S um o fn ter m san d su m o f an in d efi n ite n u m b er o f er t ms

E xamp le s
How an d when the t
er m so f a cer tain p r o g r ession may b e f
ou n d

E xamp le

C H APT E R III .— L O G AR IT H MS .

t
E xp o n en ial q u an ities t .

L o gar ithms
B ase an d S ign

The lo gar ithm of un ity an d th e logar ithm o f the b ase a re the sam e
in all sy stem s
Posi ive t an d n eg a tive
 CONTEN TS .

Theor emS O O O OC QO UI l l C O QO 'O O O O I QUO I ' O I O U O I I O C O O U I QO O - 0 0 0

In an y system when the lo gari hm s f orm t an ar i thm etical p r o gre s

sio n , the corr esp on d in g n u mb er s f
or m a geome tr ical on e. .

ul theor em s
Usef
Co mmo n o r o r din ar y tab leso f
C on stan t r atio ofl ogar ith msin ev ery

H o w the lo gar ithm so f o n e s

y s em m ay b e inf
er r ed f t
ro m the loga

r ithm so f o her t
E xp lan a t ory r em ark s

Char acter i sti c .

t
Ap p lica ion of

C HAPTE R I V .— S E RIE S .

What alg eb r aic seriesar e, an d th eir var iou s

Var io usq u estio nscon cern in g the

G en er al ter m o f an y ser ies.
S um of an y n u m b er o f ter ms

E xamp le s " OC O O O l OQ LD D O
 TR E ATI S E O N AL G E B RA .

IN TRO D UCTO RY ARTICLE .

M ath em afi m mh eir 1 M AT H M ATI C S

. E treat ofqu an tities n am e ,

can b e n u m er ic all
ly, ofall t hat w hich y e st i
m at d e or m easu re d .

Th e r i
va r io us
H e n ce , Mathe mat ics, inge n eral t heir
b ran ch es"
c ep e r e a c n r e er
tatio n , mb ac as m a y b an ch sas th e
ar e species o f u an e k en n cons er o tit i s t a i to es
id ati n , an d t h e
q
v ariou s b ran ches a e also distin guishe d b y appropriat e den o mi
r

n at io ns as G eo m e try Hydraulics O p tics &c

, , , ,
.

§ 3 A lg e b r a con siders qu an t it ies in an ah

.

Al g b i ts bj t
ra : o ec
s tract m an er ; that is it co n sid ers i quan tities
e .

n n
,

those proper ties an d rel tio ns w hich a e com m o n to all the a r

v ariou s specie s an d we m ay add : Th t which Lo gic is to

,
a

m en t al p hilos o p hy an d m ent al sciences o f every descrip t ion ,

in s om e m e as u re A lge b r a is t o the m athe mat ic al sciences .

G lity f Ai
en el a
‘

§o 4 A lge b r aic qu estions ar e co se qu en tly

. n
g b st s
_

e r al c
q ue ion

y m b ls q u i t e general s we ll as the symb ols u se d to

.

Alg b i s
e ra c o .
,
a

represen t the quan titie s The se symb o ls are c omm only the .

le tt er so fthe L at in a d Gree k lphab e t n a .

Alg b i e q s
ra c
§ 5 A lge b r ic q u e st io n s n d o per t io s are
ue . a a a n
,
ti t d w ith
on sco nn e c e
ar i thm ti l e q s b eS de s s
ca trlctly co nec t e d W t h n u m er cal or
ue l ,
n i i
ti s R l ti f
ar i thm e t c l q u e st o s B e u se whenever o n e
on . e a on o
m g it d
a n u e. i a i n . ca
,

qu an tity is co m pare d with t her o f the sam e kin d for an o

,
2 13
14 T R EAT I S E L
o n A GEB RA .

inst ance , we ight with weight space w ith S pace &c the re la , ,
.
,

tio isno o ther t han n u m erical Thisre lation isa relat ion of
n .

m agn it u d e .

R l ti
e a f pp»
on o §
o
6 A c
n o t h er . re lation we may s a
y o f o p po ,
sitim
sitio n d epen ds on the d if f eren t manner ofthe
'

exist en c e ofqu an tities This opposit ion is d e sign at e d b y the

.

d en o min atio n s o f pos it ive an d n e gat ive q u an tit ies So f or .

,

e x am p le t wo f ,
o rces a c t in g in the s am e s traight line b u t in a ,

d irec t ion o p po sit e to eac h o ther if co m p ar ed are respec t ively , ,

po sitive an d ne gative .

7 W hen a qu an tity f
. o r i ns t anc e as isd e s tine d , , ,

t o repre se t a po sit ive one the s ign

n
(p lu s) isfro ,

q u e t l
n
y p lace d b e f ore i t W h en the qu an tity isne gative the
.
,

sign (m inu s) isalways pre fixe d t o the symb o l .

§ 8 W he therefore in the s am e qu e st io n
. n,
,
Us fth sig s
we m ee t with the qu an t ities
e o e n
it is
.

a — b ,

alw ays u n d ers t o od t hat a is pos it ive with re f , erence t o b a d b ,

n

is ne gat ive w ith re f ere n ce t o a And ic v r s if two .

,
v e e a,

q u an t ities ar e given oppo s it e t o e ac h o t her an d b e fore the ,

firs t we p u t no sign or the po sitive sign the ne gat ive sign is ,

then t o b e c onst an tly p u t b e fore the secon d .

9 W hen qu an tit ies of d ifi er e n t sign s s u p

'

ii ilgiii
f
§
q gii
c o
,
.

ue es x
t lly i
ua d pose t wo ar e co llec tive ly t ak en t he ir v alu e is
n flu e n ce .
, ,

t he e quivalen t t o a thir d quan tity which isthe dif

n . ference o f ,

the ab so lu t e valu e of the m an d whos e s ig n is e it her positiv e

,

or ne gative acc ordin g as the g re ater absolu t e valu e of the

two qu a t ities ist hat o fthe pos
n itive or that o f the ne gat ive , .

For ex am ple : t wo fo rc es B an d b ifap plie d t o the same

, ,

m at er ial p oin t an d alo ng the s am e st raight line t he ir e flec t is

'

the res u lt ofthe ir s imu lt aneo u san d colle ct ive ac t ion B ut if .

,

we su ppose B t o im pel the po in t t wi ce asm u ch asb or w hic h , ,

isthe s am e the ab s o lu t e v alu e of B t o b e t wic e as gre at as

,

that o f since the forces act in opposition the e f fec t o f b ,

will b e co u n t erac t e d b y t hat o f B ; an d one h lf o f B ( w hic h -

a
 I N TR OD UCTO RY AR TI CLE . 15

e u
is q al to 6) w ill pro du ce alo ne the efi e ct ih the positive '

di rec on
ti o fB That is the co llec t ive ac tion o fthe t wo f
. orces
,

ise qu al t o that of the ir dif ference an d this d if f erence ac ts in ,

the d irec t ion o f the gre at er f orce .

1 0 W hen a sym b o l f or ex amp le I

. ) isadop t e d , , ,
C f
oe fi i t
c en
t o represe n t a cer tain qu an tity an d it happens
.

that in the sam e inves tigation ano ther qu an t ity occu rs whose
.

m agn it u de is t w ice t hree t im es 850 the m agn it u de o f the

, ,
.

fo r m er in st ead o fmak in g u se o fan o ther symb o l or repe at in g ,

the sam e we writ e on ly once the s

, ymb o l 6 p laci g b e fore it a ,
n .

figu re t o s how how m ahy t im es the qu an tity is t ak en This .

n umb er is called co efi‘icien t which means m a ki g tog the ,

n e r

w ith the symb ol the whole ofa qu an t ity If for ins tance
,
.
, ,

the qu an tity B is three t imes as gre at as b or C five t im es ,

as re at as 0 ins t e ad o f writin g B an d C we wo uld writ e 36

g , ,

an d 5c .

When t wo or m ore t er ms difler on ly in the '

S im il t ms
ar er
coef fi cien t t hey are t er m e d sim i la
.

For ex ,
r .

am p le 56 2 6 or 3 c 7 0 l 2o are s im ilar t er m s
, , , , , ,
.

11 L e t u s re m ar k here also t han w hen a

.
,
Sig n o f dd i ti
a on .

qu an tity is t o b e adde d t o ano t her qu an tity 6 ,

fo r ins tance t o a or several q uan tities ar e t o b e added t o

,

ano ther this addit ion is c o mm on ly expresse d b y in t erpos

,
in g
b e t ween the qu an tities or te m sthe po sitive sign which r
,

for t his re ason is t er m e d also a s ign of ddition

,
S u ppose f ,
or a .
,

ex m ple that the q u an tities b d ar e t o b e add ed t o a t his

a
, ,
c
, ,

will b e in dic at ed by writ in g a b c d ,

.

S im of s bt 5 1 2 W hen on the c on t rary a quan tity is t o

u r ac
.
, ,

b e sub tr ac t e d f
ro m ano ther the qu an tity fro m ,

which we sub trac t is firs t written then the o ther an d the , ,

ne gat ive s ign is p lace d b e t ween t he m If for instance I ) ist o .

, ,

b e sub t r ac t e d f
rom we will writ e a 6 a, .

Eq ti s d § 1 3 Comp aring t o ge ther quan tities o f the

ua on an
.

i q liti s
ne ua e
sam e k in d for ex m ple weights w ith weights
‘

,
a
, ,
16 T RE AT I S E O N A G E B RA . L

s u rfaces w ith sur faces &c we will find the m e ither equ al or
,
.
,

no t S uppose now for the sak e o f sim plicity on ly t wo s u c h

.
, ,

qu an tities w hic h we will c all a b

,
If t he y are e qu al t hen ,
.
,

we writ e a b and the sign ( ) ofe qu ality isre ad equa l to

,
2

the t er ms so co mpare d cons idere d as f ormin g a s in gle expres

,

sion are c alle d an egua tio n Ifthe s am e t erm s represen t t wo

,
.

u ne qu al quan t ities then a is either gre at er or less than 6 in

,

the f or m er case the inequ ality is e xpresse d b y writin g a b .

,

in the secon d a < b ; that is we place b e t ween the t er ms the

, ,

an le or s ign ofine quality with the ver te x t owar ds the less

g , ,

o fthe u ne q u al t erm s .

M mm ]
o d § l 4 Any al geb raical expression whose sym
a , an
.

W ’y m m
n
b ols ar e no t sep arated b y positive or negative
'

s igns or the signs of e qu ality or ine qu ality isc alle d ter m or

, ,

m onom ia l For example the symb ol b t oge ther with the

.
, ,

coefl icien t 5 cons tit u t e the m ono mial 5 b

,
W hen t wo t er ms .

are sep arat e d b y a pos it ive or ne ga t ive sign the expression is ,

then c alle d bin om ia l ; ifthree s u c h t erms ar e sep arat e d in the

s ame manner they form then a tr in o m ia l &c ; and in general
, ,
.

these express ions are c alle d p o lyn o m ials .

M mb s“ q
e er
1 5 W hen t wo or m ore t erm s are sep ar at e d
. .

um '

b y the sig n o f e qu ality or ine qu ality t hese ,

t erm s cons titu t e the m em ber softhe e qu at ion or ine qu ality .

For example in the e quation a b c = m — n the tri

, , ,

nom ial a + b 0 form s the fi rs t m emb er and the b inomial ,

m n the secon d m e m b er o fthe e u ation Lik ewise in the

q .
,

ine qu ality p g f d the firs t b inom ial isthe firs t mem ,

b er an d the secon d b ino mial f

,
orm s the second memb er ofthe
ine qu ality .

F
3:1:12t w a
un c
1

ti s on
s: s
1 6 Any algeb rai c al expre s i on whose y alue
.

depen ds on the valu e ofa va r i a ble qu an t i ty 1s

.
,

calle d func tion ofthat variab le For instance the mono mial .
,

6x depen ds on the v alu e given t o w So likewise in the . .

,
18 ra m r rsn
'
ON ALGEB RA.

quan tities may b e co mp are d t oge ther, e ither b y a s im ple or

co mplex comparison This is all that concerns qu an tities,
.

D ivisio n of the generally considere d ; hence, A lge b ra m ay b e

treatis°'

conven ien tly divide d in to t wo p ar ts : the fi rs t of

which has fo r its obj ec t Operati onson qu an tities ; the secon d,
to inves tigat e an d discover the pro pe rties, connections and ,

d epen dences of quan tities ac cor din to their variou s com

g,

p arisons an d comb in ations .

 F I R S T PA R T .

ALGEB RAIC O PE RA TI O N S .

CH A PTE R I .

D EFI N IT ION S A N D O PE RA TI O N S ON M ONO M I AL S .

ARTIC LE I .

Ad d itio n an d S u b tr a ction .

Alg b i d
e ra c an
A D D IT I ON N um erical or arithm e tical
18 . .
-

gfifif g ffij additio n co n sists in findin g o u t a n u mb er c on taining

‘ ti e c
l o

p d‘
ar e
in it se lfasman y u n it s an d f ractions o fu nits asthere
are in all the n u mb ers t o b e adde d t o e ther For ex am ple t o
g .
,

find o u t the n u mb er 12 w hic h c o n t ain s in it se lfas m any u n it s

,

as there are in the n u mb ers 2 4 6 is to m ak e the s ,

um or , ,

addition of t hese n u mb ers an d this s um is expresse d

, (1 1, 13 )
by 2 4 6 12 B ut w ith regard t o alge b raical qu an ti
.
,

ties ; f or i ns tance a b e alt ho u h the s u m is r e r e

, , , g
, p
sen t e d as in n u mb ers n am ely a b c , yet o n
, ,

acco u n t of the m ore general s ign ificat ion of the algeb raic
symb ols, the Operation is no t e qu ally simple as for n umb ers .

The qu an t ities represen t e d b y alge b raic symb ols have in dee d , ,

a n u m eric al v alu e n ay this v alu e is the one t ak en in t o

,

acco u n t in addition , as we ll as in o ther algeb raic O perat ions .

B ut qu an tities m ay have e ither a positive or a negat ive valu e

so that a for example may b e negative w ith regar d t o b an d 0
, ,
.

T hen the n u m erical an d re lat ive v alu e ofa is t o b e expresse d ,

for ins tan c e b y ,

3 while the o thers are expressed, s u ppose
,

b y + 4 an d 5 in this su m or c o llec tion the negative p ar t is

lg
 20 T nn a r rsn ON AL G EB RA .

des troye d b y the po sit ive , an d since 5 4z 9 an d 9

3z 6, a qu an tity m , w ho se n u m erical v alu e is 6 , w ill
represen t the su m of the given qu a t ities a b c an d we w ill n
, , ,

have
Fro m t hese re m ar k s we d ed u ce the fo llowing defi nition an d ,

t wo prac tical r ules

D efi n i tio n f
o
al g eb ra i c ad di
f
The su m o a n u m b er o qua n ti ti es is a m o f
tio n .
n o m i a l, w ho se n u m er i ca l va lu e i s the excesso f
the f the qu an ti ties affected by o n e sig n ,
n u m e r ica l va lu e o

o ver the n u m er ica l va lu e o

f the qua n tities aflected by the
o
pp o si te sig n a nd the sig n ofwhi ch i s the sig n of the sa m e
,

f
T e r m s all af
ecte d b y the
on seq u en ces e as ily der ive d fr o m this
S ome c

s m sig
a e n.d efi n i ti on Wl ll m ak e i t m ore cle ar F1r st f all .
,
1

the qu an t ities t o b e adde d have e ither a pos itive or a ne gative

sign or value the su m has lik ewise a pos itive or ne gative

, , ,

v alu e and the n u m erical valu e o f this su m con t ains asman y

,

u n it s an d f rac tions asthere ar e in all the n u mer ical v alu e so f

the qu an tit ie s adde d exac tly asf
, o r n u mb ers Secon dly ifthe .
,

Eq
i l
r ca
l
ua
l
m nu
f
va u e
n u m eric al v alu e of the qu an t ities t o b e adde d
e
o

qu an titi s r am o u n t t o the s
e a am e f o r t hose wh1c h have a pos i

giigsigisf tive and for t hose w hich have a negative valu e

v
y pp o
i
, ,

the sum is then e qu al t o z ero A third conse qu ence needs.

n ot t o b e poin t e d o u t s in ce it ob vio u sl
y appe ars f
,
rom the
d e fi n ition itse lf .

RULE l When the qua n tities to be a d ded e

‘
. ar
R ns
u
m er ely re
p r es
en te d by sym bo ls
,
we ider
co n s them as

ha ving p o siti ve sig n ,

a an d their su m isex
p r es
sed by wr iting
i n successio n the sa m e qu a n tities
,
an d p la cing the p ositi ve
sig n b e twee n them .

For exam ple ,

the su m o fthe q u an tities
a, b, c, d,
i sexp r essed hy
RULE 2 When the sign isp laced befor e the qua n titiesto
.
 O PERA TI O N S ON M O N O M I AL S . 21

be a d d e d , then the su m isr ep d by wr iting , l ikew ise, the

r esen te

y m b o lsin su ccessio n ,
s ea ch w ith i ts o wn sig n b u t the sig n of
the fi r st is n o t wr i tten u n lessi t be n eg a tive.

Fo r ex a m l pe ,
the su m o fthe q u an tities ,
a, b, c, — g
— h — /e,
is expres sed b y a + b + g
— h l c — — o.

I t is ev id en t t hat a sum w ill b e always eq u al t o a cer t ain

u nvariab le m o no m ial expre ssion what ever he the order in ,

which the t er m s a e writt en So f o r in st an ce callin g m the

r .
, ,

e qu ivale t m onom i l expre ssion we m ay writ e

n a ,

a + h+ c — g
— h— hz m,
a —
g + b — h+ c

The pr opo sed examples ar e the m ost general I n m ore .

p ar ticu lar cases there occu r sim plifications or redu c tions of

t er m s which we w ill soon see in o ther exam p les
,
.

D ti
o c r nef a19 W h o
l dy m k d th t th sig p l ed
. e ave a r ea re ar e , a e n ac

sigfl S b ef
or e a symb ol is n o t always the same s ign as that of
the nu m er ical valu e o f the qu an i y r p r s tt
en d b y it ; an d e e te a lth u gh
o ,

g en er ally, the qu an i y (1 o r a i s co n s tt
id er e d as havin g a o e p sitiv
e
n u m er ical valu , an d the q u an ity — b , a n e g a iv n u m er i cal valu , t e e
e ee
it hap p n s, ho w v r , in ma he m a ical in ve s iga io n s, ha the n u m r i t t t t t t e
c al valu e o f a t
p o si ive q u an tity is som e tim sfo ed g tive un ne a ,
an d v ice

ver sa. H en c e , s om e
qu e si on sar is t e co n c er n in
g the fi n al sign to b e
given to tt
qu an i y , which d e ser
a ve to b e no t e
ic d her e An d , to giv
. e
to ou r r ese ar che sa qu i e g en er al t char a c te r, l et us fir s t em r ar k , that
on e or m o r e sign sb y which an algeb r aicalsymb o l can b e o ccasio n ally

af
fe c t e d n ece s f
sar ily afec the t nu m er ical valu i s lf, a
n d vice ver se te
a;

seco n dly, an algeb r aical symb o l i s f

r e qu n ly a s et
ymb o l of an o h r , t e
or o th sym b ols s m et e
er ,
o im saf t
fec e d b y the sam , so m im s b y the e et e
op p o sit e sig s F i st e
n . or n an c , we m ay hav e
a =+ A
or a = A;
hen ce + a or + = a -
A)
a or — a — A) .

Pr o d u t c of The e p ssi s f th s tw
x re on o e e o se st ar e m an if
esly t
S ig“
Op p o sit e b t ,
A) i s e q i
u u valen t to + A; e e
h nc ,

A) mu s b e t eq i l t t — A ; g i
u va en o a a n, — A) i s quivalen e t
22 T RE ATI S E ON A LG EB R A .

to — A ; hen c e , A) m u s b e t eq u iv al e n tt o A . Th eref re
o , we
d e r iv e thisg en er al in fe r e n ce

A dou ble sig n p laced b efor e an a lg eb r a ica l sym b o l, is equivalen t to the

p o sitive sig n , w hen the two a r e either b o th p ositive o r b o t neg

h a tive ; it is

equ iva len t to the neg a tive s ign , whe n on e of the two is p ositive an d the
o ther n ega tive .

B u t, su p p o se A to be a sy mb o l o f an o her t al g eb r aical ymb ol ; f

s or

ex am p le , a or — a., we w ill hav e

A
A a
) ,

an d , co n ti
n u in
g the sam e p r o ce ss, w e se e ha an y n umb of s ign s t t er
m ay ym b o l, b u t the sam e sign s may b e e asily
'

aflcc t an alg e b r aical s

r e d u ce d to a sin gl e o n e. When ,
f
or e x amp le, 6 isaf
fec ted b y a num
b er of sign s, as f
o ll o w s

— h
m ak e fi st r , b c, w e will have
— b =
m ak e again , a: d , w e will hav e
b ut — b — b ; hen ce , c =— b,
an d — c +6; hen ce , c =d ,

an d co n s eq u en tly ,
d — b
;
b ut d =+ —b
;
h e e nc ,
— b =— b,
an d e e
in g en r al, wh n the o r igin al n u mb r o f si gns con ain s an ven e t e
n u mb e r
o f n e g a ive o n e s,
the fi n al s t
ign i s always p o si iv ; an d when t e
the o r igin al n u mb er o fsign s co n ain s an o dd n t umb er o f n e ga tive ,
the

fi n al sign is alw ay sn ega i e In f ac , n o s tv

ign is chang d fo m p o si . t e r
t t e
ive in to n e ga iv an d vice ver sa, xcep b y the in fluen ce o fa p r ec edin g
, e t
n e g a iv t e
sign ; hen ce , the fi r s n e ga ive sig n d e r min s a n ga iv t t te e e t e
sign f o r the s e
ymb o l, the s con d chan g e si t in o p o si ive , the hir d in o t t t t
n eg a ti ve , &e .

The an al o gy t
b e ween the m u tual i e f sig swhe p pli d t
n flu en c o n n a e o

the sam e qu an i y, tt an d the in flu en ce f te m s ff te d b y d if

o r f t a ec e r en

sign sw hen m u ltip li ed tog th e er , ha s gi e t th fi

v n l sig i q sti
o e na n n ue on

the na me p r o du c o f sign s, a
of t lth gh this ou s lt is lt g the re u a o e r

di f
f ere t n f t t
r om ha o f m u l ip lica i on t t .

E xam p le san d
L et
§ 20 Qb ) ‘
_ _

+ m) 3 6) _
3 m) + f)
p m b le m s '

+ 2 m) b e t er ms to be add ed . In t his ex am p le ,
 O PE RAT I O N S O N MO N O M I AL S . 23

the simila r t er m s 2b + 3b d m ,
3m 2 m m ay
, ,
an , ,

b e re du ce d t o a le ss n u mb er b e cau se (9) 3 b 2b isev id en t ly

,

e u al t o b or b d m 2 m 3 m he ce m + 2 m — 3m
q an + ; ,
n
,

0 3 t here f ore the su m o f all the t er ms is given b y b + f

, ,

that is, — 2b + m 3b — 3m +f —2m = b +f .

L et n o ther tion
'

the ter m sgiven f

or a addi b e 1 6m) 12 e)
4r ) s) 12 m ) l 3 o) 3 s) r ) )
c m)
S e lec t firs t the si m ilar t erms an d ,
di spose the m as

ollows
f
1 6m 12 6 4r 3

1 2m 13 c r 33
m 7r 13s
S um 3m 0 4r 1 53
'

An d s ince the colle ct ion o f the sep ar tial s m s giv u es the t o tal
u m,
s we will have
1 6m + 120 — 4 r + s— 12 m — l 3o — 3 s+ r + c

—m
+ 7 r — 1 3 s: 3 m + 4 r — 15 3 .

Fro m these examples it isp lain , that the addition

o fs imp le

m o n o mials con sist s in a b are re d u ct ion o f similar t erm s an d ,

this re du ction is per for med b y t ak i g the sum of their co n

efl i cien ts when they a e af fec t e d with the sam e sign or b y

r
,

t ak i g the dif
n ere ce of the sam e coeflicients when affect e d
f n

w it h oppos it e s igns Le t u s n o w pro pose so me prob le ms t o b e

.

resolve d w ith simple addition of m o omials n .

T we lve div isio s o f sold iers contain ing e ac h n

,
Fi st p bl m
r ro e
2 so ldiers ar e in a cas tle whe n the e nemy co m
.

71. ,

m en cesthe attack 2 of t he se divisions t ak e t o flight d u rin g

the assault ; 4 i divisio n s pe r is h in the conflic t The as sailan t s .

gain the battle a d their general wit h 8 d iv is ions e ach con

,
n ,

tai ing m en en tersi t o the fo r t when it is s till o cc u p ie d by

n r ,
n
"

the d e f en d e r s .

We ask what isthe mo u n t x ofco mb atan tsin the for t re ss

a

af ter the en trance o f the v ic t orio u s general ?

This prob le m b e sides giv in g ano ther ex am ple o faddit ion
, ,
24 T RE AT IS E O N AL G E B RA .

gi ves also occasion t o exe m plify st ill m o re the relative signifi

c ation o f positive and negative t er m s T he qu an t ity here .

in qu ire d isa n u mb er o f m e con siderin g there fore as posin , ,

tive all that t en d t o add t o this n u m b er we mu s t cons ider as ,

negative all that t en d t o dimin ish the sam e n umb er b ein g ,

ev iden tly qu an t ities opposit e t o one anot her H ence the .

,

t erm s given b y the prob l e m will b e asfollows : ,

Twe lve divisions ofm en e ach con tain in g 2 11 soldiers give , ,

the ter m 12 2 a or ,
2 4 92 ,
.

T wo div isions of men le avin g the f o rt

give the te rm ,

2 2 n or . 4n , .

Fou r an d a halfdivisions lost in the b attle give the t erms , ,

4 2n , that is 8n — n n ; , ,
.

The general en t er in g in t o the c astle gives the t er m, I ,

.

An d the e ight divisions con tain in g e ac h r soldiers, give

the t er m, 8r H ence we have f o r the re u ir ed amo u n t
.
q ,

24 n — 4 n — 8n — n 1 + 813;
which gives a: 1177. 1 8r .

Lette rs u s ed re m ark t hat at aswell asg and

We m ay here , ,
f
or u n k n o wn

quan titi s z ean d so m e o f the o ther las t le tt ers of the alpha

.
,

b et are u s ually e mploye d to represen t the qu an tities to b e

,

f o u n d or generally u n k nown qu an ti ties

,
.

N m i l p
u Bu t t o ren der the case more d e t er mine d s u p
er ca a ,
p li ti s fth
ca on o e
p bl m
ro e pose n z 50 and r 80, we Will have from
.
:

If
,
ins t ead o fn 5 0 and r 80, we take at 80 and r 60,
then we have a: z 13 6 1 .

G m “ , aha, we cou ld resolve any n u mber of c ase s

A n d so
sub s tit u tin g o ther v alu es f
£ 5: by or r and n A nd .

ro m t his the le arner m ay apprec iat e the

general
“ “
N
f
c harac t er ofalgeb r aical q ues tio n s .

Four hu n t ers agree to m ee t t oge t her at the verge

r b lm 2
to
o fa ri ver af t er hu n ti ng The firs t ofthe m shoo t s
.

.
26 TR E ATI S E O N AL G E B RA .

se qu en tly since ,
or sin ce in
g) (g ) , the fi rs t case
b g, in the se co d we w ill have b n g t hat is,
g) g w hich ex ac tly correspon d s to
,
the d t i oc r ne
of s igns hence with b g we have
, ,

d a b 2 a. g;
an d with b g, we ha ve
d a b 1 a g .

I n the firs t c ase we ob t in the difference d b y adding to a a a ,

qu an tity opposite t o g ; i th secon d c ase the require d n e

difference is ob t ine d b y adding t o qu n tity O pposit e to

a a a a

g hence f ollows t his gener l r ule ,

a

or mg
Rule f The qu an tity b issu b tra cted fro m a, by add ing
“m m"
to a a qu a n tity op p o site to b .

Gen era, ex ,
Thu s, f
example
or ,
— /c is sub trac t ed fro m h,
b y s im ply writing
it

an d m iss ub t rac t e d f
ro m n by wr iting
n m .

These os t general examples of alge br aical sub

ar e the m
trac tion ofmono m ials We w ill soon propos e o ther examp les .

an d rbb lems in which the dif ference can b e e xpresse d by a

p ,

single t erm .

§ 2 2 Let s her e b s e th t whe th dif fere ce u o r ve , a n e n

C it i f
.

r e r on o
m g it d
a n — m is
u
p s
e iti e th »is s id to b gre ter tha m ;
n o v ,
en 1 a e a n

whe th s m e difn f e e is eg ti e the

a is s id to b e lessth
er n ce n a v , n n a an at.

e the ef r b e twe tw qu tities is the rit eri f

'

Th difi e er enc , r o e, en o an , c on o

their rel tive mag it d e ; d si e b y s b stit ti g fo

a n u y p ositive an nc u u n r n an

n umb er me i l l
or d fnu m y eg tive umb er o
r ca va u e , an or an n a n r

A y p siti
n me i l
o l
ve th dif f nu e isc t i ly lw ys p osi
r ca va u e , e ere n c er a n a a

gfzhg: m: ti e s it f ll ws th t y p siti e umb er o qu tity

‘ l "
v , o o o a an o v n r an
a
g tl
a ve r l ti ly sid red is g t th ll eg tive o es
e a ve con e re a e r an a n a n .

Ag i sub sti t ti g f
a n, d m g ti e
u m i l
n l es b t th
or n an ne a v nu er ca va u , u e

a b s l te v lu e f less th
o u a th b sl t o l e f m the dif
n f erence an e a o u e va u o ,

is likewi se
, lw ys p siti ; th
, fa th g a ter f two eg tive
o ve er e o r e , e r ea o n a

q ua tifi es n mb er s l tively
or sid e d t a cert i term isth t
nu ,
re a c on re o a n ,
a
 OPERATI O N S ON M O N O MI AL S . 27

‘
Tw d ame
which has a l ss n u m er ical e valu e . We m ay illu s trate
ta tirm of n u m e d t i e sfll ws b s i g fi rst th t m
the sam oc r n a o o : o er v n , a nu
b s
be s either sid ed st ms f mp riso o s
er '

r ar e co n er a er o co a n, r a

s ymb ols b y whi h m e isti g b j tsm y b

c one or desig ate d or ex n o ec a e n .

Wh w c sid er
en mb s
e d on this l st p i t f view th ly
nu er un er a o n o , e on

c ip her er whi h e l d s ll
z o, m i l sig ifi tic is d sig ifi e s
xc u e a nu er c a n ca on , an n

no thi g Whe we sid e mb s s t ms f mp riso er is

n . n co n r nu er a er o co a n, z o

a t m t whi h w m y ef ll th th s s t y mb er S
er o c e a r er a e o er a o an nu . o

it ise ide t th t t s y th
v n i ts b e e
a otw u itsb el w fi
a r ee u n a ov z r o , or o n o ve ,

conv eys th s me ep ti f th mb thr e N y th te m

e a con c on o e nu er e . a , e r

Th t m e isthe e t l t m b tw the sce di g series f

z ro c n ra er e e en a n n o

2m2;
e er z ero
“
p siti e d th d s di o
g se i s f eg tive
v , an m e e cen n r e o n a nu

w is h Thi s b ei g dmitted w b s rve m re ver th t

‘
u on er e. n a e o e o o a
, , ,

with eg r d to p sitive
r a m b e s ll gr th t th gre ter amo g them
o nu r , a a ee a e a n

is th t whi h is f the f m e
a c th t m b l w ll p s
ar itive
r mro z r o, e er e o a o nu

b e s; b t e o isi
r u eq l m z r b ll ng ti e an mb er s d ua ann er a o ve a ne a v nu , an

th m e b ve the m re th y i
e or a o se i b s l te
, lu e ; refrr i g
o e n cr ea n a o u va e n ,

therefre t the s me te m e
o , o g ti mb e s we i f
a er th t r ,
z r o, ne a ve nu r , n
“

a m g eg ti e
on mb e sr l ti ly
n a v sid e e d th se
nu e le ssth t ha e
r e a ve co n r e ar a v

a gre ter meri l v l e

a nu ca au .

E mp l s d
n § 2 3 Fro m 5 b sub t rac t 4 b
e an
.

m um we will h ve the dif

"
ference a

5b 4b b .

sub tract 5 b
Fro m 4 6
we w ill ob tain 46 5b
Fro m 5 6 sub tract — 4b
we will have 56 4b 96 2 .

Fr om 5 b s ub tr c t 4 b ; a

we will have 5b 4b
Fro m — 4b sub tr ac t 5 b ;
we will have —4 b 5b b .

Ten men p ull w ith rope a heavy s t one in a ,

a
,
l bl m 1
’ ro e
s traight line from A t o w rds B an d with a forc e
.

a
,

S even m ore m e n p ull the sam e s t one in an oppos it e

direc tion n am ely f ro m B to w rdsA w ith a force 7 n W hat
, ,
a ,
.

is the dif ference x o f the ac tion o f these t wo f orces ?

28 T RE A TI S E O N A L G EB RA .

A ns I t is plain that co n siderin g the action which m oves

.
,

the we ight t ow ards B as po sitive the oppo s it e ac tion m u s t b e ,

negative H en ce the two t erm sin qu es tio n ar e l On 7 s

.
,
'
.

N o w the secon d is to b e su b t ract e d f

ro m the first therefore , ,

a: z 7 11 z 1 77 1 .

N u m er ical ” S u pp o se a 10 po u n ds we ,
Wi ll ha ve
p licatio n s .

33 Z 17 0

S u ppose n 2 15 po u d s n
,
we w ill have

Fou r wo rk m en ou t each p ieces o f timb er and n

-

,
P bl m 2
‘
ro e
t hree b oys c u t e ach p ieces W hat is the dif er
.

f r .

ence b e tween the t wo nu m b ers ?

An s~ I) 4n 2 .

N m i l“
u e r ca
S uppose n 50 z 30 then
, , ,
p li catio ns .
x z 110 .

S u ppose n z 90, 4 0, then

a: 240 .

L e t u s ob serve that when we m erely in t en d t o

,

difference b e t ween t wo n umb ers f fec t e d b y the s am e a

on ly att en d t o the n u merical v lu e a .

“

ARTICLE II .

Mu ltip lica tion an d D i visio n .

§ 24 . u p a mo
MU LT IPLI CATI O N . TO m lti ly
-

no mial b y an ther m no a e ns o fin d a o o mial b, m a t

q u tity p w ho se n u m eri l v lu e is e qu al t o the
an , ca a

pro du c t o fthe n u m eric l v lu es o f d b The m onomi l

a a a an . a a

is t er m e d m u ltip li l b m u ltip lie a d b o th f t s The

ca n f , r
,
n
,
ac or .
 OP ERATI O N S ON M O N O MI AL S . 29

u n tity p is t erm e d p d u t
q a ro c
,
an d this pro duc t
isrepre sen t ed by the fc t ors i a n an
y o fthe fll o ow
i g m nners
n a

a . b, a X b, a b,

an d e ach one o ft hese expressions isre ad a m u ltiplie d b y b or ,

s im ply a b .

D efi i tio n o f
n 2 5 . The d efi n i ion an d de scr ip ion o fn u m er ical mul
a t t
n u me r i cal m ul
tip licatio n ti p li cati on i s f
.
r e q u en ly gi ven as f o ll o ws: Mul i p li ca t t
tio n is the addi ti on o f the t
mul ip lican d r ep te d ea as m an y tim e s as

th er e ar e u n i ts i n the mul ip li er t . This d efi ni ion t (when we m e r ely

c on sid e r the ab s t
olu e valu e o f the p r o du c ) is co r r ec so f ar a s thet t
m u ltip li er i sa w hol e nu mb er ; b u t when it b e co m e s a f r ac io n al o n e , t
th is, when the mu l ip lier
at t is a f r ac io n o f uni t
y or ven co n ain s t e t
so m e u ni s
, bu
t a f t
r actio n o f u ni y b e sid e s, the give n d e fi n i io n can t t
t
n o t hen b e r igo r o u sly ap p lie d A d e fi n i ion which co mp r ehen d s the . t
j
o b ec ti n itsf
u ll e x ten sio n , su p p o sin g, n am ely, the mu l ip lican d t A d an

the mu l ip lier t B
to b e an y two n u m b er s, is the fo llo win g : To u m ltip ly
A b y B, isto der ive fr om A thr o ug h a dd ition a n umb er in the s am e man ~
ner as, throug h the a ddition o f the same elemen t, the n umb er B is d er ived

fr o m p o sitive u n ity. Tha t i s, the o p er a ti on to which p o sitiv e un i ty

t
mu s b e su b mi t d in te
th gh ddi tio the mb B is
or d er to give r ou a n nu er ,

th s m
e a p tio t whi h A mu s
e o er a t b e s b m itt d t ob t in th p
n o c u e o a e ro

d t f the
uc o mb e sA d B N w B
nu p es tsa
r ti al mb
an . o ,
re r en ra on nu er ,

( ith wh le
e er f ti l) o a i
o or ti l or ac L t s ex mi
on a ,
r n rra on a n e. e u a ne

e h fth se ses a d we will hav a comp lete exp l atio ofth l st

ac o e ca ,
n e an n e a

d efi ition n.

C s a e f th o S p p os fi st B
e wh le ud p sitive mb e, Th r , a o an o nu er . e
t u
dditio ofuni ty p ted asm y tim s sthe
t g
l i ii m b x
simp l er
e a n re ea an e a re

an d p s iti o a uni ts i
ve B is th p r atio to b e m d ab o t ni ty
re n ,
e o e n a e u u

to d iv f m it B th u gh
er e ro d dition The mul tip li ti th
ro a . ca on , er e

f e fA b y B c sists in this c s i m aki g th

or , o ,
on d diti fA a e n n e a on o

t k
a sm y tim s as th
en a an e i ts i B which ac o d s x ctly
e er e ar un n , c r e a

with the fi st d fi iti F m thiswe d erive sequ e e

“

r e n on . ro a con nc co n cer n

i g the sig which af

n f tsthe p o du ct ; a co seq e e p p li cab le ls
n ec r n u nc a a o

to the c sest b co sid ed h

a o af t e n er er e er .

C sq o n e u en ce Si p sitive u ity t k e sit is f

n ce o m sb y ep
o t ed n , a n a ,
r r ea

th p sitive m ultip li
”
ddi ti B so A t k
N a m i g th n e
a on eas i t is o er a en
sig n ofth p e ro , ,

d t
uc
gi d r p t d ly d d d to itself giv s the p o d u ct
ven , an e ea e a e , e r
3a
30 r n sxr i sn ON A L G E B RA .

of A b y B He ce it follows th t whe A lso is p ositive the p r o

. n ,
a n a ,

d u ct i s p o sitive B u t whe the multip lie A is giv .

g tive an d B n r en n e a ,

is still p o sitive the th p du ct b in g su m f e g tiv t ms is

, n e ro ,
e a o n a e er ,

n ece ssa ily egative rS u p p o se w B a whole egative u mb e then

n . no ,
n n r,

B t b e imm e di t ely o b tai ed f om p o s itiv u ity b u t w mu st

’
cann o a n r e n , e

T h m ltip li
e fi st ch ge its sign
u er
B t acco din g to the d efi i ti n
r an . u r n o ,

ne ag ti to ob tai the p r o d u ct f A b y B we o u ght to o p at e

ve
n o , er

ab u t A o s ab o t p o sitive unity t
a b t ain B S o i the c se of B
u o o . n a

n eg tiv the sign ofthe multip lic d A isto b e ch ged ; then ob se v

a e, an an r

i g ho w m a y u i ts a e in B add A t itself s in the p recedi g

n n n r ,
o , a n

c s b t wi th the s
a e, ign ch g ed which co s qu e tly is the sign of
u an , ,
n e n ,

the p o du ct Th
r f o e wh B is gative a d A also egative the
. er e r ,
en ne ,
n n ,

p du t isp o sitiv ; wh
ro c B is gativ b u t A p o sitiv the p du t
e en ne e e, ro c

the is g tive H ce th k ow ule like sig s giv p ositiv

n ne a . en ,
e n n r , n e a e

p o d ct ;
r lik sig s
u
gati un e n , ne ve .

C s f th
a e Wh B isa factio al
O e mb er h vi g f ex mp l en r n nu , a n , or a e, i t
m lt p l
.

f
or d e om th s c se
u i i er rac
ti lona fo
. ts um t d m f
'

t r i n er a o r , an n in a or , i n i a ,

t o b t in B f m u ity w e m u st tak e fi st
o a ro m‘ p a t of ityn d , , r ,
one
h
r un an

a d d it tim s t its lf b c u se i this way o ly th u gh th ddi

n e o e ,
e a n n , ro e a

ti o fthe s
on am el m t we c d i e B fom ity Op ti g owe e en , an er v r un . er a n n

u p on A i like m a e n nn r, e fi st R whi h ep es ts th
we wi ll hav r c r r en e

in
“
p ar t ofA ; taki g the n tim sthiseleme t whi h ise p essed b y
n n e n , c x r

A
p lacin g the co ef
fi cin t n b ef e w will h ve th p r d t
or s e a e o uc n co rr e
f
i i r
’ ,

p ondin g to the f
ac torsA ,
2
—
7
.

s
Ca e of th e
i r r ati on a l f
will dwell o
In o n e o f the f
oll o win g p a r gra ap hswe n

to rs .
ac
rr t l mb ers F th p ese t t s e gh to
i a i on a nu . or e r n i i n ou

o b se ve th t they
r t b e p ssed like r ti l mb ers lth ugh
a can n o e x re a on a nu , a o

w m y e ei e seri s f ti ls ti lly and i d fi it ly

a con c v a e o ra on a , con nu a n e n e

a pp hi g t
r o ac yi ti l He n whe eve
o an i ti l mb er rr a on a . n ce , n r an rra on a n u

is t b o sd f y p p se w m ust e ss ily m k e s f a
e u e or an ur o , e n ce ar a u e o

r ati l e it The ef e i th se fi r ti l mb e s the

on a n ar . r or , n e ca o r a on a nu r ,

m l tip li ti
u will b p erf rmed wi th r ti
ca on l mb r s a d c s e o a on a nu e , n , on e

q e tly th f eg i g em k s
u n , ep p li b le t this s ls
or o n r ar ar e a ca o ca e a o.

Ai thm ti l
r
§ 26 Consider in g the n u m er ic al v alu e an d
e ca .

l s p p li b l
ru e a ca e
t q
I o titi s
n an S i gn o f qua n t i ti es
e . i t i s p lai n that the s ame ,

a r ithm e t ic al r u les ar e t o b e followe d wit h re gard t o qu an tities

 O PE RATI O N S ON M O N O M IA L S . 31

f
or that w hich con cerns or an d sign of the produ c t the f m .

The r ule of signs m ay b e der ive d in d ee d f ro m the de fin ition .

Bu t since all agree in adm itt in g that a m ultip lie d b 6

y , ,

gives a po sit ive pro d u c t we may in f er the sam e r ule as fol

,

lows
The fac t ors are m u t u all in flu ence d in e ffec ti g
M at l i flm
ua n y n

the pro du c t an d t his in flu ence is t wof old : the one

em "
,

n u merical or ofm agn itu de the o ther o fsign S u ppose now

,
.
, ,

the n u m er ical v alu e o f the f act ors + b t o re mai n u a, n

v arie d an d chan ge the s ign o f e ither o f t he m ; this c han ge

,

m u st ne ce ss r ily af
fec t the pro duct p a d this cann o t b e
a
,
n

d o ne excep t b y the chan ge o f the s ign o f the sam e pr o d u c t ,

a d s
n o ad m itt in g

l
‘
a X l b
“ "
2
+ 17 ;
We m us t ad m it, als o ,
the tw o o llo wing e q u at ions
f
a X b —
p ;
10 a x b
Ta ke
n e er
a ai
g ee
it h o f t h s two q at io n s, for i e u nst ance the ,

n e s n
last, an d cha g the ig o f I) ; t hi w ill agai s n pro du ce an
e u v en c n e pro u
q i al t ha g in the d ct , an d we ill ha w ve
a x b p .

Tre atin g u p c ation o fpolyno mi ls we will me

ofthe m lti li a , co

t o the s m e conse qu ence by ano ther process m e nw hile we

a a

er the general r ule

m ay in f .

R l fsig s
u e o n .
f The sig n
the p r o d u ct i sp o si ti ve when bo th
o

fa ctor s a r e afi ected with the sa m e sign : i t isn eg a

ti ve when the f a cto r s a r e afi ected w ith op p o si te sig n s .

I n the prac tical app lication of this r ule we u sually say,

plu s b y plu s or min u s b y min u s give plu s ; p lu s b y min u s
, , ,

or m in u s by plu s give m in us ,
.

V i sf m s
ar o u § 2 7 Thu s far we have con sid ere d the fac t ors
or
.

m
fil ifig fi in their m os t gener al accep tatio n an d only t wo
m e
.
,

B ut the n u m eric al valu e w hic h is the one tak en ,

in t o acco u n t specifi es in so m e m e as u re the quan tit ies b ec au s e

, ,
32 T RE ATI S E o n AL G E B RA.

this valu e whole or fr ac tion al hen ce fo u r c ases can

is e ither ,

tak e p lace w it h re ard to the f ac t ors a an d b We m ay firs t

g .

su ppose the n u mer ical valu es of b o th of t he m t o b e who le

n u mb e rs ; se con dly b o th frac tional ; t hirdly the n u mer ical
, ,

valu e of the m ultiplic an d a w hole n u mb er an d that of the ,

m ult ip lier f ractional and we m ay fi n ally s u ppose the mu lti

,

plier a whole n u mb er an d the m ultip lic an d frac tion al ,

.

The s t u den t b e in g fmiliar w ith the n u m er ic al operat ions it

a ,

is no t necess ary here t o d we ll u pon t he m : it w ill b e profit able ,

however t o p lace b e f ,
ore hise yes the general form ulas ofthose
w hich concern o u r presen t q u es tio le av in g if necess ary t o n, , ,

the t e acher the care o f m ak i

g n u mer ic al s u b stitu tions n .

G l f
en era S u ppose mor I h t o represen t w ho le n u m ,
n
,
t,
m l f
u as o nu
m i l m l ti h n
b ers an d r c ti on al ones Wi t h the m we may
e r ca u
p u ti aa on , f ,
a .

m 0

represen t the ab ove m en tione d cases an d callin g p the pro

“

d u c t o f m b y n we w ill have ,

m n
p
h n
an d '

lc m
f
,

h
and d n
lz

an d k
m

Fro m these for mulas we will soon derive a g eneral and u se

ful conse u ence
q .

H w th
o ith a2 8 L t s b se ve me while th t th rithmeti l
e ar
. e u o r , an ,
a e a ca

m ti fl l s f ul es e e ssed b y th (f) cannot b rb it ry d if

e
f f c u q
p
o r x r e e a ra , an
m lt p l t
u i i ca io n
f ll
o
w f m th
o ro ght they m ust e ess ly fll w f
e ri , r m the defi t f n c ar i o o o ni i on o
d fi mm
multip li ti se f f r ti l
e n
E mi i g (25 ) th
'

ca on . xa n n e ca o a ac ona

m l tip li er w h e t
u ,
hed thi s s bj e t whi h w will d evel p he e
e av ou c u c , c e o r .

h
A d fi st s p p se
n , r
I;
,
t b
u th m l tip l c d
o d
go th m lt p he e u i an ,
an e u i er ,

whi h i di te s th t th
c n ca p t f ity h s b ee t ke m tim es
a e n
th
ar o un a n a n .

h
He e t nc , b t i th p d t f b y
o o a n
k 2 r
e di g t the d efi iti
ro uc o , acco n o n on
 a m ne s
“

34 r snar i sn o n i a.

m echan ical r tifice Ran ge o n a hor iz on tal line a r w o f in

a .
o .

C s f th
a e d o t s an d f
o ro m e ch do t draw a ver tic l li e ;
e a a n
mt wh l
e e r s: o e
,

nu mb s erran ge agai n on e ach o n e o fthese ve r ti c ls d t s

. a n o
,

co mm encing w ith t h t already m ark e d on the hor iz on tal line

a .

I n this m anner we have m d o ts repeat e d n times an d conse ,

qu en tly the w hole n u mb er of d o ts is the pro du c t of m b y n.

B ut s in ce o n e ach ver tic al li ne there ar e n dots an d t he se

, ,

lines ar e m in n umb er we have also at do t s repe ate d m ,

times ; that is the produ c t ofn b y m given b y the sam e n um

,

b er ofd o t s hence we m ay always write ,

m n n m .

Other m es,
Theref
ore we m ay writ e so a
al h k n , an d
n h n
m k k m, an d conse qu en tly . .

,
rom the
b ut f
m 0 k k m
n
-
h h b un h 71.
secon d we have
.

of
( f) , m . lo a m , k
'

m ’

therefore ,

R eason ing in the same manner, we de du ce fro m the re main

ing form ulas (f) that
h h
k lo
G en eral in f o Whate ver he, theref
ore , the n u merical valu e of
t o n es for alge
b r aical fa cto r s . the al
ge b rai cal t erm s a and b, we generally i nfer
that a b b a.

t
s am e in ference may b e applie d to
§ 30 . The
“a 35332: an n umb er o f al eb r ai cal t erms a b c d e
0

ofw
; s th
in g y
1
e g , , , ,

f qu an tities
fi f
o ser e fir sli ha ifan n uinb ei
a fi g fi ; havi g afia wll o1te n ut meri cy q
, ,

t s w
or di e g
l value ri n g the same ,

P s¢° °
produ c t what ever he the order in which they are
tak en ; any n u mb er ofalgeb raical quan tities w ill b rin g the
sam e pro d uc t also when the ir n u m erical v alu es ar e frac tion al or
p ar tly fr action al and p ar tly whole n umb ers what ever b e the
, ,

orde r in which t hey are t ak e since the operation is alw ays n

,
 OPERATI ON S ON M O N O M I AL S . 35

per fo rme d u po the who le n u mb e rs ofn u mer t o rs an d den o m i

n a

n ato s r I t is en o ugh there fo re t o d e mo nstrat e here t hat

.
, , ,

whatsoever b e the or d er in w hi h w hole n u mb ers or qu t it ies c , an

hav in g who le n u m er ical v alu es ar e t ak en t he ir pro du c t will b e , ,

alwa s the s
y am e L e t t hree s u ch qu an t itiesb e . a,
Th f t s ac or
To m u lt ip ly b y b is t o t ak e a as m an y
ree .

b c ,
. a ,
,

t imes as t here ar e u it sin the n u m eric al v alu e of b ; t hat is

n ,

a a a Again to mu ltip ly this p rodu c t b y is

a ,
c

t o add the w hole s er ies oft erm s a a a a repe at e d as ,

m n y tim es asthere ar e u n it s i c
a N O W 1) t er ms repe at e d c n .
,

t imes give a n u mb er o f t he m e qu al t o the produ c t 6 c.

To m ultiply there f ore the pro du ct a b b y or b y the

, ,
. c
,
a

pro du ct b gives the sam e result ; hen ce ge er ally

. c
, ,
n
,

b X c z a Xb c 3
an d si nce a b 2 b a, b c zc . b , so we will h ve also a
,

an d, in li ke m an ner ,

a . c > <b
an d so on . S o that we m ay eviden tly in fer that three fact ors
m ultip lie d in an y or d er what soever
give cons tan tly the s ame ,

pro duc t .

Add ne w a no ther fac t or ,

an d ma ke
actor s
Four f .

a, b c d P .

The fi rs t three may b e chan ged at ple asur e an d the factor ,

d w ill always m ultip ly the s ame qu an tity b ut callin g p the

p ar tial pro duc t ofthe firs t two fac t ors the sam e pr o du c t P can ,

b e rep resen t e d also by p c d or by p d t hat is resolving

. .
,
. . c
,

a ai n 0 in t o itsf act ors

g 1 ,

a b d . c 2 P .

B u t again , what ever b e the order in which a b d are tak en , , ,

the ir p ro du ct will re m ain u nvarie d ; the f act o r d t here f

o re , ,

which wasthe last can b eco m e the third the second an d the
, , ,

fi r st w hile the o ther t hree f

,
ac t ors m ay b e arran ge d f rom the
b egin in g in any m a n er w hatso ever ; b u t t his eviden tly e m
n n
36 m nxr i sn O N ALGEB RA .

b ra ce s all possib le cases o fc omb in t io ns o fthe fo ur fac

the a

tors ; there fore the produ c t P m ade b y fo u r fac t ors w ill b e

,

alWa s the s am e whatever mi ht b e the or der in w hic h the

y , g
f a ct ors a e t ak en r W e may re s o n in the s am e ma ner when
. a n

the f a c t ors b ecom e fi ve b e cau s e the firs t fo ur may b e changed

,

a t p le as u re ; considering then the firs t thre e as a single t er m .

,

the p lace of the f o u r th may be chan ge d w ith that o f the fifth ,

w hic h t oge ther with the three precee ding will always give the
, ,

sam e pro du c t what ever b e the m anner in which it is

,

co mbine d with the o thers ; the same consequ ence therefore , ,

can b e in f erre d with regar d to five as with regar d t o four

f ac t ors an d the s ame w ith re ar d t o s ix w ith re gar d to seven
, g , ,

an d
gene rally w it h re gard t o any n u mb er n off ac tors .

Sis t b gi
n o e
§ 3 1 I t r emains now f
ven . or u s t o see w hat isthe
t th p d
o e ro t f uc o
severa l tiw t
o s S i gn to b e gi ven t o the prod u c t
r . w hen several ,

t er ms a e m ultip lied The fac tors are either all positive or all
r .

negative or p ar tly p ositive and p artly negative ; in the first

,

case the produ c t is eviden tly positive ; in the

Three m s e
second it is positive lik ewise ifthe n umb er of
.

t er ms iseven b ecau se the firs t fac t or with the se con d mak e a

,

positive pro du c t w hic h the third chan ges in t o an other negative

, ,

a n d this with the f

,
o u rt h f act or m ak es again ano ther pro du c t
,

positive ; and so on Ifthe negative fac t ors are three their

.
,

p ro du c t is negat ive ; iff ou r positive ; iffive n egative ; and

, ,

hence g ener ally w hen all the f

, ,
ac tors ar e ne ative t heir pro
g ,
»

d u c t is positive when the ir n umb er iseven ; their pro duc t is

,

negative when their n umb er isodd The same ist o b e said

,
.

when on ly a portio n ofthe fac t ors is negative ; that is when ,

the n u mb er o f these f ac to rsise ve n the t o tal pr o du c t is po s

,
i -

tive ; when the n umb er ofnegative facto rs is odd the to tal ,

pro du c t is negative I n fac t the firs t n egative fac tor after

.
,

so me positive fac t or s mak es the whole produ c t negative and if ,

o ther positive fac tors occ u r the succ essive produ c tswill remain,

s till ne gative ; but when ano ther negative facto r occu rs then ,
 OPERATI O N S ON MO N O MI AL S . 37

the produ c t b eco mes posit ive d su ch will re main u n til the ,
an

thir d ne gative fac t or co mes; and therefore the following ,

r ule w ill d e t er mine the sign to b e give n t o the t o t al pro du c t

in all c ases

Rule
The sign is n eg a tive whenever the n um ber f
o

fa ctor s i s o dd
.

o the r w i s as a lways
ne
g a tw e e, at

§ 3 2 When
e en t fac t ors are given it m ay
. dif
fr ,

o cc u r that so me ofthe f ac t ors are repe at e d : in this

c ase ins te ad ofwriting fo r example a a a we wr ite a s; we

, , ,
. .
,

Write n am ely a only once an d ab ove it the n u mb er o f t im es

, ,
.
,

the s am e qu an t ity is t ak en as a f a c t or an d this n u mb er is ,

calle d exp o nent O f su ch exponen tial qu an tities .

,
E p
x o nen t
a d o f t he ir re ductio n we will spe ak more fully in
.

n
,

itsprope r pl ce in the nex t ar ticle ; however we canno t o m it

a
,

her e add ing a f e w r e mark s c o nce rn in g this s ubj ec t in as mu ch ,

as it is c o nnec t e d with s imp le m u lt ip lic ation An d fi rst if

“

.
,

t wo or m ore exponen tial quant it ies for ex ample 6 and b are , ,

5 ‘

t o b e m ultiplie d t oge ther t heir pro du ct will b e repre sen t ed ,

either b y bfl b or by since the s ignification of these ex

“
,

p ressions is the sam e that is the s u m 9 o fthe p ar tial expo

, ,

n eu t s 5 4 s ign ifies that b is t ak en as a f ac to r n ine tim es in

, ,

b o th c ses a Theref ore in c ases similar t o this it is enough

.
, ,

t o writ e on ce the qu an tity and give t o it for exp onent the sum ,
'

o f the p ar tial exponen t s Vic ver sa Si nce the n u m b er 9 . e

,

is e qu al to the s um Of 5 an d 4 or 6 an d 3 850 We may , ,

.
,

fo r the s am e r eason writ e 69 I b” b an d

f 3
“

2 .
,

this also can b e evide n tly applie d t o all similar cases .

Ob serve also that since the order in w hich the f

, , ac t ors ar e

tak en does no t change the produ c t the pro du c ts b ,

an d a b . b are e qu al t o one ano ther

. a . N ow .
,

an d a b a b
(ab) t herefore (a b) and for the
2 9
.
, ,

sam e reason ifany n umb er offact ors havin g the sam e ex ~

,

ponen t ar e t o b e multip lie d t gether we may writ e o nce the

p ,
38 m m r rsn ON AL G EB RA.

pro d u c t O f the simple qu an tities an d app ly t o this product ,

the c o m m o expo e t ; for in st ance the pro d u c t a b c° is

n n n ,
5
.
5
.

e quivalen t t o
E X A M PLE S .

E xamp lesan d
§ 33 . Given f
ac t ors . Pro du c t .

p ro b le m s .

3a , m m , l(ug, r
1
7, a
gr m n .

1 6m , 1271, $ 6, $ 0,
gd/ ; 5h,
—
5k m n b cg dfli k .

4 a h, — 2b c“, ma d , ds .

7 a b c, 3 a b cd 9,
a b cd e
s bcd ef"
i , g a .

a bc d e ,

a bc, a b, b4 c3 cl9e
5
a a .

(6 ) b cs, cd ,
“ —
gf
s 5
.

Q7 ) b a, c
a — 2
a
.
y ,

4 a d’ l
Tg
ad
( b cd
a
) ( )
3
a ha
?
.
(a b) . a.

4 a s, 5 a gb , —
8a b”, 2 63 . 3 2 0(a b ) 6 .

a
fi
b, -
ah ,
°
c, d,
cd , a bcd , dc .
(a bcd fi
4am — 1 660, +3 71 ,
9

+ gbrj ;
—
b cd

A g eneral
or der to exercise hisso ldiers ran ges
,
in ,
P bl m
ro e
the m o n a fi eld b e fore the cas tle an d divides the
.

whole army in t wo sec tions frontin g e ac h other the one u n der ,

the walls o f the c astle the o ther oppos it e to it D u rin g the

,
.

exercise the gener al rides u p and d own b e tween the opp osite
r an k s an d when the exerc ise comm ences he r ides havin g the
, ,

cas tle at hisright han d an d he goes tim es u p in this ma ,

at n

ner an d re tu rns n tim es t o hisfor m er s t ation E ach t ime the

, .

g e er al r id e sf
n rom hisfirs t pos ition t o the seco n d 9 rank s of1: ,

m en p as s f rom the le ft t o the r ight han d ofthe general and ,

r

ran k s e ach con taining p m en pass fro m the r ight to the left
, ,

han d W hen the general re t urns t o his fo r mer s tat ion e ac h

.
,
 OPERATI ON S ON M ONO M I ALS . 39

time f r an k s of8 p ass fro m his left t o hisright han d

m en ,

and
g r an k s of 1 men p ass f rom hisright t o hisleft .

We ask, firs t how m any ran k s an d how man y men go

, ,

to war ds the c as tle : again how m an y r an k s an d m en marc h

,

o ver t o the o ther div isions fro m the c as tle durin g the n times
that the general goes from hisfirs t s t ation t o the oppos it e side
o f the fi e ld ?

A ns R ank s n g
p assing on the castle side
. . .

goin g f
rom the cas tle .

Men
2d . ran k s an d m en go t o an d from the c as tle
H ow man y
the n tim es the gener al re t u rns t o hisf o r m er s t at ion ?

Ans Rank s n q
. .

o in
.

t o the c as tle
g g .

o
g in g f m the ro c as tle .

3d . Ho w many ran k s an d m en go t owards the cas tle and ,

how man y go ro m the cas tle dur in g the w hole military

f
exerc ise
A ns . Ran k s . . n
g n
g n to the cas tle
go i g
Men
.

n
gt
nf o n ro c as tle
g i g f m the .

f
n s

4 th . W hat is the dif

ference b e tween the n umb er of the

rank s and men passing to the castle side and that , of the
ran k s an d m en p assing t o the opposit e sid e ?
An s .
(ng n
g) (n r n f) .

gt) nfi )
(ng v n
(mp .

O r, if(ng -
n ) an d ng v
g ( n
gt) ar e ess n u mb ers
the l ,

n
f) (ng n
g) .

Men (u rp nfs) (ngv n

gt) .

Ob serve that, if we consider the p assin g from the

le f
t t o the right han d ofthe general as positive we ,
40 r anan sn O N AL Ga A
.

mu s t on sider as negative the pas sin g from the r ight t o the

c

le f B u t ref
t. errin g the movem e t o fthe r an k s t o the cas tle, n

t hen when the going t owards it is cons idere d asp os itive the ,

go ing f rom the castle must b e c o nsid ered asnegative A gain .

,

con sidering as positive the going o fthe general fro m hisfor

m er s tatio n to the opposit e e d o f the fi e ld we o ught to con n
,

sid er as negative his re tu r ing to the same s tation Tak ing n .

now the m ove men t s of the ar my firs t with re ference to the

castle an d then with re gar d t o the general and followin g the
, ,

r ules o fs ign s we w ill find in b o th c ses the same resolu tion o f

,
a

the pro b le m .

A s te amb oat t rave ls at the rate o f71 m iles per .

P bl m 2
ro e
ho u r How m any m iles do es the s t eamb oat r un over
.

in m days t ravelling 16 ho u rs a day ?

,

A ns . a: 16 m z n . .

S u ppose n 1 5 m 12 then , ,

a: 2 880 .

S u ppose n 1 0, m 20,
a: 32 00, &c .

§ 34 D I VI SIO N TO d ivide qu an ti ty a by
. .
— a
Defi n itio n.
ano ther qu an tity 6 me ans t o ,
find o u t s u ch a qu an tity

9, w hich, ifm u lt iplie d b y I) o ught topro duc t ; a , give a f

or

is c alle d d ivid end ; b diviso an d

g quo ti en t ,Fro m the r,
, .

given de fin ition it f ollows that when the dividen d isgiven this , ,

is cons id ere d as the pro du c t o ft wo f ac t ors one o f w hic h is ,

the divisor an d the obj ec t of the div ision is t o fin d o u t the

,

o ther fa c t or .

Alg b i l
e ra a The O perat ion o fdiv ision isdesign at e d asf o llows
p ss
ex re i s f on o
di isi
v on .
2 or a b , ,
6
an d e ach o f these express ions is read a divide d b
ya .

The ru le Ofs igns f o r divis ion mu s t nece s sar ily

R l
u e o fs ig s n
b e the s ame as that f or mu ltip lic ation S u ppose
.

.
,

in f ac t firs t a an d 6 b o th positive s ince the

, qu o tien t g multi ,
42 r a sar rsn ON AL GE B RA .

o ur
b races f cases correspon ding t o those already cons id ere d
o r m ultip licat ion an d whic h we w ill represen t here wi th
(2 7 f) f
’

correspon din g formulas an d accordin g t o arithme tic al r ule s :

,
m
m zn

n
'

m m h .

These rules for divis ion ar e fo u n de d in the de fin ition I n .

ac t if we mu ltip l
f , y the q u o t ien t or the secon d me mb er of
e ach one of the precedin g e qu ations by the corresponding
d ivisor the pro du c t w ill re sult e qu al t o the divid en d
, .

m m . n n

n n

n Jc h n . lc h . n . /c h . n kh n

7 1.
'
’
m h k
. m h h
. . m h h
. . m 1 m
m h h . m h h
. . hh
° '

h k hJc 7c h.

n u . h n h n
h “ '

m h . m h . m h m
n u me rical values of e ach elemen t ofa
§ 36 . The
compou nd monomial so me t im es are given separat ely .

I n t his c ase the u ltimate re du c tion f or m u lt ip li

c ation an d div is ion involves som e co m p lic at ion L e t u s here .

e xamine the c ase o f m onomials hav ing the f raction al form , ,

é
C
a n d s u ppose an d to b e s u ch m onomials R epresen ting b y
;
.

m n p r s t
, , , ,
v w hole n u mb ers let the n u me r ical v alu e
, ,
u
, ,

g
0

o fa b e represen t e d b y an d that of b b y that ofc b y ,

2 that commence w as
0

an d o fd b y An d to
5
.
,
 OP RE ATI O N S ON M O N O M I AL S . 43

the c ase Ofm ultiplic ation ,

let
5 b e the multiplic an d, and

the mul tip lier N ow .

,

Wim p m . r
’
n r n .
p

a c m r sv
There f
ore, b d n
p tu
m r sv m sr v ms p u m s1
3
. u
.
. a . c b d
.

n tu n ip u nt rv n t r v
p
a c a
consequ en tly
c

,
bd ’
'

b d

Th e p ro d uct n u merical v alu e Of e ach ele

What ever b e the
htai d an d
men t a b c d Of the f
85 rac ti onal exp ressmns or
, , , ,
h l
fifixfilé g algeb r ai cal fact ors
r a v ,
.

L e t u s now com e t o the case ofdivision and let 2 b e the ,

b
c
di vi den d,
C O

an d the d i
O

visor we
I

ha ve as ab ove
d , , ,

a m . r c sv .

0ase o fdivision .
’
b n
p
. d t . u

a c m r sv m r tu
therefore
. . .

,
b d n .
p t u
. n
p sv
m r tu m ur t mu p 9 m u s
.
0
£ o
—
a o d:b c c
n
p sv nv
ps nu r t n v r t
The q u o ti en t a c ad
i sob tain ed an d h ence _

exp r e ssad asf or b d be

Who le
b er s . p le n um eri c
f
as or Si m
0

vi si on whatever o

al di
o o O

num ri al e c valu es of each elemen t ofthe monomials

44 TREAT I S E O N AL G EB RA .

Red u ction of ere add so me re mark s con

§ 3 7 We . m u st h
:iiiilii fll
x r ocern ing the re d u c tion of the quo tien t and in
-
n.
,

general the red u c tion ofthe res ult ofany o ther operation t o a
simpler for m And first any q uan tity or n u mb er multip lied
.
,

b y u n ity gives a pro du c t e q u al to it se lf; f

,
or ins t ance a X 1 ,

a . Secondly any qu an t ity divide d by it self gives a quo

, ,

tien t e qu al t o u n ity B ecause the q u o ti en t f

. or ex amp le of , , ,

a mus t b e s u ch tha t m u lti p lie d b y a it ives a whic h is

a , g ,

none e lse exce p t u nity ; hence it follows that , ,

a C a c
and, consequ en tly , sm ce _

,
b c b c

b a o
. a
g .

c b c b c

a c a a b
we ve a1so
.

Wi ll ha , ’
b . c b c c

a
That is
, a
qua n tity ha ving the fr a ction a l
fo r m b
rema in s u n chang ed, m u ltip lying or divid ing the n umer a tor
an d den omina to r b
y a ny o ther qu antity .

Red uctio n to H ence, an

y n um b er of s u ch al
geb raical qu an
o me d eno
th e s
titiesg
'
m inato r
) re du ce d t o the
) may b e easily
b d f
)

same denominato r like n u mb ers ; m ultiplyin g n amely the , ,

n u merat or and denominator Of each by the pro du c t Ofall the

o ther denominators SO the ab ove quan tit ies witho ut b eing
.
,

chan ge d, can b e expressed asfollows

a . d .
f c. b f
. e. b d .

havin g all the same den o minat or .

ad di
u bl t
on d
na We may here ob serve also t hat t o Ob tain the
e o
an
,

s b t ti
u rac sum or di f
on. ference ofalgeb rai cal qu anti ti es hav mg
a f rac tional form and the same d enominat or it is enough t o ,
 O P ERAT I O N S ON M O N O M I AL S . 45 .

ta k e the sum or difference Oftl e n umerat rs and divide it by

i o

a C l
the co mmon d eno mi n at or H ence f th qu an t t es ar e i e i i
g d
.
, ,

t o b e a dde d or sub tract e d from one ano ther we may firs t t e ,

22
a
d o es t he m to the same d eno m in t or tak in g for an d a , ’
b
c. b
an d in the case ofaddi tion we will have
d b
a 0 ad c b ad b
c
"

b d .
351
1 bd bd
in the c ase ofs ub t rac tion ,

a 0 ad cb a d c b
b d n bd
e xac tly as for n umb ers .

sm d
p gif
gfil 38 Given
e
. .

ab m,

a bcm m,
a
fi
bc a b,

h as b e ,

mn
gg
i ,

if
”

3
t
m 47323 i s
so
(9 g=
f rs
-

mob

sm‘
(1 L ) g
46 TR E AT I S E ON A L G E B R A.

Q 4r 3 a 3 sr 1 691 °f99
~
I

( 1a ) 3 § 4 9 511 5 “
.

fq 4 m gs
bd r 265 d4 r9
.

4r n
‘3
fl
li b l ‘f “
) m g a "

3 b’ r m d ss” 9b3 cqr ‘

( 14 ) .

7fdc qs 2 1r b q s "’
fd ‘“
‘
2 "
c s

7 m9bs 2 1f9r “g s b 3m‘

(15 2 7b3 m ” fl i
‘
g
’
s’

A cer tain n u mb er
tak en n t imes o f b alls is
P bl m 1
ro e
ro m an u rn At t he en d, the am ou n t ofthe b alls
.

f .

e x t rac t e d is fo u n d t o b e m H ow many b alls where t ak en

.

e ach t ime ?

S u ppose m 5 0, n 1 0,
then a: z : 5 .

S u ppose m 56 , n 8,
then a: 7, &c .

Three m essengers once the same A ,

B, C le ave at
P bl m 2
ro e
t own A arrives at a distance ofn miles B at a
.

.
,

dis tance ofr miles an d C at a dis tance of sm iles at the end

, ,

o fthe s am e n u mb er g ofdays t ravellin g ea ch one o f t hem an

,

equ al n u mb er o fmiles every d ay H o w m any mile s did A .

t ravel e ac h day ? how many B ? how many 0

n
A t ravelle d a: m iles .

S uppose g an d n z 4 50,
m 63 0,
s2 4 2 0,
’
x : 42 , c
c
" —
28
.
 OPE RATI O N S ON M O N O M IA L S . 47

Acce n ts W hen symb ols are u se d t o represen t s imilar

or
d h
as e s: h i t e r
m i g
ean n or an alo gou s qu titie s ins tead ofcha gi g the an
,
n n

symb o l we mak e u se som e t im es o fthe same symb ol wit h o ne

,

or m ore accen t s ab ove it as in the prece ding examp le and , ,

s u c h symb ols are re ad a: p r im e a: second &c , ,

.

ARTICLE III .

Fo r m a tion o fPo we r san d E xtr a ctio n fq

o ts.

Wh at a ce rL e t m b e a w ho le u m b er
§ 39 PO WEn s—. . n

q ty i s
uan ti d n
y lgeb r i q u n tity
. an To r ise a a t o the a a c a . a a

power m to f orm the m p wer f m e ns to m ultiply

,
or
“1
o O a, a a

R t oo b y itselfm tim es
, exp o In this operation is te r m ed . a
n ent g de r ee ,
t or d g e or i d x
,

Pw o er o t m the x
p ro ,
th e on en e re , n e e

p w o
( w hi h
er ,m a
y b e calle d p) is expresse
c d b y
”
d t his a ,
an

expressio isr ead to the m ” p wer or sim p ly t m The

n a
h
o ,
a o .

Oper t i n is the s am e asf

a oo n u mb e r s r .

F m tior f Q40 N m e i l l ti s
a on o
i ll s s p p li b l
. u r ca re a on ar e n a ca e a ca e

Rw o mm
e rs.
0 t q u ti ties si s w h ve fe q
“ o tly b s e d
an , n ce , a e a r u en o er v ,
ll ss ca e
whe ever lg b t t es
ci ng a
of m nu l q
e r i cal sb n tt d t y a e r ai ca u an i i ar e u nn e o an

aii i h lih Op er ti their m i l v l ist ke

l ts i l
i
m p is
a
a on or co ar on , nu er ca a ue a n
ii n
d fi i tm
e n into
'

n
ut ac co n .

L tl e p rep rese t three

,
mb s
n, d supp se p t b n b t i ed nu er ,
an o o e o a n

f m l th
ro gh m ltip li ti s
r ou is d ri ed f r m ity th gh
u ca on , a n e v o un r ou

ddi ti i The p is th fl d th exp ssi f th

'

a or .
p w n e n"11 o er o , an e re on o e

p w o b i g l
er w h ve l pe n T r is "
e the ef e th
, e t lt
a " . o a , r or , e r oo o

th p w ee ist fi d ut th
o mb
r n, p N w o r ti l mb e
n o e nu er . o n, a a on a nu r,

an d if i ti n l rep ese t d b y rra rt l

o a is ei th
, wh l
r n e a. a
i
o na one, er a. o e

C s ftb i
a eo mb er fr tie n S p p se frst
nu t b wh le or a ac on . u o i n o e a o
m “ m
, ,

33 mb e it isth e d i d fr m u ity th gh d di ti
u
nu r, n er ve o n r ou a on

n tim es th erefre o , the po we p r or i“ isgi ven b y the p r od u c t

wher e l is tak en n times an d this is the ,

cas e consid ered in the p r e

c edi n g n umb r . e
48 T RE ATI S E O N A G EB RA L .

Ca se o fthe in ~ S up p o se , n o w, n to b e a f t
r ac i on havin g r f
or n ume
d ex fractio na l rt a or , an d 3 o r d en o m in a
f to r. To d e ive
r f
rom ty uni

thr ou gh ad di to
i n
3
i t 18 n e ce ssar y rt
fi s to di vi d e um ty i n to a p arts ,

an d t ke tim eson
a r e of th se p ae rt s, n am e ly,

1 1 1 1

To o b ain , t the ef epr or , or I: it is fi s rt ne c ess ry a etermi e a

to d n

q u an ti y t a, which, if m ul ip li d t e 3 tim es b y itself wou ld gi e l i the

v n

same m ann e r as add e d a times to i tself gi ve s 1 . The si e to

n, nc

1 "

2 take tm er l eq
w

o b tam we r i es so the p ow o W111 b e u al to

E ,

X at X 1 a X a x
wher e «i s tak e n r t ime s An d , . co n s qu n e e tly ,
r

l‘ é' .

D efi n i tion .
H en ce , w e d ei er v the f
ollo win g d efini ion t — The p ower
o f any ‘ g ivcn quan tity a is the p ro duct o ffactor s equal to
the same quan tity a, or the p r o d uct ffactor s equal to su ch an elemen t
o ,

which multip lied by itself a cer tain n umb er of times p r o duces the
gwen
A a ren t qu an tity a
pp
Fr o m his d fi nition it f
oll o ws, . t e th t wh
a en the
P° W e'5 ind e x n of the p o wer l" is e ither e q ua l to I , or eq u al to

the p o we r the is m rely app a t

n e mi l B c us r en or no na . e a e, in the

fir s t case the r oo t l is t mu ltip lied b y itself b ut s

no imp ly t k , a en asit is;
an d so , like wis , the e lem t e en a, in the s con d e case is n o t mu ltip lied
t
b y i self . The ef e r rdi or , acco ng to the giv e n e t
d fin i ion , ne i the r o fthe

exp ressi on s
l' l, l° a,

Cub e
n o m1
isa p ow r an d e
How v , aswe ter m F the hir d p ow r or . e er t e
u ar e
$ 11 p o wers
.

cu b e o f l, an d P the s co nd p o w r o r aqua/re: of I ; so e e
1 1 “1
t rt () e
.

b y anal o gy we e r m I1 the fi s p o wer o f l, an d lo the p o w r ofl,

is
Which last is so far in r e lity fr
a om e
b in g a p o w r o f l, ha on the e t t
t
con r ar y l is a p ower o f a , as we e
hav se en, an d we will b e ttcr see
'

her e fta er .

Powersof
‘

441 . The signific a i on of uni y is i h r t t et e co ll c e ti ve or

simp le t
I n the fi r s cas I is, lik an y o her e e t roo t , cap ab le

o f b ein g r ais d e to any p o wer 71 , an d con se q u en tly su scep ib le o f cor t

resp o n din g m o difi ca tio n s In the secon d cas 1 ” i s again an app ar en
. e t
p o wer , sin c e sim p l e u ni ty is i nc ap ab l e o f b ein g r a ised to an y p o we r
50 r am r r sn O N A LGE B RA .

Bu t also,
h

m
th e efre
r o ,
u

=a
e m erg ing “ Hen c e , we g e
ner ally in f er the f
ollo wi ng p rop sitio on
en ce an d r u le .
an d r u -
le
T he p rfiduct of any n umber o f p o w er sof the same r o o t, is this very
r o o t r a ised to a p o wer equal to the sum of all the p ar tial exp onents ,

whether who le numb er sor fr actions .

Pr o d u c of tL e t u s resu m e again the who le n u mb er

§ 43 .

o we rs: u s e d
{b e same ex. m s co mm on exponen t o fthe roo t s at b
a , ,
c,
t o w11 1
3; The powers mult pl e d to ge t her i i

mi
,
mmm
w ill m n ifestly give a

since in b o th s s the same n mb er offc t ors e qu al t o

ca e u a a,

e qu l to b &c
a mul tiplie d,
.
,
ar e .

B t if th exp e t b mesf ti l f i st
u e on n eco r ac o na , or n an ce,
F ti
r acl o na ex
P t
sequ tly th p r di g p w e s
o n en '
d an h ged
, con en , e e ce n o r ar e c an

»
7

in t o a b efre rep rese t th merical v lu

‘
, c Let, asb o , y n e nu a e,

whi h multip li d
c times b y its lfg iv s a and l t y J
e 8b th e e , e , , e e

numerical v l es mb ers whi h m ultip lied e h timesb y its lf

a u or nu , c , ac 8 e ,

gi e 6
v w will have
, c, e
m
s
a

an d con s q e ue tly n ,

M» m

N ow, s
in ce sf
actor s q e ul a the last num

b er of this equ ation rep rese tsthe p n ow er ( a b c Th r fee e

or ,

in m m m

Gen eral inf

er
H en c e
we g n r ally in f , ha , ee er t t
“ 1 °9 d
The p r o duct of any n umb er ofp ower s of the same dc

yr ee, either who le or fr actiona l, is e u a l to the

q p r o duct of the r oo tsr ais
ed

to the s ame p o wer .

P w s fp w
o er o
L et n ow th power
o ,
b e t ak en as the44 . e a,
“

giafifighfiddgroot of ano ther power of the degree h S up .

wm
nu
p osing h a whole n umb er (a m) s ignifies that the
fl
,
"
 OPERA TI O N S ON M O NO MI AL S . 51

produ c t e qu al to a ismu ltiplie d h tim es b y it se lf

o fm ac t ors
f .

B u t t his co mes to the s m e as t o tak e the pro du c t o fm h a .

fc tors e qu l to a which pro du c t is expresse d by the power

a a
,

a
m
; h ence
"
( ?
a
m
“
m
,
2
. h

F tiracl Th s m e m ltip li ti
on a ex _
f xp e tswill t ke p l c
e a u ca on o e on n a a e

” w ne
wh th y b m f ti l mb ers S p p se i
“
en e eco e r ac on a nu . u o , n

h m
f t w t b
ac , h ged i t i
e o
f d hi t
e c an th p we r sed t n o , an n o or e o r as

m
ai o

the p o w er 2 . An d makin g a gain , asin p r ec din ge n um b es

r at

we wil l h e av
13 h
m
( ) v

L et no w [3 ther
be ano nu m b er which mul ip li d t e r timesb y itselfgives
v; in thissup p osition , we have
B '
;
e e tly m A? W (my
” “
an d , cons qu n , ,

Fr m thisw i f
o er th t 3 is mb e whi h m ultip lied tim esb y
e n a “ a nu r c r

itself giv s , e

Res me w g i d m emb er f t eq ti T
l‘
u th s ne , a a n, e e co n o ie ua on o

ob t i th p wer e p ss d b y th m
a n e mi l (W Y it ise ough to r ise
o x re e e on o a ,
n a

t the p wer h th
o m b e whi h m ltip li ed
o , times by itself gives
e nu r c u r ,

b t this m b e is
u th f e nu r er e or ,

b ut v
”
'
a henc e ,
it

( ?) m B
B
'

N o w, sin c e9 ‘
is qu al to e v, we will have, al so
s s
fi n
v

b ut 7 is ha t t n umb er , whi ch mu l ip lie d s tim s b y i s lf

'

, g
it e te ves a ;
the eforer , 8“ 3
a ;
that is B is s ,
u ch a n u mb er , which mu l ip li d t e r . t e
s im s b y i s lf
, te
u . h

giv sa e
H nc . e e , the p ower a
’
is ob tain ed b y raisin g B to the p ower
m h, ha is,
. t t rin k
W
s. r
" m
' r
B a a .

u
S b sti t uti n g, fi nally, thisv alu e in the secon d n u mb er of( o,
) we hav e
E ll m h m.h
'
= a
81’
52 r am r rsn o x A L G EB RA.

G en eral in f” a f
s or the cas ,
e of e xp on n ts, e whol e n u mb ers . H e cen ,

e n ce an d r ule.
gen er ally,
The p o wer ofa p o wer ofany r o o t is eq ua l to the sa me roo t, having for
p r o d uct of t ze yt ven sep ar a te exp o nents
’ '

eap o nen t the .

S im p lifi ca tior
re ady (3 7) how a quo
§ 4o . ir e have
V seen al

t i en t or fact i on m y b e r e du ce d t o a Sl mp ler
o f e xp o n e n tia
li
r a

“ en ts
f or m b y the el m n at on ofco m m on fac t ors Le t
‘

z i i
'

u s see here ho w in the s m e f ct io n we may c han ge in all a ra

,

cases either the n u m rato r o r deno m in at or in to u n ity

,
e .

F tms E
irs
L e t uc
s co m mence w ith the m os t s imp le c se
x
a

of the w hole n u m b er s m and and the firs t

.

p
nu mb s
hi h
s wh l
o n an t

d
s
s f
er ,
o
an
a
n,
n:

L“ gre ate r than the secon d The f rac ti on T may b e

er e o o
E
g
m} , “ M ,
.
.
a

eas ily tran sform e d in this c se t o the for m o fa whole qu n a a

tity b e cau se c allin g 1 the difference m n we have

, ,
( ,
,

; hence a
—
a
d
: b ut a am a a
"
c
n)
.
"
,
.
" "
. a
"
,

m (I
a
d ( m— n )
a 2 “
a

S u ppose n o w ,
the gi ven fr ac tion t o be

will have then

a
"
a
"
1
‘
m d " m -
n
a a o. u

S imila r m o difi cation s will tak e e t

p lac wi h fr ac ion al t
e xp on n e ts . S u pp o s , in f
ac e t ,
? and
g to b e the e xp o

m 1‘
(
n
n en ts, then an d a ' i a
’
a th eer
s

f
or e , a a

Fou rth ease.

H ig her d e gree Ifthe gi ve n f
r ac ti on 18 then we have
in the d enomi
n ator .
 OPER AT I O N S ON M O N O MI AL S . 53

Following the an alogy o f the prece ding c ases

t e al ge b raic r c t on m w ve e t er
Z
m
h f i ill i i h — r -

a
a
g , ,

1
1 3 there f
ore ,
a
m— m

1 .

N etm tive er
E x t en din g s t ill far ther the n ogy
a al , a
n d su p
p o n e rits
n m
a a
the qu o t i en t s b ove 5
.

p osm g in > n , asa

-

a
asf rom the latt er we i n fer ,
a
m 2 a ,
d
so we repre sen t
”
a
the or mer
f by a a An d li k ewi se the f
or mer
7
6
,

”
a
rac ti on gi ves
f —
m
so by a aln ogy we wr t e ,
i
a
” “
a a
Th ere fo re the qu o t i en t is represent e d at

a
"
1
on ce by a
a
an d by an d the q u o t en t i by
e
a
“

5 3 ’

or the expr essmn s 0

ar e considere d assynonym s .

It i s t ss y t e te d he e th s me b ser ti st th
no n e ce ar o s
x n r e a o va on o e ca e

o ff ti r acl p e ts t whi h they ld b se sily pp lied sit

o na ex on n , o c cou e a a a ,
a

ise id tv en .

I f s
n er en ce
Fro m the s aid c onven t io n it f
.
o llows firs t t hat , ,
”
a . or
“
1 .

Secon dly s ince the dif

ference d b e t ween any t wo n u mb ers
,

m n has the sam e ab solu t e v alu e b u t dif

, ,
feren t signs accord , ,
54 T RE AT I S E O N A G EB RA L .

ing asm is s ub trac t e d fro m n

,
or v ice ve rsa. it f
o ll ows that in ,

all c ases we m a
y writ e
~
in
a
m fl
a
fl rt — m
a a

E xamp 1es
§ 46 Wr it e u pper or lower
. in the line all

t er ms of the gi ven frac t ons

.

i .

a
sb
A nswers
*
a
9
b
sd fi
a b
fl
if
3
d 3
,
or
f
’

m n
a c
or ”
d p q "
ip e“
“

e a c r

m
a
f, or
m
d g
P. 1
‘

”‘
d l
‘ ‘

e
or
a
9
b 3

Writ e the fo llowin g exp resswn sall with po sit ive exponen t s ,

an d re du ce the exponen t ial qu an tit ies accor din g t o the pre

ce din g r ules
Given .

m — s) t— r )
“ ( b o 2
0
s
— —’ a
“
. b" . c .

a
°
b c
3

q b
‘

a
m
a b"

"
b
- “

(Ii

— m ‘
d f
u

)
f
—
q
d r
 OPERATIO N S ON MO N O MI AL S . 55

Given . A nswers .

— ( m l ui m — 2n) — m
n
b ( d ”
bm
- -

a c a,

( 12 > M
.

b
-

m w —
Md M .

bw w cfM
— ’
-

— m ms
(f) (f) L f
b )l
e
. 3 6
a
p .

C14
°

. .

b M
P
a
m
b (ft — M )
2m
a l ?) f
0
l -

( w
“ as
(1 6 — 2 7"
b q
f ( f)
_
r g r
60

There isalso no ther m o difi c tio n of alge b raic expre ssions

a a

o f this k in d Ob serve t hat the power of any f

. raction al m o
"
a a
no mi al for sta ce ,
(Z ) 18 e qu al t o the po w er at o f the
in n
,

n u m erat or divide d b y the power m o fthe d eno m i ato r since

,
n

a a
i s e qu al t o the pro du c t of a tak en m t imes d ivide d
,
b b
b y the pro du c t o f6 tak en also t ime s The express ion then no .

in m
a
may b e t ransf or me d i n t o 5 or mce ve sa So for 0

r .
, ,
5
ex ample we m y writ e ,
a

b g
bm + 1
”
a b (q r ) 2
a r
2

(b (5)
.

X &e .

.
The extra?
ti on o fr oot si s
ex trac t the
§ 4 7 E X T RA CT I O N
. OF Ro o r s— T o.

roo
th ln ver se one t of a qu an ti ty i st o find o u t a ot her qu an 0. n
g
r a i on 0t ral s
t i ty r whwh rai se d t o a cer tai n power gi ves a
a

ing to p o wer .
, .
,

Hence the given q uan tity or is considere d as the power of

,

ano ther quan tity r r aise d to the exponen t in dica t e d b y the

,

root ; and sin e the ex tractio n ofthe roo t c o n sists in fin din g

c

this r the oper ation therefo re is the inverse of r ais ing t o

, , ,

POWGI .
‘
56 mm r rsn ON AL G EB R A .

C° n ven fi ° ° fl The man n er i n which thisop er ation i s i ndicated

s
ig n s an d no
menclatu re isb y the ex
p ression
.

which isr ead m t o f an d w i th gen er ical t erms a d ical

r oo a, r

ex
p ssio re or s i mply r d i l S o lik ew is e f is called
n
, a ca .
, ,

r a dfca l sig m i d x o dg o fthe roo t which isthe ex

n, n e r e r ee ,

p one t to b e gi ven to the u k nown q u nti ty r or r oo t to

n n a ,

8 mm d ob
tai n a I fm is equ l to 2 the r oo t iscalled
, “
. a
,
”m "
squa e an d i thi s c s the i n dex is o mi tted s
u
r , o n a e ,

that the expressio n w i tho u t y n u mb er in the radical an

sign si gn i fiessqu are r t o f

, Whe n m is equ al to 3 the oo a.
,
1

r oo t is ter med cu b ica l,

1/ ii, is al so re p r ese n ted by a
”
,
and

r act i o n al p owers o i p t
'

/ ffi
f by f n wh ch we may O era e,

as o n whole p owersxl '

The roo o a t f Q48 S pp os e m h l mb s we say th t

to b e w o e nu er a
ty
q uan i t may
. u n ,

l
b e a wa s r o
t f q lt
p r estd
en e
V
by a m th a e n th r o o o a "
Beca s l t
18 e ua o a
“
. u e, e

fixtgf
w
ég g b e th
‘p
a. e n u m er ca i l l whi h m l tip lied n tim sby
va ue c u e

f s m qm i ts lf gi
gg vesa, we have
a e
e ,

( )
2 n

se q tly (M y
" “
an d , co n u en ,
a d .

T h er ef
or e , a. ” is th t a n u m er ical valu e, w ic h h r aised

give s a“ h ence, a.
“
is the n
“I
roo t o f a" ,
b ut a.“

a” am "
( )
an d s ing m
u p p os 1

/a
f a“ ;

th t is th
a , e a.
“ roo t o fa, isa r aise d to the p ower vi
c e versa,

Case of the Ob ser ve, als t h t

o, a

f t
rac io na l in d ex .

m m
( a
)

V S ee the f
o l o w in g l n u mb er .

1a
; 42 ,
4 3, 44, 4 5 .
58 TR E AT IS E ON AL G E B RA .

an d , su p p o sin g m 1 .

Roo t o fa r oo t. L et n ow the roo t of a r o o t b e given , f

or ins ance, t

t/ E we wm fi n d
,

b ecau se , (44 )

t q ty th
'

S up p o sin g the d en omin a o r sm an d k e u al to un i , en

th e
The in dex
r oo t an d
of Ob ser ve h er e a ls th t
o a , sin ce
th t a of
,

th e
m

an d a
"
q u an tity un d er
’"
a a
the r ad ica sign , l
m ay b e m u l i t so we h ave al so
p li e d o r di vid ed
b y t he sam e
q u an i t ty .

F or u casese m .
Q5 0 . Let u sn o w an a ly ze or m u
th e f l a,
b race d b y a rad i
p
r/ a
ca l ex re ssio n .
a.

F ou r ca se sm ay o ccu r ab ou t this f orm u a. l Fir st ,

n
(which is sup

p o se d to b e a w hl o e n u mb er
) is ith e er .
an e v en n u mb er or an

o d d n u mb e r 2i + 1 : ag a n ,i with n we can sup p ose a p o si

ti ve or a n e ga t i ve , an d the sam e s u pp o si ion can b e made t h
w en
2i+ 1 L et u s co mm en c e to examine the case of a
t
.

Fi rs ca se
t
p o si ive, an d n 2a
“

. o r mu
S in ce the f l V;a a, sup

p osesa
"
a, w e w i ll h ave

a.

Bu t + cc, as we ll as — a, r aised at the p o w er 2 5, give the same

t
p o si i ve p r o d u c ; t h en ce

=a .
 O P ERAT I O N S ON MO N O MI AL S . 59

Th er ef
or e, in the fi st r case, we h ave

{7 + a 2 1: at

th t is th
a ,
e 2th p siti
( )5 m r oo
g ti t of a i se i er o ve or n e a ve .

L t g i b p siti b t th i d
e 2i + 1
a l t
a n a e o ve , u e n ex n ,
or e
Se co n d ca se.
H
= E
ll h i th is
l
/
_

4 25 4
w ( 0 b t
'

| wi -
a a, e ave 0 a, u a n

s m st b
ca e uss ily p siti b
e n ece s 2i + 1 f t s fth s m
ar o ve , ecau e , , ac o r o e a e

q tity
u an t gi p siti p d t l ss th s m q tity is
, can n o ve a o ve ro uc un e e a e u an

p siti ; h
“
o ve
?
en ce , a a,

2M
an d
f
/fi a a.

Let n ew a be n eg a ti ve , an d t ll q l t
the in dex as s i e ua o
“ ml
g ti d t f th s m q tity
case‘
2i + 1 . S in ce a ne a ve p r o uc O e a e u an

lt l
mu ip ied 2 i + 1 im es, t c an be Obt i a n e d on ly b y g ti q tity a ne a ve u
a
n ,

so we wi ll h ave , in this ca se

2i + 1

The l sta case is th t a of a n ega ti ve when n 2£ an d

t
Fo u r h case.
exp r e sse d b y
at
a. But n ei th er am on g p o si ti ve n or

ne g tia ve n u m b er s o r q titi s y is t u an e ,
an on e o be f
ou n d r ep r esen ti gn

this t r oo , b ecau s w h s i th fi st
e e av e e en n e r ca se, th t a wi th a e ith er

p siti t h l ; h di l
i s “ the r a
o ve or n e g w a wve ,
y e ave a a a a e n ce ca
Si /
e xp r essi on a,
If
Im aginar y r adi _
is t er m e d imag in ar y r oo t , or r a dica l or im aginar y
“ 15 0 ” q u an tity o r exp r essio n .
Alth ou g h su c h e xp r e ssi on s, con sid er ed p o in o f view , ar e
in on e t
p ar ad o xica ye t l
th y m y b l
,
l et a e a so con sid er ed as symb o s o f er m s
ht
e l q titi s th t is VI
er ogen eo u s to is th s ymb l f
r ea u an e ,
a ,
— a e o o a

t m t i l d d i th t g y f l q ti ti s w hi h t m
er no nc u e n e ca e or o r ea u an e , c er

b i gi
e n p bl f t ki g
nca a lf m t b p s t d b t by
e O a n a r ea or , can n o e re r e en e u

an mb ig
a s p d i l f m
u ou Th s myst i s symb ls s
or ar a ox ca or . e e er ou o , o

f q
re u en tly m t with i m th m ti l i stig ti s
e sd d n a e a ca n ve a on , ar e u e an

p fit b ly m
ro a g d lik l q titi s
an a e e r ea u an e .

Op ti
era
QBI L t s th
o ns o n s h sm f th l m t y e u en ee er e o e o e e e en ar
i m gi yq .

titi s
a
e .
n ar

p t s b t s h q t t s d fi st l t s t k
u an
o er a i on a ou uc u an 1 1 e , an r , e u a e

M mp fi m fi m th p d t f J
u b y “47 5 : S i e d b
ro uc o a nce a an
an d di isi v on .
q i l tt x 1 bX 1 d ar e e Jz bu va en o a , , an a,
‘

i }
b l s w w ill h
qi l tt
are e u va en o a
r
, , o e av e
60 T an r rss ON ALGE B RA .

} —li
s/ T Jr l
'
r },
J ( 0 X a ( .
o

l )i b it 11 T I
"

5
¢ Z t (b x _
—
Jb -
.

T h er ef
o r e,
Jr a ¢r b ¢a

JE .
fi = ¢3 5 ,
— 1 ; hen ce

In like mann er , we wil lh av e

M Z 1 b¢f 1

b ecau se a b a b an d
(m y
Ag ain , the ra ti o av / z l bJ r l , gives

S in ce Ref—T 1 “
)
Pw o er s.

we wi ll h ave, a ls o

+1 ,

(«f i r 1r 1,

and so on . An d gen er a ly , l
—
(« f
o
r
(«I rW i n
in whic h th e i ive w he n i is an
sign isp o s t eve n n u mb er .

mann er , w e wi ll h ave

n: ya ,

w h er e, lik wise e, i ive sign isto b e

the p o s t tk
a en wi h i t an even n umb er.

—
sffl
i ly ; hence ,
fl )
'

fi
B ecau se, (V
j : 1 t -
fi .

A ll y f ll ws f
cor o ar
'
o o ro m this d octr in e, ap p li
c ab e l to the cas
e of

l q ti ties W h
r ea u an . e ave seen (5 0) th t th a l t fa iseither
e 11
“
r ea r oo o

do b l
u ly e or on o n e o r n one ; bu t i f t g th owi th th
e e l w
er ecko e r a , e r n

als th im gin y ts
o e a ar r oo o f the sm a q tity th i mb e isquite
e u an , e r nu r
'

difi er en t . S o, f
or e x am p e , l
 O PE RAT IO N S o n M ON O M I ALS . 61

give all + 16 ; he n ce, the f

ou r t h r oo t of 16 ad mi ts f o ur dif
fer en t
l
va u es, two r eal, an d two imaginar y— na m e ly ,

Vfi z i z,

i Z J -
l .

Irrational m dl 52 . It n o w r e main s f or u s to add som e r em ar ks

cals an d q m m
Q
tt
i ies . co ncer mn g i r r a i o n a r adi ca s T ese r emar ksar e con t l l . h
n ecte d wi th th q
o er t
u esi on s so m ew h t f ig a or e n to the sub j ect o f the
p r ecedin g nu mb ers For is r ea o n e ave b een
. ef for the th s th y h l t l st
a

ofthe p r es en ar icle t t
We will co mm en ce b y i u sr a in g the me
. ll t t th d
o

fi t
of n din g the gr eates common m eas u r e of tw o n umb er s .

G m t st w m e
S u pp ose M an d N to b e two w hole n u mb ers ,

or n u mer ical valu esoftwo qu ant i t i es an d M

mm m m “ “
N , .

Let the whole n u mb er fb e the quo tien t of M di v i ded b y N

and R the r emai n der ; or in o t her ter ms le t Mb b e equ al to g
’ ’
, ,

ti mes N plus R w hi ch is less than N D iv iding n ow N b y

’
,
.

”
R let 9 b e the q o e
’
u t i n t an d R”
the r e mai n der ; d i v i di n g i n
,
”
the n ext p lace R b y le t g b e the qu ot ient an d R the
’ ’" ’
, ,

r emai n der &c i n thisman n er we have the equ ati on s

.
, , ,

M g N R ’ ’

”
N i R R f !

R i R R f ll " ",

”
R g l R "
:
i iv

&c .

Now, ifR', f
or ex am pl e, would he f
o u nd eq al u to z er o,

n amely ifR divi ,

t y R wi thou t any remai n der we
"
des e x ac l ’
,

s y first that the s me R is n e x c t di vi s or of M an d N ;

a
,
a
"
a a

and s eco ndly thi s di v i so is the gre test commo n di v i sor or

,
r a

measure ofM an d N The fi st ass er t i o n is eas ily demon. r

st ted observi ng that It“

ra
, n ot ex ctly di v ide withou t c an a

di vidin g also R” b ec u se g R ”
, It ; b ut b y su ppo
a ,
“ ’ "

si t iou R g,R ; t h
’"
f e R = g q R +
’ "
R “
; that i s
ere or ,
"
. .
iv

”
to s a
y R is equ al t g g
, 1 t i mes R a d f or b rev i ty s
o
"
.
"
,
n
’

1
sak e calli ng Q the su m
, q 1 : R ”
Q R or 3 3
Q,
'
_
"
, .
62 TR E AT IS E O N AL G E B RA .

Bu t agai n R“ can n o t b e an exact di visor o f R” wi tho u t

, ,

This r emai nd e r iseq u al to 9’ ”R

”
d ivi d in g also B "
. b ut
”
b y su p p o si t i o n R ” and c on s e u en t ly R
,q
’
,
”
he n ce R g QR
“
; that is to s y R is e qu al to
’ ’ ’
, g
z R a
'
,

Q + g t i mes R and fo r r ev i ty s sak e calli n g Q the

b
’ " ’ ’
, ,

2
” 1
su m g Q
’
g R QR or 1 “
”
, Q F ollowin g the sam e
' ’ "
,
’
.

p r ocess we fi nd th t N and M ar e lik ewi se m u lti p leso f the

,
a , ,

sam e n u mb er R whi ch co n seq u e ntly is an exact di v i sor o f

"
, , ,

them Bu t the same r em ai der is the gr eatest co mm on

. n

d i vi so r o f the sam e n u mb er ; b ecau se n o n u m b er — K f or ,

i nst an ce— g eater tha the last sai d r em ai n der can di vide b o th
r n
,

n u m b e r s M an d N .

To d e m on strat e t hi s o b se r ve fi st that su b t r cti g f ,r om ,

r
,
a n

b o t h m e mb er s o f the p reced i ng e qu ati o n s the sam e n u mb er , ,

ame ly
g N fo m the m emb er so f the fi r st g R fr o m t ho s
' " ’
n r e
, , ,

o f the s eco n d an d s o o n we eas i ly dedu ce the f o llo w i n

, , g
e u at i o n s
q
M gN ’

N yR
’ ’

R (or )
I I II II
q R
”
R l
gl
ll

&c .

M aki ng n o w the s pposi tio n that K d i videse xactly M an d u

N we m u st adm i t t hat i t d i v i des also R Be cau se M f ’

, or .
,

e xam p le wi ll co n t ai n exactly K two or t hr ee or r t i mes an d

, , ,

N will e xactly co n tai n the sam e K for i n stan ce 3 t imes3 the n , ,

M 7K N s K an d M
, gN e g sK b u t f
,
r o m the
’
z
’
,

last equ ati o n s M gN R hen ce R r K g sK ; that ’ ’ ’

’

, ,

is to say R con tai n s ( — g s) t im es K or R is an e xact

’ ’ ’
,
r
,

mu lti p le of R Reason i ng in the sam e mann er si n ce N and

’
.
,

R are m u lti pleso f K i t follows fr om the secon d equ at io n

’
, ,
”
t t K m u st b e a e t i v i o R also an d for the same
h a n x ac d so r f ,
”
re ason an e x ac t d i v i sor o fR an d B
; b u t K is great er than
’ "
 OPERATI O N S ON M O N O M I AL S . 63

R qu ently R ca n ot b e di vi ded b y K ; he nce

" "
,
an d con se ,
n ,

the su pp o si t i o n o f K a co m m o n m easure ofM an d N and ,

greate r than the last remai n d er can n o t b e admi tte d 3 an d we

er that w hen two n u m b er s M an d N ar e gi ve n
gene ally i n f
r
, ,

the l s t remai n der fou nd in the ab ove descri b ed process is

a -

the i greatest com mo n measu re

r .

E m pl s Let M 189 N 14 7 we w ill have

xa e .
,
r .
,

M 1 89 42
N am ely q 1 R ’ ’
42 :

N 14 7 14 7
, , ,

N 14 7 21
— .
"
g : 3, R '

11
42

R, m
2 +0
,
Q — 2, R
fi
_ _

R ll

T he las i n der t herefo e isR” 21

t r em a
,
r , , the grea es t t com m on
measu r e o f the n u mb ers189 14 7 ,
.

Let M 154 N 1 5 we wi ll hav e , ,

M
N 1 5 10
R 4 3 ’

R 3 1 "

R '"
1 3
R 0 "

In thiscase u n i ty isthe last r em ai n der ; hen ce no n u mb er ,

M m mb s ab ove u n i ty di vi des exactly b oth 1 54 an d 1 5

e nu er ,
.

t m “1
° e
When n umb er s have no commo n measure except
1 9"
,

u n i ty they ar e called p r im e to ea h o ther But the n umb er s

,
c .

ofthe p r es en t examp le are each d i v isib le b y o ther n umb er s

ab o ve u n i ty the fir s t b y 2 7 an d 11 ; the secon d b y 3 and
, , , ,

5. Bu t t here are n u mb erswhich e ve n separately con sid er ed , ,

cann o t b e e x actly d i vi ded e xce t b

p y u n i ty such as 3 5 7 , , , ,

P imr m e 1 3 19 3 1 &c
nu The se n u mb ers ar e t er med
h s i
er th m n e
, , ,
.

sl s
e ve .
p r i m e m them sl s or S i mply p r zmc n u m b er s e ve
,
.
64 r ana r l sn O N A LG EB uA.

Havi n g p r e mi sed these p i nci p les let uspassto demo st ate

r ,
n r

o llo wi n
the f g p r op osi t i o n

§ 53 . A p r im e num b er N which a r cur a tet

y
M P must n ecessa ily d i vid e
d i vid esthe p r o d uct ,
r

f o ne o M S u pp ose first N M
fthe acto r s P , .
, , ,

an d M no t accu at ely d i v i sib le b y N W i th r .

r e a d to t hes e two n u mb er s we will hav e the s ame e qu a

”

g r

ti on s ,( o ) of the p re cedi n g n u mb er
,
an d b esi d es the , , ,

last em i n de r mu st b e eq u al to l
r a Multi plyin g n o w b o th .

m emb e rs of the equ ati on s (o ) b y P we have , ,

PR MP g NP
’ ’

”
PR NP g RP
" ’

.
"
FR RP I
P
I"
:
q (0 2
m
PR "
R" P qt P
&c .

N ow N , b y su pp osi t i o n , d i vi d es accu rat ely MP an d i n ce

s

i t di vides also g NP ; therefo re the ’

,
secon d

n u mb er o f the fi rs t equation (0 ) isaccu rat ely d iv isib le b y N 2 ,

eq u e ntly als o the fir st PR In the secon d m e mb er ’

an d c o n s .

o fthe n e x t equ at i o n we fi n d N P agai n and P R b o th exactly

’
, , ,

d i vi sib le b y N hen ce the fi rst m e mb er P R” of thisequati o n

,

als o is e xactly d i v is ible by N In equ al man ner we p o ve . r

th t the fo llow i ng p ro ducts P R P R“

a ar e all e xac tly ,

di vi sib le b y N Bu t i n ou r p ese t su pp osi t io n the last re

. r n

main der m u st b e equ al to 1 ; an d co nsequ ently the last p r o

du ct exactly d i v isib le b y N is P 1 o r P , .

S u pp o se no w N M an d d ivide N b y M an d again M
, , ,

b y the fi st r emai n der a d t his b y the seco n d an d so on ;

r
,
n
,
”
the q u o t i en ts and p
' ’ "
ca ll g q h , p the , , ,

rem ain der the las,

t of which m u st b e as i n the pr eced ing
o n acco u n t of N b ei n
cas e,
eq u al to 1 , _ g a p r i m e n u m b er .

W i th these elements we can easily fo rm equ ati on s si milar

66 EAT I S E
I

TR O N ALG EB RA .

Q R P' .

P
'
M P”
”
P KP ,"

P HP" ,
&c .

9
N ow R ,
an d the fi str ac t o r
f o f each o n e o f the p ar ti a l p ro
d u c ts, is o n e o f the ac t o r s o f o u r
f p r o du ct
u mb er o f which is filled b y the last o f t hose
the n

p a ti l p r o du cts whi ch co n tai ns the two last fact ors o f Q

r a .

S u p p ose n o w that o e of the fi r st f acto rs R M K

n n is , , ,

e x ctly d i vi s ib le b y N 3 i t follo wsfir st that P is d i v isi ble b y ’

a
,

N an d co sequ e ntly the se co n d p r o du ct M P ” b u t M b y

,
n

su pp o si ti o n is n o t d i vi si b le b y N ther e f o e the f act o P ,

r r

m u st b e a mu lti p le o fN an d co n se qu e n tly the p r o d u ct

an d the fc t o r P O f thi s p r o d ct an d so o till the last
” ’ ‘

a u n
, ,

fac to r of the las t pr o du c t whi ch is one of the factor s Of Q ,

.

If n o ne ther ef or e o fthe f
,
ac t o r s R M K
,
o f the gi en . . v

p ro du ct Q u n til the l st is di vi sib le by N the last m u st

,
a
, ,

c er tai n ly b e d i vi s i b le b y i t Vice v sa ifn o n e o f . er

,
Co roll i s ar e
ac t or s o fQ is d i v i s i b le b y the p ime n u mb er N
.

the f r
,

n either Q can b e d i v i s ib le b y i t I t follows b esi des that if .

, ,

M o r K ar e n ot d iv i sib le b y a p ri me n u mb er N n e i ther M ,
"

a d K
n ar e d i vi s
"
ib le b y i t ; b ecau se n re p resentin g a w hole
n u mb er M an d K ar e the p r odu cts o fn fact or s n o ne of
,
" "
,

w hich is exactly di v isib le, b y N _

.

P w s ffw
o er o
5 4 L e t u sn o w tak e the f
r
. r act i o nal exp r essi o n
ti l
ona p s a ex re

r ed uced to i ts S i m ples t ter ms: that 18 to su ch

,

si son
,
b
si m p le elem ents a an d b as to adm i t n o co m m on d i v i so r ,

e xce pt u n i t y We say t hat the n u mer ical v aluesofthe p owers

.

a
s a.
8
a
"

e n e ces sar i ly f ract i o n al n u mb er s i r re du ci b le

ar
b z’ s b
’
fi ,

I r re du cib le w to a smp ler i th t is to say dmi tti g n o

f
or m : a ,
a n

“ imp “ f
m"
‘
co mm o n m su e e xcept u i ty
ea r S u pp ose i n .
,
n

act that b ” are x ctly d i v i si ble b y u m b e g eater

”
f ,
a, an d e a a n r r
 OPE RATI O N S ON MO OMI N AL S . 67

than 1 3 i thi s s also and 6 must h v commo me su e

n ca e or a e a n a r

b v u i ty whi h is g i st the p esent su pposit i o

a o e n ,
c B efo e a a n r n. r

w d m o strate t his let us ob se ve first th t whole u mb er s

e e n ,
r ,
a n

ar e p im e um b e s p od u tsOfp ime numb er s; co

r n r or r c r n

sq
e y we c ot s u pp ose a u mb e di v isib l by t he
ann n r e an o r,

which is t p r i me witho u t su pp sin g th t s m u m b er

no ,
o a a e n

d i vi sib le lso b y som e p i me n u mb e

a B c us le t the r r. e a e,

wh le o u mbe N b e d ivisib le by the o the whole n um b e

n r r r

P m u z th t is l
a et the qu ot i en t
"

Q be a whole num
P
.
,

b er i
sn ce f
ro m h se
q t i u ati o n we ded u ce the o th er QP . : N,

or we w ll have i also, Q .

th t is N is
a ,
e xac tly div isib l e ac t or s o f P
by the f .

”
a
Let u s n o w r es u me ou r f
r actio n
n’
the sup p o se d co mmo n
b
measur e is e ither i u
p r m e n mb e r o r no t ; i n b o th caseswe
a

mu s t adm i t that so m e r me pi
mb er is co mmo n d v so r to nu i i
b ot h ”
d b b u t we have alr eady seen that ”
I) t
" ‘
"
a an a or can no

b e di vi si b le b y an y p r i me n u mb er , u n le ss a an d b are d ivi sib le

b y the same n u mb er There f o r e, when the f r act i o nal e x
‘
.

n
a a.

p swn
r es 1s r e d u ced to 1 tsS i m p les t te r ms an
y p ow er o fthe
5 , 7
6
am e f
s r ac t io n is an o her f
r ac t tio nal e x r ession ,p who se te ms r

can no t b e educed r to a i
smp ler f
o r m, an d conse
qu en tly i t is
essen t i lly factio
a r nal .

t
I r ra io n a l ts roo
§ 5 5 We . ar e no w ab le to see how, am o n
g
u an t i ties the re are so me who se i
.

the rad cal

q ,

n u me ical valuescan n ever b e exactly assigned and are co n

r
, ,

seq ently to b e r eck o n ed am on g the i rrati o n al exp e ssio s

u
,
. r n .

P s fth
o w er O b ser ve that taki ng the squ a e s the c b e s
o e , r
,
u
,
t l m
o u r th p owe s an d s o fthe n atu ral s
er i es
n a u ra nu
be rs ,
the f o o r , n,

1 Q 3 4 5 o fn u m b er s we have
, , , , ,
68 TR EATI S E ON ALGEB RA .

1 , 4 , 9, 1 6 ,
Cu b es 1 , 8, 2 7 , 64 ,
F u r th p o we s 1 1 6 7 1 2 56 o &c r .
, , , ,
.

Th t is the squ e o o t o f 1 is 1 an d the sq u are ‘

a ,
t of4 ar r ,
rt

is2 he ce th squ a e oot softhe u mb e s2 3 a e b etw e e

n ,
e r r n r ,
r n

1 d 2 or they
an e u mb so f n ess ntially f ctio l fo m
,
ar n er a e ra na r ,

ho we ve r ed u ed to th i low st te m s; b u t we h v e see t hat

r c e r e r a n

a f cti l ex p essio n
ra o naised to y p ower gi ves co st tlyr ra an n an a

f ct i o l e su lt ; o um b
ra na the e for b etwee 1 a d 2 if
r n n er , r e, n n ,

squ d gi v f
are o powe i th the whole n u mb e s2 o 3 5
,
can e r r e er r r

t h f th m b e s2 d 3 h v e n e i the thei squ re o o ts

er e o re e nu r an a r r a r

am o
g wh le n mbe s o mo g n u mb e soffact i o l f
o nu o m r n r a n r r na r

th s oots th f
e e r ot b e xa tly exp es
,
s d by y
er e o re , can n e c r e an

n m b it h wh le o f ti o l lth ugh we m y p se t
u er e er o r r ac na , a o a re re n

t h m by u m b s m o
e d mo e p p
n chi g to t h i valu e ;
er re an r a ro a n e r

th s m e o ts t h a fo e r i t i l q u t i t i s Th s m e
o ,
er e r e, ar e rr a o na an e . e a

is to b s i d o fthe squ e
e tso fthe u m b er s b et wee n 4
a d ar ro o n an

9 b twee n 9 a d 1 6 & c
,
e the s me o f th cu b i c l o tsO f
n ,
. a e a r o

th u mb s b etw
e n 1 d 8 b t wee 8 a d 2 7 &c ; the
er ee n an ,
e n n ,
.

sm
a fthe fu th oo tsofthe u mb s b tw e n 1
e O o d 16
r r n er e e an ,

b twee 16
e d 71 n d so on An d g e lly we i n f
an e th t ,
an . en ra ,
r
,
a

w hen who /c n um b er s ha ve no t their r o o ts a m o ay o ther who le

n u m b e r s n eit e r ca n
,
h they ha ve them a m o ng f
r a ctio na l o n es.

4
t
r a i on a
s
e r ie s
l o r as
f‘
- f
Q5 6 . L et us see n ow how an in de fi it n e ser ies of

um t
r a i on a l n u mb er scan be c on c ei v e d co n st tly
an ap p r o a c h
8 ; in g to an y ir r a io n at l r oo t
mm ," to an y
Divi d e u nity i t n o an y n u m b er of sma ll q l e ua p ar ts,
irra ion a t
l t whi h w r oo . c e wil l ll
It isp ain , r ,
ca a
no. l fi st th t w is a f r ac

ti g t
on sm ll r ea er or a er , accor din g to the ess o r gr eater n u mb er o f l
p ts i t w hi h
ar ity n o c un is divid e d ; seco n d y, n o t onl y b u t 2m, 3m, l
4m ,
ll f ti ar e a r ac o n s u n i w e tl
ak e the w o e n u mb er of tem ; hl th
thir d lv, th e dif
fer ence b e w e en tw o su cce ssive t t ms
er o f the ser ie s to ,

2m, 3m ,
ll
in p r o p o r i on to the gr e a er n u mb er O fp ar s
i s sm a er t t t
t
in o w ic h h
un i y has b een div id e d ; f o urt y , r ep r e sen in g b y n an y thl t
n um b er the differ en c e b e w ee n 71 w an d n isthe sam e as a t th t
 O PERATI O N S ON M O O MI N AL S . 69

b e weent the simp l t

e er m s w an d 2m . Fin ally ,
if n p r e sen sa w o e
re t hl
n u mb er , n w, n 2a», 12 3411, an d so o n , ar e all f t
r ac io n a n u m b er s l
c o mp r ised t
b e ween n an d n 1, til w
un e a dd to n all the p ar s to in o t t
w ic h h un i ty has b e en divid ed . E h ac th f
o ne , er e or e, o f the n u m b er s

n + w, n 2 a) , a 3 m, r edu ced to its l w st t ms m st h

o e er ,
u av e the
a
f
rac io n a ft
o rm l b
7
n on e o f th em , th er e f
or e, raased to any p ow er , g1ve s
an ex ac t wh l o e n u m b er . N ow the q
s uar e of 2 , the fi st t
r er m of the

ser ies
is4 , an d the s u ar e q
l st 2 + 1 is9 Th sq s th f f o fthe a , . e u ar e ,
er e o r e , o

th i l d d t m sm st b
e nc u i l d d b tw
e er 4 d 9 d th squ e nc u e e een an , an e u ar e

of th s d t m 2
e w is g at
e con th 4 b t er t it th th re er an , u n ear er o an e

sq fth
u ar e o t 2 + 2m; th sq f2 + 3» isstill g
e n ex t d s e u ar e o 1
r
e a er , an o

si g i d fi i t ly th mb fth p ti l s th difi
‘

on B ti
. u n cr ea n n e n e e nu er o e ar c e e er

ence ofth sq s fth s ssi

e t msdimi ish s ls i d fi it ly
u ar e o e u cce ve er n e a o n e n e

th s m m mb fth s p ti l s
' '

an d in sb ye s
ai g th e an n er a 1n cr ea n e nu er o e e ar c e ,

th sq e f th s d t m 2
u ar e o w pp h sme d m
econ t i e1 a r oac e or e an or e o ,

s th sq
o s fs m
e f th f ll wi g t m swil l m
u ar e o o d m e O e o o n er or e an or e

app h t 5 t 6 t 7 t 8 d th sq
r oa c o , fth t m b f
o , o th , o , an e u ar e O e er e or e e

l st will p p h m
a d ma t 9 B t i th s m m
r oac o r e an s or e o . u ,
n e a e an n er a

this sq d th t f th s
u ar e , an d t m 2+ ah9 d o e eco n er (0 , n eve r r eac an

4 h w
, og t m y b th mb f th p ti l sm s
ever r ea a fth e e nu er o e ar c e , o n on e o e

sq s f th i t m di t t mswill
u ar e o e h th wh l mb s
n er e a e er ever r e ac e o e nu er

5 6 7 8
, ,
Th f , th di l
.
p ssi s er e or e, e ra ca ex r e on

'

V 5? s/ B s/ T, s/ B; ,

an d the sam e we say o f all sim i ar r oo s, ar e n u mb er sw ic c an n o l t h h t

be e xac t ly exp r e ssed , an d , con se u en y, n ei er measu r ed ; f or is q tl th th
r eason ll th ey ar e ca ed incommens ur a b le or ir r atio na l, an d sum
’
.

B sid th s i ti l nu mb er s th t lq ti
'

e e e e rr a on a , o er ir r a ion a u an ti es occur

in m th m ti l q sti s
a e a ca ue on , an d all ar e r eck one d am on g tr anscend en tal
e xp r e si on s.
s

Misce lan eo us l Gi ve the exp on enti al f

57 . o llo w
or m to the f

ing r o ots: ( S ee 4 7; 4 8
e xm p les

m
V /
f f
"
/ a
‘

5 a ,
,

E p ti l x on en a An s ,

f m gi
or t ven o
ts
r oo .

a
70 TR E AT I S E ON ALGEB RA .

1
m7 1,
” ’”
a a

G i ve the r ad cal i o llo w i ng

or m to the f
f p ower s
o rm
Rad ical f in

p
given to owers .
a,
"
i
m
b
‘

a a

bl
‘

O b ser ve, that a

’”

—
W
a i
r

m m
b
_

a
be

Rad ica l , r e. Redu ce the o llo w i n g

f r ad cals i to the same
fld g f degree
h"
fif e ee .

”
Vi 17 2
2
0 5
i
i/ (m il ? )
i 4
.
,

l/
E E
’ l/
z
a'q
: V55 5
An s . av
"
,
“
W ,
“
W .

Mump licm on Exam ples o fMul tipli cat io n .

ofradi cal s.
44 , 4 5 ,
Gi ven f
act or s
 OPE RATIO N S ON O
M O N M I A LS . 71

G i ven f
act ors

1
}
a ? 6”

An swe rs

1/ c VF W

“.
a

X
7
"
a
ln
bfl

t
Red u c ion of Redu cti o n o f the r oo ts o f r oo ts to a i p
sm ler
52e f
or m 44 ,
G i ve n roo t s:
72 TR EATI S E ON ALGEB RA .

(L ) ya
f

n / o

Le t u s add someples con cer n i ng

e xam the

greatest com mo n measu re o f n u mb er s .

G i ve n umb er s
n 5 44 4 16 .

Ans .

G i v en

Gi ven 1 2 61 1 079 .

G i ve n 1 2 67 91 6 .

1 .
74 TR EATI SE ON ALGEB RA .

n ated, as well
te ms + l an d — l the fir st in
as the r ,
the
seco n d an d the l st i n the thi d po ly n om ial
,
a Hence r .
,
the
sumof the give n po lyn omi alsis
5 a“ 2a b 3 0“ a c.

An d generally, to o bta i n the su m ofg iven p o ly

Rule .
n o m ia ls
,
wr ite, fir st, a ny of them a s g iven , then a
seco nd , so tha t the sim i la r ter m ssha ll f a ll u n d er the co r r e

p o n d ing ter m sof the

s fir st ,
an d so a ll the o t er hp olyno mia ls .

Redu ce then the sim i la r te r m s,

an d a n n ex e ter m s which
thos

a r e a lon e .

Add t ogethe r the p olyn o mi als

E p
xam les.

3 a% 76 0 9c g 13 g l) ,
9 ’ ‘
3

(L )
— 7 a.”b 3 c9g 9 1)
3
la ,
8b’ c 609g 3 g9b 3 la .

Arrangi n g these p oly i

n o m als ac co rd in g to the p reced i ng
r u le we wi ll hav e
,

3 a”h 7b9e 909g 13 226

7a ’ b 3 esq gb
’
la
8b”c 6efig 2 90 6 3 la

S um 4 a9b at 1 0996 2 la .

Add t ogether the p o l yn o mi als

4 a9d 3 cfib 9mm,
1a
4 ab
s 56 63
7a d , 3
' "

6 m2 n 5 03 6 4 m n9
7mn ” 603 6 5 m2n Ga sh,
7096 IOa b2 8m°a 1 0d “,
12 a 3 d Ga b“ 2e3 b m/n .

And also
s 68
a 5 a b’ ,
3 a.8 4 a 9b 3 b3 3 a h’ ,
a
8
63 3 a 9 b,
(3 ) 2 as 4 58
6a 2 6 l Oa b’ ,
— 6a3 7a2h 4 a l> ° 2 b“ .
 OPERATIO NS ON P O LYN O MIALS . 75
d

An swers
S um, 17a 8 d 1863 6 1 2 m°n 2 3 a h’ l l mn’
1 0d‘ ma .

S um, a
8
b" a
fl
b ab
“

60 .S UBTRACTIO N — TO sub tr act a p o lyn omi al B fro m

.

an o ther p oly n o mia l A mea s to fi d the d f en ,

ce b e tw ee nn n i er

the two p oly n omi ls; th t is o ther p oly n om i l D w hi ch

a a
,
an a
, ,

ifadded to B gi vesA f , or sum Ap plying now to these ex .

p ression s the r easo i g made (2 1) w ith regard to s i mple

n n
'

mo n o mi als we may e sily i f t h t

,
a n er , a

Th p ly m i l B i ssu b tr ted f m A by a ddi ng

e o no a ac ro
R lu e.
to this p lyno m ia l p p sit to B
a o o o e .

We do not need to pr o ve that the p oly n omial opp osi te to B

’

co ntai n sthe s ame te r m so fB b ut wi th opp os i te si n s

g , .

T ke B a 5 b Z a
’3 2
.

Ex mpl s
a e
From A 3 m 6 4 m
.
'
’
4 3
e

The p oly nomi al opp osi t to B is e

6m 3 c 5 61s ; l
.

A B 3 m d: 4 m3 c 6a‘b
3 9

6mac 5 a ’ b21 l
.

An d D 3m
1 2 m sc l
.

Adding i n fact thisD

, ,
to B , we w ll ob i tai n A .

Take a + 2b + c
+ 5d
(l ) f
r o m 4 0. 3b 20 8d .

Tak e 5a b 7 69 19a“ 2m
(2 f
rom l 2 a b 3 b9 — 1 7a ’ll 3m .

Tak e I om b ’
1 0m3 1 0m3 b’
(3 f
r om 1 0m
a
4ea 5 m3 b” .

Take a
” 2ab I) “
f
r om a
” 2a b b” .

Tak e tfi yg r
s
s l 2m n
f
r om 1 1 7 8
3
12s
“
l 3n .
76 TR EAT I S E ON ALGEB RA .

An swe s r

D : 3a + b — 3c + 3d .

D l 7a b 4 b” 2 a” m .

D 5 m% 9 6m9b .
(4 D
D 12 7 3 s -
12 32 l 2 t’ gg 12 m n .

A RTICLE II .

Mu ltip lica tio n a nd D ivisio n .

62 MUL TI P LI CAT I O N — The m ulti p licati o n of a poly

. .

n o m i l A b y ano t her p o lyn o mial B con sists lik e that of m o

a ,

n o m ials 2 4 ) i n fin d i n g the p r o d u ct P an e x p res si o n e i t he r

( ,

m o n om i al o r p oly o m i l who se n u m er i cal v alu e is e qu al to

n a ,

the p r o du ct o f the n u mer i cal valu es of the fct or s A and B a ,

Bu t multiplyi ng A b y each o fthe ter msofB and su mm i ng ,

up all the s e p ar t i al p r o du c t s the su m mu st b e the pr odu ct of ,

A b y B Ther efo e to ob tai n the p r oduct ofa p olyn omial A

. r ,

b y an o ther p oly o m i al B n ,

Ru l
Ta ke the su m o f the p r o d u ct fa ll
o the ter m so f
A by h fth t m s fB
e.
vi
ea c v s a o e er o
,
or ce er .

T ki g A f m u lti p li
a n d an d B f o
or mu lti p lie r o vi can ,
r ,
r ce

v s i b o th c s s we wi ll h v e the s m e t e m s to b
er a, n a e d ded a a r e a .

T h p o du ct o f p ly o m i ls is u su lly i n d i cated b y e losi g

e r o n a a nc n

th m wi thi n p e t hes s sfollo ws ( A) (B )

e ar n e , a : .

§ 63 Le t A b E d w wi ll hav e z a — z e — e
E m pl s
.
, ,
xa
A B (
e .

b) ( d) a _
c :

( a -
b ) (c — b) e —
(a b) d
_ ao -
c b — ad + bd .

Thi s examp le m ay b e also u sed to de mon strate the co r re c t

n esso fthe r ule of si gn s .

Rule “ s i gn s
In the p
i g pr o du ct we ha ve fo llo wed the
r eced n

d ° m° n sm te ¢
k n own r ule ofsigns B u t maki ng a I m .
, ) ,

c d n
,
we can see wi th an o t her p r ocess t hat the r u le to
 OPERATI O N S ON P O LYN O M IAL S . 77

be f
o llo wed w i th re ar d
g i n
to sg s m s b e ut that alr eady gi ven ,

(2 5,
Add 6 to b oth m emb ersofthe fi st equation r ,
an d d to b o h t
memb er sof the sec o n d we w i ll have
, ( 1 6)
a m b
C n d (o, )
n seque tly
an d co
(m b) ( d
n ,
a . o n

Th te m sOf the se fcto sb e i n g ll posi t i ve the ir pr odu ct is

e r a r a ,

man if
estly altogether p ositi ve ; an d con sequ ently we w ill h ve a

a . c : mn + b n + m d + bd .

An d sin ce the d if
fer en ce bd bd o, the p r o duct a . o wi ll
not b e chan ged b y add in g thi sdif
feren ce to it ,
an d so i t will b e
a . o bd — bd .

N o w the t er ms bd m a, ha
’
vi
g d f or co mm o
n n f to m y
ac r, a

be p e n ed
r e r es t ik i by (b m ) d , an d l ew se, the terms bd d an

b nw hi ch have 6 f
,
acto r can b e
o r co m mo n f ,
r e p es
r ent d b y e

(d n) b Hence maki ng the sub st i tu ti o

.
,
n, the p rece di n g
eq uat i o n w i ll b e com e

a . c :
(b m) d + (d a )h ma — bd ,
b u t the first (0) gives (6 m) a , an d the secon d (d n )
c. Theref o re sub stitu t i ,
n
g agai n
— bd .

Add n ow to b ot h memb ers of thi s equati o n the t i n om ial

r

6d e h a d, we w ill have
a . o + b d .
— e . h
b ut on is ( a b) , an d n is (c — d) he n ce, f
r o m the last
e
qu at io n (a b) (c d) ac cb ad bd .

E xactly as we have ob tai n ed, followi n

g the ule : like signs r

gi ve a p osi t i ve an d un lik e sign sa negat i ve pro du ct

,
.

R m k
e m
ar
I n the p r ecedi n g dem on strat i o n we have m en
on co
f t s
tioned a d e ve n s ep ar ated the co mm o n fa to
m on ac or .
n c r

fro m s o m e t er ms When a poly nomial is m ultip lied b y a

.

m on o m ial thi s m u lt i p li er af
,
fects all the t er msO f the p ro du c t

likewise an d f or thi sr eas on h multi plier is called co mmo n

,
t is.
78 TRE ATIS E ON AL GEB RA .

act or
f . And, vice ver sa , when the terms of a gi ven p o ly
n omial ar e af
fect ed by the s am e f actor , the p oly n o m i al can b e

co n sidered asthe p rodu ct Ofan o ther p oly n o mial by that factor,

and may b e deco mp os ed accor d i n gly For i n stan ce, f r om .

P a m“ and rs
a,

we i nfer P a m
( nd rs) 9
.

N ay thi s d eco mp osi ti o n can b e p erf

, o r me d w i th re gar d to a

cer tai n n u mb er on ly (if ter m s and w hen so me of the t er ms

,

Ofa p oly n o m i al ar e afiectcd b y o ne comm o n f act or and s ome

'

b y ano ther ; p ar ti al de co mp o si t i o n scan b e ev i de ntly made : f or

exam p le f ro m P
, ma ” ) 91
c ml nrs ,

we wi ll have P m (a b l) ’
(
n rs
gd)

m pl r 1
lti l
py A a 2 a b b“ ’l

(
a o

by B a 2ab b” ’
.

Write fi r st the p ar ti al p rod ucts ofA b y each o fthe terms

o fB ; t ak e t he n t hei r s u m or the p r oduct o f P asf
,
o llo w s ,

A B .
( a
9
2a h 2a b
l at p ar tial p r odu ct . a4 2a3 b a
“ ’
h .

2d p ar tial pro duct . 2 a8 h 4 a’ b9 2 a ba .

3 d par tial Qa bs

(L) P 2a If
’
.

Multi ply A a
8
b9+ 3 07 68 Bab 4 65
by B a b“ 4 a’ h 2 a“ .

Multi ply A 3 m fi/ c . a
2

g it W
by B /
/b
‘
Multiply to ge ther
(a b) , (b ) (c
c , d) , (d
Multi ply A z a ” 2a b b“
by B a l) .

Multiply A a b
by B a — b
 OPERATI O NS ON P OLYN O MIAL S . 79

A swe n rs

P 2 a"b2 2 a 5 bs 5 a4 h4 7 a3 h5 a
fi
b“ a b7 .

3 m3 b

P = 3 a sb
‘

fi/ é
‘
a

“
P a bcd bficd — d b cgcl a bcl bfld’z —l a ccl
+
fi 2
aa

b ed
2
a bce 6906 ac e
2
b ase a bd e bfi d e acd a

bflde .

Pz )] b9[c(e d)
Or else, a
[bd (e e ) d e (b c
’

d (d e )] c
“
[a (e d) b (d e)] d [a (cd bd )
b (cb
P ” — b°
P: + b b fi — ba.
‘

3 Q — a a
a a :

The f
o ll o win g e x amp esl ds t b e e r ve o e no ti ced on accou n t of th eir

fr e q u en t an d u e u s f l pp li ti sa ca on .

Mu ltip ly A 1 + + °
z3 + + z"

{
z z
(l .
) by B l — z.

Multip ly A a +
by B a— b¢

Mul tip ly A a
+ b¢ 1

by B h

Multip ly A a bJ 1
(4
by B k k¢T l -
.

Ob ser ve, th t th p t fth l st t

a e ex onen n o e a e r m of A, fi st f
in the r o

t h ese exa mp l s is wh l
e ,
mb tiig
a o e nu er , c on a n n o n e un ity l ssth th e an e

n u mb er o f t m s f th s m p ly mi l
er o e a e o no a .

A wer s
ns

P 1— z
" +I P =
ah bk a le bi n T l
P ( s/ .

P ah bk (ale blah/ 3 7 1 .

We may r emar k, wi th r e gar d to the sec o n d of th ese p r o du c s, t th t a

in h
c an gin g the f t
ac or s a in o 71, an d 6 in t t o It , we wo u l h
d ave had
P h“ + k’ .

Singmar p ro
Q64 We . can d emon sr a t t e n ow a sin gu l
p r op er y of ar t
p etty o f n u m
b er g ,
n u mb er s, w h h ic t
1 3 con ai n e d In the f
oll o wm g e or em th
If two n u mb er s M an d N ar e su c h th t
, a e ac h o ne o f th em may b e
80 TR EATI S E O N AI G E B RA i .

r eso ve d l in t tw sq
o o uar e n u mb er s,
th t is M
a ,
b“, N h° + k“,
the p r o du c t M N f th o e same nu mb m y lik
er a ewise be r es l
o ved in to
two s u ar e q n u mb er s.

F r om the l st
a examp e l (2) an d itse qui l t we h ave
va en .

( + a
°
r ) [<+ a 15./ f l ) ( a 10
, / f i
n to / f f)
Its

( h— k w r ln

Wm )

Ag ain , r om the
f l st
a exam p e s l (3 ) an d we haVe

( a bJ IRAT l ) -

( ah bk) (ak + bk). — l

T l) b li p / 1 : 1
_

( a bs
/ Icy — (ah b k) ( + alc .

T h er ef
or e ,
( a
’
b’ ) (h‘ Ic‘) [(a h bk) (alc
bk) (ak b li)
B u t we h
seen in the p r ecedin g n u mb er
av e a the p r o d u c o f th t t
the su m b y the d if f er en ce of an y two u an i ies, is e u a to the q tt q l
d ifi er en cc Of the s u ar es o f the same u an i ie s;
'

qen ce , the p r o d u ct, q tt h

or secon d m emb e r of the l st q ti
a e ua on, is

ah
( b k)“ ( ar
e wax/ 2 1 )?
th t is (fi
a ,
-
i In’ ) (ah bk)’ ( (a k
b k)“ l ) ( bk)"
°
But (( a 7c + ( ale ah

h en ce , (a2 + Ir’ ah
( bk)“ (ale
T ht
a is to say, the p r o d u c t of two n u mb er s M ( + a
‘
N
h°
( + is e u a to the su m q l o f two q
s u ar e nu mb er s .

For e x am p e , l t Mak e 40 an d N 5 8, we wi ll h ave

M N
an d c o n se u e n q tl y, M N, or

36° 3 2“
1296 1 02 4 2 320 .

65 . ivi de a p olyn om ial A b y an o ther

D I V I S IO N — To d
p olyn om ial B is to find a p oly n omial or e ve n mon om ial ex
, ,

p r e ssi o Q the qu o tie t which m u ltip lied b y the di visor B

n
,
n , , ,

o p r o du ct the d ivid en d A
givesf r .

P ly mi ls To ob tai n the qu otient i t is e xpedien t to

o no a ,

arr an e b o t h d i vide n d an d d i v i sor acco rd i n

“ ran eg d
g to
'

g ,
82 TR EAT IS E ON ALGEB R A .

first te m ofthe qu ot ie t is ob tain ed b y div idi ng the firs t

r n

term ofthe div id d b y th fi st of the di visor

en e r .

N ow af ter havi g o b tai ned the fir st t erm o fthe qu otient,

,
n

we can have also th p r tial produc t p o f the di vi sor b y the

’
e a

qu o tie nt For ex mp l i n the case b ef

. a o r e usd i v i d i n
e,
g P by
the p oly n omi al A w wi ll ob tai the fi st ter m o fthe quo
,
e n r

tient that is 2 b y di vidi g the first ter m of P by the fi st

, ,
a ,
3
n r

o fA N ow m u lt i p lyi ng A b y 2 s we ob tai n p which sub ’

.
,
a , ,

tracted from P gi ves fo re m i nd ,

p oly nomi al P = p r a er a.
"

+p
’"
th t isto s y the p oduct ofthe same A by the
a a ,
r

r em i n in
a
g ter ms f th q u o t ie nt Rep eati ng the o peratio n
o e .

wi th the di visor A a d the d i v i de d P we w ill ob tain the

n n
’
,

n ext t er m ofthe qu o ti t which i o ur case i s 2a b and en , n 9

, ,
”
i n con sequen ce th s c d p ti l p o du ct p and so on
,
e e on ar a r
, .

H ence the r ule

, ,
To d i id th p lyn m i l M by ano ther p oly
v e e o o a
R lu e.
n i l o m a i st b th cco
N, a r r a ng e, fr ,
o a r d ing to the
p ower softhe sa m e letter Then d ivid e the fi r st ter m ofthe .

d i vid end by the fi r st of the d i viso r , a n d m a r k the qu o tien t .

Mu ltip ly then by this ter m the d iviso r N, an d su btr act the

p r o d uct f om M
r , a
n d ta king the r em a in d er
for d ividen d,
r ep ea t the sa m e op er a tio n u n til the en d .

D i vi sor . D i v idend . Q uoti ent .

EM W '

l st pro duct h’il his

1st
2d p ro duct
2d 0
The p ro duct tk
i t chan ged sign s and so the
may b e a en w h ,

r e mai n de rsmay b e o b tai ne d b y s im ple addi t io n .

W hen the di v ide n d co n tain sm any ter ms i t isno t n ecessar y ,

to w ri te each t i me all tho se whi ch b elon g to the r em ai n der ,

b ut i t ise n ou gh to w ri te as m an y terms as ther e ar e i n the

d i v isor asin the f
,
o llo wi n g e xam p le :
P ERATION S
O ON POL YNO MIALS . 83

s
e
ie ?s
r
as
or;
a
s
(N

m
l
“
is a
0 0 0
1
84 TR EAT I S E on ALGE B RA .

I n lik e m an n e r , d ivi de
Az a
4
4 a3 b 6a ’ b ” 4 a b8 b‘
n
B 2 a
’3
2a b b”
Az
n
B
A a
5
7a 4 h 12 a sb° + a
f
f a
b 13 a ?
)
4
6b5
W
B as 4 a 9h 2 a bs 3 b8
x“ xflv” 31
°

(M
B = fi + w +fi
A nswers

Q a
2
1 — 2a b b” .

(2 ) Q hQ — hk h” .

Q I a
“
3a b 2 62 .

@) Q= w +w
T he t
i n g to
ge m en o f ol no m als acco r d
ar ran p y i
the p tt
o wer s o f the s i n di s
a m e le er is n o t an
,

p en s b le r e qui site to o b tai n the qu o ti e nt

a Thi s .

can b e also o b t ai n e d wi tho u t su ch a arrangem en t Nay this n .

,

m u st ne ce ss ily b e do e whe n the p oly n o m i als can no t b e

ar n

ar r an ed S u ch is ho we v er the n atu r e o f the p rocess that

g .
, , ,

the sam e q u t i e nt wi ll b e o b t ai n ed wi t h d if
o fer e nt ar ran ge

m ents althou gh the disp osi tio n the f

,
o r m o f the t er ms an d , ,

their sign s m ay appear dif fer e nt i n the qu ot ie nt f or d ifi erent

'

arran gem en t s .

For e xam p le d i v id i ng the same p oly n o m ial A difi er en tly

'

, ,

arran ge d, as f
o llo ws A a
” 2ah b "3

2a b “
a bfl’

W i th the fi st a r rrran
gem en t, we ha ve
a + b .
 o p E nAr ro ivs O N
'
PO LYN O MIAL S . 85

Wi th the s co e n d, Q 2b a b
a b .

S o lik ewi se, let the di v ide n d b e

A 2 a b l + mn l + gl + 2 a br mn r gr 2 a bs m n a+ gs .

An d dif
fer en tly ged , ar ran

A m a r + gr + Qa br mns gs 2 a bs n + gl + 2 a bl .

Divid e i t b y B l —r + s : .

W i th the fir st a rangemen t we will find

r ,

Q 2a b m + g n .

W i th the second ,

m nr gr 2 a br mns gs 2 a bs

mn g 2a h
mur mn s gr gs 2 a br 2 a bs
l l l l l l
i
wh ch isma n ifestly qu e al to
2ab mn g,
as orf the fi st r ar r an
gem e n t .

In o r de r , ho we vi in ish useless lab or i t is always

er , to d m ,

e xp e d ei nt to ar ra n ge
as mu ch as p o s si b le the gi ve n p oly
n o mials. S o, fo r examp le the f o llo wi n g d i v i den d an d d i vi s
,
o r,

A a b cd ed m mn a b mn m9a 3 a2b 3 a bm
B m a b,

m ay b e arr an
ged in h sman n er t i
A 3 a 9b a be d a bmn 3 a bm ed m mgn
B a b m .

And we w ill fi nd

The di vid em, § 66 . In h s last i

t havi ng fou n d t e x mple a ,
afer

the fi st th ee t mso fth qu ot ie t the remai n

r r er e n ,

d to b e di vi d d ism
er whi ch c n ot b e d i v i ded
e n
,
an

by B we add th r f,
o e as th l st te m ofthe quo t ient a
e e r , e a r
,
8
86 r sna r rsn ON ALGEB RA .

ract i o n al
f e x res p
vi ng the m i de for the u m e to r
son i ha re a n r n ra ,

a d the d i v i s
n o r th de n m i
or f tor e o na .

Thi s case tak es p lace whe ever the d i v i de n d is n o t the n

ex ct p ro d uct o f the d i v i s
a or d the q u o t i e t L et u s gi ve an n .

ano ther ex mp le D i vi d a . e

A ks 3 7 h 3 7 h 2 k” b y B h 7 c
9
c
g
2 c
,
ks
we W I11 fi n d Q h2 Qiulb + 12
4 ‘

I), lc
The corr e c n e s t
so f the p r ocess to fi n d o ut the q ti t i
uo en n all cases,

can b e d em on s r ate d t a l so in the f o o win g m ann er ll :

C ll t
a ’
, t”, t’ f the fi st
r , the seco n d , the thi d t m r er , &c . of the

q ti t
uo en t
ob ain e d b y dividin g A b y B, an d ca ll ” r , the
r em ain d er sc o r r esp o n din g to eac ht e r m o f t he q ti t w
uo en , e wi ll h ave

A t’ B

A— t’ B t” B A ( +
t’ t”) B
— t’ B — t” B — t” ’ B A fine .

And = A
S up p o se n o w, th t ft h i g b t i d
a a er av n o a ne the n
“
‘
t er m o f the q ti t
uo en ,

we s op the t O p ti
er a The p ly mi l
on . ' o no a

t! + 1” ll ” 0

r ep r e sen tsth q ti t e uo en ,
an d the l st
a r em ain d er . N o w, f
r om the

p r ecedin g q ti w
e ua on , e in f
er

B u t the q ti t f A di id
uo en o v ed b y B , mu s b e su c t h q a u an tity whi h, c ,

if mu ltip li d b y B ght t
e ou o give A, or , w ic isthe same , B (t
’h h t”
t’ ” b ut th t
is p r o d uc isevid en y o b ain e d b y tl t
T
a )
lt l
m u ip yi n g ( t/ t/ /
B
by B . T h er e f
or e ,

A i
'
n
r
— ,

13 B

T h ese r em ar ks, as we h ave ob ser ved , ar e ap p li cab e l a lik e to all

cases, w ht a ever mig ht b e the f

orm o f the d ivid en d an d o f the divisor ,
te ms f th q ti t
an d e v en o f the r o e uo en .

It m y th t s m d
a ll th t
occu r a o e , an ev en a e er ms ofthe q o ti
u en t h ave

a f cti al f m
ra on Dividi g f mp l
or . n , o r ex a e,

by B b + ab ,
 O P E R AT I O N S ON P O LYN O MI AL S . 87

da
4
a a
we wi ll fi nd
Vi i
N mb f “37
u er o . In this l th m i d
e xamp e , e re a n er z er o cann o t be
sq tly ti i g th ti
s l
h
a i hb
h ? the
e l
i fi
o i h
ca
f d o un , an d c o n e u en , c on nu n e o p er a on ,

mm mb nu er of the t m s fth q ti t b
er o e uo en ec om e s in d e fi it n e .

A d i
n s s imil
n ca e S ar to this w m e ay a dd the r em ain d er , with th e

o r d eno m ina
d ivi so r f t or , e ith ft
er a er the fi st r ,
the seco n d, th thi d e r

t er m, o f the q ti t
uo en . Let u ssee a n o th e r e xamp e l
Di i so
v r. Divid e nd . Quo ti t en .

k3 764 705
h+ @ a
r
—
v+ m

k5 ks
h“ its

16°
'
3
h

S up p ose now the Op er a ti on to b e in t

er r u p ed afer t t the fi str , afert
the secon d , an d afer t the thi d t m f th q ti t
r er o e uo en , &c .
, we will
h ave the f
o ll o win g e q u iva en l t q ti s e ua on

m
n h v
_

a h+ k h

n m r k“
h P + h+ k
'

W
“

n e k5 k3 a
h m+ h3 m+e hw
an d gen er a y, ll
k" lc“ kfl + 103 7c"
h+ k
—
h k f i n

F r om the l
S im p e p e c ion
in s t of the or d er in w ic h h the Sign s of the

p r ecedin g q ti
e ua o ns f
o ll o w o n e an ot h er , an d f
r om the unif
or mi y ofthe t
88 TR E AT I S E ON ALGE B RA .

t
p r o cess to o b ain an y n u mb er of er ms f or the t q ti t it is p l i
uo en , a n

th t
a the u
p p er of the two si gn s p ace d b e f
o r e the l l st t ms ( ) ist
a er a o

be u se d w h en n is an u n e v en nu mb er , an d the o th wher is en n ev en .

With r e g ar d to the o r mu
f l a
(a ) ,
th r ee dif
fe r en t ss h pp
ca e can a en .

T h t is w
a , e m ay h ave h k, or h
< k, or h It
"
a
in the fi st r case,
a
1

s
a
in the se con d ,
w
»
in the thi d r ,
a
n

In the l sta of th ese ca ses, b y in cr easin g in d e fi i t ly

n e the n u m b er of
k”
the t e r ms, a n d co n se q u en tly , n in the for m u l a
(a ) , the f
ac t or
h
o fthe

l st t m will m
a er or e an d m or e ap p r o ac h to z er o , an d con se u en q tly
lik wi s th wh l t
e e e o e er m
k"
i
h k h"

Bu t if
, b y in cr eas
in g t he n u m b er o f the t erm s in
(a ) ,
the l st
a of th em

co n s ant tly ap p r oac h e s to z e r o , we may say a the p o y n o mi a th t l l

h3 -
k“ k Icfl i 2 ' '

h +
? i :
h h3
h“

h h tis
w ic co n a n all the t er m s O f a
( ) wi th th e e xce p ti o n o f the l st is a ,

s h th t b y i
uc a n cr e asing the n u m b er o f its ter m s it con st tly p
an a

p r o ache sto the d e t er min e d v a u e ofthe l fi str n u mb e r o f a

( ),
m ly t
na e , o

k3
h k (s) .

We ca ll thisf ti r ac on a l e xp r essio n to d esign a t th t

e a it is e q al u to
the su m o fall the t
er m s

a
h” h3
’

ofthe ser ies in de fi it ly p t

n e r o r ac e t d ; th t is a ,

103 7c" k“ k5
( )
’ l
{6 +
a
h Is kg

The t er m
(r ) h er e o m i tt ed is c al e d l r esid ua lt er m , or r esiduu m, afer t
the n
"I
ter m.

In the o th er two cases of 1 or 1, this r esidu u m c ann o t be

o mi tt e d, b ecau se w h en 1, (r ) is co n s an t tly q l e ua to i “
’
h+ k
90 r a m r rsn ON ALGEB RA .

T ht a is to say, the quo tient, no less than the p r o du ct of two imaginar y

exp r essio ns o f the for m a + b \/ 1 , is a no ther imag in ary exp r essio n o f
the same for m .

A RTICLE III .

Fo r m at io n o f Po wer sa n d E x tr a ction o f Ro o ts .

69 Po wE R s
. .
—There isn o d f
fer e i n ce b etween the forma
ti o n p o we s of m on o m i ls an d
Of r a th t o f p oly n omi ls si ce
a a
,
n

the s m Op a eti o which i the for m er ase is to b e m de

era n, n c a

ab o u t a m o m i l oo t is to b m d e ab o u t a p oly o mi l
no a r ,
e a n a

i n the seco d All th f e that co n cer s this o p ti n

n .
,
ere o r ,
n er a o

wi t h rega d to mo o mi als ( C h p I 3 9) is to b e pp lied

r n a . . a

to the case o f p lyn o m i ls H e ce when the posi t i ve x

o a . n ,
e

p o e t m is wh le n um b er the o p erati n to b e pe for m d

n n a o ,
o r e

to ob t i th p o we Of a gi ve n p oly o mi al o roo t A is to
a n e r n ,
r ,

m u ltip ly th t s m o t by i ts lf as m
a a y tim es s the re are
e ro e
,
an a

u i tsi n m L t ust k e fo e x mp le the mo st si mple case

n . e a ,
r a ,
.

Th t is le t the gi ve n o t b the b i o m i l 1
a ,
d le t us
r o e n a z
,
an

tak e i n su ccessio fo r exp o n e nt m n m 3 &c w will h ve :

,
.
,
e a

E mpl s ( 1 + )
xa e . (1 + ) 1 +2 +
z 2 2 z 2 z z9

L —z “
( i ) z 1 + 3 z + 3z 9 + a
8

(a )
( +9
1 (1
4

0.

Ob ser ve n o w, that
1 + 2z + z 9

1 + 3 z + 3 z 2 + 23

—2
1+ 4z +
)
2 3
 E A
OP R TI O NS O N P LY O N O MI A L S . 91

Ther ef
o r e,

1 +z r
<
—
1 + 2z +

3(
— e e
”
3

s+ M
— 2
4 01— 1 )
2
a
ggy L ,

F rom un ifo r mi ty ob se r vab le i n these e volu tio nsof the

the
e r b y an alo y a
b in o mial 1 z we cou ld i n f
, g gen er al law ex ,

ten ding alike to all p osi tive a d whole p owers so that the m “
n
,

p ower of ( 1 z ) wo uld b e give n b y the for mula

m (m —~l ) m (m — l ) (m -
2)
m
(a _ 1 + mz +
2 3

co nt i i
a n n
g (m t u ti n u
1 ) er msin the e vo l o , b eca se, wer e he t y
m t t
2 , the las o f hem wu
o ld ha e am ov n
g its f ac o r s t
(m w i n w t u
m ) , h ch r e dersthe hole er m eq al to z er o The .

ac to r
sam e f (m m) would b e fo un d also i n all the follo w
i g te rm s Theref
n . ore the s aid e volu t i o n o f 1
, ( ) cann o t z
"

contai n m ore t han m 1 ter m s and con s e u en t ly t hr ee t erms

q , ,

when m 2 and four w hen m 3 &c aswe have see n in

z
,
2
,
.
,

the pr eced i ng exam ples .

I t ismoreover plain that in the same evolu ti on of(1

, ) z
7

the highest and last exp o ne nt o f z isequal to m .

Let us now m ak e z an d s ub s titu ting this ,

value in we w ill have

m (m — 1 ) y“ m (m -
l ) (m -
2 ) y“
1 +
2 9
95 v“
a

,
mu ltiplyi ng then b o th memb er sof
92 T RE A TI S E ON ALGEBR A .

the eq uat i on by s
o , we
“
w ill fin d
(e) .
y+

The f
o rm ter msOfthe b i no m ial
an d the o r der in whi ch the
.

(x + y ) e v olved su cceed o e a o ther was fir st discove red

“
,
n n ,

b y S i Isa c N ew to n he n ce t hisf
r o m u la
a
( ) b ear s the n ame ,
r e

o fi ts d i s o v c erer .

By me i du ctio n howe ve th co ect essofthe evolu

re n ,
r, e rr n

tio n is ot de m st t d A igoro usde mo str ti o Ofi t m y

n on ra e . r n a n a

b e s e i n the f
e nollo wi
g n u mb er Let u s ow ob ser v fi st n . n e, r ,

t h t the fo m u l
a r a

m (m — 1 ) ( m —2
) (m
Gen er al t er m .
—p p

1 . 4 .
p
re re sep nt s the te rm O f (e) S ub sti tu ti g i n fact
. n , ,

1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , &c . i nstead o fp ,
we wi ll fi d the seco n d the thi d
n
,
r ,

the f
o u r th te r m, &c . o fthe e v o lu t i o n He n ce (e ) is called
.
’

the g en er a l ter m o f the se r i es .

“
m (m 1) m (m — l ) (m 2) m
mm “ 9 “
a, 31 3 o
c
y .

2 2 3
S eco y su b st i tu tin g
n dl ,
2 an d 3, i n stead o fm, in the or mu la
f
( ) we have
e
,
’
+r
( +30
90
3
x“ 3 96931 3 m”+ r "
Ju st as we wo u ld Ob a nti ro m the
f first and seco n d (a ) , sub et i
ig li 223 x
u e
cu
b i mi l
'

tu ti n
g i n them i nstead ofz . Hence ,
the s
q ua r e
no a .
3/
fa
o bin o m ia l i s g i ven by the sq uar e of the r st ter m , the fi
d o u b le p r o du ct ofthe f ir st by the seco n d ter m, a n d the squ a r e
o
f the seco nd ter m .

The cu b e of a b in o m ia l con ta in s the cu b e of the fir st ter m

the tr ip le p r o d u ct of the squ a r e of the fi r st by the s i mp le
 O PERATI O N S ON P O LY NO M I A LS . 93

secon d ter m , the tr ip le p ro d u ct o

f the simp le fi rst ter m by
the s
qua r e o
f the seco n d , a nd fi na lly , the cu be o f the seco n d

ter m .

ume o r mu
the f l We say
f u s n e w r es
Bin o m ul
the
l“n o w
Q7 0 . Le t a

th t wh
a en m is a w hl o e an d t
p o si ive n u mb er , the evo lu
ti
on o f
(1 z
”
) isexac y tl r ep r e en s t e d b y the s e con d m emb er o f

Ob ser ve, fi st th t (
r , a a’
) X (1 + 2) or

(1 + z )
m (m — 1 m
)
— 2
( )
1 + mz + z 3
m (m — l )
+ +
’
23
2 + z
2

An d, ad d ing t o ge th er the simi l t

ar er m s

1+
2
z +

1 + (m + l ) a
”m m — 1
)

Th t ist a o say, ( )a’

(1 z
) q l t p ly mi l whi h t i s
ise ua o a o no a c con a n

m+ 2 t er m s,
one t er m m or e th th s f and this is sily
o e o an ea

sw h d m st t d th t th
‘

p r oved in the same manner a e ave mb e on ra e a e nu er

t
o f er m sin (a ) d o n o t excee d (m +
’

No w, su b si t t ti u ng m 1 in sead t of m in we h ave

th t is th p od t f ( ) b y (1
a ,
e r Th f
uc wh t Ob th a
’
ere or e , a ever e e

wh l o ed p siti an mb m th p d t f ( ) b y (1
o ve nu
) is er , e ro uc o a’ z

o b t i d b y h gi g i ( ) m i t m
a ne c an 1 W m y wp n d t n a’ n o . e a no r o cee o

d m st t th th
e on m sfll ws
ra e e eo r e a o o

If th p ly mi l ( ) is th
e o x t e l ti f
no a mp l f th
a’ e e ac vo u on , or exa e, o e

thi d p w f 1
r owh m 3 it will b
er o ls th l ti fth
2 en , e a o e evo u on o e

f th p w
ou r f th s m b i mi l m ki g m
o er o 4 ; b t if ( ) isth
e a e no a , a n u a’ e

e xac t l ti fth f th p w f 1 + wh m 4 it m st
evo u on o e o ur o er o z en , u

b l s th l ti f th fi fth p w f 1
e a o e e vo u m ki g m
on o 6 d e o er o 2, a n , an

so on . Th f wh t b th mb
er e o r e , f its i m b 3
a ever e e nu er o un n a ove ,

p vid d with m
ro e 3 th p ly mi l ( ) gi s th l ti f, e o no a a’ ve e ev o u on o
94 TR EAT I S E ON ALGE B RA .

(1 z 3
) it wi ll gi ve the th t this p o wer
ev o u l ti on a ls o of so a

in s pp
o ur is
u o siti
p s t d b y th p ly mi l
on ex ac tly re r e en e e o no a

B t i d ed ( ) isth
u , n e , f (1
a’
(1 ) wh w m ke
e evo u l ti on o z 3, en e a

m 2 m 3 wh i h m y b
, si ly ,
ifi d mp i g ( ) w
c a i th the e ea v er e , co ar n a’

f m l s( )
or u aTh f a wh . m is y wh l d p siti
er e o r e , mb en an o e an o ve n u er ,

th v l ti f (l m is i l mi l A d si ce
e e o u
) on o g b y th p y z ven e o no a n n

we h s aveth t m ki g i ( ) z i
een ,
f a th s m ( ) is h ged
a n n a
’
,
e a e a
’
c an

i to th N wt i
n e f m l ( ) ; th
e l ti th f e ofth b i mi l
o n an or u a e e e vo u o n, er e or ,
e no a

( +
2 d i g t th k wn l w is ls ig
accor n sly d m st t d
o e no a , a o r or o u e on ra e
,

wh t r m y b th wh l
a eve a d p siti e l fm e o e an o ve va u e o .

Si g l pn Q7 1 Th
u ar ro fi i ts f th f M l ( ) h e th
f . e co e c en o e o u a e av e

f
zg aflf
z fgg si g l p p ty f p s
n t i g th
u ar m b e s f om
ro er o re r e en n e nu r o c

Mmfl ‘a b i ti s f m dif f t q titi s H c b ef we

na on o er e n u an e . en e, or e

sp k f the
ea t ti f ts w will dw ll h
o e x r ac p
on o thissubj e t r oo , e e er e u on c,

asw ll s p e th s fth p
a u on di g f m l s i o der to fi d o t
e u e o e r ece n or u a ,
n r n u

s me
o m i l p p ti s
nu er c a ro er e .

P m t ti s
er u a
Let b
on
d p s t m dif a,fe t,
symb lsc, , re r e en r en o .

Th fi st t k i s ssi with h e of the

.

e r a a en n u cce on eac on

f ll wi g 6
o o d n will gi, c,s (m ,
l ) bi i s b d ve u — nar e a , ac, a ,

B t j oi i g i
u , q lm n n th s n e d symb l 6 with ll the o th e s
ua an n er e e con o a r ,

we will h ag i ( m — I bi
ave
) i s; d l t th s m b s id of the
a n na r e an e e a e e a

thi d f th
r , d sou r I this m
, an w will ha e
o on . j i d to b n ann er e v a o ne ,

a d
n g i 6 j i d t
a a n j i d t o ne d ls to &c ; f
o a, a o this o ne o c, an a o c a, . r

r as
e this a g m t f symb lsis t m d p m t ti
on r r an e en B t f
o o er e er u a on . u or

e ach symb l th mb fp m t ti s f th l tte st ke tw d

o e nu er o er u a on o e e r a n o an

tw is m
o 1 d th symb ls , i
an mb ; th ef
e o e the wh ole o ar e fi t n nu er er r ,

nu mb fp m t ti s f m l tt s t k
er o er u a tw d two is
on o e er a en o an

m (m
Ag i a n, the b in ar y ab j o in e d in su ccession wi th eac ho ne ofthe r emain

in g symb o s, wi give u s m l ll ame we m s s

2 tern ar ies an d the s ay ut
of all the o er b inar i es th
N o w the n umb er of p er m ati ons of m . ut
symb o s l t ak en two an d two is m(m th er e f
o r e, the n umb er of

p ermu t tia ons of m sym b o s l tk a en thr ee an d thr ee, is

m (m 1 ) (m
It is n ow easy to se e, tha t th e n u m b er o f p er mu a t tio n so fm y mb o s
s l
tak en fo ur an d fo ur , is
m (m 1 ) (m 2 ) (m
an d ll
g ener a y, the n u mb er o f p er m u t ti
a o n sof m symb ols tak en p and

m(m — 1 ) (m —
p, is (p
 O P ERATIO N S on P OL YN O MI AL S . 95

B ut if to the p r ecedin g b in ar ie s, er n ar ie s, & c , w e w o u d add all t . l

those w ic h h
co m e ou t fr o m the r ep e i io n of the s am e s v mb o ls— for tt
examp e , an, l bb , a aa , a ub , bb c, to the n u m b er m (m — 1)
o f the t er m s ak en t two an d tw o — w e mu s t th en a dd m m or e b in ar ie s
an d sin ce m (m l) m me,

the n u mb er o f p er m u a t ti on s o f m t er m s t ak e n two an d two , w i th th e

r ep e titi o n o f th e sam e s
ym b o l ,
is

We wou ld fi n d in a simi l ar m anner , th t m a a

give sthe n u mb er o fp er mu
tation swi th th p f th s m e re l e titi
t t on o e a e symb o so f the m er ms ak en
th d th
r e e an B t l t sir ee . stig t th s bj t ss m i g it i
u e u n ve a e e u ec , a u n n a

m or e
g lp i t fi w
en e r a o n o v e .

P m t ti Q7 2 S p p s m l tt s t b t k 1 1 dp l
u o e e er o e en 1— an
'
a -

on s .
er u a , ,

w ith p titi s i
re e
ll p ssib l m
on
ns with a t l di g th p ti o e anne r , ou ex c u n e re e

ti on o f th s me t m s e a er .

T b t i th s m m sym b l s t k
o o a n e p d p it is
a e gh t dd o a en an , en o u o a

i sn ssi
u cce th m t m s t
on h f th ll ti s f th s m t ms
e er o eac o e co ec on o e a e er

t k p 1 d p 1 d m k th dditi i th l st p l
a en an ,
an a e e a on n e a ace .

T d m st t this p p siti
o e on ra e l t f b f th m symb ls ro o on, e e on e o e o .

Am g th t m s t k (p — l ) d (1
on e er th m st b s m
a en an 1 er e u e o e

co ll ti si whi h f d s t t t ll th s i whi h f t s
ec on n c oe no en er a a , o er n c en er

On ly th s i whi h it t s twi & T s m m st b

o n ce , o er n c en e r ce , c. he a e u e

wi th g d t th symb ls t k
re ar o p d p ; b t ll th s
e ll ti s f
o a en an u a e e co ec on o

t ms t k p d p d l d i g j m st t i ly t mi t with
er a en an , an e xc u n ;
u ce r a n er na e

an y symb l pt fo : T bt i
exc e th f ll th ll ti s f o o a n, er e or e, a e co ec on o

t m st k 1 d p with th
er a en 7 an l si ff it is ,gh t dd i e ex c u on o ,
en o u o a n

s u ccessi t h
on fth s
o e ac ll ti s t k p l d p on e o d e e co ec on , a en — an an

wh i h c l d f; ll th m symb ls p t f; b t ddi g t th s m
exc u e a e o e xce u a n o e a e

co ll ti s ls f w will b t i ll th s t k p d p
ec on a o ,
e tiig o a n a o e a en en , con a n n

f onc e, and i th l st p l n e a ace .

Aft th ll ti s fsymb lst k p l d 3 1 d l d

er e co ec on o o a en — an 7 — , an ex c u

i g f
n ; m th s w hi h
co e t i f ly
o e sm fw hi h m st h
c co n a n on once , o e o c u ave

f f th fi st s m f th s d s m f th thi d t m d s
or e r , o e or e e co n ,
o e or e r er , an o on .

N w o ,d di g t th
a n d f h o f th m th m t m s
e en ft o eac o ne o e e er , one a er

an o th with th l si ff w will id tly b t i ll th p ssib l

er e exc u on o ,
e ev en o a n a e o e

co ll ti s fm t mst k 1 d p d i whi h f t s ly
ec on o er a en 7 an , an n c en er on o n c e,

e ith eri th fi st s
n de thi d p l
r d s
, econ
pt th s , or r ace , an o o n , e xce o e

whi h c t i fi th l st p l ; b t w h s h w th y
co n a n n e a ace u e ave e en o e ar e

o b t i d i th fi st ddi ti
a ne n de w ift th s m t m st k p — l
r a on , an no o e a e er a e
96 r snar i sn ON ALGE B RA .

an d 11
— 1 . an d co u taini n g f on ly o n c e, we ad d f o n ce mo r e f
or the

l st t m w will h th s ll ti s f t ms t k 1 d p i
a er , e ave e e co ec on o er a en 9 an , n

wh i h f c t stwi wi then er fth m h w st tly t th d

ce , o ne o e ,
o e v er , co n an a e en .

If w t ne h ll ti of t m s t k 1 1 d p — l d
o eac co ec on er a en 1 — an , an

t i i g f twi w dd i s ssi ll th m t mswi th th x

co n a n n ce, e a n u cce on a e er e e

ce p ti ff th s t g th
on o with th l st m ti
, e e, d will gi o s ll e er e a en on e , ve u a

th ll ti s f t ms t k 1 d p i whi h f t stwi i ll
e co ec on o er a en 9 an n c en er ce n a

p ssib l w ys It is
o e w pl i
a th t ddi g lik wis t ll th
. no a n, a a n , e e, o a e re

m i i g
a n n ll ti s f t ms t k p l d p 1 ll th m l tt s
co ec on o er a en an a e e er

i s n ssi
u cce w w ill b t i on ,ll th s t k 1 e d p wh f t s o a n a o e a en ) an , en en er

th f
r ee, fi tim s & i ll p ssib l w ys B t wh t
o ur , ve e is , c. , n a o e a . u a ever

d m st t d w ith
e on g d t th symb l f is
ra e id tly pp l i b l t
re ar o e o ev en a ca e o

a ll th th s H
e o dd i g i s
er ssi
. th m t m s t
e n ce , h a n n u cce on e er o ea c

co ll ti f th s m t ms t k p 1 d p l with ll ki ds f
ec on o e a e er a en -
an — a n o

p m t ti s d
er u a
p ti ti s w wil l b t i
on an ll th s m p m t ti s
re e on , e o a n a e a e er u a on

w ith th p ti ti s fth t m st k
e re e p dp ; ond th mb o fth e er a en an an e nu er o e

co ll ti s f th t m s t k p d p is id tly m tim s s g t
ec on o e er a en an ev en e a r ea

a s th mb
e nu f ll ti s f th t m st k
er o 1 1 cod p 1 ec on o e er a en 7 an .

L t s e wu ll N th m b f ll t s f th » t mst k
no ca e nu er o co e c i on o e 1 er a en

p 1
— d1 — 1 an Th mb 7 f ll ti s fth s m t m st k
. e nu er o co ec on o e a e er a en

1 ) and 1 will b gi ) by e ven

B t s p p si g p
u u 3 o d sq
n tly p 1 2 ; s w h , an , co n e u en , a e av e

s e eni th p n di g mb e N i th is s is
r e ce mi Th
n f th nu er n ca e . er e o r e , e

nu mb f p m t ti swi th
er o p titi s f » t ms t k
er u a th d
on re e on o 7 er a en r ee an

th is r ee m m m“ 2
. .

B t if th
u mb f ll ti s f » t ms t k
e nu er oth d th is co ec on o 7 er a en r ee an r ee

N m it f ll w s lik wis th t th
3
, o mb o f ll ti s f th
, e e, a e nu er o co ec on o e

s m t ms t k
a e er f d f m st b m m
a en m‘ d so
our ; an ou r u e 3
.
, an on

an d sq
co n e tly w g lly i f th t th mb fp m t ti s
u en ,
e en er a n er a e nu er o er u a on ,

with p titi s f m t
re e st k p
on d p is o en n a en an ,

N 772 2 .

H o w the sam e Q7 3 We . ar e n ow ab e l t o inf

er again the gener a l
l f m l f simp l p m
p r oce ssg i vesthe
t ti
'

s S pp s th p m
or u a o e er u a on u o e e er u
ge n e r al for mu as
.

t ti s f m symb l s t k E h
fi fifl f gg d p — l
( fi
1
zgfi 7 —
l ’
a on o o a en an
t 1 . ac

ti son symb l t s ly i th s ll ti s d th o en e r on o n ce n e e co ec on , an e

sym b l f f omp l i sm f th m w ill b th fi st i

. o r e xa th sth e, n o e o e e e r , n o er e

s d i
eco n th s th th i d d s
, n till th l st T ll th s j
o er e r , an o on , e a . o a e e

cann ot b d d d t b t i th p m t ti s fsymb lst k p d

e a e o o a n e er u a on o o a en an

b t ddi g th
u a symb l s w w ill b t i th t ms t k
n o er
p d p co o e o a n e er a en an n
98 TRE AT I S E ON ALGEB RA .

f
o r m ed wi th an y two an d the sam e symb o s, wi l th an y th r ee

an y p , we wi ll h ave

v, 2 1 2
3 2 1 2 3

r
p
=p (p 2 (p — l
p ) .

I t i sn o w e asy f
or u s to de t er m in e the simp e l co mbin a tio ns o f m given
sy mb o s l .

Q74 In the simp l e co mb in ations we e xc u d e l all the

t
.

Co mb ina io n s .

co ll ti ec o n s of er m s in t h h t l st symb l is
w ic t a ea o ne o no

di f
fe r en tf r om the symb o ls f th o ll ti
an o F mp l the
er co ec on . or ex a e,

sym b o s a l an d b can be co mb i d with dne b ut ft h i gt k c, , a er av n a en

ab c, a bd , we l
e xc u d e all th p m t ti
e swhi h
er b e f m d with
u a on c can or e

the sam e t erm s a, b , c, o r a , b, d .

C ll
a n o w 723 the nu mb er of simp l e c o m bi na ti on s o f t er m s t ake n

th r ee an d th r ee . Fr om th t whi h w h a c e a ve j stu ob se r ve d , an d r om
f
the p r e ce di n g f
or m u l it f ll ws fi st th t th
a v3 , o o r , a e n u mb er o f p er m u a t
tio n s o f an y th r ee an d th s m symb ls is2 3
e a e o ,
an d , co n se q u en tly ,

n. + (2 3)
is the n u mb er o f p er mu a t ti o n s of all the m ter m s t aken th r ee an d

th r ee . Bu t thiss m a e n u mb er isexp r essed a ls

o b y m(m — 1 ) (m
th e r ef
or e, 723 + (2 . 3) m (m l ) (m

m (m 1 ) (m 2)
an d , con se qu en tly ,
2 3

In q lm
e ua ann er , cal in g l the n u mb er o f c o t
mb in a i on s made wi th
m symb ls t k o a en p an d p , an d m u ltipylin g n
,
by v
,
we wi l l t
ob ain the
nu mb er ofcorr esp on din g p er m u t ti
a on s n
, (2 3 b ut the same
n u m b er l
isa so given b y m (m 1) (m (p th er ef
or e ,

n
p + (2 . 3 . .
p m (m — 1 ) (m —
(p
an d , con se q u en tly .

m (m — 1 )(m — 2 ) (m —
(p — l
))
2 3 4 p
N o w, thisisth e gen er a f l
o r mu la o f the co ef
fi cien s o f(e) , an d m akin g t
in it p 2, 3, 4, & c , we ob ain the co ef cien so fthe
. ir d , t fi t th
o f the f
ou r th t er m , an d so o n , o f the sam e evo u l ti on . B ut at the
t
same im e, makin g p 2, 3, &c .
, we h ave the n u mb er so fcom

b in atio n sof m t er m s ak en t tw o an d two , th r e e and th r ee, an d so on ;

th er ef
or e , the co e fli ci en t o f the thi d t r er m of the l
evo u tio n of the

b in omia l ( + y)
25
“
gives the n u mb er of co t
mb in a ions o f m symb o s l
 OPERATI O N S ON POL Y N O MI ALS . 99

taken two an d two , the co efi cien t o fthe f

o ur th t er m givesthe nu mb er

o f co mb in a ti on s o f m t er m s aken t th r e e an d th r ee , an d so on .

O n so m e PW
p ty o f n um
Q75 . Let u sn o w make use of the o r mu
f l a
(e) to fi n d
er
b er s . a c er ai n t
p r op er y o f n u mb er s t .

o r mu
The f l a
(e) may b e c an ged in d e ni e y b y givin g difh fer en fi tl t
l
va u e s to y, to x, an d to m L e t u s ake in sead of the exp o n en m,
. t t t
the n u mb er If p r im e in i se f an d m ak e t l 2: h an d y 1 the evo lu
tion
(a) wi ll b e co m e

h h
lchh
k h 1) Mi c 2)
h"—3 &c
+ 2
+
f
.

z
?
"l + 1
2 3 4 .
(k i f
a n d con se u en q tly ,

— 2
( + ) +
k—
h 1 kh _
l

k(k

We may n ow
p assto demon sr a e the f
o o win g eo r em t t ll th
If the who le n umb er N is no t exactly divisib le by the
T heo re m .

p rime n umb er k , this nu mb er k will cer ta in ly exactly divide

k—
N( D 1 .

All the t er ms of the seco n d m emb er o f the l st q ti

a e ua on con aint
the f
ac t or k ; the w hl o e memb er , th er ef
or e , is e xac tly di isib l v e b y k,
an d , con se q uen tly , als o the fi st m mb (1 1 ) k h 1 i whi h
r e er 1 "
n c

It m ay h ave an y n u m er ica l l M k th f s ssi ly

va u e . a e, er e or e , u cc e ve

h 1, 2, 3 , &c .
, the t i mi l will b m s ssi ly
r no a e co e u cce ve

2h — 1 — 1 , 3" — 2" — 1 , — 3t — 1, & c .

,

an d a lw ys e a xac tly di isib l v e b y k, an d , co n se u en q tly , the su m o f the

fi st
r two, or th r ee , or f
our , an d so on , will ls a o b e di visib l e by k .

No w, the fi str of th ese ti r n om ia lsis q e u iva en l tt o

2" 2
an d con se q u en tly th e sum o f the two fi st is
r

3“ 3,
an d the su m o f the th r ee fi st r

4,
an d so on . So that N b ein g an y w hlo e n umb er , the b in omi a l
N" N
is exac y di visibtl l b y Is Bu t
*
e .

— l
Nk — N N (N’
H ence , w ht a ever he the w hl
o e nu mb er N , the p r o du c t N (N i — l
1 ) is
1 00 TR EATI S E O N ALc E B R A .

a l w ys a e xa c tly di isib l b y th p
v e e r im e n um b er k . C onse q uen tly if I t

doe sn o t e x ac tly di i d N i t m st v e , u n e ce ssar i ly (5 3 ) di id v e Nh 1 .

E l ti f a76 W h d (67 ) th
vo u on o . e a e f ll wi g q ti
o o n e ua on
mi l
3: tg
1 l i no a
z
bi s +
1 + z z2 8 24
f
l
zgg
e _
H “

n er s
th e wh m st h f ti er e 2 u av e a r ac on a l n u m er ica l l va u e , th t is
a ,

l ss th
e ity an u n .

B t h g i ( ) (69) m i t
u c 1 w
an e n a
’
n o , e wi ll h ave

—z —
+
z — za
+ z4
(1 ) l —
I
z z

1
wi th the seco n d m emb er in d e fi itn e. No w, (1 + 2 ) 1 z

1 z
ll q l t th i d fi it s i s p
isr e a y id d th
e m i l
ua o e n e n e er e . rov e e nu er ca

l f b f ti th f m l
va u e o 2 th f b sid s th
e a r ac on e or u a er e o r e , e e e ev o

l ti
u f th b i m i l 1
on o z is d t y w h l
e d p sit i
no
p w a ra e o an o e an o ve o er

m gi s ls th i d fi i t s i s q i l t t ( 1
, ve a o
) h gi g m
e n e n e er e e u va en o z
“

c an n

i t
n o 1 w ith th diti , hw th t th m i l l f e co n on , o e ver , a e nu er c a va u e o z

b l ss th
e e ity an u n .

N y m ath ,
m i l l f b i g s h h gi g i th
or e, e nu er ca va u e o 2 e n uc , c an n n e

f m l ( ) th sig t m it will gi
or u a a
’
s i d fi it s i s
e d n o , ve u an n e n e er e , an

e q i l t t y wh l d g ti p w f(1
u va en o an B s f m o e an ne a ve o er o e cau e, ro

z2 z3
(1 + ) z 1 — z + -

+ z4

we h ave , als o
m
(l + ) a
(1 — z
+ z2 -
)
C ll S
a ,
f
or the sak e ty ll th t ms f th
of b r evi , a e er o e ind e fi itn e ser ies,
wi th th e excep ti on o fth fi st; th p
e di g f m l
r e r ec e n or u a wi ll b eco m e

(1 + > 1+ s
< r z

i + ms+
el
m
And with
— 1 —
z
( z + z2

we h ave , a ls o

— 2 ’
1 — 2 z—
S2 z2
(l z + 2 z
[ ( z
g
+ (z
— — z" 1
SS — z3
(l z + [ — 3 (z
z‘ l —
z
z‘ 4 (z — z2
S4 ( z + z
[l —
+ &c .

An d , co n se q u en tly ,

mS mz (1 -
z + fi — z3
+ .

m (m — 1) m (m
2
S
102 TRE AT I S E ON ALGEB R A .

P , m iscalled i ndex or degr ee, and the r ad cal S i ign u sed isthe
sam e asf
or m ouomials
Thep r ocess of the o p e atio is to b e i n ferred from the r n

o pp osi te one ofraisin g to p ower s which may b e don e i n two ,

difleren t w ay s e i ther e xami n i g the m st gen er al case an d

'

n o ,
,

then ce deri vi ng p ract ical r ulesfor p a ticular an d determi n ed r

cas es o r commen ci n g wi th the s

,
i m pl st case The fi rst e .

me thod is u nquesti o ab ly su p e ior to the o ther

n Bu t the r .

secon d b esi de b ei ng easier f

,
f o ds u s all t hat which may ,
a r

co nven i e ntly fi nd a p l ce i the p ese nt ar t i le

a n r c .

Th e , f An d i t isfi st to b e o b se ve d t hat the s qu are or

n o o
r r ,

cub i cal r oo t gen e ally the ia r oo t ofa

lll
m ,
or or e r
mm
“ '
p oly n omi l m u st ec ssar i ly b e an other poly
a ,
n e

n omi l b ecau se a p ly m i l i s d to any power p reser ves

a o no a ra e
‘

co n stantly a mon omi l f m a d ther fo e i n the equ ati on

a or ,
n e r ,

1/ P R;
R m u st b e at least a ple a b ; then P
b i no mi al, for e xam , ,

whi h isthe squ e o fR is q l to th p odu ct (a + b ) (a b)

c ar ,
e ua e r

a
“ 2a b b th t is th squa e of the firs t ter m of R
2
a ,
e r ,

plu s the d oub le p rodu ct o fits two te r ms plu s the square of ,

the las t te m r .

I n this su pp osi ti n the efo e, P m u st b e a tri n omial, an d

o ,
r r

O e o fits te r msisthe s
n q u re o f the fir st te r m ofR He nce a .
,

takin g the squ are r oo t of this t m we w ill have the first of er ,

R The two remai i g te ms f P e the dou b le product of

. n n r o ar

the fi r s t by the seco d term of R plu s the squ are of the

n ,

s eco n d N ow di v idi n g the do ub le p ro d u ct b y the do ub le of

.
,

the fir st ter m of R al eady O b tai n ed we w ill ev i dently o b tai n

r ,

the s eco n d an d l s t ter m s f R This p rocess w ill b e better

a o .

u n der stood w i th an ex m p le a .

Let the gi ve p oly om i l b e n n a

E mplxa e
P m “
mr fl "
r
g 2 3
g
9
.

In order to hav e the squ ar e o f one of the ter msofR i n the

 OPERAT I O N S ON POLYN O MIALS . 1 03

fi st plac
r e, an d the d o uble pr o duct in the seco d n
,
arr an g e the

polyn omi a l acco r d n

g i to the p o we s o f a lette r r . Th s, we u
w ill have
P
“
m zrfl 2 m r 3 g2 g
mg r 6
“
2m r 3 g2f
g
e s ” 4
g 9
O)

f
o r the squ ar e ofthe fi st t r m ofP is m n d co sequently r e a
“ a
, ,
n

m r is the fi st te m o f R
8
S u b trac t
r w th squ
r o f mm . no e are "

fom P the rem i de

r ,
co t i s the d b le p d ct o f m
a n r 9; n a n ou ro u ra

b y the o th te m o fR t b f er o u d f th fi s
r t te m D i vi deo e n or e r
'

r .

th this te m by the do b l of m r whi ch gi ves g f qu

en r u e "
,
“
or o

t i t th se o d t m f R S u b t ti g w fom the
en , e c n er o . rac n no r r
,

p r od ct o f the secon d te m j u st fu d by the d u bl f the

u r o n o e o

fi st p lus th p odu t of the s o d t m by its lf th s d

r ,
e r c ec n er e ,
e e co n

r em ai de
“
m st b e eq al to
n r r uif P is r lly th sq e u z er o , ea e u ar

o f the bi n o mi l R s i t is i the p s t ex m p l
a ,
a n re e n a e.

Bu t the polyn omi l P ltho ugh pe f t sq e will t a ,

a a r ec u ar ,
no

alway s b e the s qu e of b i omi al Still wh tev m ight

ar a n .
,
a er

b the n u mb er of te m s i R the p ocessof the o p

e r t i o to n ,
r er a n

d i ve R f
er ro m P is lwaysthe s m e a a .

Th p ss
e L t i f t th
roce t R b p ly mi l mp s d f
e ,
n
‘

ac ,
e roo e a o no a co o e o
t
o s a th ft ms x W W 11 h
s : di y mb ‘ an b nu er n O er a e 1 av e

gg lggps m
q u ar r oo t

yi
a
v th
l
B
on
( b en : a c x

sm
a e d ¢r = a an

C lli g w A th s m p ly mi l R with th
a n no ,
e a
p ti ef th fi st
o no a , e e x ce on o e r

t m d A th s m p ly mi l with th
er , an 2
e a p ti ef th tw fi st
o no a e exce on o e o r

t ms d s ; d c ll i g t th two fi st t ms b t the fi st
er , an o on an a n , e r er a , , r

th +b
r ee a d s b sid s c, an o on , e e

R a b c

we wi ll h ave , also, R a, A ,

R a A,
R ta + A3 , & c .
104 T RE AT IS E ON ALGEB RA .

And con se uen q tly si n ce P R”

,

P ( a Ar ( t, Ar «+ A92
3

or , w ich h isth e same , P 2 aAl A}

e+ A:
ta2 + 2 t,,Aa A}
tit — 12 2 tn — l x

in w ic h h l st m mb t a e er , ,, p r e sen sall the er m sof R, wi

1 re tthe ex t th
ce p ti fth l st
on o d e a , an a: the nth o r as er m ofR S up p os l tt
in g, mor e .

o ve r , th wh l mb e o e nu er p to b e an y num b er t
b e ween 2 an d n — l

in c l si ly th g
u ve l ,
e e n er a exp r e ssion e q uiv a en l tt o P, wi ll b e
P tp z '

l '
2 tp Ar + A92

an d , con se q u en tly , JP (p

No w , it
,
r, t,” n am e ly , co mmen cin g wi th the fi st t r er m o fR,

t
c o n ain s o n e t
er m r m or e th an tp _
1, ro m t
b ut f ,
r, we h ave ,

als o {92 til — 12 2 19 — 17 7 2;

whi h l c va u e , sub s i tt t u ed in (g ) , gives

P r
“
2 5 A, A} ,

b u t in (y) we m ay c h an g e at p l ea sur e p in t o p 1 , in w ich h case

P t, _ 1
2
+ Ari — 12
H en ce , takin g the secon d m emb er of this a nd o f the p r ecedin g e ua q
ti on , we will h av e an o th er e q ti ua on , a sf ll o o ws

A, _
1
’
r
°
Ap e,
f
r om w i c h h t , akin g t, _
1 ,
2
w ic h h isi n bo th m mb e er s, we wi ll h ave

Ari — 1fl 24 l + t Ap l A? ”
3
9 —1
7 “ “ 7 " “

in w ich h it ist o be ob ser ved th t a r isthe fi st

r o f the t er ms ofA
P _
1.

S b sti t ti g
u u n n ow in this f or m u a, l instead of p , the num b er s 2 , 3,
n 1 in su ccession , Ob ser ve , th t a t, a, the fi st r ter m of R,

1 x, the l st t
a e r m o f the sam e R, we wil lh ave

2 aA, A ,
’
2 ab b“ [2 t, A, A 3]
z aA.+ A :
a .c oz
ms . A r]
A 2 tad + d" + [2 t.A ,

&c .

0 .

T h t is th l st b i mi l wi thi th b
a , e a no a n e r ack e ts fth fi st q ti
o e r e ua on is
th fi st m mb
e r f th s e d q ti er o e eco n e ua on ; the l st b i omi l withi
a n a n the
106 T RE A TI S E ON ALG EB RA .

fi r st t m f o m P
er r . To o b ta in the f ll o o w in
g te r ms, d i v id e the
fi r st te m s f ll r o a the re m a in d er s by the d o u b le of the f ir st
ter m ofthe r oo t. The fi r st r e m a in d er is the g i ven p o lyn o m ia l
P ,
less i ts fi rst te r m ; the su ccessi ve r em a in d e r s a r e o b ta in ed ,
by su b tr a cting f ro m the p r eced i ng o n e the d o u ble p r o d uct of
the ter m of the r o o t la st o b ta in ed by al l the p r eced i ng , p lu s

the squ a r e o l the sa m e

'

la st ter m .

iv
L et the g en p oly om al b e n i
E xa m pl s e
P
.

fi “
a b 4 a 5 b8 ‘ t
b aflr 4 d abs a
fi
b“,
we w ll ha i ve R
a
fi 2
b 4 a 5 bs
, 6 a 4 b“ 4 a 3 b5 a
9
b° (a 3 b 2 a 2 b’ a b"
e
l) “
*
G

4 a 5 b8 6c 4
a b
’ a

4 a 5 b3 4 a 4 b4
2 a ‘b ‘ 4 a."b5 a
fi
b"
2 a ‘b4 4a s a
fi
b“
0,
So , also, r o m the gi ve n
f p oly i
no m al s,

(L ) P a
fi ‘
b 4 u 5 b’ 6a 4 b 9 2 a 3 b9m
4 a2 bm 2am m9 .

P way” 2 x 7y 3 3 x 93/ 4 2x 5y5 m‘y s .

P 4 a 2b’
‘

12 61 3 53 13 a 9b4 6a b5 b“
P 49m4 S ilmvfl’n’a
i
we w ll fin d
R a
3
b° + Qa fi b + 0. m .

(2 0 R s may ” w’ r s
‘
90

R 2 a 3b 3 a b9 b” .

R 7 m “5 6122 .

s
E t ti f
x r ac
ts f
on o tical ru le gi ve n i n a i thm eti c
§ 78 . The p r ac r
q ua r e roo o
n u m be r . s to ex t ract squ e o ots of n u m b er s co t i s the ar r
,
n a n

sam e p ss o f o p e tio
r oce s for p oly om i als nd w
ra m y
n a n
,
a e a

demo n st te t h t i t mu st b e th same altho ugh i n so m re

ra a e
, e
 OP ERATI O N S ON P O LY N O M I AL S . 107

sp ects, a pp ar e n tly dif

f eren t in itsap l ca p i ti on. T he r ule is as
f w
o llo s

P ti
rac ce ,
S ep a r a te the g i venm b er i n to p er io d s of twonu

fig u r es, ea ch beg in n ing w ith un its a nd ten s E x .

tr a ct then the squa r e r o o t of the la st p er io d , thus

S econ d .

o b ta in ed , w hether it co n ta in s two fig u r es like the

o ther so r o n ly o n e, a n d if thisp er iod is n o t a p er
fect squ a r e ,

ta ke the r oo t o
f theg r ea test squ a r e n u m b er co n ta i n ed i n i t .

S u b tr a ct then this sa m e squ a r e n u m b er f r o m the

sa id p er io d , a n d a n n ex ing to the r em a in d e r th e

fi rst figu re o f the n ex t

p er io d , d i vid e the who le n u m b e r by
the d o u ble of the r o o t o b ta in ed The q uo tie n t w ill b e the
.

seco n d fi g u r e of the r o o t An n ex n o w to the r e

.

Fo u r th
fig
.

m a in d e r the seco n d ur e a lso o f the n ex t p er io d ,

a nd su b tr a ct fr o m the who le the p ro d uc t b ta in ed by m u lti

o

p ly i ng by the seco n d fig u r e, the f ir st fi g u r e of the r o o t r e

d o u ble d , w ith the seco n d a n nex ed to it . A n n ex
Fif
th
n ow to the seco n d r em a i n d e r , the fi rst fig u re o
f the
j b llo w ing p e r io d , and d iv id e the n um ber by the d o uble o
f the
r o o t a lr ea dy o b ta i n ed q ; ill b e the thir d
the u o ti en t u
gur e
-

fi .

Af ter thisa nn ex the seco n d g ur e of the p er io d to fi

S ix ht .

the s a m e r em a in d er an d su b tr a c t fr o m the whole

.

nu m b er the p ro d u ct, which will b e o b ta in ed by m u ltip ly ing

the two fi rst figu r es o
f the r oo t re d o u b led with the thir d

a nn ex ed to p ea t up o n this a n d the f
them , an d re o llo win
g
r em a in d er s the sa m e o er a tio n a s a b o ve
p .

The same r le ll b e b e er uwi

der s oo d b y an tt un t
p
E xam le s
t th gi v
.

e xamp le . Le e en nu m b er b e
N 1 5 5393 64 ,
wh chi will b e, sep ara et d i n to p e io d s asfo llo ws
r ,

N 1 5 , 5 3 , 93 , 64 .

N ow the p er od 1 5 is i no t a p er f
ec t
sq ar e , b u t 9 is the u
gr eatest squ ar e n mb er
'

u con t ain ed in it, hav n

g 3 f o r its r o o i t .

An d acco r d ing to the r ule , we w ll hai v e

108 TRE AT I S E ON ALGE B RA .

l st d i vi so r,
— 69 x 9)

2 d div sor , i 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 2 93
3 13 6 . 784 X 4 )
3d d i viso r ,
15 7 6 4 . 7 882 x
S O , lik e wise , f
r o m the
giv en n u mb ers
N Z 5 397 2 5 82 4 .

5 67 009 .

N 1 974 4 9 .

(4 ) N z
‘
56 82 1444 ,
we w ill fi nd,

(L) R 2 3 2 32 .

R z 3 57 .

R 2 7 5 38 .

H o w the ru le
Q 7 9 But let u ssee mor e c ear y how the p r ocesso fthe
. l l
g iv en f or the
t t
e x rac io n o f o p e r a tio n to o b ain the s u ar e r oo t
o f a n u mb er , isthe q t
t
sq uare r oo so f
th t l t t
p ly
o l
n o m ia s is
same as a to b e f ol o w ed in the e x r ac i on o f squ ar e
appli b l t ca e o
ts f po ly nomials An d f thi s b j t let us r e
th e t ti
e x r ac on
ro o o . or o ec

ofsq ts
u are r oo mar k th t , a
of mb
nu er s.
l st A p o lynomia l for m a lway s b e g iven to
t m k
Fi s r re ar .
. can any

A co m p ou n d co mp o un d who le number .
who le n u m b e r
ca n al w a s ak eyt We call here a comp oun d n um b er an y w hl o e nu m b er
the f
p ly
o
o rm o f a
no m ial
h h
w ic con ains t mor e han t on e fig ur e ; asfor in s an ce , t
l
. '

S im pl e wh ole
all the N‘ an d R‘ o f the p r ecedin g examp e s; an d a
n u mb er s. simp l e nu mb er , a. w hl
o e numb er of on y o n e l
gu r e , as fi
2 , 3, 9 . Let n ow A be an y simp l e n u mb er ; the p r o d uc t
A .
m
1 0<
— 1>

wi ll be a co m p ou n d nu mb er , c on ainin g t m fig ur e s, of w hi h c , co m

men cin g to r e cko n r om

f un i ts A isth
, e m“, an d the on ly on e d if
fer en t
f
r om z er o . l
L et, ike wise , h f th
e ac o e symb o s B ,l C D , , MN , re
1 10 TRE ATISE ON ALG EB RA .

sep ar a in g the cip t h si t

er n o p eri od so ftwo gur es eac fi h , we m ay im
medi a e y kn ow w tl h t is th
a e n umb er o f gur es in the fi c o rr esp on d in g
r oo t . It re main sn ow for u s to se e ho w th ese fi gu s f th re o e r oo tm ay

be f
o un d ou t f
r o m the p er i o d sin su cc e ssion , r ou th gh th s m e a e p r o cess
wi th whi h t t
c p ly
the er m s o f the r o o ar e f oun d o u ro t f m the sq u ar e o

no mi l a .

P ly mi l
o L t s fi st ob s
no a ex th t th fi st p i d mm i g e u r er ve, a e r er o co en c n

5531335 31333 with u its h s ip h s f t its lf; th s d h s

5
n a no c er a er e e eco n a
b er. tw d th thi d f fi g s ft th m d g o , an e r , o ur ur e a er e , an , en e

ra lly th mm p i d h s 2 m 2 fi g s ft its lf R p s ti g
e er o a — ur e a er e . e r e en n

no w by p 1 p pm p,,th s p i d s th sq
72 , f will
a, _
1, m, e e er o , e u ar e o v

b id tly
e ev p ss d b y
en ex r e e

11 W
zm “
(f ) o “
’ z °
pm l ‘

i
on -
+ 17 0
4 + P2 1 0 + 1l
Bu t [A 10"
.

an d
(77) q the s u ar e o f an y p o yn omi a l l o r mu
is exp r esse d b y th e f l a

( f) f
ro m whi h c , in ou
r
case , we ave h
u
“
A “
. 1 02" -
2
( ,t 0 1 0m

(2 t,D D ’
.
(2 t _
1 N+

w h er e t, A . B

A 1
B I on
—2
+ C 10m 3
&c ;

~
t,
- ' -

. .
,

an d, c on se u en q tly ,

—e
2 t, C 10”‘
. . 2AC 1 02 .
+ 2BC 102m ” .

—0
2 t, D 10m ” Z AD 1 0 W “
9
. . 2 BD . &c .

S ub si t t ti u n g n ow th ese valuesin orm ul a, we wi

the p r ecedin g f ll h ave

f v
°
= - 2
+ 2AB I OWA .
-

PB “
1 02W
.
“

+ 2AO
4
+ 2 BC 1 02M
+ 09 1 02m—4
-

. .

+ Z AD .

&c .

Bo th or mul as
f f’ ) an d h a diff f”) give the sam e l
va u e o f v2 wit er

e n ce , h owever , whi h ist b em k d h

c S pp s f mp l o e r ar e er e. u o e, or e xa e,

A =3 and B 4 The fi st d s d t ms f th squ

. f r an e con er o e ar e o v

given b y t k s p t ly f m th st will gi s
a en e ar a e ro e re , ve u

A2 102 m 2
+ Z AB 1 0W 9 IW 24 1 0W
'

. .

—2
+ (2 . 10 +

9 102m . l ow —2 + 4 . 1 02”

11 ADM 2
+ 4 1 0m
-

.
 OPERATI O N S ON P O LYNO MIAL S . 11 1

It r om
ap p e ar s f th t s m its f th s d t m th is r e du c ti o n, a o e un o e eco n er

2AB 1 0m — j i th it s f high 3
d d
o n t i t th fi st e un o a er or er , an en er n o e r

t m Th s m thi g
er . swith e g d t th f ll wi g t m s
a e d n occu r re ar o e o o n er , an

b tw th f m l s ” isth t i th fi st th
th dif
e f er en c e
(f ) e een e or u a a n e r e

p i d sp
er o t i ll th its whi h m y p ssib ly b
m, con a n a e un c a o e

red d t th i
u ce sp ti d o; i th s d sm
e r re fth it s f ec ve or er n e econ ,
o e o e un o a

high d f m p t fth s ssi t ms B t wh

er o r er or y sq ar o e u cce ve er . u en an u ar e

nu mb is gi itsp i d s
er si i whi h th t m s f th
ven , er o ar e a n n c e er o e

r oot d t s disti tly p p

o no si (f ) oW m y still s f ly s y nc a e ar a n f . e a a e a ,

th t A 1 0
a th sq
2
. fth fi st t m fth
2“ 4
,
t is lt g th
or e u ar e o e r er O e r oo ,
a o e er

i l d d i th p i d p
nc u e d th d b l p d t 2AB IO
n e f th
er o m, an e ou e ro uc
M
o e

fi str d s d t m fth
an t d s t g b y d th fi st fi g
e con er f o e r oo oe no o e on e r ur e o

th f ll wi g p i d p d th sq B 1 0m f th s d “ t
eco n
“

e o o n er o m _
1, an e u ar e . o e

t m f th
er t d s t g b y d th s m p i d p
o e r oo d s oe no o e on e a e er o m _
1 , an o on .

L t s bs
e u ls th t mp i g f i st
o er ve, a th mb o, a co ar n , or n an ce, e nu er

B2 1 02"‘.

h h h isth
e , w ic e sam e, (2 A . 10 B) B m en — 4
,

(2 A . 10 B)B,

the ly di f
on er ence to b e f
o un d b e ween the two t n um b er sis th t i a n

the fi st th p
r , e r o du c t (2A . 10 B) B isf
o ll owe d b y 2m 4 c ip h s; er

in the seco n d , the same p r o d u c isf o o wed b y n o cip er In the case , t ll h .

h f
t er e o ,
r e in w ci the c ip er s in d ic a e d by h h
102m — Q
wou d n o t b e h t l
taken in t o accoun t th , e n u mb er
(2 A . 10 B) B m ay b e used in s ead t
of
(2 A . 10 B) B
We may p r o cee d to se e the r eason o fthe Op er a ion to b e p er
n ow t
f
or med an d exp r es sed b y the r ul e, in or d er to ex rac the s u ar e r oo t t q t
o f any given n u m b er .

We mu s commen ce b y t t akin g fi st fi g
f
o r the r ur e o fthe r o o t th sq e u ar e

r oo t ofthe l st p
a er io d , or r a th th sqer t e u ar e r o o o f the hi gh st sq e uar e

nu mb er in the p er o
co n a n e ti d
en , a er avin g u r ac e the i d Th ft h
. sbt td
q
sam e s u ar e n u mb er f r o m the s aid p er io d , we wil ob ain the s e con d l t
figur e , b y dividin g b y the d o ub e ofthe nu mb er a r ead y ob ain ed fo r the l l t
ro o t th e r em ain de r asf
ar asthe fi st fig
r ur e , inc l ive
us ly o f the f
o ll ow

in g p er io d sin ce the se con d fig ur e o fthe r oo t

mu ip lied b y the
, lt
d ou b e o fthe l
fi st iswithi th s limits I th h r ,
n e e . n ism ann er we ave the

p t f th
ar t whi h is b t i d d p ss d i s p t t m sb y
o e r oo c o a ne an ex r e e n e ar a e er

A 10 + B lth gh ig
. sly sp ki g th s m t mssh l d b
, a ou , r o r ou ea n , e a e er ou e

p ss d b y A 10 A is th mm d B th m— 1
ex r e + B e si . . n ce e , an e
1 12 TR EATI S E ON ALGEB RA .

(m — l “
) fig t ; b t i f”) w h th t ms
ur e afer uni tsint the r oo u n e ave e er

2 AB 1 0 . B m w
2“
th i q i l t (2A 1 0 + B )B 10
“
.
e
, or e r e u va en .
2m “
,

whi h c t i d withi th p i d p
ar e con a n e f d h i g n e er o n _
l o an av n no

c onsid ti f th f ll wi g ip h s s w d with
er a on or e g d t the
o o n c er ,
a e o re ar o

fi g si thur e t ; thisisth p d t fth d b l fth fi st ip h

n e r oo e ro uc o e ou e o e r c er

A b t i d f th
, o a ne t p l s th s d ip h B m l tip li d b y B
or e r oo ,
u e e con c er ,
u e ,

w hi h b i g s b t
c e nt d f m th m i d sf sth wh l p i d
u r ac e ro e re a n er , a ar a e o e er o

will gi t m i d Z AC l O 2m 5
10
'

f th
‘

ve or e n ex re a n er

& 2 (A 10
c. , or B )C 1 0 . & H t ki g thi s m i d s 2m ‘
5
c. en ce, a n re a n er a

far a sth fi st fi g e f th p i d
r w h i it th p d t f
ure o e er o e ave n e ro uc o

th d bl fth t l dy b t i d m ltip li d b y th th i d fi g t u e
r
e ou e o e r oo a r ea o a ne , u e e r o

b y tf
e e d ; t fi d th
ou n f thisthi d ip h w di id th m i
o n ,
er e or e , r c er , e v e e re a n

d er a sf s th s id fi g
ar a f th p i d pe ab y th d b l f thur e o e er o m _
2 e ou e o e

r oot b t i d Th m b th th sf b t i d f th
o a ne . e nu t is er en u ar o a ne or e r oo ex

p ss d b y A 1 0 + B 1 0 +
re e .B t t ki g th wh l p i d p
°
i 0. u a n e o e er o m _
2 n

w h i i t 2 AO 2BC f "
th m i d ’
‘

e re a n er , e ave n . c .

or (2 (A B 1 0) C )C 10 d h i g sid ti f 2m
an av n n o con er a on or

th f ll wi g ip h s xp ss d b y l ow
—5
e o o n c th s id
er m i d e c re e , e a re a n er on

t i s th p d t f th d b l f th tw fi st fi g s fth
a n e ro uc o e t ou e O e o r ur e o e r oo ,

p l sth th i d fi g
u e ll m l tip li d b y th s m thi d fi g
r ur e , a ; d this u e e a e r ur e an

p d t b i g sbt
ro uc t d f m th m i d will gi s th
e n u r ac e ro e re a n er ve u an o er r e

m i da n whi h t ker , sf sth fi st fi g

c f th fll wi g p i d
a en a ar a e r ur e o e o o n er o

t i s th p d t 2 (A 1 0 B 10 C ) D 10 ” whi h
con a n e ro uc .
°
.
2m
, c ,

h ig
av n sid ti f th fll wi g ip h s is th p d t fthe
n o con er a on or e o o n c er ,
e ro uc o

d bl
ou f th e O t b t i d b y th fi g t b
e r oo t f d Di idi g
O a ne e u e
r
o e n ex o un . v n ,

th f th l st m i d sf sth s id li mit b y th d b l f
er e or e, e a re an er a ar a e a e ou e o

th t b t i d w will h f q ti t th f th fi g
e r oo o a ne ,
e & av e or uo en , e our ur e , c.

It is t ss y t g
no n f th
ne ce t s ar wh t p i ip l s th
o o o ar er o ee on a r nc e e

l gi
ru e t t t sq
ven ts f mb s sts d t s ls
o ex r ac u ar e r o o o nu er re , an o ee a o,

th t th p ss f th p ti isid ti l ly th s m sth t fth

a e r o ce o e o er a on en ca e a e a a o e

t ti f ts f p ly mi ls lth gh s m wh t m
e x r ac on o r oo o mp li
o no a , a ou o e a or e co

t d
ca e ,
t fth i ts fth sq s f h fi g
o n acco un o fth
e un t o e u ar e o eac ur e o e r oo ,

sp
e t d i diff t d s d p i ds
ar a e n er en or er an er o .

E xtrac tion o f § 80 . In the same ma n n er as the r ule to ex

cu b i cal r o o tso f
p ly
o no m i a s l . t
t the square r oo t from p oly om als i s f ed
r ac n i ,
i n err

fo m the f
r or m t i o o f the s u ar e p o we
q the u le to ex t ct
a n r, r ra

the cu b i c l roo t O f a gi ve n p oly n o m i al is ded u ce d f

a r o m the

for m at i o n ofthe co rres p o n di n g p o w e r.

1 14 TR EATI S E ON ALGEBRA .

u o ti ent a b he n ce res u lt i n is th e seco n d t erm o fR T aki n

g
q g .

the n fr om ( 3) the tr ip le p r o duct o fthe squ ar e o fa ”by a b

7 .
,

plu s the tr i ple p r odu ct Ofthe squar e o fa b b y ” p lus the a

,

c ub e o fa b the re mai n der ( s

, ) resu lti ng fr om thi so p er at i o n i s
r

equ al to P mi n u sthe c u b e o fthe r o ot

,
so f ar o b t ai n

ed . Ther efor e d i vi di ng ( s) b y the tr i p le p rodu ct O f the

,
r

sq u ar e o f(a + a b ) the fir st ter m resu lt i n g f

2
,
r o m t hisd i vi s ion
isan o ther ter m of R N ow the tr i ple p r odu ct o f the sq u ar e
.

o f (a +
9
b ) is 3 +a 3 a b ; and p er f
a
4
or m i n
g the
9 "

d i v i si on we fin d c f
,
or the thi r d t er m of R S u b tr act i n g n ow .

f e t r i ple p r od u ct o f ( ) b p lu sthe tr ip le “
rom
( )rth , + b y a
2
a 0
,

p r odu ct o f ( a a b ) b y p lu s “ the r emai n de ( s) will b e

’
0 r r

eq u al to P m i n u s the cub e o f( a + a b ) b u t ( s) isfo un d

°
c , r
,

eq u al to z er o ; t her e f o re the cu b i cal r oo t o f the g i v e n p oly

,

n o mi al P isR a + b The p r ocess of the Op er at i o n

9
a c.

iswholly f ou n ded in t hi s t hat the p ar t o f the r o o t o b t ai n ed

,

isregar d ed asa si ngle ter m an d the p ar t to b e ob t ai n ed asa ,

secon d ter m .

In si m i lar man er f r om n
,

P m9 3 m5n 6m4 n 9 7m °n3 6m9n4 + 3 mm5 n

we w ill fin d WP; or
R m“ ma n
”

And f
ro m P 8a “ 12 a 5 b 6a ‘b’ a b
a a
,

We w ill fin d VP , or R 2 a9 + a b .

E tractio n o f
x t t
c u b i cal roo sof
QSI The sam e p r o cess is ap p i cab e to the ex r ac
. l l t
nu mb s er . l ti on l
o f cu b i ca r o o s of n u mb er s An d r ecal in g to .

mi d th t whi h w h
n a l e dy m k d (79) with g d to the
c e ave a r a re ar e re ar

e xt ti fsq
r ac on O oo ts f umb s it will b e s
uar e r y t s the id tity
o n er , e a o ee en

o f th e O
p ti wi th er a mp l
on an exa e.

B t l t s fi st ob s v th t th
u e u r b ic l p w N f er mbe, f a e cu a o er o a nu er v o

m fig s AB C
ur e t t i m th 3 m fi gu s cann o l ss con a n or e an re , n or e

th an 3 m — 2 ; th f di idi g th gi e p w
er e or e, N i t p i ds f v n e v n o er n o er o o

fig st k th d th th l st fth s p i d swill ith

"

ur e a en r e e an r ee, e a o e e er o e er c o n

tain th e fi g re s lik th th s
ur e ly tw e s dly
e o er , or on o , or even on e e co n ,

th e nu mb fp i d s f N will b
er o q l t th t f th fi gu s fits
er o o e e ua o a o e re o
 OPERAT I O NS ON POLYN O MIALS . 1 15

cub ica r o o l t v. By ob ser va ion ssimilar to t th p r evio u sy m ad e

ose l
we fi n d, b es
id es, th t tha e cub ica
p o wer l of the rs gur e fi tfi
o f v is A
en ti ly i
re n the l st p i
a er t ip l p
o d o f N , an d the r e r o du c t of A “
by B
d o e s n o t go b e y d th fi st fi g
on efth fll wi r ur e o e o o ng p er i o d , an d the
l
cu b ica p o wer o f (10A + B ) is ti ly withi th en re n e same p er io d , & 0
But let u ssee an exa mp l e

Le t the given p ower or numb er N be 3 40122 2 4, or t

sep ar a in g it in to
p er io ds, let N
v or VF t the
: mu s n con ain t th r ee fig ur es, an d we can r ep r esen t it b y
v ABC .

The op er a tion to fin d ou t th ese cip h er sp r oce e d sas f

o ll o ws

A 3
A8 27 27

3 (1 0A)B’ B3 5 7 68

3 (1 0A B)‘ 21 87, (r ) ,
1 2
1 2 44 2 24

C 4 (T )a 0 .

3 (1 0“A 1 0B )‘ c S (IG° A + 1 0B) c° 03 1 2 4422 4 .

The high st c e u b ica lp ower con ain ed t in the p erio d 3 4 is 2 7, an d the

l t is 3 th
p ondin g cub ica
cor r e s r oo , or e, A
er ef 3 , an d AS 2 7,
wh i h b i g s b t
c en t d f m th l st p i d f N
u r ac e ro e a er o o , we h ave thefi st r

rem i d 7 ; t this m i d w j i th fi st fi g
a n er o re a n er e o n e r ure 0 o fthe fll w
o o

i gp i d
n d di vid 7 0 b y 3A th t is b y th t ip l
er o an e
“
, a , e r e ofthe q
s u ar e of

th t b t i d ; th q ti t is2 d th f
e r oo o a ne e uo en , an er e or e , the secon d fig ur e

B of v is 2 . N ow, j oining to 70 the two r emain in g fig ur es of the

p eriod 012 , sub r ac f t t

r om 7012 the r ip e p r o du c of the s u ar e o f 3 0 t l t q
lt l l t l
mu ip ied b y 2 , p u sthe r ip e p r od u c o f 30 mul ip lied b y the s u ar e t t q
l
o f 2 , p u sthe cu b e o f2 , a is, su b rac 5 768 f th t
r om 7 012 . Add en t t th
to the re main d er the fi st fig fth xt p i d d di id it b y the
r ur e o e ne er o , an v e

t ip l
r p r o du c
e t fth sq
o fth e t 32 b t i d m ly b y 2 187
u ar e o e r oo , o a ne , na e ,

we fin d 4 f or th q ti t d th
e uo p e ti g th
en p,
ti s b
an en r e a n e o er a on a a ove ,

We wi ll fin d o f
z er th l st m i d
or A d p p lyi g this l to
e a re an er . n a n ru e

o th er cases, we will fi n d fr om N 187 9080904,

yN
f R 12 3 4 ;
N 6585 03 ,

W R 87 , & G .
 S ECO N D PART .

ALG EB RAI C T HE ORIES .

C HAPTE R I .

EQUATI ON S .

Di id
v en “
d , present ch pter will b e d i vided i nto
82 . TH E a

Pi fo u r ar t i cles: The fi rst treati n g o fthe equ at io s

e“
n

o f the fir s t de gree ; the seco n d o fthe equation softhe secon d

,

deg ee ; the thir d ofs ome gen eral p r op er ti es of dete m i n ed

r ,
r

equ at i o s; n d the last ofthe esolu t i on ofthe equ at i o n sof

an ,
r

the t hi d an d f
r o u r t h degre e .

The li m i ts w i thi n whi ch thi s t reati se mu st b e n ecessar ily

co fin ed d o not allo w usto d well m u ch o n thi s s
n ubj ect w hich ,

co ntai n s o e o f the b est p a t s o fan aly s i s

n We w ill treat
r .

b r i efly ea h ar t i cle w i thou t ho we ver leav i n g u nto uched such

c , , ,

di s u ssio s as may af
c n for d a suffi ci ent idea ofthe theo y i n r

q u est i on Bu t fir st let ushere elu cidate the gen eral dedu ct ion
.
, ,

i nfer ed i n the i ntrodu ct ory art i cle

r n amely that the ,

mem b erso fan equ at io n equ ally m odi fied f orm ot he r eq u at i o n s .

Le t a gi ven equ at io n b e

mx +
g
—
g=r
— t (a ) .

r om b o th memb ers the s ame quant i ty o r

Taki n g f q uant i ties,
the r e mainder sw ill f
o rm an o ther or o ther e uat i on s
q Let u s .

s ub tract
3 r om b o th mem b er s
gf , we
will have
h h
mx -

l g
- —
Q + q=r — t
1 18 T RE ATISE ‘
ON ALG EB RA .

oun d
f in p o din g te m o f
the cor r es n r b ut it isa c o m m on

act r o fall the o ther t erms

f o H en ce .
,

Seco n d m le .
Any ter m o fa
g iven equ atio n m ay be c lea r ed
ofi ts co qflieient by di vid ing a ll the o ther te r m s by
the sa m e fi
coe cien t .

Thir d r ule.
A ny ter m o fa
g i ven eq ua tion m ay b e cle a red
of i ts d enom i n a to r by m ultip ly ing a ll the o ther
a m e d eno m in a to r ;
ter m sb y the s
The last these r ules is co t i n ed i n the first whe the
of n a ,
n

d e o m i ato r i s co n si dere d asthe de n om in to ofthe coefiici n t

n n a r e

ofthe t er m to whi ch i t b elo n gs .

E mp l s
xa
Ap p lyi g n ow the pr ecedi ng ru les to the f
n ollo w
e
ing ex m p les
.

a .

fl
m — b,
na -

l
—
g z

(2 9 % =p -

f,

£ + x8 g = l — h,

we will have
m— 6
a“
Z
q
.

(2 0 3/ mp — Mf= m t? — f)

m (l — h
x9
f
K no wn an d
un k n o wn q uan
§ 83 E qu at i on s commo nly
. t i n k n o w or . co n a n

t s
i tie .
gi ve n qu anti ti es and u n k n own qu anti ti es or
-

q u t i t ies to b e f
an o u n d : the k n o wn
quanti t ies are ge n er ally
e xp es sed (20) by the fir s t le tter sa b c
r o fthe alph b et , , ,
a ,

the u k n own qu ant i t ies b y the last

n x y z H e ce o
, , ,
. n ,

i n the equat io n a x“ b z
we wo uld co n si d b an d as g i ven quant i t i es a: an d z as
er a , , c
,

q uanti t ies to b d e te mi n ed e r .

R s mfi f The d eter mi n atio n o fthes e u k n o wn qu ant i ti esis

on o
n
pe
“1m m
cal led the r es olu t i o n ofthe e qu at i o n ; thu s f
“
o in ,
r
 E QUATI O N S . 1 19

2
stan ce ,
to fin d o ut — 9or the valu e of x ,
wh ch ma i k esthe first
3
m emb er o fthe equa t i o n
3 3: — 4 I 1 6,
u
e q al to the s
e co n d, isto ol e
r es v the sam e qu at ion
e .

Dt
e er m in a e
t whe a equ at i o No w, o ne n u n n n co n tai n s o n ly
an d m dete rm x
q ti s k o w
n a te e ua
qu nt ty i t s called d t m
on . n n t e qu a a i
,
i a e er i na e

ti on when i t co ntai sm o e than one u k ow qu ntity i t is n r n n n a ,

c lle d i d t m i
a t n The e aso of su ch
e er ap p ell t i o n is
n a e. r n an a ,

that equ t i o n w hi ch co t ai n s o ly o e u n k o wn qu an
an a n n n n

t ity h s ei ther o ly o o a det e mi te u mb er of e solu

,
a n ne r r na n r

t ion s; and n equ atio whi ch co t i sm ore th o e u nk n own

a n n a n an n

R ts f q w
oo qu t i ty h s n o de te m i n at e n u mb e Of resolu
o e
an ,
a r r
m “
t ion s The v lue ofthe u k w quanti ties r e . a n no n a

ter m d also o ts ofthe eq u t i o

e r o a n .

ARTICLE 1 .

E qu a tio n s of the F ir st D eg r ee .

b
g d ,“
e ge § 84
T H E degr ee . u ation is gi ve n by
o f an eq
e qu a‘wn s '

i
the h ghes ex on e t p nt of the u nk n o wn qu anti ty or
qu anti t i es . Thu s, f
or examp le the e u at i o n
q ,
“
a a re b,

i n which the highest exp on ent ofthe u n kn own qu ant i ty a; is

2 i s an equ ati on ofthe secon d de gree an d the eq u at ion
, ,

a
s— x
”
+ ar w = m +q ,

i n which p n ent Ofthe u n k n own qu a tit ies

the i
h ghes t ex o n a;

and y is3 is n
qu at io of the thi d deg ee
,
a e n r r .

E qu t io s the ef
a o e o f th
n , fi st deg ee re all those i n
r r , e r r a

which the exp o ntsof the u nk own quanti t ies do n ot sur

ne n

p assu n i ty ; su ch for i n st a ce re the equ atio s

,
n
,
a n
12 0 TRE AT I S E ON AL GEB RA .

uz
+ b q, ay + bx q
-
x, &c ; .

an d
gen erally,
” 1
"
by "
a bz
‘

ax

qu at io n
“
isan e o f the n de gr ee .

G e n e ral f
or ,
§ 85 . Any de t er min at e qu at i o n of the fi r st
e

32332355553 degr ee may al w aysb e r edu ce d to the s i m p le f

orm
t
the fi r s d egr ee .
x A (i) Z
,

b e cau se i t can n ot con tai n Other t er m sexcept k n o wn qu ant i ties ,

an d t hos e i n whi ch the o n ly u n k n o wn

qu an ti ty a: ise i ther alo n e
or af fect ed b fi ci ent ; as for i n stan ce in the equ at ion
y a coef , ,

ax + b — c + dx
é x — l +ffi

N o w we may first t ran sp ose all the k n own t er msto the seco n d ,

an d the r e mai n i n
g to the fir st m emb er an d have the e qu at i on ,

ax + dx —
% x = c — b

an d a a n ,
g i + d
;) = x c— b — l+f

The k n own te rm s a d can eas + 5)

ily b e re duced to a
si n gle ter m 0 an d l e se the ter ms — b + c — l + f to
,
ik w i ,

the si n gle t er m K, s o tha t the sam e e u at i o n can s

q imply b e
w r i tte n asfollo ws Ca: K .

The u n k n o wn at b e in g cleared ofitscoeffi cie nt we w i ll have ,

K
C
an eq u ati on o f the sam e f
or m as
(i ) .

1. 7 “t of
N ow (i ) isa resv qu at ion
ol e d e Theref
or e, to

m
.
95 0

gqq iiggg g r esolve deter mi n ate equ at i o n f the fi rst

fl
an
a y O
t
fir s d egr ee .
d egr ee,
Tr a n s
p o se a ll the kn o wn ter m s to the seco n d
Rule
fir st
.

m em b er , and a ll the o ther s to the r ed u ce

ea ch m em b er to a sing le ter m , a n d clear the u n known qu a n tity

of i tsco efi eien t .
 122 TR EAT IS E ON ALG E B RA .

I t isp lai n that after havi n g fo u n d the n u mb er as o fthe

app les the n u m b er o f b oy s is als
,
o f o u n d ; b e cau se d i vi d i g ,
n

x b y two we have the n u m b er O fb oy s p lu sone ; t hat is the

, , ,

n u m b er Of b oysis a:
17

the u n k n o wn q uanti ty of the p roble m is then only as .

Bu t add in g 9 to as an d divid i ng x + 9 by 3 we have , ,

a ai n accor d i n
g , g to the co n d i ti o n O fthe p r o ble m the n u mb er ,

of b oys; t hat is + 9 cc ,
r
z
1
3 2
An e
q u at ion wh ch, i lved, gi ves
r eso

a: 24 n u m b er o fapp les;

an d co n sequ e tly n ,

a:
1 z 11 , n u mb e r o f b o ys
2
W hat isthe um b e whi ch m u lti pli d by 3 and
n r, e

d i v ide d b y 7 gi v es a p du ct n d q u o ti t whose
,
ro a en

df
f i
er en ce is 2 0 An s . x 7 .

F i nd n u mb e th t the s m of o e thir d
u
s ch a r a u n -

Pom
,

o ne sixth and o ne twelfth ofi t shall b e equal to 2 1

-

,
-
,

An s . a; 36 ,

A soldie ecei ves ve y d y tw lve ce ts; b u t r r e r a e n

N th
when h iseng g d i the se v i ce the first t i me i
e a e n r ,
n

the m onth he ece i ves tw i ce as m u h ; the seco n d t i m th ee

r c e r

times sm u ch a d the rem i n i g day s Of s vi ce f

ou
an times a n er r

as m u ch At the e d of mo nt h o f 3 0 d ys he rece i v s five

. n a a e

doll s an d f
ar ou e ts H w m n y ti m s w she e g ged i
r c n . o a e a n a n

the s e vi ce ? r A s z 5 n . a: .
.
I d t mi t
n e er
§ 87 The p r e di g e x mp les
na e d p r ob lems ce n a an
t s fth
.
,

eq u a i on o e

fi st d g
r sho w that th v lu e f the u k o w q u nt ty m
e ree . e a o n n n a i

de te m i te q tio s is d ete m i te ; n am ely o ly o ne

r na e ua n Bu t r na
,
n .

this is o t th case wi th i d t m i t equ atio n s Let us

n e n e er na e .

t ak e for ex m ple
,
a
,

ax — b + c
y = q
— w— y.
 EQ UATI O N S . 123

in whi ch a and y ar e b o th
u n kn o wn quantities; he n ce the ,

e
qu at i o n ma y b e r eso lve d e ithe r wi th r egard to o r wi t h re a;

gar d to y . Let u s eso lve i t w i th regar d to s 5 we wi ll have

r o

b q c 1
a 1 m y

No w x dep e n ds o the valu e n o fy , an d

gi vi n g, fo r exam p le , to

y a n u mer i cal valu e equ l to a 1 , the co rresp o n d in g valu e ofx is

b q c 1
a 1 a 1

an d
g i vi ng to y a n u m er ical valu e eq ual to 6 , the p
co r r e s o n d

in g a: is b q c l
6 .

a 1 a 1
Un less, ther ef
or e , the v lu e ofy b e de ter min e d b y so me con
a

d i ti o th v lu of s also em i s u n de t e m i ed d ep e d i g
n, e a e a r a n r n ,
n n

o n an
y b i tr y v lu e gi ve to y
ar ar a n .

B t if two eq u ati s e gi v
u co t i i
g e ch the s m e
on ar en , n a n n a a

tw u k o w q u a t i t i s s
o n n n d y th nthe v lu e o f b ot h a
e a an ,
en a c n

b e dete m i ed ; n y m o e ge er lly whe n a n u mb

r n a , of r n a ,
er

dif f e e t qu t i
r n s is gi ve
e a qu l to the u mb er of the u n
on n e a n

k ow qu nti tiesco tai d i them all the valu esof the u

n n a n ne n , n

k w qu titi s b de te m in ed
no n an e can e r .

E ti s 88 The de te m i atio n o f t hese u k n own

. r n n
qu a on co n
ti i
a n ng
u nt i ti s c
seve ral
b b t i n ed i n d i f
a fe ent m a n er s
e an e o a r
u n k n o wnq q ua n
n
,
t ti s
i e “

s we m y s e i n the fllo wi
a
g x m ple
a e o n e a

Let e ch o fthe equ ati o s

a n
l l!
a

be b'y + b”a; + b
’
cz
+ c
y
t i n the s me u k own qu tit ies y ; and Ob serve
c on a a n n an a, ,
z
,

th t ny equ tio fthe fi st d g ee co t i n i g th ee u n k own

a a a n o r e r n a n r n

q u t iti s
an b d uced t the f
e , can o m o fthe eq u at i o n s
e re so o r

th t th diif t methods pp lic b le to Ob tai th v lues f

a e er e n a a n e a o

th u n k ow qu ant i t i es co t i ed i ( )
e n n r e appli cab le to all n a n n o , a
1 24 TR EAT I S E ON ALGEB RA .

i i or equivalent cases an d gener ally to any n u mb er o f

sm lar ,

e u at i o n s co nt ai n i n
q g an e qu al n u mb e r o f u n k no wn q u ant iti e s .

Dif t m e r en Resolve fir st each equ ati on wi th r egar d to the

e
, ,
th d s f s l
o o re o u
ti s
on . same u n k n own q uan ti ty ; f o r exam p le z we wi ll , ,

hav e
Fi st m th d
r e o
Elim i ti b y
.

na on
co m p ar ison.

a:
y
‘
c c

In thi smann er , si nce the fi st m e mb er o fe ch equ ation (o ) is ’

r a

the sam e, an d, co n sequ e ntly the sec n d m mb e s r e all equ al

,
o e r a

to each o ther , we have

a a.

a
,
a
y
T
« a a

An d, co nsequ ently , by tran sp osi n

g seco dn
m em b er , we have
a
’ '
b ~
) ? l
“ “

a g
r l
c

c lfl la “

a b
( 2. a )
ll II
a c
8’
( a,
fi

— _
O
”—
a
y + au + a 0
r esol v i ng each e qu atio (o”) w i th rega d n r to y, we ha ve
d”
,
d
y x t
d d
12 6 T RE ATIS E ON ALG EB RA .

l
by b + b" !

’
’
c y + d 'x c

which we d duce the e two eq ui vale nt s

l"
y b" b

H m
C c
y

and maki ng
"
d, b z

3, (
gr z n

we w i ll have dy d
’
x d "
0
—
O (P )
Resolve now the first o fthese two eq u atio n s w i th
y we w i ll have
’
,
d d’
7 x
E d

an d this valu e s ub sti tu ted i n

,
the se co d, g n i ves
’
d d

f
r om w hich we have
’
6d "
a: 6

6d’ ad "
or maki ng 6 D, 6 ”
d d

Dw + D ’
=0
D '

f
ro m which ,
a;
D

Thi s v alue of u t i tu ted i n cu c ci the pr ecedi ng (p ) ‘

A: s bs ,

gi v es usan equ at i o n w i th the u n k n o wn q u ant i ty 3

, alo n e an d ,
 Q A
E U T IO NS . 127

u ti tu ti ng a: and y i n (p ) we ob tai n the valu e of the thir d

s bs ,

u kn o wn qu ant ity z
n .

Elim i ti na The eli mi n ati o n b y addi tio n an d sub tract io n i n

on
b y d d it
a d io n an
sbt
u ti
rac some cas
on . es 18 p r ef erab le to the two p r ecedi n g .

This me tho d of elim in atio n co n sists i n gi v in g the sam e co

efiicien t to the s ame u n k n o wn q uan ti ty i n d iffer en t eq u at io ns ,

and t he n s ub tracting on e equa tio n from an other ifthe term s

af fected w i th the s ame coef fi ci en t have the same si gn or ,

add i g the equ ati o n sifthe t e ms afi ected w i th the s

'

n am e co r

efiicien t have difi erent s igns Let u sresu me the equations(0)

'

an d fi s t to r educe the u n kn o w quanti ty z to the sam e co

r n

eflicien t i n the fir s t an d secon d equ ation multiply all the ,

ter mso f the first (0) by the co eflicien t ofz ofthe second and ,

all the ter m so fthe s ficie nt o f z of the

econ d
(0 ) b y the coef
first we will ob tai n the following equati on s
,

ba ’ ”
’ ”
b az ba g
/ ba x
’ ” ’”
ba z aby ab m ab

w hi ch sub t acted from on e a o the

,
r n r,
gi v e
" ”
g (b a
’
ab
’
) m(b a. ab ) (b a
"'
0 .

I n equal m anner reducing to the same coefiicien t , the fir s t

term ofthe secon d and thir d (c) we w ill have ,

’ ” ’"
cbz cb y c b ac cb 0,
”
b c”x
'
cbz bc y be 0,
an d, co nseque ntly ,
'
bc’ ) ”
be ” ”
y( b x cb ) cb
’
c
( ( 0,
makin g no w
' ’ ” " ’ m
(ba ab
) d, ( ba ab ) d , (b a _
d" ,
’ ” ”
( cb bc’ ) 8, ( cb be ) (cb
"'

The ob tai n ed equ at ion s w ill b eco me

0
<
5”
Reduce n ow the firs t term ofb o th (g ) '
to the same co ef
fic e i nt ,
12 8 TR EATI S E ON ALGE B RA .

we w ill have d ay d ’ ax cl ” 0,
d dy fd d
—— '
x — l dd
"
: 0,
which b ein g sub t cted fi o m ra o n e an o ther , gi ve
x
(d 8
’
d a) '
(d a
"
d o ”) 0,
mak i ng dd ": D',
’ "
and dd ’
dd : D, d 6

the same equa ti on b eco m es

,
D1 ; D Z 0 i (q
D’
f
r om which D
7

a valu e which sub sti tu te d i e i ther ofthe p receding equ ation s n

-

e n ab le s us to fi d o u t the v lu o fy ; an d s ub s
n ti tu t i n g a e

b oth a: an d y i n a y o fth gi ve n n we ob tai n an equ ati on

e

w i th the u nk n ow q u ti ty z alo e which is con sequently

n an n , , ,

eas ily deter mi ed n .

Th s m m
e a e 89 T he m e tho dsofeli m i n at i on j u st describ ed
e
th d ppli b l
.

o aa ca e
t ll s s
o a ca e . a e app l c b l
r to y u m b er ofequ ati o n s co n
i a e an n

tai i n g an equ al n u m b e of u n k n own qu ti ties Bu t ifthe

n r an .

n umb er ofthe eq ti o sisg e ter than th t ofthe u n k n own

ua n r a a

q uant i t i es the r esolu ti o m y b e the n i mp ossib le ; an d su ch

,
n a

equ at i o s e t he n c lled i mp a tible S u ch

mp tib l
n ar a n co .
I n co a e ,

or exam p le e the e ua t io n s
“i “ W
n "
f q ,
ar

33/ 4 0,
4x y 6 0,
5 3: ”
l
“
3/
‘

l 2
'
07
which no valu esof and y can resolve a: . Because, i
add n
g
together the two last equ tio s we find a n ,

91 : 4;
4
that is o

and co n sequ en tly ,

f
r o m the sam e two last e qu ations,
38
3/
9
No w, these two valu esof a: an d y to f l l the ufi firs t i n
equat o ,
13 0 m m r rsn ox ALGEB RA .

For the me ho d t ofe l im i natio n b y co mpar iso n

i n ea c h of
u a n tit
F in d the va lue o f the sa me un kno wn
q y
the g ir cn e
q ua tio n sf
,
a nd o r m e u a tio n swi th thes
q e va lu es .

Fo r the met ho d o f li m i n t i o e a n b y ad di ti o n an d u t ractio n

sb .

G i ve a me co e icien t to
the s fi the sa m e u nkno wn qu an tity
in all the e ua ti o ns a nd a dd or u b tr a ct
s as the e m ay
cas
q ,

r equ ir e.

p
E xam les, or g i ven equatio n s

(L) 3 a: 4g 5z 3 8,
231 2a 12 .

m m + 4y

223 33] 42: 16,

2y 5z 8,
5 a: 6y 3 7. 6 .

5 a: 6g 4a 15,
7x 43: 3x 1 9,
2x y 62: 46 .

A swers
n

z =6 .

S om t imes no t all the u k n ow qu a t i t i es are to b e fou nd i n

e ,
n n n

eac h of the gi ve e u t i o s; as f
q n or i n stan ce i n the annexed
a n , ,
”
p
exam le y a go a
’
a
' "
bx bz 6
' ”
cy cz c

Bu t from the fir st and seco n d we can eli minate the u n k no wn

q u anti ty a and have an equat i o n co n tai n i n g y an d z which
t
, , ,

toge ther wit h the thi rd will g ive us the values ofthe same
,
 EQUATI ON S . 13 1

u nk no wn qu an ti ties In a si m ilar m a n er we w ill find the

. n

valueso f the u nkn o wn qu ant ities con tai n d in the follo wi ng e

e xamp le s

Gi v en equ ti o n s a

2x — 4y + 8z = 5 4 ,
1 2y 7 2: 8 0,
4 33 — 36 3z .

2x
4 12 30 .

4y + 2 z = 14 ,
5y + 3 v = 32 .

= 3 67
x + z 2 4 9,

y
—z 53 .

A nswer s
x 2 3, y =4 ,
z : 8 .

a: 16, y z 2 0, z : 33 .

P b l ms u k
ro
§ 91 Pro b le m s fr eq u en tly
. t o e con a n ti m or e han n

qu ti ty I t hi s se th co di ti o sof
e .

ow n n n an . n ca e n n

the p ob lem m u st c mm
r ly t i s m y qu t i s s
o on con a n a an e a on a

t he e e u kn own qu t i ti s to be dete mi d Th ski ll

r ar n an e r ne . e

re
qui ed i th esol t i
r n fth p ob le m co sists i n k n owi g
e r u on o e r n n

h w to gi ve the lge b r i c l f
o o m to th a eq u t i s p b le
a a r e a on ro

m tic lly expre ssed

a a .

P cti ce and n tur l p ti tu d

ra th t h
a
y r ule f ili
a a e, r a er an an ,
ac

t t
a e the solu t i o n of p ob l m s W m y ho weve ob se ve
re r e . e a , r, r

th t the d if fi cu lty i th
a solu t i of p o b l ms n e re on r e
G l l
en era ru e.
isg tly d im i ish d b y thisg
rea l ul n e en er a r e

S p t fi s t th u k d th m d ifiy
e ar a e wr
q u ti ty e n no n an ,
an en o

a n d co m bin e them a ccor d ing to the co n d i tio n s o

f the p r o blem .

An applic tio n a of t his ule r m ay b e see n in the f

o llo w i ng
exam p le :
132 TR EAT I S E ON ALGEB RA .

The t hree
i p herso fa u mb e r ar e su ch that thei r
c n
P bl m 1
ro e
su m is 1 4 ; the s m o f th fi r st an d l st d i vi de d b y
.

u e a

the se con d g i ves 6 ; a d su b tr ac ti ro m the g i v e n n u m

, g 594 f n n

b e r the d if
,
fe en ce co n t ai ns the s
r ame t hree u n k n o wn ci p he rs ,

d i sp osed i an i ver te d or d er
n W hat is the n u mb er ?
n .

The t hr ee figu eso fthe n u m b er ar e the u n k n o wn qu an t i ti es

r

o f the p oble m w hi ch we s e p a at e fr o m the k n o wn

r , qu ant i ti es r

c n t ai n ed in the p r ob le m calli n
o
g t hem a y z N ow the first
,
t
, ,
.

c o n d iti o n is t hat the s u m o f the fi ures is e ual to 1 4

.
g q .

H en ce the first equ at i o n

,

x +y+ z = 14
A o th
n iti o n e xp r essed in the p r ob le m is that the sum
er co n d ,

o f the fi s t an d t hir d figu r es di vi de d by the seco n d gi ves6

r , ,
a: z
for
quo ti en t he n ce the secon d eq u at i o n , 6 or 2
,

a; z 651 (2 )
The last co n di ti o is th t su b tr acti n g 594 f
n r o m the u n k o wn
,
a

n um b er s the re m i nder is the s me u n k n own n u mb e r

,
a a

in an i n v er ted o rder The e qu at i o n co n tai n ed i thisco d i

. n n

t i o n is n ot so ob vi o usas the pr eced in g ; to deduce i t o b ser ve ,

that the n umbe r 5 94 may b e d ecom posed asfo llows ,

594 : 5 00
4;
he n ce ,
the n u mb er also who se fi rst ci p her isx
, ,
the seco d y, n
an d the las
t 2
,
is lik ewise r eso lvab le i nto t hr ee ; n amel , y
l0 y. z ;
an d therefo r e, the i n ver te d n u mbe r is
l o0 . z 10 y. x.

H en ce ,
the eq uatio n co nt i a n ed in the las t co n d i t i o n is
l o0x + l O y + . z — 5 94 l 00 . z

or 99x 99z 5 94
whi ch is easl i y red uced to
a: z 6
1 34 TR EAT IS E on ALGE B RA .

ix tu re o fwi ne an d wate r o e ten th o f the

In a m n -

P bl m 5 e
,

who le plu s 1 0 gallo s is w ater an d o ne half o fthe

ro .

n ,
-

, ,

w hole plu s3 0 gallon s iswi e H o w m an y gallo n sar e ther e

, ,
n .

of each ? An s . a: z 80, y z 20 .

u m b er 14 4 i nto fou r su ch p ar ts that

D ivi de the n
P bl m 6
ro e
, ,

if the fir st b e d i v id e d b y 5 an d the se co n d m u lti

.

p lied b y 5 the thir d di mi n ished b y 5 an d the la

,
st i n creased ,

b y 5 the q u o t i e nt the p r o du ct the dif

,
f er e n c e an d the s
,
um , ,

ar e all e u al
q .

An s C alli n g x y
. the fi r st secon d t hi r d an d f
, ,
o ur th 2 , , ,

p a ts r
,
$ 100 y = 4 1) = 2 5 = 15 2
, , ,
z .

T hr ee per so n sA B C h ve each a cer tai sum a n

P bl m 7
ro e
, ,

o f m o n ey : o n e t hi d o f the m o ey o f A an d C
.

-
r n
,

m in u s6 d ollar s is the su m o f B ; o n e half the m o n ey o f C

,
-

m i n u s the m o n ey o f A an d m i n u s 9 do llar s gi ve agai n , , , ,

the sum B the sum ofC m u lti plied by

o fdo llars Of

t wice the su m ofA What is the sum o feach? .

,
3 , g i v es

An s C alli ng x y z the su m so fA B C we hav e

.
, , , , ,

a
n: 18, y = 5 4, z : 1 62 .

F iv e wh els A B C e D, E ar e so co m b n e d, i
P ro b lem 8.
, , ,

that whi le A p e for ms

u tio n s B per for ms r a: r evo l ,

y C p er f
, o r ms a D to an d E N ow te n ti m es the r e vo
, , , ,
z .

lu t i o n s of A plus thr ee t i mes those of B an d f

, o u r t i m es ,

those of E gi ve the same n u mb er as9 ti m esthe r e vo lu ti o ns

,

of D p lu s the p od uct ofthe n u mb er of r e volu tio n s o f C

,
r

m ulti pli ed b y
$3 t wi ce the re volu t io n so fA, plu st wice those
of C , gi ve the same v u t io ns ofD added n um b er as the r e ol ,

o u r t h o ft ho s
to o n e f -
fE ; th
e volu ti nso fD n d E plu s o e re o a ,

ten t imes t h s f B e
qu l to se e n t i m esthe r e volu tio ns
o e o ,
ar e a v

of C ; the e v olu t i o s f A p lu s five t i mes t hos

r e Of B
n
gi veo , ,

the re vo lu t i o so f C ; a d the ev o lu t i
n s of E mi n u s th ee n r on ,
r
 E QUATI O N S . 13 5

t i mes those o f C gi ve 20 evolu t io ns How man y

,
r . revolu

tionsdoeseach wheel pe fo m in the same t ime ? r r

Ans .
y : 2, w = 40 ,

1
P r ob lem What fact n 15 th t who se value i s ” i fwe add
9 . r io a "

3
1 to itsn um er ator and ifw add o e to itsdeno mi nator ?
,
i ,
e n

4
Ans .

y 15
There ar e two hor ses an d two saddles: the b es t
Pro b lem 10
t
ther on ly 6 ; placi n g
saddle coss4 0 do llar s, and the o

the b est saddle o the first hor s d the o ther on the secon d
n e , an ,

the fi s t horse costs6 doll s m e th the o ther ; and chan g

r ar or an

ing the saddles the seco d horse c sts three t imes more than
, n o

the first W h t i s the p i ce feach hor se ?

. a r o

An s . a: 2 5, y 53 .

ARTICLE II .

Equ a tio n sof the S econ d D egr ee .

G
m l
enera l
fth
d
f
or A NY e quat i o n i n which the hi hes
§ 92 .
g t ex

m
n a o e o
i n w
n op on ent of the u nk o w
“
q u nt i ty o r qu ant i t i esi sn n a

secon d d g 2 is ( 84 ) n e qu ti o of the s econ d degr ee

e re e.
,
a a n .

Hen ce the general fo mu l ofthe equ t io n so fthe secon d de

,
r a a

g ee contai ni n g only o e u n k o w q u tity i s

r n n n an
,

x
” Aw B (k) ;
b ecau se all the te ms to b p o ssibly f r o u n d i n thi s clas e sof
e qu at i o n s are ei ther k o w q uant i ti es or termsco ntain i g the
n n n

s i mp le u n kn o wn qua ti ty x an d t e m sco ntai n i n g the square

n ,
r

o fc c ; as f or i n st n c i th equatio n
,
a e, n e

m ach -
m: +p x
9 ~q c + e
s —
fx + g,
i n which q and 9 r epresent k n own qu ant it ies, like the coef
fi cients
13 6 TR EAT I S E ON ALGEB RA .

m, mp ,
r
, f; the te r ms n x, co n a n ti the sm i ple u n k n o wn

q u a n t i ty or: i i g t rms the squ r e Of

an d the r e ma n n I t is e a r
. .

n o w eas r ed u ce t hi s e u t i on to the f
y to o r m o f the p r ece d i ng
q a

(h) b ecau se t hro gh a si mp le t a sp osi t i o n we c an fi rst wr i te

, ,
u r n ,

m xfl + p + fx 9+ 9;
" — 2 —
r rr cx — x

th t is
a , _ (m +p — r
) r
9
+ (f — n

r o m w hi ch
f s
o
” f I! 1
’
m +p — r m —l—p — r

an e tio of th s m e f m s (h) H c the e solu ti on

qu a n e a or a . en e, r

of y qu ti o
an f th seco d d g ee is th s m e s the
e a n o c e n e r e a a rea

lu ti f the g
on O l q u ti o ( h) d the fi st p t io to
en e r a e a n an r O era n

b e ma d e whe qu ti o o f t h s c d d g ee o t i i g
n an e a n e e on e r
,
c n a n n

o n ly o e u k o w
n
q u tity is gi v e t b
n n solved isto e
n an , n o e re ,
r

du ce th gi v q u ti o to the f m o f (h) hen e also the

e en e a n or c , ,

first d ge eral u le
an n r

Tr a n s
p o se al l the kn o wn te r ms to the secon d
Gen er al r u e. l
m em ber , an d a ll the o the r s to the fi rst r ed uce to

a sing le ter m a ll f the u n kno wn

tho s
e tha t con ta in the sq u a r e o

q u a n tity a n d likew ise a ll tho se which co n ta in the f

, ir st p o w er
of the s a me
qu a n tity ; then clea r the sq ua r e of the u n kno wn
q ua n tity ofi ts co efiic ien t .

I t is to be ob se r ve d t hat
quat io ns O f the seco n d
e
Re mark
so m e ti m e s app are ntly co ntai n te r ms
.

degree d o n ot

it
w h the s
q u ar e o f the u nk no wn quan ti ty ; as,
f
or i n stan ce ,

in the e ua ti o n
q ac
e — b
n

a:

b u t the same e
qu ati o n isr edu ci b le to the f
o llo wi n g

ax
” bar: n.

In casi ilar to this b efo re p re ced i ng to r esolv e the eq u a

es sm ,

ti o n a sim ilar t nsfo r matio n is to b e m ade

,
ra .

The gi ve n e qu at i on s b ei g thu s p re p ar ed we m ay p ass to n

,

see ho w the ge n eral e qu ati o (h) isr esolve d n .

1 38 TR EATI S E ON ALGEB RA .

S eco n d ca s
B u t whe n A is n o t eq u al to q u at i o n
z er o , the e
e.
t ge e lly b e
(h) can n o n ra r eso lve d w i t ho u t b e i n g

m d i fied asw wi ll prese ntly see

o
, e .

O b se ve th t ( 69) (
r
y) x a 2 xy y a d the a:
2 9 “
,
n

seco n d t e m of thi s v olu t i o is the dou b le p o du ct o fthe two

r e n r

te mso fthe b i o mi l ; so th t the last te m o fthe sam e volu

r n a a r e

ti c b e sily i fer red fo m the fi rst d th seco d

on an ea n r an e n ,

b y d i v idi g m ely t hi sb y the d o u b le r o ot o f the fi st

n ,
na ,
d r ,
an

squ i g the q u o tie t

ar n Fo ex mp le 2m r ep r e s
n . ent i
g r a ,
a
2
a, n

th in com p l t e volu t i n o f the sq u e o f a b i n om i l i t w i ll

e e e o ar a ,

2m“
b eco m e co m pl t e e b y addi ng m 9 to i t, b ecau se gi ves m
2a
fo r q uo t i e n t ; an d con se u en t ly , m f
’a
or the last te m o fthe
q r

u n fin ishe d evo lu tio n I n like m ann er , b? cb, . re p resent i n

g
5

an o the u fin ished vo lu tio n

r n e ,
b y add i ng to it the te r m
3 ,

w ill b ecome plete That is to en de b + b a p e fect

co m .
, r r 9
c r

squ e add the s u

ar , q fi ci t f b
e o f h lf the co ef ar a en o .

N o w the fi st m mb
,
f the ge e l f mu la (h) o
r e er o n ra or ,
r

36 + Ax hasthe fo m o f i o mp le te squ a w hi ch iseasi ly

5
r an nc r e,
,

it
9

fi i shed by add i n g
n the sq fi ci e nt ofx
uar e o f halfthe coef .

Bu t in or der to p r eser ve the q u ali ty, ifwe fin i sh the squ ar e

e

in the fi st r m e mb er , we mu st add the sam e te r m to the seco n d

me mb er also . Thi saddi t io n b ei n g m ade , we wi ll hav e
i
iL
x9 + Ax -

(M ) ;

or , i n ce
s a)
“ -

Aaz

A ,
9

f
rom whi ch
 E QUATI O N S . 139

and co n sequently ,

A l A
?
B
a:
V l T
' '

the valu es of x which resolve the equat io n (h) gi ve n by the

,

k o w qu a ti t ies A and B We say the valu es b ecaus

n n n .
,
e,

whe n we take the u pp er sig n,

A
1:
2
when we tak e the other ,

A ”
A2
5 I

“ l an d im gi ,
valuesof x
These ,
or r o o tsofthe equ tio (h) a n

will b e ei th r b o th l or b o th i magi ary ; d

" a"
e r ea n an

a a n,
g i whe n real b oth p osi tive o
,
r nega tive or o e p osi ti v d
,
n e an

one neg t ivea .

A9
Le t sh u th s s s Wh th b i mi l B 7
er e examin e all e e ca e . en e no a ’

d
u n er th dic l sig is p siti
e ra q ti ty th di l d s
a n, a o ve u an , e ra ca , an con e

q tly th l fz i b th q ti s is al B t wh th s m
u en e va ue o n o e ua on , re . u en e a e

b i mi l is g ti e th
no a
(50) th ne di l isimagi
a vy d th, l sen e ra ca nar , an e va u e

A l t
o f 1t the e l t m
con ain —
p s m us the m g
r ay er; u or in i a inar roo
5 ,

an d th ,
f e b th l s f
er e or im gi ary b
, o s i th va u e o a: ar e a n , ecau e ne er a.

p siti
o a gati
ve n or l t m q tity c ne p s t th
ve r ea er or u an an ever r e r e en e

d if
f the s m oftw
er en c e p ssi s the
or e e l u d th th o ex r e on , on r a , an e o er

imaginar y .

A’
S up p o se, fi str , the b inomi a lB I
to b e a p os
i i ve t q u an i t ty ; in th s i

A2
supp o s t
i ion B is p os
i ive, t or ifn e gati ve, l ess th an
T
. When B is

p os t
i ive, on e of the value sof x i s p o siti ve an d the o th er n ega ti
ve ;
h
w en B is nega ive, the va u e sof are eit t l x h er bo th p osi ive t or bo th
n ega ti
ve . We h ave, in f
ac t , in the fi st
r case,
140 r ana rr s
'
n ON A G EBRA. L

an d, ther ef
o r e, we may wr i te
1: d

ro m
hen c e. f ifthe coef cien fi tAi n
(h) ii
isp os t ve ,

A A
z d d,
2

z
A A— d — A— d ,

the co efi cien t A in (h) is egative n ,

A A

A A
z
E E

Firs t itcr e rio n.

H en ce When in
, the equa tio n (b ) , that is,

B is p ositive, one of the r o otsis likewise p o sitive, and the o ther neg a tive
J

whatever be the sign ofthe coefi e ien t A .

In the seco n d case, when B isn ega ive t an d less han t

tha is
, t
ther ef
o r e, ifthe co efi cien t o f z in (h) is p os t rom
i ive, we will have f
”r
r
t+ é a

—
2
b o th valu eso f2: b eing nega ti ve.

In the sam e s
up p o s
i ion of B t n ega ti ve, ifthe coef
ficien t A ofasalso
t
isnega ive, we will have f r om

bo ht valu e s o fa: b eing p ositive . Ther ef

or e,
142 T R EA T IS E O N A L G E B RA.

G i ve n equ atio n s,
21 9 —
4 4: — 9= x
2
+ 2 33 — 17 .

4x 36 2 l 4 x” 3 2 a: 60 .

x9 a b ax bx .

(13
9
+ ma — nx = mx .

— 9
0 : — 2 cx — 3 2

x
9
26 4x 13 .

x
2
2 am a
9
+ IJ2 z 0 .

T he fi st
f the p r o p o sed e x am plesis easily
r o re du ced to the

ge n er al f
orm
(h) , asfo llo ws

(2
2

an d ad d n i g the te rm in o rde r to ha ve a comp let e sq u are

in the fi st m emb er
r ,
we have

at
” 3x 9

x
g
an d con seq en u tly ,

a:
2
he n ce, the do uble v lu e of
a a:

3 15
2 2
3 15
2 2

The p r o ce ss is the same f

o r the o ther ex am p les an d
,
is con
taned
i in the an ne xe d p r ac ti c al r ule :
R ed u ce the g iven equ a tio n to the g en er a l fo r m ,
Rule
fi ni sh the squ a r e of the fi r st m em be r , extr a ct the
.

r oot o f bo th m em b er s, an d lea ve the u n kn o wn

qu an tity a lo ne

i n the fi st m m b
r e er .

In t hi s m an n er ,
the re mai n i n g exam ples b ei n g
,
r eslv ed,
o

wi ll gi ve
 EQUATIO N S . 1 43

x _

+b
—
.

2c .

—
r . ga z e —
W i t

W he it i on s of a p ob lem who se esolu

n the co n d r r
P b l ms t i
ro e
,

o n isr ed u ci b le to that o fan e q u at i o n o fthe s

.

eco d n

d egr e e ar e su ch as to e xclu d f
,
o i stan ce the negati ve sig e
,
r n ,
n

fo r the u n k no w
qu n ti ty n d the e u ati o
n
qa r esolve d, gi vesa n

the valu es o f the u k o wn q uan ti ty af nfect e d with o pp o s

n ite
si gn s the p osi t i ve alo e eso lv e sthe p r o b le m
,
n r .

The squ ar e n u m b er o f m y d ll s added to 1 80 o ar

P bl m 1
ro
,

gi ve s 2 7 ti m es the n mb e of my d o ll s Ho w
e .

u r ar .

m any dollar shave I ? An s x z 12 o x 15 .

,
r 2 .

I h ve as m an y d o gs as he h s cat s All my
a a
P bl m 2
.

ro e
do gs plu sf ou o fhis e at s m u lt i p li ed b y the who le
.

,
r ,

nu

What isthe n mb er of my dogs?

m
mb er of do gsan d cats gi e 1 2 ti es the n u mb er of dogs ,
v
,

p l s 1 60
u . u

An s The equat io n re solved gi ves

. 8 a: 1 0 the a:
,

fir st valu e isto b e e xclude d H e ce a; .10 n , .

Fi n d a n mb er whose pr o duct b y 5 min u s six

u
P bl m 3
ro e
,

u n i ts m u tip lied b y the s am e n u m b er added to 1

.

, ,

o r pr o du ct se ve n t i mes its n egat i ve s

gi vesf qu ar e .

An s . a:
2 ,

The p ro d c u t of a cer tain n u mb er b y 7 m i u s75 n

P r o b lem 4.
, ,

u
is eq al to 95 , plus the qu o ti en t ar isi ng fom 1 2 5 r

di vi ded b y the sam e n umb er W hat isthe n umb er

.

An s . x = + 2 5, a} :
1 44 TR EATI S E on ALGE B RA .

An ar m
y co m me n c n g i b a le, tt ti
co n a n s a n e
qu al
P r ob le m 5 0
umb er o f m e n i each r a co n t ai n s nk
.

n an d it n ,

as m a
y r n k s s t her e are m e in o e r a k
n a a D u r i n g the n n n .

b a ttle the fi st t h e e r an k s a d 3 5 0 m en b esi de ar e ki lled»

,
r r n

T he ar my af te the b t tle con t ai n s 2 000 sold i er s

r F i n d the
a .

o r i i nal n u m b e r.
g
An s a: 2 500 each ran k con t ai n i n g 5 0 m en
.
,
.

W it h r egar d to equati on so f the seco n d degr ee contai ni n g ,

m o e than one u n k n own qu ant i ty the same m e t ho dsofc li m i

r
,

n ati on gi ven in the pr ecedi ng n umb er ( 88) can b e appli ed ‘

A RTICLE III .

O n so m e Pr op er tieso f D eter m in ed E qu a ti on s ofa n3/ D eg r ee .

p r eli mi nar y Q95 . l

S ever a discu ssio n s o fthe p r esen t ti l star c e re on
mw r em s so m e g en er a l th eo r em s, usefu l f
or o th i stig ti
er n ve a on s,

no l ess th an to fi nd out the t

p r op er ie s of e q u ati o n s o f an y d e gr ee .

We th f this
c o mm en ce, e r e or e , ar ti l
c e b y d em o n sr atin g the sam e t
th ms A d fi st
e or e . n ,
r ,

L t th ffi i ts
e b k
e coe c en a, , of the var iable an d r ea lq uan tity
d th l st t m k f th p ly
2 , an e a er o e o n o mi a l
” hz k
az + bz " + .
(p ) ,

be all r ea l an d in va r iab l q
e u an titi es. We say, th t ifb y h
a c an gin g the
l
va u e o f z ,
(p ) assum e sa po ve an d si ti th en a n e g ti l a ve va u e ,

M er e must b e some va lu e z , of2 , which su bstitu ted in

(p )
Theo re m 1 .
,

makes this p o lyn o mial equal to z er o .

To d em o n sr a et t th
isp r o p o si io n , le t u ssup p o se the t l
va u e o f z to b e
c h an ge d in s h ucm a ann e r th t a
'

the difler en ce b e w ee n t an y tw o suc h

va u e sl
, t ak en in su cc essio n , b e c ap ab e l o f an in d e fi itn e d imin u i on t .

In this m l
the p o yn omi a (p ) a so wil b e c an ged b y d egr e es
anner l l l h
ca a p bl
e o fin d e ni e a en u a io n fi t tt t
B u t b y su p p o si i o n , the p o yn o mia . t l l
p ) m ay b e c an ge d f r om p os h
i tive in o n ega ive ; so a , m akin g , f
or t t th t
insan c e, t 2 z »; the p o yno mia l l assu m es the p osi ive t va u e l
 146 r n na r rsn ON ALGE B RA .

se que tly alson , the sum o f all o f th e m. H en c e , the same sum, whe n
it is in cr eased to a c er ain t val u e, will b e e q u al to an d th e n b ecome
maller
s th an the fix ed q ti ty
u an a. I f n o w, f
o r the sake ofb r evi ty ,

we call S the sum o f th e dimi i shi n ng t er m s, w e will have

( ) (05 +
"
10 z

In whic h whe is i ,
s d t th s i d lim it and m ch b eyo d
n 2 n crea e o e a ,
u n

th t limit 8 is sm ll th
a , ; h f m this limi t the s
a er ign of an a en ce , ro ,

1 + S m st b e th s m sth t f wh t
u b e the Sign ofS ; h ce
e a e a a o a, a ever en ,

als ,ig of th p d t (
o the s S ) th t is ofthe p olyn mial (p )
n e ro uc "
z a , a , o ,

is the s m s th s ign f t” whi h is th fi st te m of the s me

a e a e o a , c e r r a

p oly omial n .

When tw o p olyn omials, such as

“m “

(Pl '

remain equal to each o ther , u bs

s tituting in them n + 1 difer ent valuesofz,
the two p olyno mials ar e id en tical.
Let zo, z , , z, , z ,l r ep r e sen t the n +1 dif
fer en t valu es
, which,
ub si
s t tut d i s e n u ccessio n l
in the p o yno mia s, make hem l t equ a l to each
o th ; th t is
er a ,

H ence , also, ca lli

ng p o, p , , p m the fi st
r memb er softhese
ti ons, we will have
”
at + + 3+ d i zo aa2 .
+ w o
I
I

g
a° + a z + a, z + a, z , " I
I
, , ,

ao + a zs+ auzf+ M
" I

. I

04 3+
and likewise,
00 + 3+ 01 0 + cazo’ =n o

az F l -
one " p .

60 03 2 + 03 2 3 + 05 2 1
"
Pa
o

co + cz + t n =p n

Now the valuesofa,” a, , a.” a“, inferr ed f

r om the n + 1 e qua tio ns

( A) , ar e evid en tly th e sam e asthe va u es of l c, , c, a" , inf

err ed

r om the
f n 1 q ti
e ua on s T he r ef
or e , r om the s
f up p os
ed eq uality
 E QU AT I O N S . 14 7

o f the p o yn omi a s (P) , wl l h en su b s i t t ti u ng in th em n +1 dif

fer en t
va lu esof z , it f
o ows ,
a ll th t
Now this q e m ak es the p o yno mia s (P) iden ica .
uality/ l l t l
Cor o ll y
ar
h
Hence, w en the p o yn omia s(P) ar e fo nd to b e equ al l l u
th h l
.

to on e an o er in w atso ever m an n er the var i ab e 2 b e

t k w m st
a en , e u nece ssar i ly i n erf the q
e uation s (h) .

G lfi en era n"
a96 . Let the fi tsA
c o ef cien , B, C , H , and the l st
a
m l
u e f d o a
t min d q t
er a e ua
o
ermsK o f the e ua q ti on
ti f ny d
on o a e
Az “— 1
[] + + B x"
“
g ree, e a

o f the n“ l q titi s If t ki g f tw
d egr ee b e l l es
r ea ua n e . a n or a o r ea va u ,

th e one m k s [ ] p si ti a d th
e th eg ti the s me [ ] is
o v e, an e o er ne a ve, a e

s l b l wi th t l st
r e o va e l t ; th t is th is at l st o
a ea on e r e a r oo a ,
er e ea ne

r eal l e f s whi h m k s th fi st m mb of [ ] q l t e o
va u o a, c a e e r e er e e ua o z r .

T p
o this it is g h t p p ly t [ ] th d m st atio f th
r o ve , en o u o a o e e e on r n o e

fi st theo em o fthe p di g mb
r r r ece n nu er .

Eq ti s Lt s ws h w ftw el sof2: mak s[ ]

u no ee o on e o o va ue e e

m
ua on r e.

ggfiz f
b it
fi
'
p n
siti d th
e
th g ti
o W h the d g
ve, an of e o er n e a ve . en e r ee n

root . th q ti is mbe e uathe sig f th fi st on an un ev en nu er , n o e r

t m ”isth s m sth sig f ; b t wh x h s s ffi i tly g t

er a e a e a e n o x u en a a u c en r ea

v l e ac
au di g to the thi d th
cor nm of th p e edi g mb th r eor e e r c n nu er , e

sig f the wh le p ly mi l [ ] isth s m

n o o sth t fthe fi st t m ;
o no a e e a e a a o r er

he e p os
nc itive if is p siti
, g ti if x is g ti e
a: Wh e o ve , ne a ve ne a v . n,

th f e the deg ee f th q ti is
er e or , th fi st m mb
r o of e e ua on u n even , e r e er

[ ] b y the s b stituti
c ,
f ut i l fx b mad p os
on o iti e o n e c er a n va u e o , can e e v ,

an d b y ano th g ti ; h th q ti i thiscase isc t i ly

er ne a ve en ce , e e ua on n er a n

r s lvab l with t l as
e o t
e l t a e o n e r ea ro o .

Eq ti w Wh th d g fth q ti isan even mb e

en e e r ee n o e e ua on nu r,

mtsaz ms l ab l with t l st tw l ts Beca se taki

ua on ,
b ai‘ d the l st t m I is g ti an the e q ti is the a er t ne a ve , ua on n re

ro o o v e a ea o r ea r oo u n
.
g .
,

a ver y sm ll l e f x th sig f th f m l [ ] co ding t th

a va u or ,
e n o e or u a e , ac r o e

s c d m g th p
e on a di g th
on m s isth s m e s th t fits l st
e rece n eor e , e a a a o a

t m K ; th t is g ti e A d t ki g s ih i tly gr t l e fx
er a , ne a v . n a n a u c en ea va u o ,

th the sig fth p ly mi l isth s m sthat fthe fi st te m

en n o e o no a e a e a o r r .

B t th s
u ig ofthe fi st t m i s p s
e n iti wh th the l e of b
r er o ve , e er va u a: e

p siti e r
o v g ti ; th
o f ne a l f s b twee e v y sm ll
ve er e or e , a va u e o a e n on er a

an d th l g a d p siti will m k th fi st m mb e f[ ] q l
an o er ar e n o ve , a e e r e r o 6 e ua

to z er o; d gain an th l f s b tw the s me e y small

a , an o er va u e o a e een o v r

val d
u e an oth e l g e and g ti will m ke the fi st m mb e of[ ]
r ar an ne a ve, a r e r e
14 8 TR E ATI SE ON ALG EB R A .

e q u al to th f th d g f th q ti [ ] is
z er o . Wh en , er e or e , e e r ee o e e ua on e an

e ven mb d its l st t m K
nu er , an
g ti q tity th q ti a er a ne a ve u an ,
e e ua on

[] 8 0 b s l d wi th t l st tw
can l ts
e r e o ve a ea o r ea r oo .

Wh q en
Q97 W h e ua s th t wh th d g fth q e r ee o e e ua
m s
_

on tb ca nn o
. e ave een a en e

s l d with t q t
e

[] 0 s mb th s un even nu e e ua i on i

l m
r e o ve i on e i an er ,

i lw ys s l b l w ith t l st l t ; d wh n
1 t t
$2 f zf
r ‘
a a r e o va e a ea o n e r ea r oo an e
e c v
“
m
M
or e im g
th d g
o ne
f th s m
a i
q ti ise e mb r ee n o e a e e ua on an even n u er,

nary ts r oo th sl t . m y b b t i d W th tw d f f t l
e r e o u i on a e o a ne i o i er en r ea

r oo ts p id d th l st t m K f [ ] b
, r ov e g ti q ti ty ; b t if
e a er o e e a ne a ve u an u

K sh l d b p siti ou d e mb w w l d th
o b
ve , an bl n an even n u er , e ou en e un a e

t d m
o st t th p ss
e on ib ili ty f s l ti
ra e f[ ] 0 wi th
e l ts
o o re o u on o e r ea r oo .

B s lth gh [ ] i l s f ti f d l w ys fth s m
eca u e , a ou e n vo ve a un c on o x, an a a o e a e

r ea l f m d s q tly i th q ti [ ] 0 th
or , an c on e i bl s u en n e e ua on e e var a e :

is ss ily
n e ce ip l f ti fA B C
ar a r ec K th t is r o ca unc on o , , , , a ,

u = f(A , B,

of a de t er m in ed a n d u n v ar iab e l f o r m, it may o ccu r a the th t c h an ge of

the sign of k c h an ge sthe r ea l l va u e sin o an imagin ar y

of a t o n e. For
e xa m p e, l the r ea l l va u e o f the e xp r e ssion

in w ic h hA an d B ar e su p p o sed to b e p o si ive , b eco me s imagin ar y t

w h en B , b ein g gr e a er t th an A i
, hasitssgn c an ged h .

B ut w a ever b e the ht val u e o f x, ei th er r ea l or imagin ary , it is

c er ain t th t a b y sub si t t ti gu n in [e] 0 in sead t o f a: the f
u n c ion t
f(A , B, H K) , the q ti
e ua on is f
u lfill ed ; an d , th er ef
or e , w h en the
d egr e e of the e q ti [ ]
ua on e 0 is an ev en n umb er , an d th e l st t
a er m

K is p o si ive, t th q ti
e e ua on is r eso l vab e, a t l l st
ea wi th an imaginar y
r oo t .

L sta
l st s p p siti whi h
“ mg b m d The a u o on c c an e a e wi th r egar d
ti
,

on
t th l s t t m K f th g l q ti o e a er o e en e r a e ua on
[e] 0 is
,

th t th s m t m b q l t
a e I thiss p p si ti
a e er e e ua o z er o . n u o on o u r e q tiua on

b m s q i le t t th f ll wi g
ec o e e u va n o e o o n on e :

—
z [Az
" 1
+ Bz "
-
2
+ H] O,

or
(makin g Ai r
— 1
Bx”
“
2
H e q uiva en l tt o

x e’
[ ] 0 .

It is now p ain l th t y l f whi h m k s ( ] 0 m

a an va u e o a: c a e e’ , ak es

l
a so a [o ]
’
0 T . h t is y t whi h fl filsth q ti [ ]
a , an roo c u e e ua on e’ O,
f
ul l sa sfi
o the l e q ti [ ] 0 B t [ ] is p ly mi l h
ua on e . u e
’
a o no a , aving
15 0 TRE AT IS E O N AL GEBRA .

Makin g n ow, a t tuti sub si on o f the valu esof t e se h b in o mi al s in the

exp r ession o f [ ] l st b t i
e a o a n ed , we wi l l h ave

[8] (z
— k
(z
)H ;
or e ls e,

[]
e
(z
—1
(h + Arm
—9
-
2
+ (h°
+ Ah m r
a
-
8
+
(h"
Ai r
+ Bh
fl d

or m or e sim p y, l
—2 —8
[]
e
(zzz
-
l
B ar + C, z " + H, x + K, ]
makin g, na me y, h l A B k” Ah B C, , & c .

Rep r esen t n ow the l st p ly

a o n omia l by th t is m
a , ak e

—1 —2 —3
afl +R f
a + C, x" + H, :c +K ,

th w en e wi ll h av e
[e] (x h)
wh t a ever b e the l
va u e o f x.

Th er ef
or e , h b ein g a r oo t o f the e q ti
ua on [e] O, the p o yn omia l l
can b e d eco mp o sed in tw o f
ac t or s, o
n e of w hi hc isx k, the secon d
an o th er l
p o yn omia l [q ] f th o e same f
or m as [e] , b u t o f a d egr ee on e

un i ty l o wer an th th t f [ ] a o e .

Now, r esu m in g again

[3 1 O, or itse q u iva en l t
(a: k) [e ] , 0,

it is p l
th t t ly b y m ki g s q l t h w will h the
ain , a no on a n a e ua o , e ave

eq ti f lfill d ; b t ls y l fx whi h d s [a] q l

ua on u e u a o , an va u e o c r en er e ua

t fl fils lik wis th

o z er o , u q ti ; th t is t s y y t fthe
e e e e ua on a o a , an r oo o

e q ti ua on , [ 0 e, ,

is t ls f [ ] 0 N w [ ] O dmitsc t i ly f t l st
a r oo a o o e . o , e, a er a n o a ea

ith l im gi y t whi h w m y ll d pp lyi g

“

o ne e er r e a or a n ar r oo , c e a ca a an a n

t [ ]
o 0 th t whi h w h
e, s id with g d t []
a 0 we will c e ave a re ar o e ,
—2
h ave []
e,
(
x + C, x” K9 ],
and makin g + K, = [e, ]
[82] (x Ma] ;
an d in ce
s [e] (x a ls o

— i
[] e
(
x la
c ) [e a
l th tw [ ] nd [ ] c b
B u t the p o yn omi a [a], ik e the o l l er o e a cl , an e de
c om p o s t t
e d in o two f
ac or sfi t fw hi h h vi g th f m (
,
the r s o c a n e or x l),
and th s d th s m f m s th p
e ec o n di g p ly mi ls [ ]
e a e or a e r ece n o no a e ,

[a] wi th this dif

,
f th t th high st d g f x i [ ] is
er en c e , a e e e r ee o n c n ; in
— 1
; i
72 2 i th f ll wi g p ly mi l [ ] is
n n —
,
n e o o n o no a ea n 8 .
 Q A
E U TION S . 15 1

C on tinuing the same p r o cess, we wil l fi lly b t ina o a n the p o yn o mia l l

[e] d e comp o sed in t o n f
ac t or so fthe fi st d g
r d e r ee , an ofthe sam e fo r m.

Th t is th p ly mi l
a , e o no a
[e] will b eco m q l t
e e p ua o a r o du c t ofn f
ac t or s

i th fll wi g m
n e o o n ann er

a“ + Az " -
1
+ E x“
—z
+ . K (x — la) (x -
l)

(1: t) .

Fr om the t th f th t the p ly mi l [ ] is q l t
s
u p p osi io n , er e or e , a o no a e e ua o

it f ll ws th t it m y b d
z er o, omp s d s b o N w f m th a a e eco o e a a ove . o ro e

l st f m l it is vid t th t s b stit ti g f
a or u a y f th l sh e en a u u n or 9
5 an o e n va u e ,

i l
, t th
,
q ti [ ] 0 isfl fill d H , th ts f th
e e ua on 6 u e . en ce, e roo o e

eq ti f th
ua d g
on o i mb e nth e r e e ar e n n nu er .

C ti b
onn ec
Q 99 Th p d t f
on q lef t s f th f m e ro uc o e ua ac or o e or
tw th ts . 1 1.

ee n e ro o
an d th ek 69 70
co ef
fi (x ) IS ( : )
”(n 1)
i iiifigé 23133 (x
’ e’ ‘
lm
2
— ‘ ” i
h) "
x" 1
kfl h"
- ‘

er fi
ti on .

In the l st eq ti f th p di g mb w h
a ua
p d t f
on o e r e ce n nu er , e ave a ro uc o n

b i mi ls; i whi h h w
no a th s d t m is dif
n f ti
c , h o eve r , e econ er er en n e ac

o f th m ; b t si e th fi st t m isth s m i
u ll th p d t f
n ce e r er 91: e a e n a , e ro uc o

th s b i mi lswith g d t
o e n no m st b q i l t t th t f
a re ar o x, u e e u va en o a o n

f t s ll q l t th s m b i m i l — h
ac or , a e Th t is will
ua o m e a e no a x . a ,
x co

m wi th th high st d g
en ce d d ly dim i ish it till th l w st
e e e r ee n , an or er n e o e

p ssib l d g
o Th dif
e f e ree f th tw p d t s m st b i th
. e er en ce o e o ro uc u e n e

co effi i ts f whi h wh
c en ll th b i mi ls
o q lt
x, h c , en a e no a ar e e ua o x , ar e

1
h i — 1h fi i ts f th
fl n

g
“
n ,
B t th f i sp w s f x
. u e c oe c en o e var ou o er o ,

a sw ll sth l st t m fth p d t
e a f m d i th s m m
e a er o e ro uc , ar e or e n e a e an n er

i b th
n s s Th t is wh
o ca e th t m s b t t d f m isth s m
. a ,
en e er u r ac e ro x e a e

k i ll th b i mi ls it is p t dly s d s f t s m y tim s
n a e no a , re ea e u e a a ac or a an e

an d i th s m m n sth di f
e f t t msk l
a e i th th
ann er a e er en er ,
'

z, . n e o er

s
ca e . It is b sid s t b bs d th t wh
, th t m s s b t
e e , td o e o er ve , a en e er u r ac e

f m x
ro ll q l h f th m m st h
ar e a q l sh i th
une ua , eac o e u ave an e ua ar e n e

f m ti
or f tha fii i ts d l st t m f th p d t
on o e coe c en an a er o e ro uc .

W m y ew i stit t a lyti l mp is b tw th
no n u e an an a ca co ar on e een e cc

g the with th l st t m A w
eg — 9M
e f
fi i ts c en h
g t n h , o e r e a er "
, en

th f t s
e ll
ac or q l d th s whi h ar e p d d wh
a th
e ua , an o e c ar e ro u ce en e

t mss b t t d f m
er u dif
f t i all th b i mi ls
r ac e ro a: ar e er en n e no a .

Th fi st f th s e ffi i ts
r h sh ws th t
o k is s d tim s
e e co e c en a o a u e n e

a s f t a f B t wh
ac or o th s b t ti t m s ll dif
f t u en e u r ac ve er ar e a er en
,

no t m b f
er d i th p d t mul tip li d b y — h m
can e ou n th n e ro uc e or e an
1 52 r nna r i sn O N A GEB R L A .

o n ce, b u t all the sam e sub t ti t

r ac ve er m scon cur l orm
in ike m ann er to f
the coef
fi cien ts; th er ef
or e, the q i l tt
co efi cieu t e h m st b
u va en o u u e

in thi s case
(k t) ; th t is th g ti
a s m f ll , e ne a ve u o a

the r o o ts o f
[e] 0 . The n ex t ffi i t
coe fli i t f th thi d
c en , o r co e c en o e r

1i
t er m in the s
up p o si io n o fall the t b i mi l sb i g e q l is
no a L —
en ua ,

w ich h is
"
“ 7 _
1)
tim e s the s qu ar e of h. Now in the case o f the
2
t er m s ak en t r om
f a, b ein g all une u aq l , k can n ever mul tip y i se f l t l
,

an d h.“ mu s b e t n ecessar i ly chan ge d i t n o the p r o du c t o f two dif

fer en t

t er m s, f t
or ins an ce, hi ; b u t again , all the er m s aken f r om x, con t t
cu r in q
an e u al mann er t o the f or m a ion of the coefli ci en t ; an d as in t
the co ef
fi cien t the s uar e q of h is t ak en
Ma -
1)
tim s e ,
2 g
the p r odu c sof the t t er ms, t
aken two an d two , ou g ht to be as many

in n u mb er ; an d in f
ac t , the nu mb er of comb in a ti on s of n symb o s, l
t k tw d tw is
a en
( o H an o,
n a
en ce , t f the
the coef
fi cien o
2
thi d t m is (ki + kl +
r er + ht + il + th t is th a , e

p siti
o s m f th p d tsof ll th
ve u ts o e r o uc a e r oo f[] 0 tak
o tw e , en o

an d two . It i s n o w easy to see, in the sm m

a eth t th ann er , a e cc

th t m isth g ti
efiicien t o f the f
ou r er e ne a ve s m fth p d ts fthe
u o e ro uc o

sm a ts t k th
e roo d th ; the
, a en r ee an r ee ne xt th p s
,
itiv s m fth
e o e u o e

p d ts f ll th
ro uc ts t k f o d f a d e roo , a en o ur an , our , an so on . An d the
l st t m is th p d t f ll th o ts; p siti
a er e ro uc o a e r o a o ve p r o du c t ifn is
an mb d
ev en n u g tiv p od t if is er , an a ne a e r uc n an un even n u mb er .

O q ti th f
ur e ua on , er e or e ,

—1
Bx" K = (x — k) (m— 1 ) ( x— t)
is e quiva en l tt o
— 1 —1
+ Ax + B x" xfl
0
n "
x 35"

w
J
a . t) ,

in w h ts a o ever m ann er a; be t ak en . Bu t (95 , Th 4 , . co r . ) w h en two

su c h p ly o no mials ar e fo und e ua q lt o each o th er wi th an y va u e of x,l
the p on ding co efiicien ts o f the
cor r es same : ar e r es
a p ec tiv ly eq l
e ua to
eac h th o er . S o we will h ave

A
B
c (r ) .
1 54 m ar rsn on ALGEBRA .

wi th t gi i g y ffi i t t th fi st t m S p p s i f t
ou vn an coe c en o e r er . u o e, n ac ,

th t th diff t d mi t s
a e 6 der en M ltip lyi g the en o n a or ar e ,
c, ,
u n

t ms fth gi
er o q ti b y th t ms f th s i s 1 (b
e v en e ua on
’

e er o e er e , c

(b c th c fli i ts will b
2
i d tly ll l d f th i
e oe c en e ev en a c ear e o e r

d mi t o s w hil th fi st t m fth
eno na q ti
r ,
m i s h gd e e r er o e e ua on r e a n unc an e .

The ts h w
r oo f th q ti th s m di fi d t b d c d t
, o ever , o e e ua on u o e o e re u e o
‘
th s fth gi
o e o q ti m st b divid d by th p d t (6
e ven e ua o n, u e e e ro uc . c .

Th f th oll d s st b p ti l ly ti d
ll y 4 y e ou r cor ar e er v e o e ar cu ar no ce ,
C o r o ar
t fits s i th s l ti f th q ti s f
.

o n acco un o u e n e re o u on o e e ua on o

th thi d
e d f th d g
r an our e r ee .

I th e q ti
n
[] e 0 th t is ua on e , a ,

x" + Ax" - 2
+ .
+ Hx + K 0,

x t
san d s to r ep r esen t an y of the n r oo ts k , z, of the e q ti
ua on,

w ic h h roo tsd ep en d on the coef

fi cien ts A , B, in the m ann er ab o ve

seen . Let u s n ow su p p o se an o th er e u a q ti on of the sam e d egr ee an d

f
or m
[] as e 0, w h ose r oo tsar e h a, i+ a, &c . t tha is, the same
r oo ts as e 0, b ut hi ed b y the q tity We m ay
[] eac n cr eas u an on
.

r ep r e sen t thi s n ew e u a q ti on asf

o ll o ws

x’ " A’ x’ “ — 1 E’ x’ “ H’ z ’ K’ ,

2’ t
sandin g to r ep r e sen t any o f the r oo tsh a, i + a, an d a s

the co efi eien t A f[] o e 0 i sthe n ega ti ve sum o f all the r oo tsk , i,

l, ofth t e q ti a ua on ,

Or , — n a,

Bu t

th er e f
or e , A ’
A— n a.

In o th er wor d s, c h an gin g the r oo ts of

[] e r om
0f a
: t
in o 1’ x
a, A f th se d t m f th ew
the co efii cien t m st ’
o e c on er o e n e q ti
ua on u

b h g d f m Ai t A
e c an eA ro n o ’ n ot.

t b t ke q lt A i this se A
L t s w s pp s
e u no
—
u A o e a o e a n e ua o
n
n ca ’

— A 0 T h t is wh th ts f th
. q ti [ ] 0a , en e r oo o e e ua on e ar e

h g dfm i t A
c an e ro th w eq t m st b e wi th t
a: n o x/ z
—
, e ne u a i on u ou
71

th s e d t mecon A d this q ti b i g s l d it will b

er .
gh n e ua on e n r e o ve , e en ou

to s bt ut f m th diff t l s f
r ac roo ts th st t e er en va u e o z’ or r o e c on an

q tity 3 t b t i th
u an ts fth f m quati
, o o an e roo o e or er e on.
 E QUATIO N S . 1 55

The sum s of
Q1 01 . C ll S
a um
the s o fa ll the simp l e r oo ts of [e]
var iou s o wer s p ,

t t
o f he r oo scan 0, S , the sum of all q
the s u ar e so f the sam e r oo ts ,

f
’w
We wil l h
é z
l
fi gfi fié
o t
S , the su m o fall the cub es, &c . ave

8.
k n o wn .
So h’ + + i’ l’+
Sa h3 + i3 + l3 +

N ow, a lth ou g h the r oo tsh ,

z,
'

t m ay all re main unk n o wn , yet the

sum s S " S , m ay b e m ad e kn own b y the c o efii cien ts A , B of

the q ti
e ua on .

With g re ar d to the fi r s, it iswe t ll known th t th

a e n e ga ti ve sum of

al l the r ootsise q al t
u o the c oef
fi cien tA ofthe secon d t er m . Hen ce ,

S, A .

B u t to d emo n s r a t t th e e p r op o si io n t with r e gar d to all the sum s, ob

ser ve, fir st th t (98)

, a

[e] (z i dle ],
—1
Bu t + Ax "
+ Bz "
— 1 — 2
(z z"
(B , k)m” (c, hB, )z " (K ,

hH, ) x — hK, .

N ow, sin ce the two fi st m mb

r e er s of th ese e qua ti
on sar e e q lt
ua o eac h
o th er f
or
an y l
va u e of as
, so ls
a o ar e the secon d me mb er s . H ence ,

accor din g to the fifth th e or em

A =B ,
— h, B =C ,
— hB — kH
, K —hK, .

Fr om wh ich we in fer
B, A + h,
B + kA + h2,

&c .
,

K, = H + hG + h"
— 2
A + h” -
1

r om
Bu t f h f
e
]
[c] (z we ave
Z —
I h [e ] , an d
(98) [e ] ,

zn H en ce ,

£ [ 1=
e. A+
< (B hA + h2 w 3
(C
-

7.
H + hG + + hfl -
2
A + h“ — l

An d s
in ce w h t w sy
a e a o fit may b e e ua q lly s id a ofan y o th e r r oo t, we
wi l l h ave in eq lm ua an n er ,
1 56 m em es o n ALGEB RA .

(13 + { 11 + w
e
s H + iG

i° - ’
A em ,

and so on.

N ow th e r o o tso f
[] e, 0 ar e the same as th ose of [e] 0, with

l ]
the excep ti on o f h ; he nce, the r o o tsO f
a: i b
h
0 ar e the same as

the r o otsof
[e] 0, wi th the excep ti o n cf h. H en ce , also, on ac

coun t ofth e l
we l known dep en d en ce
-
o fthe r oo ts on the co efcien fi ts f
o

the e q ti ua o n,

Reasonin g in the same man n er wi th r egar d to the e uaq tio ns

x

0,
[e] 0, we will have
a: t

c,
—
(A + t)
The fi cien t B in [e]
c o ef is e q lto the s
ua um ofthe p r o du cts ofthe

r oo ts t , aken two an d two . Ifwe su pp o s

e on e of the r ootswan in g, t
f
or i st
n an ce 11, the p r odu c so fthe t r em ainin g r oo ts,
taken tw o and two,
will b e given b y B k(£ 1+ 0 . Now the c o ef
fi cien t fo

the thir d ter m o f

[e] 0 is e qu l to the sum fth p rod
a o e u cts of
z h
the r ootsof [e] 0, wi th the e x p ti
ce of k t k
on tw a d , a en o n two .

H ence ,
B + kA + h
‘

ln like mann er f
r om the equ a ion s t [a] 0, we have
a: t

B
°
a)
i
'

a;
'

B + ta + B -

t
The p r o du c so fthe a r o o s, ak enth e and th e gi by C t t r e r e , ar e ven

th t
a is , by
t
fi cien ofthe f
the co ef th t rm of[ ] t k with an opp o
our e 3 a en

site sig B t s pp s
n. i g the r t k t b taken f
u u rom th omb e ofthe
n oo o e e nu r

n r oo t s th s m fthe p od ts fth remai i g

,
e u o ts t ke th ee r uc o e n n ro o ,
l
a n r

a d th
n e will b
re — C — h il +
, ( + £t + e t) N w thi sve y a . o r

fi ie t fth fu th te m of [ ]
c
sum isgi b y thven e coe t ke with c n o e o r r a n

eu Op p s i t sig
o H ce
e n. en ,
1 58 T RE ATI S E ON ALGEB RA .

In the latter p art o f the e q ua tions c, ( ) we may lik ewise ob s

e r ve th t a

e ach o fthe .n r oo tsb eco m esin su cce ssion a f

ac t or ofall the o th er r oo ts ,

t aken two an d two ; an d in the sam e m ann er a sh ul

m tip lies it, i mul
tip lie sM, and I, hi, so th t th
a p r o du c MI is to
e t be f
oun d r ee imes th t
um,
in the s as a lso ar e all the o er s th
H ence the w . h ole sum ofthe
l tt
a er p ar t of the se con d m e mb er is in this s th e t m sthe p o
ca e re i e r

t
d uc so fn r oo ts t k th
, a en r e e an d th r ee . N w the o o ts t k e p os
i n ro , a n

tively thr ee an d th r ee, are exp r essed by 0 ; th e ef ore the s me r , a

su m b eing ne a g ti will bve , egiven b y 3 0 whi h d d d to the sum

,
c a e

71 0 of the fi st p t gi
r ar , ve s 710 3 0, or C(n for the

wh le s m fth s
o u o e econ d m emb er s of B u t the sum ofthe corre

p di g fi st m mb
s en n r e er sis nC BS l AS , S, ; her ef
or e, t
s ,
as
, as, n C C(n ac .

Fr om this , an d fr om the tw o p r ec edin g e q ti ua ons, we i y inf

eas er l the
l
va u esofS S , , S , asf
o o ws ll
S, =— A,
S, — AS , — 2B = AQ— 2B ,
s ,
— AS , — BS , — 3 C — A3 + 3 AB — 3 C, &c ; .

that is the sumsS , S S, o fthe var io u sp ower so fthe tsk

roo ,
’

z,

I, t, ar e given b y the kn o wn co ef
fi cien s t A , B, C o f th qu e e a

ti on [e] 0, whe th er the r oo tsth emse ve sb e l kn own or n ot.

Cor o ll y
ar an d
S in ce A2 2 B givesthe sum ofall the s are softhe qu
“i e t m“ r oo ts of the q t
e ua i on [e] i ion
0, in the sup p o s a t th t
all the roo sar e t l th r ea , e bin omia A2 l 2B canno t b e b ut a p o iti e
s v

q anti ty f
u ,s m fte ms ll ofth m s
or e tially p os
it iseq u l t
s i a o a u o r , a e e n

ti e B t th sig fA 2B d p ds the v l s ofA and B as

v . u e n o 2 e en on a ue

th y are to b fo d i [ ] ; if th f the sig ofthisdiffer e ce is

e e un n e ,
er e o r e, n n

n eg ti e it isc
a t i th t t ll th
v , ts f[ ] 0 ar e r eal
er a n a no a e r oo o e .

f
a102 . The im aginar y s
exp re sions

roo ts .
u a a
¢2 1
ar e ca l ed co l m
'

ug a te, f
or
[] e 0 cann o th ave f
or
'
ts
on e ofits ro o an

sion ofthe
exp r es f
or m o fon e o fthe two j
con u ga tes without h ving
,
a at

the sam e ime tlso th th a e o er .

Bef
or e we d em o st t thisp n ra e r op osi ti on , it isto b e ob ser ved ha t t
—
(a + 2 ab‘/ 1,
°
a b +
( a bJ: l )2 b“ 2 abF l;
 E QUAT I O N S . 1 59

and makin g ag b2 k, 2 ab

(a — b, /
r om t
f h ese

<+ W m
a 3 = (a W i ne w r it

(a (a e ) .

No w (63 ) (a i i :
M 3 ) (ah b K) I

An d m akin g ah — bK l, aK
+ bk =m;
(a d : d : KJ —
j ) m¢: 1,
—
Hen ce , (a fi
bJ — fi l + m\/ 1,

(a by r l )s l fit
s/ Z 1 .

l
In ike mann er , we h ave
—
( + 4 /r
bs i )‘ n Os/ Z l,
_

( a — l )4 n

an d gener a y ll
(a w A 13./ f l ,

( a b¢ : 1)m A
g f on th a t on e of the r oo tsof[e] siti
[g
q
e g g g g g a1 03 In the su pp o .

1 sub stitu tin g

g f
21 5gg‘f
2
fg
"
g
th‘ ‘t d
to s 0 has the im agin ar y f or m u v /
‘ ,

X
'

ig lls fii
t in
[e
o o
]a '
'

th a
e
t I S i n x + Ac t
—1
K 0 ,
n "
,

o th er. th t l
a va u e i n s ea d ofx, t the ,
e q t
u a i on
.

W111 t ake
.

the f
or m

U V\/ 0;

f
or t akin g sep ar a t ly
e eac ht er m o fthe e u a q ti on , we wil have l
x" ( u u’ v’
s ,

—
u”
A(u l l )" V3 ,

”H Q/ j , gm .

K K .

An d , con s
equ en tly , ca lli g U th
n e su m o f the t er msu ’ , u” K and
V the sum o fthe co e fi i ts
f c en o f, v” a m) , we will h ave

zn + Az n
160 T RE ATIS E ON ALG EB RA .

N ow U V¢: 1 canno tb q lte e ua o z er o , u n e sss

ep ar a e l t ly U an d V
ar e eac h eq l ua to z er o ; b ecau se U, a r ea lt er m , can n ever be eli mi

n ated b y V¢: 1, an im agin ar y on e ; h en ce ,

[e] 0, whi c h, in our

supp osi ion , ist U s —T l 0, n e c essar l u pp o s

iy s es
—
U 0 an d

th t wh x l l isa oot
V 0. It isn ow easy to se e a al en u t r

of e [] 0, a: u v J —
T T is t fth s m e equatio lik wise
a r oo o e a n e .

B ecause, s b sti u t ti g this

u n l fz i
va u e o h t m f[ ] we hav
n e ac er o a , e,

—
'

u—
( y z d) u’ v’ J z l,
"
x" v

u.” v”
r —
Ai r -
1 A(u a v iy l

fl/ r l ,
“
Baa v’ f &c .

And th er ef
or e ,

z" K U — VJ — l .

But w he n x u i
nf i isa
T
— r oo t of [e] 0, U an d V ar e sep a

r ately eac h eq al to u z er o ; h en ce, U — Vy —

fi , as well as U V

v r l, ise q l to e
ua z r o. Bu t U — Vy fi is th t whi h [ ] b
a c e ecomes

w h en u ”J : issub si tt t u ed f
or z ; h en ce , x u v Jr -
i isa
r oo t of [ ] 0 e . T h er ef
or e, w h en o n e o f the con uga e r ad ica j t l ex

p r ession sisa r o o ofthe t q

e u ation , the o th er a lso is n ecessar i ly a r oo t
ofthe s ame e qua io n t .

F r om this co nn ec ti on it fol ows, fir s,l t th t a the n umb er

o fthe r o o ts o f the imagin ary f

or m
( a : t bJ — l ) mus t
necesar i s ly b e even .

S e condly, s
in ce w ht
a ever he the r oo ts f[ ] o e 0, we have always

[e] (z h) (x i) (z — c
) (x t) .

in g ha
S upp os t t the fi st tw
r o, o r f
our , or eig ht and
'

so on, ar e imagi

n ar y, we will have f
or exam p e , l h a + bJ r -
l a b¢z 1 ;
hen ce,
—
(z — h) (x— t) 1 )(x + Jj
'

— 62,
(z a a b ) ( z

an d , con se u ent q ly ,

[] [( b2 ] (x — l) — t
e x
( z
) .

Tha t ht
is to s
ay, w a ever b e the t
n a ur e o f the r ootso f [e] 0, the
p ol l l
yn omia [a] is a ways cap ab e l of b ein g d ecomp osed in t o real f
ac

t s ith ofthe fi st
or , e er r or of the second d egr ee .
1 62 r e na mes O N ALGEB RA .

Ag i ( a n, r’
) d o es n o t co n ai nt the secon d t er m, h h s pp
w ic u oses

q lt ts f( th t is h
,

um o fthe r o o +
'

e ua o z er o , the s o r’
) 0; a ,
z

an d conse u en tl ,
y q h (i I) .

T o fin d ou t the q uali ty f th o e roo ts5 an d I, m ak e (ii I) 2a an d

it a.2 3c ; or , whi h isth c e same , make

— l
)
’
h 2 a, (
x x + 2 ax +

w ich h val u e sb ein g sub si tt t u ed in or

(x — me —
cc — a] 0,

we will h ave
(a: 2 a) 2 am 3 0) 0,

x3 3 (a2 + )
c :c S ac 0;

an d con se q u en tly ,

H —6
221 3 im
3 02

K 6 2 3 ’

Reso vin g l n ow the q ti

e ua on

i)(x — l) — 3c
(
2
z —
’
z
+ 2 az +( a
) 0,

we h ave
(93 ) i

whic h ar e ei th er r ea l or imaginary, accor ding asc i ive

isp o s t or nega

tive . r om
N ow f H an d K th ta ar e given , an d r om the
f equ a ion s t (f) ,

h th
i ive or nega ive
w e m ay find o u t w e er 0 isp o s t t .

q t
T he e ua ions (f) m ay b e c an ged asf o l ows h l
H
— a,2 — c, 3 ac
3 2

fr om t 1s
2
h
as 3a 2
_
ca,
7
2
F 94 202 6 a4c
4
a n d con se u en q tly
9a4c 6 a"c2

c
(9a4 6a
2
c
(3 a
1a H3
N ow (3 afl— c)2 is e ssen ia y p o si ive t ll
W en , er efor e, — 4 — is t . h th 1
4 27
t ac or c of the s
i ive, the f
p os t
e c on d m emb er mu s b e n ega ive, an d t t
w h en the sam e b in o mia is n ega ive, the f
ac l t t
or 0 t
mu s b e p o si ive t .
 EQU T IO N S A . 1 63

But when 0 is p o si ive, t all the r oo tsof

(W) 0 ar e r eal. H ence ,

the r oo tsof the e ua q ti o n,

x8 Ha: K 0
3
ar e all r eal w h en the cub e
(g) o f on e -
h
t ir d of the coefi cient ofz ,

l
p usthe squ ar e o f on e al o the las erm, give h f f tt a n ega ti ve sum ; if
um isp os
the s i ive, t
en two o f the r o o so f r ’
( ) th t 0 ar e imaginary .

Let u sapp y the l t

cr i er i on to the f ll wi
o o ng examp e s l
za — 3z+ 52 0,
x3 192 + 30

r om the
f first in whi h H c 3, K 5 2, we h ave

K“ H3
= 6 76 —1 + 67 5
z +
_
.

27
The sum isp os iti ve ; or e
er e f th
, two o fthe r o o so f(1 ) t ar e imaginary ;
an d, in f t
ac , the r oo s o f ise ua i on ar e t th q t
- —
1, x 2 l .

Fr om the secon d in which H 1 9, K 3 0, we h ave

K H3 “
685 9 7 84
2 25
4 527 27 27
um is nega ive ;
The s t th er ef
or e , the r oo ts of
(2 ) ar e r ea l , an d in f
ac t ,

the r oo ts fthis q ti
o e ua o n ar e

x =2 , x =3 ,
x =— 5 .

Res lt
o u ion of
a106 . It r emains n o w f
or us to see in w a h tm an n er
the same gen e
r el equa ion t , th ese r oo ts th ,
ei er r eal or i ma gin ar y, may b e f
oun d an d

de te mi
r ned .

An d her e th t t h ob s y q
er ve, ti ty tly d t mi d it
a o ave an u an exac e er ne ,

Tw diti s is
o con t gh t h
on
it xp li i tly gi
no b y f ti
en ou o ave e c ven a un c on

f th q titi s whi h
o k w ; b t it is
o er s u an e c ar e no n u nece

sa y b esid s th t th f ti
r , e its lfb
, d ib l t
a d t rmi d
e d
un c on e e r e uc e o a e e ne an

exp li i t v lc Th s f
a u e. x mp l i th q ti u , or e a e, n e e ua on

2:
m ,

we have the uk n nown q tity uan 9: exp li itly gi

c ven by a func ion of at
kn own qua tity n . B t this fm ti
u i c o n can n ever be exac tly d
min ed, e ert
f
or ¢20 isan irra ti l mb
ona nu An d mo re gen er a
er . ll
y the unkn ow n
u tt
q an i y exp lici y given tl un c i o n o f lm own
b y any f t l quan titi esf
ol ows

t
the n a u r e ofthe f
u n c i on ; t an d i s si whi h th v l e ofth f
n ca e uncn c e a u e

ti on could n ot b e de t er min e d , e i th x tly i y w y th k own

er e ac or n an a , e un n

quan i y t t ls w ul d
a o o r em ain u n d t mi d
e er lt g th u k ow
ne or a o e er n n n.
1 64 r nsa r rsn ON ALGEBRA .

The fi rs con t t
No w wi h regar d to the r eso u io n of o ur gen er al l t
d l tl on “w
fi l lfi ll efl a g: e qu t
a ion, we can alwaysob ain the valu es of the r o o s t t
no t “ 10 9900114 e xp lici ly given b y a f
. t
un cti on o f H an d K , w i ch are h
known qu t t t t
an i ies; b u t the f unc io n i self isn o t r ed cib e to a d efini e u l t
t m x ep t i som s s
er ,
e c n e ca e .

Let sfi st s e h w the fi st co di tio

u r e o r n n isal waysver i fi ed .

T k wi th th g
a e l e q ti e en er a ua on ,

z3 + Hz + K =0
the o th er of the secon d d egr ee,

“
z Kz 0

having f or the
‘
coefii ci ent o f 2 the l st t m of
a d f
eror the last an

te r m the c b e u of on e -
third ofthe c oef fi ci t o f i ( ) N w the
en z n rf . o

e q
u ati on
(r f’
) can be sl
r e o ved , and ca lli g 2 its oots the ro tsals
n z ,, , r , o o

of r ’
( ) will b e given b y the dif
fer en t val softh b i mi l
ue e no a

z
} 2
}

In f
ac t , the equ a ti on ( ) r’ 0 isf
ul filled wh the b i mial } en no z z }
iss b siu t t ted i u n st ead o f x. To see this m ke } u }
, a z , z

i za i u v

an d ub si
the s t t ti
u on of thisb i n omia l b ei ng made in (r )
, we wil have l
H<
u+v
> E

r o m the
Ne w f e q atiu on
(7 we h ave
(99)
—z , — 2, — u3 —o s,

W ;

th t is a , H 8uv,

an d u b si
s t tu ti ng th ese va ues of H an dl K in the last f u
o rm la, it wil l
b ecome s
( + )
u o 3 uv(u )
v

which, if (u o
) is a r oo t of r ’
( ) u t equal to z er
0, m s b e o. Now
l
e v o vin g the fi st a
r nd second t mso
er fthist inomi l w h ve r a , e a

u3 + 3u v
’‘
-

+ 8uv’ + 03 — 3 a’ r — 3 ao3 — u
3 — v3 0 .

H ence ,
the b in omia l u v or t tut
su b si ed m ( ) ful fil s the
r’

e uaq ti on , an d z } z
fi isa r oo t o fthe e q tiua on .

}
!
Bu t z 2 , 3I adm i ts of dif
fer en t va u es
,
l som e of w hi ch t
mus b e
166 r n sa r l s
'
s ON ALGEB RA ‘
.

T h ese ar e the ex p r e ssi ons o f the th r ee r o o ts o f the gener a l eq u ti

a on

( )
r’ of the th i d d
r egr e e , in whi c h th e co e mcien ts o f an d z } ar e

ei th er e u al q to u ni ty or o f an or m .
im agin ar y f With r egard to z,

and 2” whic h are the r oo ts of 0, w e h av e th eir values

as f
o ll ows :

K
3

imaginar y or r e al , accor di n g ly as the b in omi al un der the radical s

ig n
is ei the r n ega ti ve or p o si ivetBu t fr o m the cr iter ion given in the
.

las t nu mb er , w h en th is same b in o mia is n ega ive, the r oo s of l t t

( ) r’ 0 ar e all r e al, an d l is p ositi e two ofthe w h en the b in omia v ,

r oo tso f h t h ” ar e
( ) 0 im r’
gi y T i s w th
ar e
e ts of( ) a n ar . a , en r oo r

imagi ar y all the

n t s f( )
, l ; d wh the ootsof( ”) a e
roo o r’ ar e r ea an en r r r

r eal two of th
, t s f( ) im gi e y A g i whe e e the
r oo o r’ ar e a n ar . a n, n v r

K T

b inomial is t q l t d ll the oo tsof( ) no 0 e ua o z er o , an a r r’

are r eal t h y a ,l si ly gi b y t m s d fcto sofa imagi

e r e e xc u ve ven er an a r n

nar y or m
f .

Fr om all this it followsth at , the r oo ts o f the e q tio

ua
( ) may b e
n r’

alwaysgiven li it f ti s fth k w
by exp c un c on o e no n ter m s H and K and ,

the fi st fthe tw c di ti sis

r o sq tly f lfill d i ll ses
o on on , co n e u en , u e n a ca .

B t we will s
u ee b y s m x mp l s th t th f
, ti s th emsel es ar e
o e e a e , a e un c on v
’

not always r ed ib le t xp li i t d d fi i t v l s which is the

uc o e c an e n e a ue ,

seco d co diti
n t be f nul fill d t onh th q ti ( ) compl tely
o e o ave e e ua on r’ e

r es l edo v .

K 2

g) ?
8

I the c se fthe b i mi l
n a o 0 th ts f no a e a ,
e r oo o r

r al a d e qual to e
e n h th ; m ly ac o er na e ,

The r oo ts als o of r ’ ( ) ar e all real, an d two of them equal to each

o th er ; th at is,
K t
s)

and con se u en q tly ,

x, x
 E QUATI O N S . 1 67

E xam pl es.
Q1 07 Given . e q tiua on s

(l ) x .
’
3x + 20 O.

3
5 + 3x 14 0.

x, — 12 x + 16 0 .

The fi str of th ese e q ti

ua on s is to be l
c ear ed o f the secon d t
er m,

h h is sily d
w ic ea one b y su b s i t t ti u ng
(1 04) x’ + g , or x’ +2 , t
in s e ad of

x I thism
. n anner , we will h ave

( +
z’ 6 (z ’ + 3 (x’ + 2 ) 20 0,

x 9xf+ 1 0 0,

t
c on ain in g the roo ts o f the given e uaq ti on b u t diminis e d h each

b y the n umb er 2; f or fr o m a: + l
xf th t — 2 2 , it f
o l ows a z’ x .

H en c e , afer t h avin g fo un d the ts f th l st q

roo ti it is gh
o e a e ua on , en ou

to add to h
eac of th em the nu mb 2 t h er th ts f th gi
, o ave e r oo o e ven

eq ti ua on N o w, to r e o ve sl th l st q ti l t s mp it
e a e ua on , e u co ar e

with th e gen er a l q ti
e ua on d w will h
an e ave

H 9, K 10 ;

an d th er ef
or e , H
3

l
The b in omi a b ein g n ega ive , the t r oo ts fth q ti o e e ua on ar e all r ea l . An d
wi th r egar d to th ese r oo ts w h, e ave fi st f m th p
r , ro e r ecedi n g n um b er ,

z’ _

—
za — 5 2,

w ich h ar e to b e sub si tt t u ed in the l

va u e so f th e r o o ts w ,, x9, x3 . Bu t

this s b stit E
or e makin g
(M
be f u ution let us re duc e an d ; to a
,

simp l er f
or m , a sfll ws
o o :

Make 5 z iz «Q (y i Jfl F
y
3 : t 6g
/ zt 2J S Z ,

y
a 6y r (y
S fl
sun ,

whic h com st e o the sam e a sto t ak e

3¢ — 2 = L
168 T RE A TI S E ON A LG EB RA .

N ow f
r o m hislas we t t h ave l, an d conse q u en t y; l
y I 1 .

Bu t s t
i ive valu e of 3; a on e sub si u ed in y
in ce the p os '
1 makesit
63 l tt t
e qu a tol 5, her efor e t
l is th e o n y admissib e val e f
or y ; hence, l l u
5 mm (1
an d c o n se q u en tly ,

5= z } : 1

h ls x 2 x
en ce, a o , _
, ,
— 1 x, 1 + J3
'

an d sq
co n tly addi g
e u en , n 2 to ea c h of th ese, we will have, f
or the

r o ts f th e gi
o o q ti ven e ua on

4, 1 «76 1 + s/ F
Ge n eml re,
Let us r emar k h er e th t a s
ince the las tt er m o f the
mm“ e q tio
ua n isthe p r o d u c t ofthe r ootso fthe ame
s q ti
e ua on

(99 r ) we may su cceed in n di ng the r oo samong the f

, ac fi t t s f th
or o e

l ttas er m , b y r yin g if any of t

em ful sthe e u a ion T th fil q t . h s m g
u , a on

the f
ac t
last t m 20 fth
or softhe er o p r eceding examp e
e er e e l th isth
nu mb 4 which f lfilsthe q ti
er u e ua on ; to fi n d the o er two , divid e the th
e q ti b y x 4 nd w will h
ua on , a e ave 2
9—
22: 6 0, w ic h h , r es l
o ved ,

JG
~
givesa: 1 z iz .

The ob s
er va ti on j ust mad e is gener al ; th t is
a , ap p licable t o e q
ua

ti ons of any degree .

E p
xam le 2 .
The equa ti on
(2 ) d o esnot t
con ain the s
econd t er m ; and
con sequen tly w e may imm e dia tely comp ar e it wi th
r o m whi c
f h comp ar ison, we have
H 3, K
R2 II3
4
+ 27

The b in omial is p os
i ive ; t th er ef
or e two ofthe r oo softhe e uation t q
ar e imagin ary . With r egar d to z , an d 2 , we will have

an d makin g 7 : t 5‘/ 2 (y zt
v fy
'

3
(31 +
1 70 TR EAT I S E ON ALGEB RA .

F r om w ic h h t , aki n g

i L
i
we h ave
=
v + w

+
fl fi
+
9 fl
u v u w

an d r om
f th ese

G 2 a“
u4 v
4
md 2 u ° 02 2 11210 2 2 v° w° ,
H 8m m) , or H — 8uvw
;

b u t le t u s aket the sign s o f the f

ac t or su , v, w in suc h a mann er as
to h ave H Suvw .

S ub s i t t ti
u n g n ow in (q) the l
va u es of G, H K , , given b y the l st
a

e q ti
ua on s, we h ave

“
2 (u’ v Sa vwz
u
4
v4 m‘
'1
2u’ v‘ 2uPw2 '

Z a
’
w’ 0 .

Now mak in g in thiseq ti ua on

(which d o es n ot dif
f r om
er f excep t
in f
or m ) x : u + 0 + w, the fi str memb er b ecomes z er o, an d the
eq ti is
ua on r eso ve dl x, th er ef
o r e, e u a q lt o u v w, is the r oo t of

the q ti
e ua on

Bu t H iseith er p o si ive t or n ega ti ve : in the fi st r we may ave

case h
H 8uvw, -
t akin g u , v, our dif
w in f fer en t mann er s, asf
o ows: ll

Ja w

u = w

w s/ z ,
H ence , w h H isp siti
en o ve , the r oo ts o f the e q tiua on
(q) ar e

—
Jz2 ,

—
¢z + «7 x. —
¢Z ¢Z —
¢Z
Wh en H t
is n ega ive , we m ay ikewi se l h ave H — 8uvw in f
ou r

dif
fer en t t
m ann er s, akin g th e va u e so f u, l v, w, a sf
o ll o ws:
—
1) 37

'
0
JZ , w =
 E QUATI O N S .
171

J ET , v

1)

An d the r oo ts o f the e q tiua on

(9) ar e in this case,

—
s/ z i s/ z J+ s/ z x , W e W e,

a fl / z x — ¢Z + ¢ zm w « ,
z.

The addi ti on , th er e f
or e, ei th er p o si ive or n ega ive, t t o f } sf }
z , , z , and

the d if
fer en ce o f the same e xp r es sion s, give the r oo ts f th q o e e ua

ti on

Q lity
uaf th o
t the
t wh ¢ ¢ It is \/ n o w evid en a en z ,, z, , z, ar e

gaq
ts h w f d
z lo
p ssi s th i s m ith
oun r eap siti ex r e g ti on ,
e r u ,
e er o ve or n e a ve ,

d th i diff i wh t an m it is t k
e r er en c e n a ever ann er a en ,

will lw ys gi a l s lt d s q tly l ts O th
a ve a r ea re u , an c on e u en ,
r ea roo . n e

t y wh
c on r ar m
, fth di ls
en im gi
on e or y th s m or e o e ra ca ar e a n ar ,
e a e

s ltsf m dditi
re u d f m t ki g th i dif
ro a wil l b lik wi s
on an ro a n e r er en ce e e e

im gi a y l ssth im gi y t msb m t lly d st y d H

n ar ,
un e e a n ar er e u ua e ro e . en ce ,

t k w wh
o no th ts f (q) t l st s m
en f th m
e r oo l o , or a ea o e o e , ar e r e a

and wh im gi y it is
en gh t k w wh th
a n ar th ,
di l s e no u o no e er e ra ca

“” z
V l im gi y 2 , ar e r ea or a n ar .

Ob s w th t f m th th i d f th
er ve, n o q ti s
, a w h ro e r o e e ua on e ave

th t ist s y th
a ts f (g ) gi p siti p du t ; b t th p si
o a , e r oo o
’
ve a o ve ro c u e o

ti p d t fth f t s
ve ro uc t b b t i d l ss
o r eefth m is ac o r cann o e o a ne ,
un e on e o e

p siti
o d th th tw b th l d p siti
ve, an e b th
o l d
er o o r ea an o v e, o r o r ea an

negati im gi “ Wh
ve, or
y is p siti d th tw
a n arm i i g . en 2 , o ve, an e o re a n n

ts f (q ) l s
r oo l d p siti th di ls / s J :
o ’
a o r ea ll
an o ve, e ra ca \ z , z ar e a

l d lik wis th f
r ea , an ts f(g) If isp siti
e e d th tw
e o ur r o o o . z, o ve, an e o

rem i i g an n l d g ti th th di l J Z is l b t
z ,, r ea an ne a ve, en e ra ca r ea , u

th tw y a \/
e ob th im gi y; ,
d sq tly ll th ts
z , ar e o a nar an con e u en , a e r oo

of (g) t l st tw,
f th m
or a im gi y ; f wh
ea o o e ,
ar e a n ar . or en 2, z

s/ J Z 0;fl d th f i tw z, f th p di g l s an er e or e, n o o e r ece n va u e

of th ts f (q) th im gi y t m sm st dis pp
e r oo o If is e l a n ar er u a ear . 2, r ea ,

and th th tw ts f( g )
e o im gi
er y fi st m st b p si
o r oo o ’
ar e a n ar , r ,
2, u e o

ti ; b s s p p si g k Ia/ 1 7 t b th f m f th f m
ve ecau e, u o n r o e e or o 23 , e or

ght t b h ; h
“ “
of (102 )
z, Is/3 ou o ) is e t en ce , z, . z, u v a
1 72 T RE A TI S E ON ALGE B RA .

t
p o si ive p r odu c ; t an d , con se q u en tly ,
z ,, z” 2, b e p os
cann o t
itive un
less2 , isp os i ive t . S econ d y , inl this case , two o fthe r ootsof (9) will

be two imagin ar y ; b ecause (h z iz It ‘l z l ) é is e ivalen to

r e al an d qu t
an im aginar y exp r ession ofthe sam e for m
(102 ) for insan ce, a : t b t
Jr i ; th eref
or e , in t h os l
e va u es o f the ro ots of
(q) in which

same sign , the imaginar y er m bJ T l dig

0 t - .
‘

ap p ear s; h en ce , two o fthe r oo tso f(q ) ar e real and two ima inar .
g y
E xam ple .
a109 . To r es l
o ve n o w the e q ua ti on

z‘ — 16 . 3§z —1 6 0,
comp ar e it wi th th e gen er al e q
u a ti o n
(q ) . We will hav e

G — I2, H — 16 .

H en ce (q’ ) will b e
23 1 32
whose r ootsar e

3
2

i
n s: z . 75, / f l

: l: 2 . 7h/ 3 ) ,

Hence ,

0 e 2

Now H t te m
the las r o f the q t
given e u a i on is n ega ive ; t th er ef
ore,

the f mulasgiving th
or e r o otsar e
(108)
1 74 T RE ATI S E ON ALG EB RA .

u
s ch, that if we dd to b o th t er m s or t ak e f
a r om them the

sam e q uanti ty , th e r at io or difler en ee d is n ot changed

'

H en ce , gen erally,
The ter m s ofa ny a r i thm etica l r a tio m ay b e in cr eased or

dim in ishe d by an
y qua n ti ty q witho u t cha n
g ing the r a tio ii

S if
n P
meti cal
‘w
p p ro
ith
or
1 12 . PRO P ORTI O N S .
— TWO or m or e ra ti o s
“0 “ e
qu al to on e a o n ther
p r op or ti on fo l n
f
or m a r
0

t n ce
sa ,
ba. a
’
b isa simp l ar i thm et i cal pr op or tion
’
e
,

whi ch ise i ther wr i tte n w i th the sign Ofequali ty b etween the

r t i o s or m o e com m o
a ,
r n ly sf ollo w s
a

a — b' ;

an d we read
—
it a is to b asa
’
is to b ; ’
that i s ,
the sg i n
s tan dsfori s to an d ,
f
or as.

The t erms a an d first n amely and the last are

’
b ,
the , , ,

called extr em es
,
and the two rem ai n i n g m terms; and sin ce ean

f
ro m b we have
’ ’
a b 2 a ,

a “

i “
b, “

i “
b)

so also in ar i thmeti cal pr op or tion s

P p ti s
ro er e .
,

The su m o fthe ex tr emes is equa l to the sum of

the mea n ter ms .

An d si n ce f y e qu at io n , like a
!
ro m
’
an b a b, we
d educe ’ ’
a b a. b , so, ni ce ver sd,
When ever um
the s o
ftwo um o
ter msis equ a l to the s ftwo
o ther f u t ms a r ithmetica lly p r op or tion a l
ter ms,
the o r er are .

Whe the mean t er msofthe p ropor tion ar e equ al to each

n

o ther the p r o p or t i o n b eco me s

,e

a — b z b— b '
,

f whi ch 26 2
’
rom 0. b ,
an d

’
a + b
2

The term 6 is calle d m ean a r i thm etica l p r op or tiona l be

 R A T IO S , Pn or oa r ro m ,
'
AND Pno o nnssro n s. 175

’
a b
twee n a an d b '
,
b u t b isgi v en by he n ce ,
to fin d o ut
2
the m ea n i thm et ical p ro po rti o nal b etwee n two gi ven ter ms
ar

m an d n , i t isen ough to d i vide their sum by 2 .

The pro p or t i o ns hav i n g the m ean t er m s equ al

Co n tin u al an
p
co m o un d p ro
d
~
p or ti
on s. to on e an o t her are called als o co nt i n u al p r e p or
,

ti o ns.

Let n ow di f
fer en t ar ithm etical pr opor tion sb e gi ven ,
asf
ol

lo w s
f
’ ’
a — b : a
’ — b ’
,
c — d z d — d ,
e -
: e

I t iseasy to see that we will have also

+f
’ ’ ’
—
(b d

wh ch is ai co m p ou n d p o p o ti o r r n o f tho se gi v en . The rat i os

also, f
o r the sam e ti os r easo n , ar e called co mp o un d ra .

T
ms rer 113 PR O GR E S S I O N S
o an A p g essio n as we — ro r
lm t d p
. .
,
un i i e ro

g ssi
re have sa d lre dy S rep r ese nt ed b y the term s of
on . i a a ,
I

a co t i n u l p op or t i o n
n a r .

Let ow a co t i n u al prop o t io n co ntai i g a u nli mi ted

n n r ,
n n n

numb er ofr tios b e given asfllows a ,

o

a — b : b
in thi scase
' "
a, b, b ,
b , &c , .

are the te
u nlimi ted ar i thme t ical progressio n Bu t
r mso fan .

the gen eral f or m u la o fany s u ch progr essio n m ay b e dif erently

f
exp r esed
s For si n ce the d if
. fer e n ce i s the s ame for e ver y o ne

o fthe rati os the b i n om i als als o b

’
b b b a , a ,

b
’
b m u st all gi ve the same d if
. fer e n ce C alli ng 6 this .

last differ en ce we w i ll hav e ,

b = 3, ” — ’ =5
'—
b — a z a, b b b

Bu t from these equ ati on s we have

6 a d,
1 76 r a m r xsn ON ALG EBRA .

H e n ce the te r ms o i thme t ical pr ogr ession from

f a ny ar , the
fir st to the u
“
,
may b e ge n erally e xp re ssed asf ollo w s

G en er al f
or a, a 6, a 2 3, a 3 3,
m u la
(n
.

a + (n a

W i th such a for m gi ven to the te mso fthe geometrical pro r

re ssion i t is easy to o b tai n the sum o fany n umb er ofits

g ,

te ms co mm e ci g wi th the fir st 5 fo r i n stance the sum ofall

r ,
n n ,

the te ms s b ve Ob se ve i n fact that the sum ofthe

n r a a o . r , ,

fir st a d s con d terms is
n e ,

2a (n
b ut the sam e isthe su m ofthe te r msa 6 an d a (n
that is o fthe seco n d te r m, and o f the t erm b efore the last 5
an d the s am e isthat o fthe thi r d ter m , an d o fthe n ext ter m

b ef
o r e the last, an d so on .

S u pp o se n o w, that the n u mb er n o f the terms is an even

n u mbe r, we w ill e vidently have 3
5sums a ,
n d each o ne of hem t
eq ual to 2a (n D8 5 an d therefore ,
the sum ofthe um
s

o fthe whole p ro
gresso g
i n w ill b e [2 a (n

Bu t let n be an u n eve n n u mb er then i n ,

the progression
n 1
the i t term vn
re w ll b e a cen ral ,
ha i g
E ter ms b ef
or e, and

n — 1
te r ter
msaf it . These t er m s added esp ecti vely to one
,
r
2
n 1
a o n the r
,
as ab o e, v Wl ll gi ve u
s ms, each eq al u to 2 a
2

(n and co n s equ e tly n

, the sum o f the n ter ms of
the pr ogr essio n w i th , the ex ce ptio n o f the cen r alt o ne, is
n

; Bu t nt term it
” —
“

l
“

( f
D 5] the ce ra l ,
ad ded to .

self,
m s g u t i ve the sum 2 a
(n as the qui distant
e

ter ms do whe n added to o ne a o n ther ; therefo e r

,
the cent r al
1 78 r nna r r sn ON ALGEBRA .

two to threeth 22 nd so on If therefore we

,
18 and en ,
a .
, ,

a k the sum of the strok es i 12 h u s i t wi ll b e gi ven by

s n o r ,

S 432 .

H ow an d
W hen the fir st nd l st t r msofan ar i thmetical
when
a a e

progr essi on ar e gi ve d thei r n u mb er is lso n

,
an a
”m d
gi ven we may fi d all the i nt er v e n i n g t e ms
u ”
n r .
,

For let a b e the first gi v e t m a d u the last and let u b e n er ,

n ,

th gi v e n numb er o f t r ms T he f
e or m an d value of the l s
,
e t . a

t r m u is fro m the p rece di g t)

e
( n ,

u,
'
a
(n 106,
i n which equ atio n u an d a an d n ar e k no wn , and cons
e

q u en tly 6 is easily f
o un d nce from the same (t) an d si
a 6 a 26 are the i nter ve ni g ter ms b etween the n
,

fir st an d the last they also a e all equally determ ined

,
r .

Let f or i n stan ce the give n valu es b e asfollows

E mpl
xa e
.
,

= =
,

a : 2, u 14 , n 5;
f
ro m u a
(n we wi ll have

an d co n sequently ,
6 3
hen ce, f or the i nter ve n i n
g ter msb etween a and u, we have
5 , 8, 1 1 .

ARTICLE II .

Geometr ica l Ra tio s, Pr op o r tio n s, an d Progr ession s .

pf
r i o s— The qu o ti ent
g quan
fn u n d
ggfilge
1 14 . B ar oftwo

t i t iesa and b i s called also the i

t i cal rat io and a the
geo me r r ,

a n tece den t, an d b the co ns

q ti o
e u en t o fthe ra .

Whenever a ratio ism e t io n d w i thou t adding the quality

n e

o f r i thm e tical or
a
geome trical i t is alway s u n der s tood to b e ,

a
ge ome tri cal rat io .
 A
R TIO S , PRO P ORT I O N S AND PRO GRE S S I O N S ,
. 1 79

Multiplyin g n ow b o th t e r ms o f
g b y q , we w ill have
a .
g a
g a

b g . b g b

an d d i v i din g the same te msb y q

r
, we ha v e

a . b a
g at
'

b q b
°

9 9
that i s ,
The ter m sa an d b fthe
o r a tio
S can be m u ltip li ed

or divid ed by the sa m e qu a n ti ty q wi tho u t cha ng ing the r a ti o .

Var iab le ratio s

t
—d ir ec an d r e
11 5 . The er m s o a r a o m ay b e e her
§ t f ti it
clp rocal er m s tt t v
co n san or
. w t y v
ar i ab le , an d he n he ar e ari ab le
they m y v y with a t i n depe de e o o
ar o the
a cer a
o n nc n ne an r
,
r

n ot If they v y i dep e d tly o f o e a o t he

. ar th t io
n n en n n r, e ra

i tselfisva i b le Bu t with h g b le te ms d p di g on
r a . c an ea r ,
.
e en n

one an o th the atio m y b co st t S up p os fo exam ple

er , r a e n an . e, r
,

y 337
£
an d t i
in h seq a o m to b e con s an u ti n
t t It vi t fi t t t
ise den r s, ha .

f p i ut
or any chan ge o fx , a c or r es o n d n g chan ge m s b e m ade in

y. C ll y the valu e to b gi ve to y whe n sischan ged i t o

a e n a n
”
the valu e to b e gi ve to y w he n a: is chan ged
’
a and y
,
n

i nto a and so on NO W ge e ally whatever b e the valu es

”
c , .
,
n r ,

ofa; d y fom the gi ve

an ,qu ati o we always h ve
r n e n a

a;

9
Although therefore , ,
the t er msx an d y ar e v i ab le th ir
ar
,
e ra t io
I

m isco n san t t ,
an d
5 7,
will b e all equ al to m . N ow,

Whenever two va r ia b le qu an titi es ar e so con n ected tog ether

a s to
gi ve con stan tly the sa m e r a ti o , they ar e sa id to va ry

together d ir ectly .

Bu t taki ng
180 TR EAT I SE ON ALGE B RA .

in the same s u pp o si t i o n of m b e i ng co nstant an d a: var iable

,

toge her t w i th y w hate ve ,

r be a; an d y, we w ill always have
1
9
tha t is , an y m .

The ter ms a: and y the ef or e var y i n this case i n such a ,

r , ,
manner as to give o sta tly the same product I t isthenc n n .

plain that on e of them cann o t in cr ease withou t a corre

,

sp on ding d im i n u t io n i the o ther an d vice v sa Hence n

,
er .
,

gen erally ,

When two va r ia b le qu a n titi es a r e d ep e n d in on each other

g
in such a m a nn er g ive con stan tly the sa me p r oduct, they
a s to

a id to va ry in ver s
s el
ar e y o r r ecip roca lly .

Itisto b e ob ser ed her e also, ha s ce v t t in

c .
y as

when the va r ia bles x a n d y va r

y in ver sely, x an d I vary
31
d ir ectly .

t
Con in ual geo th t i tio l numb sare
i 1 1 6 We . h ave seen (5 6) a r ra na er

th s Emi ts t whi h i d fi ite se i es f ti al

o e o c an n e n r o r a on

nu mb e s ff ti r l f m m y st tly pp h 8 f inst ce
o r ac on a or a con an a r o ac . 0, or an ,

the sq e ts f2
uar d 3 r oo s h mbe s
o tained b etw I
an ar e uc nu r con een

an d 2 whi h ca
, tb ctly d t mi d b t t whi h ind fi ite
nn o e e xac e er ne ,
u o c an e n

ser ieso f ati l mb s t i ed b tw en the same limitsm y co

r o na nu er con a n e e a n

st tly pp
an h a r oac .

N w all th
o mb s b th ti e nu l d i ti l c ntained within
er , o ra ona an rr a ona , o

the limi ts 1 and 2 f m ti l s i s; a d ifwe co ceive the

or a con n ua er e n n

nu mb 1 to b e s
er i ly ha ged i t
ss e y one ofthe ter msof
u cce ve c n n o ev r

thisseries p oc di g d ly fi m th fi st to the last the numb er

, r ee n or er
'
o e r ,

1 wo ld b e s id t i
u s ti a lly to i crease b y degrees
o n crea e con nu a , or n

small th n any assig b l q

er a ti ty na e uan .

Up o this l t n d y b tw q , e ti fi es d p en di g o each other

2: an e o uan e n n

in s h a m
uc th t wh x b m s2 3 &c 3; also b ecomes
ann er a en eco e 2: or x, .
,

5 g
3
2y 3y &e ;
, , d wh .b m s
3g
an & c 3] also b ec
en x mes e co e , , .
, o , ,

With r gar d t th s
e i b l sx d y we s y th t
o e e var a e an , a a
 182 TR E AT I S E ON ALG EB RA .

w e give any val u e to y, the r atio will c on s an t tly r etai n the same value

as R In f
.a t, th e s c
am e r atio can b e d eco m p ose d asfoll ows
1

y z u

N ow givin g at pleasur e to 31 an y v alu e , z, u suf

fer no chan e, g
an d x var ie sdir e ctly asy ; ther ef
or e b oth fac tor s
5 an d r emain

unchan ged fo r an y v alu e whatever of 3

1 ; that is, the r ati o
2 u

will b e c o sta n q
y e u al to the sam e R, whatever b e the valu e we give
n tl

to y . B u t the sam e r e aso ni n g isapplica le to , to u, &c theref

or e , b z .

whatever b e the valu e s given to the in d ep e d e n nt vari a bles y z u , ,

2
in the r ati o i ts valu e W i ll r em ain
t

co nstan tly uncha g d ; n e

77
,
3
that is, 2: var e s i dir ectly asthe p du t y u ro c z

Bu t if de p e d sd i c tly o
8 nv a d i v rsely o
re n u, , n n e n y,
Coronary .
x v iesdi ctly (1 1 5 ) s ach ofthe fll wing
ar re a e o o

1 1
’
y 2

Ther ef
or e, it var ies dir ectly as the ir pro du ct a . v

hen ce,
y z

If x var iesdir ectly as u , v, an d inver s

ely as y, z
,
Theore m .
u
it will dir ectly as the quo tien t
“

vary
y z

§ 1 18 . PR OPORTI ON S .
— TWO or mor e ratios

e qual to e ac h o ther , f
or m a
pr o p ortion ; f
or in
’
a a.
l?
b b
an d this is the ge n e r al e xp r e ssion o fany sim ple ge ome tr ical
p rop or tion . The m an n er, howe ve r , ofwriting the se p rop or
tion sisasf
o llo ws
f
a b a b’ ,

and that is the two dots[z]

’
we r ea d it a isto b as a is to l/ ,

stan d f to , and the f

o ur d o ts stan d f In geo
'

or 2s or as.

m e trical pr o p or tio ns also the te r msa ,

an d b’ are c alled ex
tr e me s an d the o ther two m ean te r ms
,
.
 RAT I S , O PROPOR TI O N S ,
AN D PR O G R E S S I O N S . 1 83

Gen e ra l pm
Fro m the pr op or tio n e quivalen tly r epr e sen te d
Par t es
“i b y the e qu ation
a

b
f
b
we hav e
Z l) ,

an d c on sequ en tly a b’
That is, in g om tr ic al e e pr op or tion s ,

The p r o duc t ofthe ex tr em es 1 s e u a l to tha t fthe m ea n

'

o
q
te r m s .

I
a
Bu t f
ro m a Z) ’ z a ’ b we have li kem se, H en c e
ll " ,

When fo u r ter m s a b a , ,
’
,
b ' a r e su ch tha t the p r o d uct of
the fir st by the la s
t isequ a l p r o du c t of the o ther tw o
to the

ter m s
,
the fo u r ter ms a r e g eo m etr ica lly p r op or tio n a l .

Co n tin u al an d S upp ose e an te r ms are e qu al

now that the m
p
co m ou n d pro
p or tion s. to e ac h o the r then we will have
,
’
a h b b
an d c onse qu en tly ,
ab ,
’

that is,

b b e ee
isthe m ean g eo metr ic a l p r op o r tio n a l tw n a an d b
'
If ,
.

ee e
th r f e e
or , a and b ar e g iv n , to fi n d ou t th ir m ean
’
e e
g om tr i
c l p op o tion al t ke the s
a r r qu r e r oot ofthe i pr odu c t
,
a a r .

S u ch p op o tio salso havi g b oth m e

r r te ms e qual
n ,
n an r
,
ar e

c alle d ti a l p o p o tio s
co n nu r r n .

Let ow se ve l p op or tionsb e giv

n ra sfllo wsr en , a o

a a
’
c c ’
e
'
e

b
We hav f e
r o m th m e
a c e a
' '
e e
'

And c onse quen tly

(a c
’ ’ ’
. . e .
1 84 TR EATI S E ON ALG EB RA .

T hat is, Ifthe fi r st te r m so fse ver a l or a ny nu mber ofg eo

m etr ica l p r op o r tio n sb e m u ltip lied tog e ther , a n d likewise the
f
seco n d , thir d , a n d o ur th ter m s, the p r o d u c tsa r e p r op or tion a l.
The r atiosan d the ro o r tio n its lf ,
p p
m ade ou t of th se pro e e
du c ts, are c alle d co mp o u n d r a tio san d c o mp o un d p r op or tion .

.
0th er p r0 p er
§ 1 1 9 Fro m
. a b a
’
b
'
, or f
ro m
ti es o f g eemo
t ri ca l p p
ro e l» a, a
’

tio ns .

6 7 ,

a b
we ha ve ’
0

a b

that is,

Hen c e the t er ms of an y ge ome tr ic al propor tion ar e uc h,

s
that
The c
a nte ed en t o f the fi r st r a tio isto the a n teceden t ofthe
sec on d r a tio a s the c o n se u en t o
q fthe f
ir st i s to the co nsequent
o
fthe se c on d r a tio .

A gain, fr o m the give n p rop ortion e qu ation

‘

or

’
6 b
have ,
a a

that is,

H en c e ,
con sequ en t ofthe fi r st r a tio ofany given p r op or
The
tio n i sto i ts an teced en t a s the co n se u en t of the s
q econ d r a tio

i s to its o wn a n teced en t .

Fr om the sa me pr op or tion or e quation we d duc e e

the two f
ollo win g

a
1
b
an d c on sequ en tly ,
’
a + h a — b’
b b
r 3
b 3

a
1 86 TR E AT I S E ON ALG EB RA .

tion i s to the sum fthe ter msofthe seco n d r a tio a s the d if

o ,

fer e n ce ofthe ter msofthe fir st r a tio i sto the d ifier en ce ofthe

'

ter m softhe seco n d An d .

um ofthe ter m softhe fir s

'

The s t r a tio is to their d ifi er ence,

ec o n d r a ti o i sto their d
a s the s u m ofthe ter m softhe s ifer en ce .

These , an d the pr e c e din g infe r e n c e s, are ofgr eat practic al

use.

N um e rical p ro . Q120 . L et the ter msofthe pr op or tion

p o rtion s wh o s e
a b dl bl
fi r st r atio i sir
c
r ed u ib le b e whole num b er s an d ,
let the ter ms a, b of the fir st
r atio be prime nu m be r s to e ach o ther . Of the nu m be s a
r ’
, b ’ , the
fir st will b e e qu al to no , the seco n d to n b, 10 b ei g n a whole n u m er .b
a/
c c allin g the q otie
In f
a t, n u nt or m akin g
: n , a’ may always

b e exp essed b y a
r B ut a n . n cann o t e x ress a’ p ,
u nless nb ex ress
es p
bl f
or b y supp o sition , a’ a

b’ b
an d co nse qu e n tly , if a’ na , 6’ c ann ot b e b ut e qual to nb .

We say n o w, that n isa whole n um be r ; f

or f
r om the same q
e u ation,
a
we have
5 ,
a ab ’ b’
‘

. a
b b b
a b’
N ow
Z b y su pp osition isan ir r e ducible faction ; r ther ef
or e,
b
cannot
be e u alq to the whole n um b er a ’ , un l e ss (5 3 ) the nu mb er 6" i sexactly
b’
b
d ivisi le b y b ; that is, unl essthe qu oti e nt
3
isa whole num er b ; b ut

bl
b’ n b, an d r om thi s e
f quation , we have
b
n ; the num ber n,

ther ef
or e, isa whole nu m b er .

Termso fan y 12 1 . Pa o c n nssro u s— The te rm s of . an

y
g eometrical p ro
g ross
i on .
ge om e tri cal p ro gr essmn are am
the s e asthos of e
an y c ontin ual p r op o r tio n An d a continual p
r o or tion is
p
-

. .

g en er ally r epr e se nte d b y

’
a b
-

b 57,
o r else by
”
T he t erms the refor e a b b b
, , , ,
’
,

a re the te r mso fany u nlimite d ge om e tri c al p rogr e sion

s .
 R A TI O S , PROPORT I ON S ,
AN D PR O GR E S SI ON S . 187

Let u sn ow c all lo the c omm on valu e ofthe ratios

we will hav e a
2
b ’

b F
and c onsequ en tly,
a

le’
’
b a a

[c ?”
I 703
hen c e , the ter m s o fan y ge om e tr ic al pr ogr e ssion , f ro m the

first to the n th, m ay b e ge n er ally r ep r e se n ted asf

ollo ws

a
a
,
70 ,
it ”, 70 704 (T ) ,

mgfi
’ er “ f° "
else (making or z) the ge n eral for mula of
, ,

the te r mso fany ge o m e tr ic al p r o gr e ss

io n c on tain in g n ter ms is ,

fl s
a, d e
,
az , az
,

N ow the su m ofth ese n term s is e asily o b tain ed f

r o m the

kn own pr o du c t (63 )
—z
)=1 — z"
,

whieh gives 1 + + z z
2
+
l

r om whic h
f
” —
l — z
"
a
+ + + +
9 ‘

a az az az a '

1 _
z l —
z l — z

Now, the fir st numb er of this e quation isthe

sum S o fthe te rms 3 the r e f
or e ,
"
a az

z 1 z
S
1 ( a) ,
Supp ose n ow that the n um e ric al value ofz is a n umb er less

than un ity it m ay b e r ep r es
,
e nted by a frac tion
£1 in whic h
1
,

m isgr e ater than r In thissupp osition the last term of(a)

.
,

Will b e m r
1 88 TR E A T IS E ON A L GEB RA .

m a r
No w, i sa ell asthe fr ac ti on
c onstant e o eflicl ent ,
asw
m r m
b u t the e xp on e nt hasdif f e r e n t value s acc or ding asthe te rms
n

su m me d u p are m or e or less in n um b e r N ow the mor e we .

. 7!
7
in cr e ase the m or e the p owe r
n
,
( app r o ache s to z e ro and
5; ,

m “
with it the whole te r m He n c e taki ng an 1a
A
.

,
m I

d efin ite n um b e r of terms— that is supp osing the numb er of ,

the te r mss um m e d u p to b e witho ut li mit— the las t te rm of(6 )

mu st d isappe ar an d in this c ase, ,

a
’
S ( )
a
1 _ _
z

isthe su m e fin ite n u mb er ofte rms

o f an in d
I t is r e late d that the in ve n tor of the game of
E mpl s
xa e
c hess solicite d to ask a r eward answe r e d : Put
.

.
, ,

o n e grain o fwhe at in the fi s t squar e o f the b oar d two in r

,

the se c on d f o ur in the thir d e ight in the n e xt and s

,
o on till
, , ,

the six ty f
ou r th, whi h is the las
-
t c . H OW many grains of
wh e at did he ask ?
H er e we have the ge ome tric al progr ession , whose ter msare
l , 2 , 4 , 8, 16,
whic h, c o mp ar e d wi th the ter ms give
d = l ,
z = 2, n = 64 .

He n c e , the sum of all e e ermsis

th s t
1 264
S
1 1
2 54 1 .

o llo wing c hap te r , we will s

In the f ee how the p owe r 2“ may
be e d an d e xpr e ssed by an e quivalent c ommon
o b tain n umb er .

B u t let with a ,
1 z b e le ssthan unity an d e qual
,

ion in this c ase will b e ( )

to
i ;

the te r mso fthe progr e ss r

’

1 1 1
’ ’ ,
2 4
1 90 m sa r rsn ON AL G EB RA .

CH APTER III .

L G O AR IT H M S .

Ep
x o n en tial
W H E N the e xpon ent ofany quantity is
§ 122 .

variab le the p o we r is c alled an exp o n en ti a l uan

“ titi s
an e '

, q
tity thu s f
or in stan c e the p o we r
, ,

”
a
,

in whic h a: is su e n u mb er is an exp o
ppose d to be a var iab l ,

n en tial qu an tity N ow a m ay be e ithe r var iab le or c on stant

. .

Le t a b e a c on stan t n u mb e r ; if in ste ad o fm we take x x ’

,
"
,
”
we will have dif f er e nt p owerswhic h we may repre
’
x
”
se n t b y the n u m b e r sa
’
z That is , , ,

” ’
a z

’ ” ’
a z
’ "
aF z &c .

An d we may e vide n tly c on c eive an indefinite

Logari thms
se ri e sof suc h n umb e rsa’ , 2’
.

d epe ndi ng on the

var ia ble e xp on e nt m . N ow this variab le e xp on en t is c alled
the log a r ithm of the p e ow r ; that is,
x
’
isthe logarithm o fz ,
’

” ”
c isthe logar ithm ofz , an d so on .

B ut the ow rsd nd p e
epe also on the c onstan t numb er a for ,
”
su pp os in g the same e xp on e n tscc x app lie d to a dife r en t ’
f ,

c on stan t for e xample t o A all the p owe r s ’

,
will b e
, ,
z
,

change d into o ther s which we m ay call Z Z ” , that is

’
, ,
”
we w l il h ave A Z ’

A” Z
Z
A FN"
: Z NI
’ &0 .

”
He r e ,
also , a!isthe logar ithm o fZ
’
,
x the logar ithm ofZ

B ut the c han ge of the c on stan t a in to A , changing the whole

system ofn u m b er s to whic h the sam e logarithms b e long, it
isplain that whe n en
’ "
,
a logarithm x or x isgiv ,
an d the cor
 L O G A RI T H M S . 191

r e sp o ndi n
g n u m b er is r e qu ir e d, we m u st fi r st kn o w wha t is
the c o nstan t o r r oo t to whi ch the lo gar ithm is a pp lied as an

expo nen t .

This c onstan t c alle d the B a se o f the loga

is
Base .
”
ms the p r e ceding e xam p le s x x
’
r ith . An d in , ,

ar e logar ithm sof the nu m be rs a

’
,
z
"
in the system havin g
”
a f
or b ase, an d logar ithms ofthe be n um
’
r sZ , Z in the
s e
yst m having A f
or b a se We may e ma k
. r r als
o the p r o

pr iety of the a ppe llatio n

,
si c e the b se is like
n a a f
o u n dation

on whic h the whole syst m is b u ilt e .

The sign o r m ark with whic h lo garithmsar e ia

d icated, is e ither the initial log o f the wor d loga .

r ithm , or the sim l An d whe n logar ithms b elo n g

pe le tt e r l.

to dif
fer e n t syste ms, to distinguish the logar ithmso fo n e sys
c e er
"

tem f
ro m tho se o fan o ther , we m ay p u t an a cen t to the l tt
l, or change the sm all l in to a c apital o ne . Fo r instan c e , log .

or Z . b eing the sig n o f the logar ithmsin the system havin g a

f
o r b ase, we ma
y e xpr ess b y L og or L the logarithm softhe . .

yste m whose b ase is A

s An d fr o m the p r e c edin
g e quations .

we will have f
or the fi rst syste m ,

” ”
x
’
: log . a, a
c
’
log . z ,
&c . .

”: ”
x
'
: I. z ’
,
at l. z
,
&c . .

or the se c ond,
And f
L Z ”, & c
’ ’
x L og Z .
,
a; . .

”
L Z .
’
,
ac L Z .
"
,
&c . .

§ 12 3 . It iswell kn o wn ( 15 ) that
y nu mb r an e
r ais
ed to the e xpo e n t z er o
n , gives1 f
or its o wer ; p
he n c e ,
et
°
= A" 1 ; tha t is, O is the log a
2

r ithm o fu n ity in y tem s H e n ce,

a ll s s .

It is also e qually kno wn that any n u mb er r aised to the ex

ponent 1 , give sthe p ower eq l to the ua nu mb e r , that is, a ‘z a,

192 m m r rsn ON ALGE B RA .

A‘ z A5 hen c e ,
Un ity is the log a r i thm fthe
o b ase in a ll

y stem s
s . Thu swe have ,

1
22m323 323
1 0
”9
r i th s
1
We hav e seen (4 5) that isthe same as—m '

a
.

Theor e ms S u ppo se , n o w, a to b e g eate r r than unity ; sin c e

a
°
1 an d a
1
a, the sam e qu an tity a rais d to any osi e p
tiv e exp o ne n t eithe r b etween e e 0 an d 1 , or gr at r than 1 , will
give always a p owe r gr e ate r He e e than u nity n c , wh n the .

b ase is gr e ate r than u n ity an d the logar ithm is p ositive the ,

n u mb e islike wise gr e ater than u n ity

r .

B ut if with 1 we take a in ste ad o fa the n we will 1 '

“

a
,

1 1 1—
hav e a
‘

1
. is l ss than e u n it
y; h e cen
,
the
a a a
a

n um b r o r e
p ower c or e sp on din g to issmalle r than unity
r a
“
1

the s am e is to b e s aid o f any o the r po we r in whic h m is

tak e b e twe en 0 an d l or gr e ate r than 1
n That is when the,
.
,

b ase is gr e ate r than 1 an d the logar ithm isn egative the cor , ,

r es pon ding nu mb er is le ss than u nity Fr om this and the .

p r e c e ding in fer en c e we d e duc e the two follo wing

When the b a se is g r ea ter than un i ty , a n d the nu mber i s
likewise g r ea ter than u n i ty , the log a r ithm ofthis n umber is

p o sitive .

When ba se i sg r e a ter than u ni ty, a n al the n u mber les

the s
tha n u n i ty , the log a r i thm ofthe n u mb er i sn eg a ti ve .

B ut le t the base a b e sma lle r than u n ity the n giving to a

an
y x e po n e n t con tained b etween 0 an d 1 , the r e sulting p ower
will b e c o n tain ed b e tween °
=1 and a
‘
z N ow all the
'

a a.

etwee n 1 an d a are smaller than unity a ther efor e

n u m b er s b , ,

rais e d to any expo n e nt betwee n 0 an d 1 give sa fr ac tion for ,

p o we r But ifa is r aised to any e xp o n e nt gr eater than unity

.
,

the p o wer also will b e a f ra c tion That is when the b ase is .

,

le ssthan u n ity a d the lo gar ithm isp o s

,
itive the c or r e spond
n
,

ing n u mb er also isless than u n i ty .

1 94 TR E AT I S E ON A L GE B RA ’

Let y b e the logar ithm so f the

a: an d n um b ers z and v in
the s e
yst m havin g a f
or as
,
we will hav b e e
a
“
z z ,
a”
’
U
;
an d c o nsequ en tly ,
a
’
. a" a
’ “ e . u.

r o m the s
N ow, f e e quatio ns we have , also
,

a: l z, y
. l o, a: y
an d ther efo re , l .
(z . v
) lz
.

that is to s a , The log a r i thm o

y f the p r odu t c
Th eor em 1 .
e u a l to the s
q u m of the log a r ithm so
f the fa tor s c .

Again , fro m the sam e e quation s we have ,

a
”
z z
or
v 1)

an d c onse que ntly , a: y

lz
. he ;

Theo r em 2 .
that is
,
The log a r ithm fthe qu otien t isequal to
o the

log a r ithm of the n u m er a to r

,
m in u s the log ar ithm
of the d en o m in a to r
Raise to the exp on en t c b oth m e mb e rsofthe equation
a z z
“

We will hav e

an d l z°
. a
ce ;
but f
r om a
t
: z
,
we have x te
. h e nc e ,

l zc
. cl.z ;

Theo r em 3
that is
,
The log a r ithm f the p o wer ofa ny number
o

log a r ithm of the n um ber m u ltip lied

'

i sequ a l to the
by the exp o n en t .

B ut if we tak e the r oo t o f the d egr ee c o f b oth memb ers

o fthe equationsa ” z z , we will hav e
1

_ z
c .

,
 Lo e a nrr n ms . 195

and c onseque ntly ,

new a: lz , h
. e nc e ,
1
t e°
. or
l ;

Theo rem
that is, The log a r ithm of the r oot ofa ny n um ber is
ofthe n u mber d ivided by the
q l to the log a r i thm
e ua

d eg r ee or ind ex of the r oo t .

F r om e
e e mswe infer that whe n the logar ithmso f
the s th or ,

the n mb e sar e dete r mine d in any s

u r
yste m n ume ric al c alc u la ,

tions b e c om e much e as ie r ; f o r mu ltip lic ation s an d divisio ns

ar e per f o r m e d with s imple addition sand sub trac tio n s— p owe r s
and r o o tsare o b tain ed with m ultiplic atio n sand di vis io ns .

Cpmm on The logari thm s of n umb e rs have b een car e

or
ord m y t bl s
nr a e
« l g i th ms f ull d e te r mi n e d and the c omm on an d m os t u se
o ar .
y ,

ful s yste m oflogarithmsisthat whose b ase isa 10 3 he n c e ,

the ge n er al f or mula d = e i ystem b e c ome s

”
thiss ,
n

1 0” z ,

an d takin g in it s ucc e ssively 0 1 2 inste ad o fa we will

, , ,

have 1 1 0 100
, ,
f p onding nu mb e r e
o r the c o rr e s .

To find o ut the logar ithm so fthe inte rve n in g u mb er s b e n

tween 1 an d 1 0 b etwee n 1 0 and 1 00 &c it will b e e no u gh

, ,
.
,

to take the nu mb er s b e twe en the s e limits in a ge ome tr ic al

progr ession and an e qual n u mb er o fter ms b e tween 0 and 1
, ,

between 1 and 2 &c in an ar ithmetical progr ession 3 the

,
.
,

ter mso fthe latte r p rogr e s sio n will b e r e spe c tive ly logar ithm s

(124) of the c orr esp onding ter ms of the ge ome tr ic al p r o

gressio n .

N ow the t er ms ofany pr ogression e ither arithme tical or ,

ge o metr ical are the same ( 1 13 1 2 1 ) as those ofa c on tinual

, ,

pr oportio ; and whe n the extr em e termsa an d b of a con

n ,
'

tinu al p rop ortion are given we ob tain the me an ar ithm e tic al

,
I
?
t
a )
an d the me an
term b y taking (1 12 ) g e om e tr ic al b y
196 TR E ATI S E 0N A L G EB R A .

takin g ( 1 18) 1/ ah
’
. He n c e ,
in our case ,
the m e an ge o
e
m tric al t e r m b etwee n 1 an d 1 0 is 1/ 10 3, 16 an d

0 —1 1
the m ean ar ith me tic al te r m b etween 0 an d 1 is
2 2
,

and the n um b e r s,
1, 3 , 1 6 1 0,
1
0) 7
1)
2
ar e er mso f two p rogressio n s the fir st ge om e tric al an d the
t ,

se c o nd ar ithm e tic al ; a d c o nse qu e tly sin c e 0 an d 1 ar e r e

n n ,

sp e ctively lo gar ithms o f 1 an d 10, so or is the l o ga

r ithm of 3 , 16 N ow, a ain ,

g takin g the m ean geo
m e tr ic al p op or tional b etwe e n
r 1 an d 3 , 16 an d b etwe e n
3 , 16 d 1 0 ; taking,an e an arithme tic al p ro also, the m

po r tio nal b e twee n 0 and an d b e twe e n and 1 , we will

have two m ore n um b er s c o n tain e d b e twee n 1 an d 1 0 an d

the ir logar ithm s; c on tinu in g i this mann e r we may have as n
,

m an y nu mb ers aswe like b e twe en 1 an d 10 an d the ir L o a

g
r ithm s The sam e m ay b e said o f the n u m b e r s c on tain e d
.

within the limits 1 0 an d 100, 100 an d 1 000, &c .

,
an d o f
their This m tho d sho ws w ll how logar ithms
logar ithm s . e e
o f an y quan tity o fn u m r s ma
y fou n d be
in r ac tic , ho w be p e
e ve r , m e tho ds mor x ditio usar e r f e e pe
er r d It isye t to he pe e .
“

r e m ar k ed e v en the m e tho d j ust explain e d isn ot n eces

that

ae ily to b e
r pplie d to all the n um b e s; b ut it ise no ugh to
a r

fin d the loga ithms of p r im e n u mb er s f

r o r the se b eing de ,

te m in e d we ha ve the lo gar ithm s also o f all the n u m b e r s

r
,

whic h can b e r e s ac to r s an d the lo a ithm so ff

o l ve d in to f
g r ac ,
r

tio n s also Take the n u mb er 1 5 f

. o r e xam p le whic h m ay , ,

b e de c om p ose d in to the two p r im e n u m b e r s an d f a c to s r

we will have 1) l 1 5 l3 l 5 ; take the f .rac tio n . .

3 , we will hav e (12 5 , Th 2 ) l. l7

.
— l.9 . Bu t it isn ot

n e c essary f
or us to d w ll e an
y longe r on this su bj e c t ,
f
or
1 98 TR E AT I S E ON ALG EB RA .

lxu
an d consequ e ntly , a:

b u t the lo garithmsl . o fn an d a
’
ar e kn o wn ; h enc e th ire ratio

als o , o r x , iskn o wn K n owin g, the r e f

. o r e, the lo gar ithms o f

n umb rsin e an
y syste m, we m ay f r om the m inf er the lo gar ithm
o fan
y n u mb er 71 take n in an y o the r system 3 an d c on se qu e n tly,
.

whe n tab le sof logarithmsar e m ad e f yste m, we m ay

or o n e s

derive f
r o m the m o ther tab l s f
ore an
y o the r system o floga

r ithm s

wry Q12 7 L et um e the two p r o gr ession s

gfige u sr e s
fl .
,
m
Ru le s 1 1 0, 100, 1 000
,
.

0, l, 2, 3
the fi r st r epr e sentin g the n u m b er s an d the sec on d the c or r esp on din g
,

lo gar ithm s in the s y stem havi n g a

, 10 f or b as e .

In the sam e system the lo gar ithm sof all f r ac tion s mus t b e (123 )
n e g ative a n d the f oll o win g te r m sm ay b e a dd e d to the p r e c e din g
, pr o
g r ession s, 1 1
— '
1
'
1 06 10
3 , — 2, — 1

so that the nu m b er 1 in the g eom etr ical , an d 0 in the ar ithmeti al, c

p r o gr e ssion s, ar e the ce n tral or mi ddle ter ms of two pr ogr ession s ,

d
in efini te in b oth ways .

F r om the same p r o gr e ssion s we see that in the sam e m ann er in

c
whi h the lo gar ithm sof the nu m b er s b etwee n 1 an d 10 ar e gr eater
than 0, an d sm aller than 1 , the lo gar ithm so f the nu m be rs b etween
10 an d 1 00 ar e gr eater than 1 , an d sm aller than 2 , an d so on . In like
1
m ann er , the lo gar ithm ofthe f
r a tio n s c b etwe en an d 1 ar e c o tained
n
T0
b e tween — 1 an d er o , z an d the lo gar ithms o f the f
r a tio n c s b etween
1 l
an d ar e o n tain e c d b etween — 2 an d l , &c
100 K)
.

Call in g v an y n u m b e b etwee
r n 1 c e all the umb er s b e
an d 1 0, sin n

t ween 1 0 and 1 00 ar e te n tim esgr eat r tha the c o esp ondi n g umb s
e n rr n er

b etwee n 1 an d 1 0, the num b er c o tain d b etwe e

n 10 d 100 a d
e n an n

c o rr e s onp din g t will o v, b e 10 or V a d s li k ewis

a v, e the
n ext c or
o n re

sp on din g um b e b etwee
n r n 100 an d 1 000 will b e 100V o r azv, an d so on

I n li ke m ann er , sin ce the nu m be rs b etwee 1 n an d l ar e ten tim es

10
 O A
L G R I T H MS . 199

less than the co r r e s on p din g nu m b er s b etween 1 an d 1 0, the f

r action

b etw e e n
10
an d 1, c o rr e s o n p din g to v is ,
i, an d the next f c
r a ti on

co rr es on p din g to the same v, an d co n taine db etwe en

i
’ an d so on .
1 00 afi

S o that, we m ay g en er ally re p r esent by d

n
v any num b er co t n ain e d
b etween the d ec des 1 0 a , 1 00, 1000 an d by an y nu mb e r con

1 1
tain ed betwee n the d ec d l f cti s 1 1 0
a a ra on , ,
1 00
, gi v mg, n am ely,

to n an y o f the n um ic l alu s 1 2 3
er a v e , ,
An d to re p r esen t all
the nu m b e s we h
r , av e "
a ,
a n
n

i
v
f
or tho se ab ove unity , an d
n
,
"
a

o r the f
f r action s . Whatever ther efo r e, m ay b e s
,
ai con d c e ni g
r n these

num b er s an d their lo gar ithm s i s evi en tly applica le to d b all n um be rs

an d lo gar ithms in ou r system Fr om the same for mul as we infer

.

gener al r ules , usef

ul b o th for the un er s d
tan in g an d the u se o f the d
ta bl s
e .

fir st ob ser ve that the immediate o bj ect of lo gar ithmi cal tables

Bu t
is twof o ld To p oin t ou t n am ely the lo gar ithm cor r esp on di n g to a
.
, ,

given n u mb er or vice ver se to p o in t ou t the nu mb er c or r esp on din g to

, , ,

a given lo gar ithm .

It issc ar cely n ec e ssar y to say an y thin g c on cer n in g the n u mb er s

1
o f a m er e d e c a dal f
or m 1 t b ei n g evi d en t that a
"
a 18
; c
,

e qu al to uni ty f
ollowe d b y as ma y ze n r o s as ther e ar e un its in n,

1
an d
a
is e qu al to 1 d vi de d b y um ty
i , f
oll o we d by as m an y z er o s

asther e ar e u n itsin n . An d , vice ver se, when an y whole n um be r ofa

mer e de d ca al or m is given , its lo gar ithm

f n wi ll b e a who le b er
n um

co n tainin g as m an y un its as ther e ar e z er o s in the given n umbe r.

Hen ce,

g When
iven w ho le n u m ber N i s of a m er e
the
Rule 1
d ec a d a l o r m , i t ha sf f
.

o r lo a r i thm a n u m b er co n
g
ta ining ex a c tly a sm a ny u n i tsa s ther e a r e ero s i n N ; a n d z
when the g i ven log a r ithm n i s a n ex a c t w ho le n u m b er , the
co r r esp o n d ing n u m b er i s u n i ty fo llo wed by n z er o s.
2 00 r e su me on AL GE B RA .

I t isplain that f or su ch logar i thm s an d n umb e r swe n ee d

n o t ha ve r e co ur se to the tab les, an d so also for the frac tion al

n um b er s o fsimply de cadal f or which,
o rm , f an d or the ir
f

logarithm s, we have the f

o ll o wing ru l e
Rule 2 .

d ec a d a l
When the given f r ac tion a l n um ber

i ts log a r ithm, c on ta inin g

é -
isofsimp ly

for m, i t ha s n for
ex a ctly a s m a ny u ni tsa s the ir a r e er o sin N z a n d when the

g ive n log a r ithm 11 c on ta in s a n exa ct n um ber fun its the

o ,

p o n d ing n um ber is 1 d ivid ed by

c o r r es u n ity, fo llo wed by n

zer o s.

We b ser ve that such fractio ns of simply de c adal

m ay o ,

f m m y b e e xp r esse d also b y
or a an d

usi g the de c imal f

n orm i s t d of that ofor dinary factions n ea r ,

the se c o n d ule will b e m o dified sfllo ws:

r a o

When a dec im a l fr a c tio n en d sw i th 1 , p ded by re e c n c ip her s

,

qu a l to z er o, the loga r ith

a ll e m o
fthe fr a c tion is 11 . An d
when , vic e ver sd , — n is g iven , the c or r esp ond ing n um ber or
d e c im a l fr ac tio n en d swi th 1, p r e ce d ed by n c ip hers, a ll equ a l
to z er o .
1 1;
Let us no w c ome to the nu mb er s a’ w £ and to their lo gar ithms,
,
7 ,

in whi ch 7, w e must r ecollect ,

mb er gr eate r than 1 , an d le ss
is any nu

than 1 0. But an 3 also , in whi ch 0 , J r ep r esentsany de cimal f r ac tion ,

isa n um b er , an d any n um b er co i
n ta n e d b etween 1 and 1 0 ; ther ef
or e ,

we m ay gener ally wr ite v an “,

an d in thise qu ation , the exp on en t 0, 3 c anno t b e chan ged exc ept when
v is cha ged n . Now with v a“ , we have also

n
an a Wl O , a
' '

a , 0

an dwha te ver b e n, the d ecimal f r a ti on 3 will al wa s b e the s

y ame c
when v remainsthe same ; b ut f r o m we " aw, we have

n, f: z (an
. .
(a) .

An d a" . v isa n um b er c o n tain e d betwee n a" an d either a imple

s
whole num b er or a whole n um b er with a r action
f A added to it.
2 02 TR E AT I S E ON ALG EB R A .

The cha r a c te r istic o

f the log a r ithm o
f a ny gi ve n n u m ber
con ta i n so n e u n it le sstha n the n u m b er offig u r esfo r m ing the

in teg r a l p ar t o fthe g iven n u m be r .

When the lo g a r i thm n, 6 is g i ven , fi nd in the

Rule 4
ta blesthe nu mb e r co r r esp o n d ing to d cu t o
fthe fi rst
11 1 fig ur esof thisn u m ber f om r the fo llo wi g n the fi r st

p a r t w ill b e the i n teg r a l, a n d the r est the d ec im a l p a r t of

the n u m ber ha v ing n , 6 f o r i ts log a r i thm .

With r e gar d to the f

r a tio n c we may r e m ar k fir st ,
that sin ce a
"
is

a nu m b e of simply d cadal fr m like 1 0 100 &c the qu tie t

r e
i o , , , .
, o n
n

redu ce d to the fo m of de imal factio will c o tai th sam figur es

r a c r n n n e e

that a e in p e eded b y e o m o e z e s; that is asm a y in um

r v, r c on r r ro ,
n n

b er asther e ar e un itsin n .

b
O ser ve, se co dly
n , that
f
;
v; hen ce ,

L
a"

No w, or "
. a
° 5 a
— n t
'
‘h 0. In stea d ,
ho wever , of writin g e xp li

citly the diffe r en ce — n + d by o, f

, the same ex p on ent is r epr esen te
th simple ex p es
e sio J wi th the eg tive sign ab ove the c har ac t
r n n, ,
n a er

y that it d es n o t afi ect the d c im al p ar t J added to it

i stl to signif
'

e, o e .

We will have then ,

the two nu m b e sv and J d epe di g

r
‘
n n o n ea ch othe r , as a bove , whatever

1: shoul d be . Bu t
5 5
, d c d to the fo
re u e r m of a decimal fractio n, may

be re pr e sen te d b y 0, D he c e n ,

0, D ;

that i s,

) n, 3 l (o , n .

r om the tabl e swe m a

No w f y have the cipher s o fv c o r r e sp o n din g to A
”
, ,

or vice ver sa w e m ay have J corr es

,
‘
, p on din g to the cip her so fv that ar e
in D ; an d sin c e as we have o bser ved the figur e s of y c omm en c e in
, ,

o, D af
ter n z er o s
,
he n ce,
 O
L G ARI T H M S . 2 03

For n e gative lo gar ithmsan d th ir e c or r e sp on ding m mb e e rs

or r ac tion s
f ,
we have the f
o llo win
g e ru l s .

F ir st, wh en the f
r a tio n 0 , D c is give n ,
an d its logar ithm is
to b e found
S ee ho w m a ny z er os
p r ec ed e the fir st fi g u r e of
Ru le 5
z
.

u n itsi n 0 , D , a n d w r i te the n u m ber n of thes e er o s

as thecha r a c ter istic of the loga r ithm ; taking then fr o m D

the n um b er w hich c o m m en c esw ith the fir s tfig u r e ofun i ts fi n d ,

fr o m the ta blesthe co r r esp o n d i g 6 a n d a d d i t to the cha r a c n

,

te r istic .

An d to fi n d the n um b er c or r esp ondin g to a given logar ithm ,

we hav the e r u le

When the log ar i thm n, 8 i s g i ven , wr ite fi r st as

Rule 6
z
.

m a ny er o s a s ther e a r e u n i ts i n n , sep ar a tin g wi th

a co mm a the fir st fr o m the o ther s; then add to these c ip her s
the n um ber co r r esp o n d ing to d, a sg i ven by the ta bles .

We m ay ob serve , that the logar ithms off r ac tio n al n um b ers

are fr n tly x r sse d b y difi er en t wr it r s W e hav
dif ee e pe e . e ex

pressed the m b y 8 B ut when n, . n : 1, or 2 , &c .

,
oth r s e
e xpre ssthese log r ithmsb y 9 6 5 8 a , ,
6, 850 . B ut thism an n er
o f wr itin g s u c h lo gar ithm s is so m e what am b i u o u s
g ,
an d we
may say p ar tial e e p refe rr ed to make
For thisr aso n we hav
.

use o fthe ab o ve m en tio n e d e xpr ession

-
.

Appli c ti
a fon o
1 2 8 The p ac tic al app lic ation o fthe p r e c ed
. r

l g ithm s
° ar
i g r u le smu st b e lef
'

n t e n tir ely to the di e c tion of r

the teac he r an d to the d iligen c e o f the p u p il

,
si c e an y at n

te m p t to app ly the m without havin g lo gar ithm ic l tab le s at a

han d would p r ove altoge ther u sele ss .

To give ho weve ,
so m e ide of the u sef r ul ap p lic atio n of
,
a

logarithms le t u s o b ser ve that e x p on e n tial e q uation s can b e

,

r esolve d b y m ea so flo gar ithm s T hat is the se eq u ation sin

n ,

whic h the u n known qu an tity is the exp o n en t of som e o ther

o

quan tity ; as
,
f
o r in stan c e, in
2 04 TR EAT rsn on ALG E B RA .

c 1
l l’
h (’ -

q
e
in whic h qu atio n a: isthe u n kn o wn quan tity .

pp
A lying the logar ithm s we will hav e

he n c e (1 2 5
, ,
Th 2 ,
.

ls lh
. l1
. l1
.
(a: 1 ) lg ;
an d sin c e l 1 . 0,
l o lh
.
(a: 1 ) lg ;
r o m whic h
f
l c lh .

a: 1
lg
l c ih .

1 .

lg
Let an oth r e e xp on e n tial e quation b e f
as ollo ws

10 .

Taking the logar ithms, we will have

1 01
cc l l 10 . .

100
that is, x
[l 1 01
. l 1 00]
. I .

r o m the tab le s l 100

N o w, f . 2, an d l 1 01
.

hence ,
l 1 01
. th er e for e ,

an d fi nally the app r oximate valu e o f

x 2 23 1 .

B ut su p p ose that instead of the giv en frac tion isf

th en , ro m the e quation
f

1 0,

we hav e at
[l 1 00
. l 1 01]
. l .
2 06 TR E ATI S E ON AL G E B R A .

l lb zC l al
j;
. a . .
— .

l rn. bl a . l . o ld . l
. e.

l. a
r la . lb
. lo . ld . le
. .

bl e . dl c .

l ac
.

With the exc ep tio n e o fthe se e xamples in all the

o fthe s c on d ,

o ther swe have n o t the valu e o fas b u t the valu e o f the lo a

g ,

r ithm o fx n o w the c orr esp on ding n u m b er ofany logarithm

is give n b y the tab le s; he n c e with the l x we may have s ,
.
, a

also.

p
It is lain , m o r e ove r ,
that an y e xam ple like the pr e c eding
isthe gen eral f o r mula o f as m an y as the p u p il will like by ,

su b stitu tin g n u mb r sf or the s e

ymb ols a , b , c, &c , . and c hang
ing th me at p le asur e .

CH APTER IV .

se am s .

§ 12 9 . A RIT H M ETI CAL

progr essions ar e the
m ost sim p le of all alge b raic al serie s an d are ,

calle d serie sof the fir st or de r .

The series of the se c o nd o r der ar e those whos e s e c on d

dif
fer e n c es ar e e qu al an d the s ,
e r ie s of the third or der ar e
tho se whose thir d dif f e r e n c esare e qual 850 That is let ,
.
,
' " i” iv '
t, t ,
t ,
t ,
t

repr e se n t the n u mb e rs o r term so fan al

ge b raical ser ie s . If
the dif f er en c es ” ”
”
t —
’ ’ i" ’
t t ,
t t , t

b e twee n th e su cc ssive e e
n u mb r s ar e all e qu al ,
the sam e nu m
 S ERI E S . 2 07

b er or e rm s b elon g to a algeb raic al se i s ofthe fir st o r de r

t n r e .

B ut su pp o se the dif fere n c e s b e tween the succ e ssive given

ter m s to b e une
qu al, so asto have
” ” ‘
— t’ t’ ’
"
t —
V
t t z r
,
1

Ifthe s c o n d dif
fer en c s,
e e or the dif
fer en c es b e twee n the ter ms
r
'
,
r
"
,
are e qu al ,
that is, if we have
J
1 = 1J H ‘
Z
J' Z
T
i v—
T
’

the given term st , t

" ’
,
’
t the n b elong to an algeb r aic se ie s r

o fthe se c on d or d r e . That is the se c o n d dif

,
fer e n c es also are

u ne
qu al, an d we hav e
” — /
T T 1

b u t the third dif

fe ren c es, or e e n c es b e twe en
dif
fr the t e rms
”
ar e e
q u al : the given te r mst t
’
, ,
b e lon
g
in this c as to e a ser ie so f the thir d o r der . I t is n o w eas
y to
see wh en a e
s rie s will b e of the f
o u r th, o f the fifth ,
an d
gene
rall
y f the m.
"l
o
1
o r der .

It islike wise f r o m the f easy to in fer

ore o in g r e marksthat
g
the se c o n d, the thir d dif
fer en c e s,
an d so on, o fan y alg e b r aic al

ser i so f thee first or d r e

e qu al to z e o an d the thir d ar e al l’ r
, ,

and f ollo win

g dif fe r e n c esofany algeb raic al se r iesofthe se c o d n

o r der are als e m

n er all h 1
o e u al to z e o an d
q g y t e
( m ) an d
r , ,

fo llo win
g fd i f e e
er nc s o fany a l e
g b ra i c l
a s er ie s o f the m “
o r de r
1

a e e u al to
r
q eo z r .

V
i sq s The m o st c o m mo n in ve stigation s c on c e ing
c ~
ar o u ue rn
s c
_

ti on on er n
r e ab o u t the
i g th s i s
n th se algeb rai c al s
e er e . eri es
e
ge n e r al a

te rm an d the s ,
u m of an y n u mb e r n o f their fi r s t te r m s; b u t

the p r in c ip al o bj e c t in vie w is that o fr e du c i g o ther f u c tio ns n n

to the f or m o f a s er ies .

This doc trin e is c o piou s ly tre ate d b y m od e n writer s an d r

,

with e xqu isite a alys is in diffe r e tial c alc ulu s

n n .

It i s n o t ou r in ten tio n to en ter her e irito l on g dis cu ssion s on the

su bj ect, an d it will b e en ou gh f
or u s to give an id e a o f it, tr e atin g
b r iefly the fir st an d se c dqon u es
tion sa b ove m e n tio d ne .
2 08 TR E ATI S E ON A LG EB RA .

Ge neral tem Q1 3 0 . Let c

u s o mm en c e with the general ter m . The
o fan y s s.
e rie
p olyn o mial ,

(p ) A + A, n
in whi h the c c onstant qu antities t e
co efi cien ts A , A A ,
A ,
ar e ,

p e s tsthe gener al term or the “ ter m of any al gebr aic se iesof

r en n ! r

the m“ o d er To have it d em o str ate d it is en ou gh to s

1
r . ho w that n ,

d ifi er ences ofthe series c es p o din g to this ter m a all

'
"1
the m or r n re

equ l a .

No w to say that (p ) r epr esen tsthe n “‘ ter m ofa ser ies is the sam e
asto say that it r ep r esentsthe fi r st, the se con ter m, an d so on , when d
u is m a de e qual to l , to 2 , & c .
,
an d the ter m imme iately d pr ec edin g
the will b e o b tai ed n f
r om
(p ) , by cha ging n in it it in to n — l.

New, call the ter m p rec edi n g the n“ ,

it will b e
— 1r + — 1
o ) n. .
)
an d (p ) will b e the fir st d if
fer en c e ofany two s
u ccessive t er m s

ofthe ser ies . But this if

fer en d c e— we m ay call it — af
ter re ue d
ollowin g f
ti o n will tak e the f orm

hen ce ,

Bm m—1
or (p ) B + + _
1 u

c dif
in whi h fer en c e ifwe make qu l to 2 or 8 or 4 and so o we
,
n e a , , ,
n,

will h ave the dif f eren c e b etwee the sec o d an d the thir d te ms b e n n r ,

twee the thir d and the s

n e c on d b tw e the four th an d the thi r d d ,
e e n , an

so ; we will have also th te m s o f a other s eries b ec u se

r
on , ,
e r n ,
a

hasthe same f
or m as
(p ) .

R e pe ati n g, ther ef
or e, on the same o p erati o n whi h we havec
ma d e on
(p ) — that is
, chan gi g n n in to 1: 1 , to have the ter m imme
diately pr ecedin g 1
,
— we may c all it p , )
( -
‘
the difi er en ce will b e

(p ) or ,
1
+ + C Cl n C, °
n n
’H ’
,

r epr e sen tin g an y on e o fthe se c on d di f

fer en c esofthe ser ieshavi n g (p )

f or g ener al ter m asit r epr es en ts an y o n e of the fir s

, t dif fer en c es b e
t ween two s u cc e s
sive ter msofthe ser ieshavin g f or gener al ter m

It isn oweas d difle c orr e

‘

y to se e that the thir r en c eso f the ser ie s,

d
sp en in g to the gener al term (p ) ar e given b y ,

(m) ‘ ”H
(P ) D D.n + D 1 + 9
(p r or
a , 3 , , &c ; .

an d the (m I ) “I dif
fer en cesb y

(n .. o h (PM )
,
— 01 (Pm 1 ) Q+ Q n ; “
-
;
2 10 TR E ATI S E ON ALG B R A E .

n 8 15—1 tn (o ) in

and co ns q
e u en tly ifin (o )
, we make 7; 2 , we will have
8, 81

b ut 8, t hen ce a, t,

Ifin (o ) , we make n r om the s

3 , then f am e
(os) we have
33 Se i si

t, + l, ; hen e c
t, t, 1 ta .

An d ifin (o ), we m ake 72 4 , we will d

evi en tly have

an d gener ally , a, or

r, 1
-

that is, (o ) isthe

, ex p r ession ofthe su m ofn ter mso fany ser iesofthe

mth or de r.

Let u sn o w p assto see ho w b y mean s o f the form ul as(o ) an d

,

w e may fi n d .
the gener al ter m an d the sum o fso m e given ser ies .

E xam pl s e i 1 32 Le t 3 6 1 0 1 5 2 1 b e the fir st ter ms of a given

.
, , , ,

Fi s“
.

r
ser ies
, in whic h the se co n d difi '

er en e e s ar e q
all e u al to 1
he c e n gen er al ter m of this ser ies at mu st b e equal to 2 ; that
,
in the ,

i s the f or mula 0 ) will b e in this c a s

, ( e , ,

a [n (n 1 r1 + a. [ne (n 1m
’
t. .

T o fin d ou t the c o ef
fi cien tsa a a m ake in succ ession n 1 n ,,2 ,, ,, , ,

n 3 an d sin ce with the se su b stitu tion s the g en er al ter m o ught to

, ,

r epr esen t the fir s t thr e e te r m so f the given s eri es we have the ,

e qu atio ns,
a, a, a, 3,
a, 3 a, + 7d a 6,
a, + 5 a, + 1ga ,
10
1
fr o m whi ch a, 1, a,
g ,

H en c e, the g en er al ter m of the given ser iesis

1
= 1 + 2n — 3n
+
6
3 1
1 17,
2 2

no 2)
(n
2
an d the sum ofn ter ms,

+ n2 +
 S ERI E S . 211

Let also , 1 , 5 , 1 4 , 3 0, 5 5 , 91
Secon d .

fir st termsof an other serie s who se thi r d ditfer ences

b e the
ar e all equ al to 2 Makin g ther ef or e in o ) 3 we will have f
.
( ,
or
, ,

the gen er al ter m o f thi s given ser i es

a
. e tnz
(
n ln a
s us—
l (n I r] a w (n I r],

f c
r o m whi h, m akin g in suc c ession n 1, n 2, n 3, n 4, we
will have the e qu atio ns,

— 1,
al + afl + as + 1!

a, + 3 a2 + 7 a, 1 5 a, 5,
a, 50 , 19a , 65 0 , 14,
a, 70 , 370 , 1 7 5 61 , 30 ;

an d f
r o m thes o llo win g
e the f valu es o f the c o ef ci en ts fi
1 5 1 1
a4
E
7 1 7 a
6 3 1z

an d s
u s b
titu tin g the se valu es in the gen er al ter m , we have
1 1 1
¢+ +
n
e 3

an d f
or the sum o f the fir st n ter m sof the same given ser ie s we will
fin d 1 5 1 1
3

Other ex ,
S om e of the co efii cien ts a” of
(o ) , an d the fir st
m PleS ‘ te r m a , also, may b e e qu al to z er o , or m ay b e su h that c
some ter mso f (o ) evolve d b e mu tu ally eliminate d . In thi s su pp osi
tion the gener al ter m may appar en tly have a dif
f or m f
er en t f r o m that

of So, o r exam p le, we may have

f
(p ) .

u
in n , tn

S u pp ose now that su h c ge n er al ter m s ar e given, we may o tain the b

sum s also ; f
or s
u s b
titutin g s
u es s cc
ively the n atur al num er s 1 , 2 . b
3 in stea d of n, r om t,
f “
n , we have the ser ies

r o m t,
f l , 8, 2 7 , 64 , 1 2 5
"
an d n ,

the fir st ofwhich has the s

eco n d diffe ces and the last the thi r d
r en ,

diff e ces c onstant; he ce with the

er n n , same p o c es ollo wed i
sf r the n

pr ecedin g examples we will fin d f the fi ,

or rst

1
. 1 —
1
.

6’
’ ’
2 3
2 12 ra m r rsn on A L G EB RA .

an d f
or the secon d
,

1
’
_ 1 ’
4 3
an d , ther ef
or e , the sum of n te rms of the ser ies havin g a2 f
or

itsgen eral ter m is 1 1 1

3 71

an d um of n termsof the s
the s eri es havin g its general
te r m, is 1 1
112 + n3 + u4 .
_

4 4
2 14 TR E AT IS E ON '
A L G E B RA .

9th . I had 42 shillin gs, an d p aid a p ar t o f them

I . I f yo u di ide
v

the r em ain d er b y th e nu m b er o fthbse which I have p aid , ydh will have

12 . H ow m an y did I p ay .

An s x 3 3
13
l oth . place to an o ther B u t the
r o m the s
Two tr aveller sg o f am e .

fir st who tr avels1 2 m ilesp er d ay leavesthe plac e ten daysb efo r e th e

, ,

sec o n d The seco n d tr avels2 7 mil e sp er d ay

. After ho w m any days .

shall the sec on d r e ach the fir st ? An s z 8 . .

1 1th . A m or tar thr o w s on a f

o r tr e ss 3 6 shells, b ef ore a seco n d
m or tar b egins to thr o w its o wn . The secon d m o r tar thr o w s 7 shells
in the sam e tim e in whi h the c
fir st thr ows8 Bu t the qu an tity o f .

gun po wder co n sum e d in thr e e e xplo sion sb y the sec on d isthe same as ,

that c on su m e d b y the fir st in f o ur e xplo sion s H ow m any b ombs .

mu st the se co d n m o r tar thr o w on the f

o r tr ess to co nsu me the same
q u an tity of gun p ow der asthe fi r st ? An s . a: 1 89 .

1 2 th . A f
r ien d of mi ne 40 ye ar sold, hasa son 1 0 y ear s old . Ho w
m an y year s shall p ass b efor e the age o f the f
ather b e dou ble th at o f

the son ? An s a: 20 .

1 3 th . Give me the p
ex r ession of two nu m b er swh os
e u m i sa,
s an d

the sum of the pr o du ct of the fi r st b y m , an d o f the se co d b y n n is b .

b— an ma — b
An s .
,
m n m n

1 4thA general wishesto r an ge hisr e gim en t in a squar e b attalion ;

.

he tr iestwo ways in the fir s t o f whic h ther e r emain 30 men b esid es

, ,

the f ull squ ar e ; in the second which c onsistsin addin g a m an to each ,

r an k he fi n d s that ther e ar e 5 0 m en wan tin g to fi n is

,
h the sq uar e .

H o w man y m en doesthe r egimen t c on tain ? An s x 1 975 . .

15 th F in d su ch a n u mb er that addin g to it in su cc ession

.
, a an d b,
an d squ ar in g the su m s the differ en c e o f th e s
, um sb efl
e s

d b" a
An s x _ —
2 (a :
.

b)

l6 th . Fin d two n umb er s who se , su m is87 , an d th eir di ffer e c e 13 n .

An s . x 50, y 37 .

1 7 th . The fir st ofthr ee frien ds A

give s to B an d C so many , B, C
o f hiso wn d ollar sas to r e d o u ble th eir o r i gin al n u m b er B then r c .

dou ble sin like m ann er the mon ey of A an d C an d finally 0 r e dou bles ,

in his tur n the m on ey of A an d B Af ter thi s they fi n d that each .

,
 PROBL E MS . 215

on e of them ha s 1 6 d ollar s . What was the ori gin al nu m b er x o f A ,

an d the or igin al nu mb s31er an d z of B an d 0

‘
Z

A11 8 .
y = 1 4,

18th I have two

. b o xe swith mone y in them . If I ad d 8 pie cesto
t ho se in the fir st b ox , the piec esc on tain e d in the fir st will be exa c tly
on e -
halfof tho se con tain e d .
in the seco n d . Bu t if, in ste a d of a ddin g
the 8 p iecesto tho se o f the fir st b o x, I p u t them in the seco n d , the
pieceso f the secon d will b e thr e e time sthose o fthe fir st H o w m an y .

piecesdoe s each b o x con tain ? An s . x 2 4, y 64 .

19th . The m on ey of A an d that of B m ak e £ 5 70 . If the fir st

woul d have thr ee tim es, an d the se on c d fi ve tim tas m or e m on ey, the
mon ey o f b o th wo ul d am o u n t to £ 2 3 50 . H o w m an y ar e the p o u n ds
of A? ho w many tho se ofB ? An s . x 25 0, y 32 0 .

20th b skets co t i some do z of ppl s If th se f the

. T wo a n a n en a e . o o

fi st bask t
r s ld at 5 c nts d z
e ar e d tho s of th s
o d tte a o en , an e e e co n a en

cen ts ll will b
, sold f tw d lla s Bu t if th app lesof th fi st
a e or o o r . e e r

b sket b sold t t
a e ts d th s f th s
a d at fi c ts
en c en , an o e o e econ ve en a

doz th y will b s ld f two dolla s d 5 0 e ts H ow m y

e n, e e o or r an c n . an

doze of appl s i th fi st ? how m a y i the se d b sk t ?

n e ar e n e r n n con a e

A s x 20 y 10 n .
,
.

21 st S me st d ts g
. o xcu siou If the y w e fi v m ore
en o on an e r n. er e

a d
n ch w ul d p y 1 d olla m o e the
ea o xp e s w u ld b
a 615 d ll r r , e n e o e »
o ar

mo reb t ifth y w u th e less d e ch wo ld p ay 1 } d ll sless

e er e re , an a u 1 o ar ,

th xp
e e s would b 42 dolla s less H w m y
en e e th st d ts r . o an ar e e u en ,

an d what istheir f
ar e An s S t . . 2: 1 4, F .
y 84 .

22 dFin d two n umbe r s whose sum

. is m time s,
‘

an d who se p r o du c t
17 tim 03 a sgr eat a sthe ir dif
. fer en c e .

2 7:
An s . x m I
7 y
m+ 1
23d . The sum oftwo n um e r sisa , an d b the difi er en ce
‘

oftheir s q u ar e s

i sb . What ar e these n um b er s9
»
a2 b a2 _
6
An s . x , y
2a 2a
2 4th . A dd 2 to 94, and then s
u tra t the same b c a: f
r om 94 . The
pro du ct ofthe um b
s y the diffe r enc e, give s85 12 . What isthe v alu e

o fx ? An s . x 18 .

2 5 th . If the thir d p ar t o f a n u m be r b e m ul tiplie d b y the f th o ur

p ar t of the sam e nu mb er , an d this p r o du c t be a dd d t th t f the

e o a o
2 16 r n r a r rsn on AL G EB RA .

sam e n um b er multipli ed b y 5 we will h ve a s lt s mu

,
a re u o ch a b ove 200
asthe sam e n u m b e is b l w 280
r Wh t isthe um b
e o . a n er

AB S . 2: 48

26 th . On e of two b r othe r si s2 0 d
year s ol er than the o ther , and if
the ge o f the fir st b e m ultiplie
a d b y that of the se on , the p r o uct c d d
will b e 25 00 year sm or e than the sum of the year so fea h c of the two

bro ther s H o w old isthe youn ger ?

. An s . a: 42 .

2 7 th . b oys sell 100 m elo s The fir st sellshisp a t at a p ic e

T wo n . r r

fe e t f m th at t which the sec o d sellshis An d yet they o b tai

dif r n ro a n . n

the s m e pr ice
a B ut ifth fi st shoul d have the mel ns ofth sec o d
. e r o e n ,

and i v s
v ce e the fi st s llin g them at his wn pr ic e wo ul d g ain 1 5
er ,
r e o

dolla s d the seco nd 63 dolla s How m ny melons h sthe fir st

r , an r . a a

boy ? An s . a: 40 .

2 8th . Fin d two nu m b er swhose pr o du ct is75 0 , an d who se quotie nt

is An s . x 15 , y 50 .

2 9th . Fin d the ex r es p

sion o f two n u m ber swho se pr o duct isa , and

w ho se qu o tien t is b .

Ans . a:

3 0th . Fin d two such n u mb er sth at the sum oftheir squ ar esb e 1 3001 ,

an d the diffe r enc e o fthe q

same s u ar esb e
An s a: . 85 , y 76 .

THE EN D .
 Murp hy Co ’ s Standar d S chool Books
. .

T he Fir st C lass B oo k ofH istor y d e sign e d f

or p u pilsc omm en cing
By M
dJ
the S tu y o f H sto r y ;
K z sx n r , A
i M
wi Q s s d p d
ig vi d d ith us r i o x , a
E hth r e se
,
aA d m
te to the
e i t on
d Sch l
use of ca e i csan oo s.

q d mp d i m ci Md i
. . . .

At the ear n est re m uest of any w ho use th e au th or sCo

'
en u o fAn H sten t a nd
o ry , o ern
be c p il d b v w k
om the e c i d ig It is h p p ils b
e fly es n ed f p c
u e r u on a. o ur se o fhis
a ou t to e n t

ic l d g lm c
e a o or or

g w k
.

t or stu y
a I n the ar r an em e n t o fth e o r , an d i n th e ener a atter o f o n te nts, the autho r

p d c w ic p i c cig pi d b cili
.

has ursue that o ur se h h his lo ng ex er en in te a h n has o nte ou t asthe est to f

p p il cq i i g k w l dg
e a

ta t p
e the rogresso f the u i n a u r n a no e e of histo ry .

A sthe h sto ryi c

o fo ur o wn p p li
ou n try osse sse s ci ec u ar attr a pl c d t ons i he h as a e the h st
o ry ofthe
Un t
e i d fi d
S ta tes rst in the o r er of arr a n e en t, so that it gm ay m fi cl m
,

i rst ai the att

e n t o n ofthe
yo un g i cc d d T h sis s u i
b y an n te r est n i g cc
ou n t o f the ost m imp v i o r ta nt e en tsi n the h story of

gl d c l d l g wi i i g vi w
ee e a

g
.

E n an , Fr a n e , I r e a n an d I ta y , to ether th a n e rest n
nt M e o fthe idd le A e s, the
C r usa d es, an d ic i i
,

Mo n ast I n st tu t on s

w k b lli w i b g vi g q i b m c
.

T he ise m shed th a n um er o fE n s, an d h as ue st o n s at the otto ofea h

pg cili lb b c p p il
or e ra n

a e to f
a e the
tat a or o th o fthe te a her a nd u s .

C t hism fth H ist y fth U it d S t t s; with Ch

a ec o e or o e n e a e l gic l a r on o o a
Ta b l
wi g vi g
th E n
e of A m ic
ra
ier
i d
n
an
d
m
H sto r y , fr o i c v y 9
itsD s o er in 14 2, to the y ear
i i
s R ev se a n e n la r g ed E d t o n B y E RN E Y , M J K A M Mm p p
ll d
13
I us
e,
tr ate
a er

p c li i i li l i d cc c d l
. . . . . .

T he e u ar m er tso f t h s tt e H sto ry ar e t o b e f
o un i n the a ura y o fi ts etai s, and in the
p i
ad a ta t o n o f i ts l sty gme a n d a r r an c ci e en t to th e cl l ty o f tha t w ic asso f earne rs f h h it was
d ig d — v b c iv d wi iv ci c l i b c mm
ap a or

es n e The f
a or i t has een re e e th , a nd itsexte ns e r u a t o n , are the es
t en ts
i l c p i v i g b di p d w i i di i
o
p
.
"

its m e r ts n e ar e s ha ee n s o se of th two ye ars. The r e s ent e t on

b c ll v i d l gd c iv m
on y o n n

h as een a re f
u re se an d e n a r d e d w km
an d in e r to r en er the o re a ttr a t e, a nu

pp p i i c i v g v i g v be i d c d i mp v m
y ; or or

b er of a r a te a n d nstr u t s ha n tr o T hese ents add

m c is p i ki d b pbc
u e
d
ro e en ra n e en ro e
w k
.

u h to its m e r t a n d r en er it f
ar su er or o
t an y or o f the n now ef
o re the u li
i li k l p v p p l b k p i i cl c l w ll
. .

T h sis e y to ro e a o u ar oo f
or r ma ry h sto r y assesi n o ur s ho o s. It is
g d c mp c c mp i v c ig l p i d i c e ar
ran e o a t, an d o r eh en s e, a n d an n o t b e to o h hy ra se "
D etr o t Vin d i ator .

li l w c lc l d g i v l cci c k w l dg l d g v
, .

k
Th is tt e or i swe ll a u a te to su
idp d
th e h sto r y o ft he A m er an Re u
r ab ly a a te f o r the us
e o f s hoo s.
, fic c p bl lic m fi di c v d w
ro
e th e
i ts rst
e ar ner a
so
p e ry
n
o
t
n to the
no
dlicmi e e o fthe
r esen t
ea in e en tsin
car . I t is a
alt a: Catho
/ .

A C t hism fS ip t
a ec o H ist y c m p il d b y th S ist s fM cy
cr ur e or o e e er o er
f or h
t e u se o
A M
f c il d the
c d m ic g m l s d E di i dih i
r e n atten c l n R v
,
d
the r s ho o s. e ise c
an d c d yM J
f cl h
or r e te b . .

K E RN E Y , Se on A er an , ro the a t L o n o n t on 8m 50 1 o, h ot

c i ki m i g i ll c mp il d
. .

p w
.

re f s us that i t waso r
to th s
di g J c l
The a e
e n n t he s ho o so fthe S st
a tt
b y Mr M .
iv l b l Mpp c di dd cid c iimi gick pl gd
e rs o f er y i n the
or
na y o
ty o fL er
nf
or

Ke r n ey , a n d a a ua e a en x a e , o n ta n n so m e a e s o fe xtra tsf
e
, Ire an
fo r the us
.
e o fthe p u lls
It has een r ev ed
ro m the
bc
ppl cp d jw i p i i vi dw i c mp p ic
r o h ets
.

, th the e
.

en e f ro the N e w Testa en t ofthe f

sent
u
c m
en t o fthe re
d l fi lm
mi b l b k
t o nsg e n, p c d ic i
l i v
a e
cula te d to
d l g i
in uxta o s t o n
e a fvar or e
th th e
m a n d asi
ro he t
v v i d
c ic l i bl d i g
t n no el i
e n e s I t isa n a
e ofs g k w l dg
a re h s
ra e oo f
to ry th an o u c d
o r s ho o s
i
, an d ca l

b e.cb taiued f ro
.

c l d i c m
y ear s o f esu to r y a nd m e han a
‘
B e r ea n D etr o t Vin d i at or .
-

i d l lic i i i g g l d
.

Th sexcellcut o r isno w us
an , a n d h as a so a u re
w k
l d bj c l cq i dc i m cc ivdi cig c l i p c g
a n e xt
e in n ear y all Catho
e ns e
ns t tut on sthro u ho ut E n an an d Ir e
r u a t o n t hro u ho u t th e n e h or n re u idg bc ili dg p blicl q i d .
‘
The o e t o fthe C ate h s , a o r n o the r e f is t
ww ii
th the tr u th f
p u
p ci
an d l n te r es
ltni i g i t

n o fthe
g
e ents r e o r e
c v
es
a e

mi g
c
sah, and e a the
d
o re n er h

M
d
in the sa r e S r tur es; to f
i
r en ear
a c l d
ac ua nt

d
e
iar iz e the c im
p g d mi m
to r e ar the O ld T esta
m
th the ro he es r e at n t
e nt as a
p fig
u re and a f
d i
or es
i
o the o
ha o n o f t he N e w
b d w i ’
g
m c i mp v d q i .

w b i g m m
c ddcid c i i g dmi c i b i g p il c mm
on
T he re sen t e t o n h as e en
se so as to a
, t o f the r
u h
e n
ro e
e as y o tte
r om the Pro he ts, S r tur e te xts
to m em o r y
c i
the uest o ns to the an s ers e n
d
An a en ix hasa so een
i p
ad e ore .

pp
k c
d l li v b.

a e ,
p l l g d vfi g li d
o n ta n n ex tra ts f
t he A ost esan d E an e sts. T he C hr o n o o a T a e, l g ic l
, an d s
h h has een ar ef
m m k bl
l
hort s et hes ofthe
b w ic
u ] r e se
v
eso f

cb
and con
d c
d l v id d
W i g
sid er a b ly e n a r e , xesthe atesofthe o st re ar a e e en tsr e o r e i n the ac r e ri t n s
p w ki d c d i lic c l i i v i
.

W S ho o sin the Br t sh Pro nce s, and

ww ic s m i cq ill dk gl d p c i id w l d m wi c c l i imil li
e he e s
e r e it
oo n to s
e r tsf u y
ee the or
no w n we are
n tro u e
re tty
n to a ll C atho
er ta n i t ou eet th a ir u at on s ar to that
H al i ax Catho c .
h h i t has a ur e in E n an an d the Un t e e s.
S tat f
w w iicbl i l
T h s i tt e s l
c hoo hoo , o le
d k c mp il d
b y the S sterso f er y , a n d r e s
l g
-

i mp
e by
a n e o fan e xa t h sto ry o fthe r
i c M c
c i v i d p i M J
ci p l v fi ll
l Kerney,
. . sa
a e en tsr e ated
an t
in th e B
ci al o
h h hasexi st

b li g i
e . iso ne
a t o nst
e

o the o
t oo o n . The
w ic or t
h h all i a no ed e, an d th e f
c mp l w ll c k wl g
l
ri en so fC atho
i er s, asa so to the r e ser an d u sher o fth
e u
or vi d
p bli lic
isw k d c i d n
a t o n are un er s
"
pe
S out h. Jou rn al .
m i b k is l w l d k w m b v
.

lb p p
b e su er fluous t
o s ea , b ut ser e that the
m ic v dd d v c i d bl vl l
er tso f the , it
t e f
a
O fthe
o r so fthe A er
oo
an e i to r ha e a d ou
e ery on s era y t o i ts a ue .
"
M
e ay o
etr op o i tan .

OZ ? T he fore o n g i g w k w ic m c mp l
o r s, h h f or a Sco lete i
series of p bi hoo Hi st
o r es, the u ls
hers are
ha pp o st
y t a te, ha e met v wi v l b l p
th ery i e ra g atr ona e .
 Mur phy Co ’ s Sta n dar d School Books
. .

K E RN E Y S M URR A
'
Y '
S G RA M M AR.

An Abr idg men t ofMur r ay s G r a mmar E xer cises, d e sig n ed f

’
an d or
e ofAcad emics a n d S cho o ls; w ith an A
the u s pp d i or Wr iting
x co n tai ni ng R u les f
with Pet sp icui ty an d A cc u r ac y : also a T r e atise
'

KE RN EY , A. M
on
en ,

E p isto lar y Co mp osition . By i M . .

l Smo, hf bd.
‘
J
. 16 .

This G rammar isused i n the Pub lic S choo ls o f B a lti mo re , an d se veral ofthe p r incip al scho ols
and acad emicsthr o ug ho u t the c o u n tr y
k
.

In p oint ofarr a nge me n t, th iswor is sup er ior to an y o th er Ab r id gm en t ofMurra ’ s Grammar

that hasyet ap p eared b e f or e t he p ub lic . It co m b ine sthe G ra mmar an d E xer ci s e , by e p ting Ji xer
cit e sto every chap ter a nd se c t io n th ro ug ho u t the wo r , s k
o th a t th e p up i l may ha ve, st e very s tage
o f his p ro gress, s p rac tical inustratlo n of th e p or tio n u nd e r his im me d iate stud y . T he p r ese nt
ed ition ha sb ee n ca re fully re vise d b y t he a u thor , an d m a ny va lua b le i m p r o vem en ts mad e i n the
k
wor . A Tr e atise o n E p isto lar y Co m p ositio n has b een ad ded , co n taining dir ecti ons f or wr i ti ng
Letters , No tes, Car ds, & c . , wi th a var ie ty o fexa mpl es o f t he s o m e.

E X T RACTS F ROM N O TI C E S O F T HE PRE S S .

hi t . Kcrney sAb ridg men t o fit isj ust what i t p ro fess e sto b e , an d no t s new s up ers
'
tructure up on
an o ld f o und ation . T hose who thi n k
M urray sth e b est of all g rammars, there f
'
o re , will no t hes i ta te
much to th n i k
thisthe b est o fal l ab r id g m e n ts . N ation al I M cil ig cncer .
Thisab b reviatio n o fthe l arge an d unwi e ldy vo l um e o fthe Patr i arc h ofG rammari nns has b ee n -

effecte d wi tho ut th e o m issi o n o f an y i mp o r tan t ma tter , and isp re se n te d to the p u b lic in s. n eat and

co nven ien t for m. It m ust fi nd f a vor i n sch o ols. B altimor e Pa tri o t.

"

We most cheerihlly recommen d this Gram ma r t

o s
c hoo ls.
‘
S t LouisN ewsL et er .
. -

Thisisan excellent ab rid gm en t ofMur r ay, lon g a f e i n scho ols.

avor i t F red . Exa miner .
On o ry examin a ti on
a cnr s i t ap p earsto b e w ell ad ap ted to the p urp osesf
, or whi ch i t wasd es igned ,
and wor thy to b e exten s c hool san d a cad em ies.
ively in tr od uced i n to s B altimer e Clipp er .
’

“
We are very much p leased wi th this ab ri d gme n t, and thin the imp ro vementsMr . erney has
mad e ad mir ab ly calc u lated to ac ce lerate the p rogr ess o f the l ea r n er . a nd to lessen the lab o r ofthe
k K
te ac her . We f eel great p leasure in co mm ending th e wor k
a vo rab le n o tice and p atron age of
t o th e f
teac herso fyo uth . Od d Pene ios' Mirr or .
k
Thisp op u lar littl e wor see m sto con ten d f o r the p a lm ofus efulnessw i th Mr . C handler sgr ammar .
'

whi ch we no ticed a f ew mon th sag o. T he Pr esen tation B r o t he r s, w ho co n d uct S t. Pau l sS ch ool in '

thiscit , an d w ho ar e go o d p r actical j ud ge s, a swell as e x celle n t t eacher s, p r efer t hi s ab r i d g men t,

es y
p ec ia ly f
o r the j unior classes. Pittsb w g Ca tholic. '

k
Thislittle wor a p e ar sto b e exceed ingly well su ite d to the use o fthe s cholar who i sab out ent er
i ng up on the study 0 th e En g lish lan g uag e. I t w ill, no d o ub t, p r o ve an aid to the tuto r , an d , b y
itssi mp licity and exp lanatory style, b e o fg reat advan tage to the p up il. B altimo r e Amer ican .
"

The general arr an ge men t o f Mu r r ay sG r amm ar is admi tted to b e the b es

‘
t extant. Mr . erney
hasp r esented all that istr uly v al uab le in any ab r idgmen t o f Murr ay s that we have seen , and h as
'
K
made several valuab le sugg e stionsto i n str uc to r s. T he b oo can n o t fail to mee t with successamo ng k
inte ll igent teachers." Method ist Pr o testan t.
W e take p articular leasur e in recommen din g thisab ridgment to the p ub lic. The notesan d o h
w rvatiod sta en f k p
r om t l e o r ig in al a r e co p i o us an d we ll se lec ted . I n p o in t o farr an gemen t, i t. i seu
p eri o r to any other a.b ridg me n t o fMu rray s G r am mar . B esid esemb r acin g i n a n ar r o w comp assall
' '

that isimp or tan t or es sen t ial i n the o r ig i nal g r ammar an d exer cise , t hisab r i d gme u t c o n ta in s i n its
ap p endi x sever al addi tion al m atter s w hic h will b e f o un d hig hly i n te r e s ting an d us eful t o the
le arner suc h asthe Ar t o fReas o n ing , O r ator y , Ellip ti cal Phras es, Po p u la r L ati n Phra ses, wi th n
li ter al E nglish T rans lation. U. 3 . Catholi c Mag az i ne.

M U RR AY S G RAMM A RS , &.c
'
.

Murr ay’ s E ng lish Gr ammar , a d ap t ed t o the d if

fe re t nclas s so f e
lear ner s
, with on Ar r nN nrx, co n tain in g r u le san d o bse r v ati onsfor sistin g the mo re
as
ad vanced s tud en tsto wr ite with p er sp i cu ity an d ac cu r acy . B y L mn xn t M URRA Y .

O O . .
O O O V O I O O I Q O C D O I .

In p res en ting a n e w editio n o fM ur r ay sGrammar , which isun i versa l y con sid er ed the b e s
'
t exten t,
we deem it sudicicnt to state , that the p rese n t ed itio n is p r i nted th an a n e n tirely new s et ofp late s.
an d that i t hasb een caref ro m many of th e inaccu raciesan d b lemis
ul ly re vised , an d tr e e f heswhich
are to b e f o und in o ther edi ti o n s , p r in te d iram o ld stereo typ e p la te s. This, to g ether with the very
lo w p ri ce stilt ed to it, are the only claimsur ge d i n f a vor of thisedi ti on .

An Abr idgmen t ofMu r r ay sE ng lish Gr ammar , wi th an Ar r an mx ,

’

containin E xer cise , i n Or thogr ap hy, in Par s

s in g, in Sy n tax, and in Punctu ation .
D es g
igned o r the you ng er clas se soflearn er s 18mo , half hound 13
This little Ab ridgmen t con tai ns, in a com p act an d cheap f or m, a b r ief o utli ne ofthe elementary

pri nci p leso fgrammar , and isweu calc ul ated to imp a r t to chil d re n the r ules an d d efin ition so fthe
st ud y, without over hard e ni ng th eir mi n ds
- .

I I Q Q O O 0 0 .0 0 . 0 0 0 1 8m0 25
G E RMAN S CH OOL B O O K S .

A B c uM M m u mmM I O O O I Q I O ‘ I I C Q Q C O O O Q C Q O O C C O O C

I O I O C O O O O Q Q C Q O Q O O C O O ‘ O C O
 Murp hy Co s Standar d S chool Books
’
. .

K E RN E Y S A RI T H M E TIC S
'
.

T he Co lu mbian A ri thmetic, d esig e d f n or the u se of Ac ad emies an d

S ch o ols By M J K na ssr , A M S ix th im p r o ved 38

‘
. . . . .

T his w or kp osse s sup erio r n atur e in th at d ep ar tmen t o fs

sesm e r itso fa c ien ce to which i t b elong s .

I t i sa b oo k
o fp r ac ti cal i nstr u ctio n ; o ne i n which the s c ience o f fi g ur es is tho r o ug hly exp la i ne d ,

an d clear ly e l ucid a t ed The examp le sf

. o r p ra ctice are g en er ally such asthe p u p i l wi ll m eet i n the

Va r io u s b usi ness t r an s actio n s o f li f e . T he a r r an gem en t of th e wo r i s e n ti r e ly p rogr essive, all k

q uestion sb ein g solved b y r u les p r evi o usly exp l ai ned .

I n tr o d uction to the Co lumb ian A r ithmetic, d sign d f

o r the e e use of
Acad em iesan d S cho ols By M J K E R NEY, A M S ixth . . . . . 13
T hislittle w or k isd sig
e ned as an n
i o r m er ,
tro duction to the f an d i s in te nd ed f
or child re n ab o ut

to co mm ence the stud y o fA r ithme tic . T he fi r st p r in c ip leso fthe sci ence are f am iliar ly expla ined

i n t h e fo r m o fq uestio n an d answ e r , an d th e p up ilsare con d ucted in th e study asfar asthe end o f

co m p o u n d n umb e rs I t isr ep l e te wi th p r actical examp le s, ad ap ted to the cap acity o fthat clas
. so f
l earn er s f o r which i t is d e sig ne d , and i t als o con tainsall the Ta b les .

In callin g p ub lic o r eg o i n g wo r s
to th e f
a tten tio n h
, t e p
ub lish er s t k
a e gr e at p leasur e in stating k
that they h a ve alread y p asse d thr ou g h s ever al la rg e ed i ti on s, which i st e mo s t conclus
h ive evid e nce
o fthe h ig h e stim at ion in w hi ch they are h eld b y the in str uc t o r sofyo uth , asf a r asthey ar e nown . k
T he p resen t e d i tio n sh ave b een car e fu lly r evised an d cor re cted b y the au thor , an d no p aiuswi ll b e
sp ar ed to r e nd er them , at al l time s, d ese r vin g o f the high r ep u ta tio n they have already acq uired .
The p ub lishe r sar e f ully a w are o fthe p r ej udices e xisting am o ng many te ache r s in f a vo r o fo ld

k
wor s o n Ari thme tic ; hence the g r eat d iili c u l ty o f intro d ucin g ne w o nes, ho we ver mer ito r ious
;
fr o m su ch th ey ear n e stly so lici t a caref ul e xami natio n o r t he se w or s —and resp ec til llly r efer them k
o
t the f
o llo wi n g testimo a ials o fthe ir mer itsfro m p r actic al teache r s.
Va . , N ove mber 1 8th . 1849
‘
Alw an d n
JK
a,

An e xami n ati on o f the C ol umb ia n Ar ithm et ic, " b y M erney , hasco n vi n ced uso fitsste r ling
k
. .

ut ility , an d w e sha ll accor d in gly m a e ar rang e men tsf o r i tsi mm ed i a te i n tr od uction i n to o ur sc hoo l,

( nu m b eri ng . at p rese n t, eig hty p up il s.) We b elie ve i t to b e second to n o ne 'e x tan t, and wo uld ,
ther e fo r e , r eco mm en d i t to al teac her so fAcad e m ies, & c . L . W H IT I L ES E Y 6: S UN .

I have exa mined t he

co n s
Co l um b i an Ar ithm eti c, an d
k
I n tr o d uction " to i t, b y M e rney , an d
ide r them e xcellen t b oo s; t hey ar e j ud ici o usly arrang e d , an d p r ac tical in the ir ap p lic atio n.
. JK .

T h e r ule sa r e p lai n , sufli cien tly concise .and well ad ap ted to t he comp rehension o f oung p e r son s.
T h e exp lanation o fthe t he or y o fProp or tion issimp le , p ersp icuo us, and ac c u r ate .
tr ad uce those b oo sin t k
o o ur s
N um b er o fp up ilsab ou t 300.
chool . J H
O N S LA TTE R , Pr incip al W ashi ng t
Ve in t
e n d to i a
o n S emi nar y. Y
I have exa mined with m uch car e the
k
Columb ian Ar i thmetic , " b y M
me to b e a wo r o fco nsid er ab le me ri t , and i s b e tter c alcul ate d f or s
. Kcr ney. I t ap p ear st
choo lso f the Uni ted S tates
o . J
, an d

for co un tin g h ous -

es, th an an y o ther b oo o n the s k
ubj ect that I h ave y et s een . T he gene r al a r
r an gement i ss ystem atic, and acco r d i ng to the amn itics o f di feren t r ules. U n d er t he i mp r ession
t hat i t isan i mp r o vem en t u p o n ever y o ther wo r ofth e in d no w b ef k k
or e the p u b lic, I will i mmed i
a tely ad o p t i t i n my s choo l, n umb eri n g a t p r ese n t ab o ut n i ne ty p up ils .

Washi ngto n , No v. 13 , 1849. S . B . B IT T E NB O US E , Pr incip al W ashingto n In sti tu te .

Columb ian Ar i th metic, I h ave sup ersede d
A san evi den ce o f the hig h o p in ion I enter tain o fthe
K
"

the use o fD a vi es, b y i tsimmediat

'
e int r od uctio n . F. NI G T ON , Al ez amd/r ia I nstitute. H
The Intr od uction t o the Columb ian Ar ithm etic" isso admir ab ly adap ted to i ts p ur p o se th at .

we have in trod uced it in th e p lace or o the rsin thisse mi nary . N u mb er ofp up ils. o ve r one hund red .
McL eod s S emin ary , Washing ton .
'
. 0 . WILS O N , J
L . . C U RC I LL , Asso ciate Pri n c ip als. H H H
I have exa mined the Ari thm eticsb y M
k
er n ey , an d un hes
ov e r all the v ari o uswor so fthe ind whi ch I h ave m et wi th. k
. JK
i tatin glv g ive them the p r e f
. er ence
Mr s. ‘fMcLE O D , S e lect S c ho ol.
I b elie ve th at the C olumb ian serie s of Ar ithmetics, b y M.
the p up il in that b ran ch o fscience, than any o th er .
JK . ern ey . b e t te r c alcula te d to as
A. W . H
sist
ALL, Al exa n d r ia , Va .
I am much p lease d w ith K
sAri thme tics, and thi nk them m uch b e tter ad ap te d to the use o f
er n ey
'

p up il sge ne r ally , th an any o ther s I h a ve e xami ne d RIC HARD L C ARN E , Jn. . .

S t John sAcad emy, Ale xa n d r ia , Va , N o vemb er 14 th, 1849

'
.

J
. .

I am
m uch p leased with th e Ar ithm eticsb y M . Kcrn ey, and shall intr od uce the m in my scho ol .
.

b el ie ving th em to b e b ett e r calcula te d to f e the p r ogr ess o f the p up il in that b ranc h of

acili tat
scien ce , than any o ther b oo on that subj ect. k
G eor g etown , N o ve mb e r 1 s
th , 1849. R COMPT ON J
K
. . .

I have exami n ed er n ey s O ol um b ian Ari thm etic, " an d I con si der it such a o ne as h as b een
'

m u ch wanted in scho ols. I d eci d edly p r e fer it to any he r e to f o r e us e d , a nd shall i n tr o d uc e it i n t

o
my schoo l . M. R . S NE , N avy HY
ard Acad emy , Washi n gton . Y
I h ave e xami ned the “ I ntr o d uctio n to the C o lum b ian Ari thm etic, " b y M
a d op te d i t i n p re f
er ence to o ther s. I shall al so u se the
. er ney , an d have
Colu mb i an Ar ithme tic" i n my m o r e ad
. J K
v an ce d class es . B o ar di n g an d D ay S ch ool o fthe Miss es A WLE , Wao Mngton , D . 0. H Y
I h ave e xa min ed , asf ar asmy le i s ure wo uld p e r mi t, the C o lu mb ian Ar i th me tic, " an d am m uch
k
p leased wi th many featu r e softhe wor . I have i ntro d u ce d it i nto my sc ho o l
Y
.

HE NRY E . W O O D B UR , Pri n cip al Washingto n S elect Scho ol.

 Mur phy Co s Stan dar d School Books
’
. .

lRVINO S SERIES OF SCHOOL CATECHISMS, IN TW

’
ELVE PARTS.
R e v i se d b y M . J K ern ey , A M
. . .

l g bl d p i
T h e on esta ishe r e u t at o n o f I av i x G sCa r scm su s, an d the very e xte n s e r u a
'
i v ci c l
i w c l gl d c b p
-

v
t o n hi h they h a e had , n o t o n y i n E n an , b u t al so in thi s o u ntry, isthe es t roofo ftheir
ii
u t l ty T he pl
an o f his o r sisthe w k
e ry e s v b
t that o ul b e ad o te d c d
T he catechetioai for m p
i ci d i d p i c c b dp
. .

of n s tr u t o n is n o w a m tte b y tho m o s t e x er en ed tea her s, to b e the est a a ted to

c p ci
th e n atu r e and a a ty o fy o u th — a s y stem by whi h hild re n c c
l a quir e a k no w e ge of wi c ld
ci c l i
a s e n e in esst m e than b y a ny o ther
vi g b c p b li i d d ig l p p l i
.

Mu r hy pCc , h a e o me
sher so fth sstan ar an d h h y o u ar ser esof C ate
the u
wi p blic v i d l w d i i wi di c
. n

cb ism s, sh to in f the u m
t ha t th ey h a e ssue e n tir e y ne e t o n s, th a l ne w so
m d cb c d c l p vi i M J
or
v e r iesan d o e rn i ro e mp v m s
e n t in ea h ra n h , u n er the are f
u su er s o n o f . KE RNE Y,
p p d i
.

E sq , who has r e are f o r the s er e s a C AT E CH IS M O F T H E H IS T O RY O F T H E UN IT ED

i l w k
.

—
S TAT E S nu e n tr e y n e w or
c
.

f Th e o llo win g on sti tu te the S eri es

As t r on o m
m
c
y: t i i g th M ti s M g it d
e n a o f the v l di f d
on a n n e o P lon i s Dist
w ,
vi i Wi
a n s du th
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vd
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gr a e 3 1
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p i mi pl c li l v
T h s tt e o u me o ss l p
e sses th e e u ar p c li m i
er t o fr e u n to the
e so f a d i lii cu lt . b ut, a t the sa e ti e , a m m
n te r es m
doci
i g i
r ehenson of h
g c mp
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ren the
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r nc
syste , the o ur se s a n d th e r e o u t o n so f the
ig
i n te r est n ast r o n o a mic l p i ci p l
r n es.
v l i o st
an e ts, e p l cli
t n s en e . I t e x a n s t he so ar
p
ses, the theor y o ft es, and man y o the
r i d
B ota n i i
co n ta n n g a
g b i ccm d iWgi g v d l i m w i
D s ip ti f h m t fm ili o t
i t sti g Pl ts ar a n d
m i
y : e cr on e ea a n ere n an ,
ar r an ed a or n to the L i n n s
e an Sy ste m , th an Ar r n s
f x o n the f
or at o n o
an H er ar u th e n ra I l ustrat
e o ns
p pcil cli l w k i dp ld c il dw k dmi bbl p d d
.

en e f
is n t wh o a re
T h is o u ar tt e or
ter estin g s en e o fB o tan
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t r e sen t to the m
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e r o n the stu y o fthe in
to en t a ou t
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v i b i
fo r h h i t i s e s n e .
ar o us e aut eso fthe s en ci c m dv g
e , an d the d iv d m d
a ny a
n o fth e u
an ta esto b e
, in

er
an ea s
e f
y an d attr a t e sty e, the
ro i tsstu y.
P i l Ch mi s
r a ct ca b i g try F mili e n t d c i th In i t sti g S i u t to at
wi X c i i p l i g p im Wi
e a a ar ro on

en
-

g vd l i
ra
th an
e
A
Il
P PE N D I
ust rat o n s
:
g, m o n ta n n an y safe, easy , an d e asn Ex
n er e
er
n
en ts.
c ence
th

ib ili g l ilii i d mdi c bi l d p d ci c

T h s tt e tr eat se i s a
am
ra y a af
g
u t o n to t ha t s en e
b
d
o r tho s
l d i g
e w ho a r e a o u t t
te
p i ci p l d
o en te r on the stu y o fC hem is
c mic l
k wl dg l i l i i i c i
tr y , e n a f e s o f he
no
g e
i g
ar

ie
n tr o

ll are pd i gexd d a ne p g on a
ill dd
an that wil l b e f
c o unb
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i l
an d
to b e
ea
o th
.

g
n r n
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m
ns
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a
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pl
T ho u h o r
eas ur e and
na y es n e
p fi
r o t b y t he m dv c d for the y o un , i t w
or e a an e i n yea r s
be fo un to onta n e sso n s that
.
ay b e r ea th

M h l g b i g C mp di s Hist y fth H th G d s G dd ss s d
yt o ou o o
o o
H e r o es; es ne
Wi th e n gr a e
dI
y:
i g
v d ll
d e n
c i i s
a
h efly as
ustr at on
d cen
i an I n tr o d u
or
ci o
l e
ic
t o n to the S tu y o f the An
ea en ,
en t
e e
C
,

ass
an
s.

w
T o the E n
be f ou n
g li c
sh s ho ar th s or
a m os t es r a e o
l
illbj c wd ic d i bwl cil mp d mm i mmb c b v i
en i u
i
ro e h
It e
w k will p v i g l i
h y n ter est n ; b u t to the
ra esall that i s n te rest n or
ass a s i g
o r ta nt in th eicl i g simp l d
tu e n t i t
.
cl ic l d
su e t o f h h i t tr eats; so fit sty e r en er it
p r efer a bl
e to o the r o r so fthe sam e n k i d w ic
h e, at the sa e t e . th e r e ty a nd
w k h h ar e o f u h reate r
ear n es
enso n sm c g
. dim i
C l ssic t fth Liv s f h m st C l b t d
'

B i g p hy
al t i i g A cco un o t o e e ra e
A ci Wi g vd ls i
co n a n n an o e e e
m g
a o ra :
C har ac ter sa on the kn en t m G r ee san d Ro an s th en ra e Il u tr at o n s
cl ic l d pll c icp l b v i m d iw g kv w ill d p p c li
. .

be f osse ss
m
T o the ass a stu e n t, in ar t u ar , the a o e n a e
s
eri t . I t p r esen ts, i n a s a
m v c l
n a esha e ast a ustr e o er the h s
o as
or
t
s, the mo st n ter es
m
v m
or

i ic p
ag eso fGree e an d Ro e
o un
t n e en ts i n the
c m
li v w .
to
es of thos e
e u ar
ho s
e

H is
to ry o f the United S tates: W i th a Chr onolo gical T ab le of Am erican History,
fr o m itsdis co v er y in 1492, to the y ear 185 4
iv v l b l li il w k p i i dwi i
Th s a ua e tt e or co m r ses th n a sm a ll c dpi c v
o m as iic p p i
s all the mo st m ort ant an d nter est
S tates, fr o m t he s o e ry o f Ame r a to the r esen t t me. i
g l d i
i n g e en tsin the h sto ry o fthe Un t
b l e
p
T he ar r an e men t an d sty e a r e a m ra y ad a te
d i c p d i v c p
to t he
I t issufli ci en tly o m r e he ns e f
c
cl c il d
a a i ty o f h
l b ico Co mmence
r en a o ut t
asso f e arners f w h h i t isd e
ig d ill i i c i v p gic c il dv will l b
the stu y of h sto r y
s ne
o ft hos e
.

us
s nstr u t e a e sthe h
F r o m it
.

tr ou sm e n ofAme r a who ha e g one e f

vo r tha t

p
or e a si n the
i
a th ofus l
ef
i or

u n es
c
e ar n to r e ere the n amesan d m tate the a t on s
san d o ff
i
ame .

G i H is f m th E li st Tim s t th P i d wh
to r y : G b m e o e er o en ree ce eca e a
vi c W i v ll s i
r ec a n ro e ar e
Ro m an Pr o n e. th e n gr a ed I u tr at o ns.

R m m
H ist t i i g is A t fth m st St ik i g E a co n c ts f m e cco u n o e o r n ven , r o
F d i f i mp i
co n a n n
-
an y
o
the o un at o n o F W s
the C ty to W the v all o f the e ter n E r e. i th engr a e d

w k c i m i mp i i
n ter est n g v
e en ts i n the hisor
t of
c
These two

p c li m i s
G r ee e and Ro e
p m i d c
o r s on ta n all the
A s n tr o u t w o st
k
o ry or s, to b e
g m
. l
a e c d
or ta n t an d
p d
i n the h an sof h
l
T he ar ran e en t and sty e ar e ha pp l d p d
iy a a t e
c il d
r en , they w ill
b e onnd
t that classo f ear ner!
o l y
(o
w c
ossess e u a r
d ig d
er t .
for hi h they are es n e .
( ht hi m f S d H is t y Ab idg d f th s fS h ls t sl t d f m th or e u e o c oo ran a e ro e
F ch b F i fY i cc mp i s f c m l3 e
v g
ec r o acr e or r , ‘

I r in s S er Cate hi s
'

re n , y a r en d o o uth : d esgn ed to a o any e o .

 Murp hy Co s Standar d S cho ol Books
.
’
.

His
tory ofE ngla nd : co n tai m n g the mo st S tr ik ing E ven ts f
ro m the E ar li es
t Pe
r i od to the Pr esen t T i me
k
T hisw o r co mp r i se s, i n a f ew p ages , the mo st im p o r t an t e ven ts i n the his r om
o r y o fE n glan d , f
t
a p er i od p r ior to the in vasio n o f th e Ro man sto t he p r ese n t tim e . T he r esen t ed itio n has b een
car e ful ly re vised an d c orr ected e very thin g r e flec ting o n the A mer ican c aracter hasb een er ased , g
an d e ve r y thi n g ofa sectari an n atur e hasb een r e moved .

Jewish Antiquities: con tain in g an Acco un t o f th e Classes, Institution s, Rites,

Cer emonies, M an n er s
, C ustoms
, & o , ofthe A n ci en t e ws W ith e n gr aved Illus
. tr atio ns J . 13
Grecian Anti quiti es b ein g an Acco u n t o f the Religion , Go ver nmen t Ju d icial
Pr o ceed i n gs, M ilitar y an d N a val Ad air s es l
‘

, D r ess Food B aths E xer cis Vi ar r iag cs

Fu n er als, C o in s W ei ghts, M e as
, u r es, &c
—
of the G r e e s to which is p r efi xe d a D e
.
,
, ,
k
, , ,

scrip tion of the Citiesof At hen sand Sp ar ta W i th en g r aved I llu str atio n s .

Roman Antiquitie s; o r , An Accou n t ofthe Relig io n , Civil Govern ment, Military

an d N aval Afair s, Ga
m e s, N am es, C oins. W eig htsand M easur es, D ress, Foo d , E xe r
cis es t s D o mestic E m p lo yme nts, M ar r iag es
, Ba h , , F uner als , an d o the r Cus to ms an d
Cer em on iesofthe Roman Pee l o : with a D escr ip tion o fthe Pub li c B uild in gsofthe
o ity ofRome. W ith en g r ave Illustrations 13
k
The ab ove wo r s are highly in te r estin g in themselves, an d m ay b e read with p l e asur e an d p r o fit
b y e very memb er ofth e commun ity B ut f or the clas
.si cal stu d e n t they p o ssess p articular attr ae
tio n s. Fo r hisb enefi t they wer e chiefly i nte n d e d , an d year s o f e xp eri e n ce p r o ve that they are p e
cu liar ly a d a p ted to th e en d f
or whi c h they we r e d esign ed : A f a mili a r ity with the laws , mann ers ,
an d cus tomso fth e an c i en t n ation swill o f
ten r en d er clear and e xp li ci t the mo st ob s cur e p assages ,
so fr e q ue ntly met with in the au thor so f an tiq uity .

C L A S S I C AL BO OK S , 84 0 .

IN to the f
callin g atte n tion ollo wing W or k s, it
isd eem ed it su f fi cien t to state, that the p r e
sen t e d itio ns hav e b een issu ed u nd er the car ef ul su p er visio n o f the em ine n t Pro fes so r s of
St 1 “ College, B al timor e, an d may j u stly b e consid er ed the b est an d cheap est edition s
?d
.

p ub 1is e
Ep ito me H isto r ic: Sacr a; Au ctore, L homo n d , N ova Pr osod iaa, sign es vo
’
edito
cu m q u e in ter p r etatio n sad or n ata
As an el eme n tar y wo r , k H
isto ri es S acr az i s b e o n d
e xce p tion s
y . The easy arr an g e me n ts o fi t s
style in the b eginning , an d the g radu al i n tr o d ucti on o f the L atin co n str u c tio n , r elie ve the p up il o f
mu c h emb ar r assmen t and lab o r , an d te nd in a. m ater ial d eg r e e to fac ilitate hisad van cemen t .

T hisp osse sse s ad van tag esov er an y p r e vi o us ed ition . The vocab ular y ha sb een car ef ully r evised ,
an d t he wo r k
hasreceived such imp r ovemen ts asg r eatly enh an c e itsm er i ts.

P haed r i Aug us
'
ti Lib er ti Fab ular u m Z Eso p ium . L ib r i Quin qu e
A new e dition , care f gr eatly imp r oved .
u lly r evise d an d
k
Thi slitt le wor h as lo ng b een h eld in high esti m ation in o u r colleges an d scho ols. T he many
k
mo r al an d inter esting lesso n sit con tain sren der it a text b oo p eculiar ly ad ap te d to the youn g ; and ,
k
-

in de ed , no wor cou ld b e b etter d esigned to in itiate the p up i l in to th e stud y o f L ati n p o e tr y .

-
tri ousUr b is R m
D e Vii isIllus e
c ,, A Ro mu lo ad Au gustum , Au ctore L’ ho mo nd ,
in U n iv er sitate, P an sie ns sor e E me r i ta
' ‘
i P r o/ es
This w o r p oss k esse sthe r ar e q uality ofb ein g ad mir ab ly ad ap ted to the cap acity o ftho se co m
menci ng the study o fthe L ati n l an guage , without d ev iati n g from the p ur i ty o fthe L ati n style .
The mat er i also fwh ich i t iscomp ile d ar e m o st in ter estin g an d in str u ctive in thei r nature , thu s
a for d in g the p up il th e d o u b le ad van tage ofacq ui ri n g a kn o wle d ge o fthe La ti n tong ue and at the
, ,
same tim e , o f stor in g hismin d wi th h isto r i cal f s
ac t .

T hisedi tion hasb een l ate ly r evised , an d p u t i n to a n e at, con veni en t form . T he s e im p rovem en ts,
i t isb eli eved , w i l ad d to i tsm er its, an d will ten d to ad van ce the p up il in hisstud y.

63
k
Few wor sh ave elici ted mo r e gen er al ad mir ation , or have b een mor e g enerally used in scho o ls,
than th e Fable sof La Fon taine. Fo r the p up il eng aged in the stud y o f the F r enc h lang uage they
p ossessp eculi ar ad van tages. Ma ny b e a u tiful an d mor al lesso n sar e in cu lcate d in a style at on ce
easy an d attr a cti ve, whi le , at th e same time , a t aste f o r p oeti cal co mp o s itio n iscultivated .
Thise diti on hasb een car e f ully r evise d , a n d co n ta in sm uch d es ir ab le imp ro vemen t. “

Rudd iman’ sR ud im entsofthe Latin Ib ngue o r a. Pl ain an d E asy I n tro d u ctio n

to L atin G r am mar : whe r ein the p r in cip l eso fth e l an gu a e m ethodically di oste d , ar e
b o th in the E n glis h an d L atin W ith u seful N o te san d 0 ser vatio n s T hir tic t t Edi
. .

tio n , Corr ec ted a/n d I mp r ov ed B y W M . M AN N , M A

. 12mo , half ar ab . . .
38
T he cheap es t an d b est L atin gr ammar p u b li s
he d .

Elemen to sde Sicotogio, Elemen tso fPyscholo gy

Pizaw o’ sD ialogues S elect Or igin al Dialogue s

.
, h an d E n glis
o r S p an is h Con verh
satio n s: foll o w ed b y a co ll ectio n o fp ieces in r ose an d ver se— ad ap ted to the
p
us e ofS p an is h classe s in sch ools an d acad emi es. By J. A Prz ann o, Prof es sor .

o fthe S p ani s h Lan gu ag e in S t. M ar y sColle ge, Baltim ore . Thir d edition , im

’

p r o ved an d e nl ar ged b y the au thor 1 2 mo 75

k
This new edition of a ver y p o p ular w or , b y o ne o f the most distinguished in s tr ucto rs in th e
~~
u un tr y , i sgr ea tly imp roved , an d p ar ti c u lar ly ad a p t e d to the p r esen t style o f teaching an d s elfim
ovemen t. Th e p ri o r e diti o n sh av e b e com e e stab li sh ed asstan d ar d in some o fthe b est institutio n.
the Uni t e d S tate s, an d the p r es en t d o ub le sitsa d va ntage s .

3 956
 Mur p hy Co.
’
s Stan d ar d S cho ol Books.
AL G E B R A
’
S E S T IN I S .

E lemen tary Alg ebr a By B . S ssr m r, S J

'
au tho r o f Analytic al
P Phil s phy d Ast my i G g t w
. .

G eo metry, ro f
esso r of N atur al o o an ro no n eor e o n
12m 50 o

m i bj c i s d
T h e a n o e t o fthi stre at se i to r en e r the s ci c l g b i lligi b l p p il w
e n e of A e ra n te e to u s h ose
m d c m d c di
in sar e ye t unac usto e to su h stu es T h e e b g i w ill i d wi c p
nn er her e b e f
urn she th su h s
roo f

cp i mpl w ll lig w mi g wi b c
.

o his
‘

as ar e sui ted t a ac ty ; e xa es i aflor d new ht to hat ht b e o the r se o s ur e

w g d
i th re ar p i
to the o er at o n sf
o un d ed o n i p ci pl h g her rin wlf p es, he c t im l
il or the re s
e nt, o nt
en h se f
w m l p ccl mp l fi d Wi mi d g d ll ,

i th er e y r a ti a r ul e s, e xe i e an ne r . th a n m m in the sa e
thus ra ua y le d on t o
ic m m ic d c i m
str t athe at al i s uss on , he ay then r e su e his o u r se th m c wi p fi
r o t, b y the aid o f s
. treat s i
p p i w ic i d d q l s c g
e
n o w in r e ar at o n. h h i s n ten e as a se u e to thi , and , b y ore exa t and thor ou h inves i
t m
c mp l d lg b
o

gation , o ete hisstu y o fA e r a.

B RIE F E X T R A CT S F RO M N O TICE S O F T HE PRE S S .

i wwi k wc mm
T h s or re o en s ts
h h its r nice ft
o f d i i l
ci
a or b y the a
p p l
es a re ex o un e .
ra v
e or er o fi ts ar ts
p dd mi bl
d
, an d th e concls

O ne nee sb u t op en the hoo t

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