FLUID FLOW MEASUREMENT

FLOW
“Flow” is defined as the volume or mass quantity of fluid that flows through the section of a pipe of channel per time unit.
It may refer to volumetric flow (the number of fluid volumes passing by per unit time), mass flow (the number of fluid mass units
passing by per unit time), or even standardized volumetric flow (the number of gas volumes flowing, supposing different pressure
and temperature values than what the actual process line operates at).
The major factors affecting the flow of fluids through pipes are:
the velocity of the fluid.
the friction of the fluid in contact with the pipe.
the viscosity of the fluid.
the density of the fluid.
Fluid velocity depends on the head pressure which is forcing the fluid through the pipe. The greater the head pressure,
the faster the fluid flow rate (all other factors remaining constant), and consequently, the greater the volume of flow. Pipe size also
affects the flow rate. For example, doubling the diameter of a pipe increases the potential flow rate by a factor of four times.
Pipe friction reduces the flow rate of fluids through pipes and is, therefore, considered a negative factor. Because of the
friction of a fluid in contact with a pipe, the flow rate of the fluid is slower near the walls of the pipe than at the center. The
smoother, cleaner, and larger a pipe is, the less effect pipe friction has on the overall fluid flow rate.
Viscosity, or the molecular friction within a fluid, negatively affects the flow rate of fluids. Viscosity and pipe friction
decrease the flow rate of a fluid near the walls of a pipe. Viscosity increases or decreases with changing temperature, but not
always as might be expected. In liquids, viscosity typically decreases with increasing temperature. However, in some fluids viscosity
can begin to increase above certain temperatures. Generally, the higher a fluid’s viscosity, the lower the fluid flow rate (other
factors remaining constant). Viscosity is measured in units of centipoise. Another type of viscosity, called kinematic viscosity, is
measured in units of centistokes. It is obtained by dividing centipoise by the fluid’s specific gravity.
Density of a fluid affects flow rates in that a more dense fluid requires more head pressure to maintain a desired flow rate.
Also, the fact that gases are compressible, whereas liquids essentially are not, often requires that different methods be used for
measuring the flow rates of liquids, gases, or liquids with gases in them.
It has been found that the most important flow factors can be correlated together into a dimensionless parameter called
the Reynolds Number.

Physical Nature of Flow

Laminar and turbulent fluid flow (Reynolds number)
Laminar referred to an orderly motion of flow where every
particle of the fluid moves in parallel to the pipe. However, the fluid
flowing close to the wall slows down due to friction and viscosity. The
flow is said to become turbulent when it speeds up even more. The two
types can be demonstrated easily by injecting a small jet of coloured water
slowly into a clear liquid stream in a transparent pipe. At low flow rate, the
coloured water shows an even and with little diffusion in the surrounding
stream. When a similar jet is released in a high velocity stream, the
diffusion is almost immediate and uniform across the section.

The Reynolds number (Re) tells us if the flow is laminar or turbulent;

If less than 2000, it is laminar
If more than 4000, it is turbulent

FLOW MEASUREMENT
Fluids can be measured in gravimetric terms (by weight or mass), or in volumetric term (by volume), or by velocity. We
measure quantity in terms of mass or volume units, such as kilograms or litres. We can also measure the quantity that has passed
through a defined area in a given direction over a given period of time in terms of mass or volume (kilograms, cubic meters), or in
terms of mass flow rate or volume flow rate, such as kilograms per minute, or cubic meter per hour. In most situations, fluid
measurement in terms of mass or mass flow is preferable to volume or volume flow measurement because the mass of a given
quantity does not vary with temperature. Since we know that some liquids are unstable under certain temperature to become
vapourised (change from liquid to gas state), example petrol. In contrast, a volumetric measurement is only meaningful with
reference to simultaneous measurements of temperature and pressure or with reference to standards to which the measurement
has been corrected. Accurate volumetric measurement of fluids requires compensation for temperature and pressure, and is
limited by the accuracy of measurements that can be made of these factors.

Importance of Flow Measurement

Measurement of flow, whether it is a liquid or gas, is commonly a critical parameter in many processes. In most operations
it is important to know that the right fluid is at the right place at the right time. Some critical applications require the ability to
conduct accurate flow measurements to ensure product quality. Health & Safety is always an important factor when working with
liquids and gases, investment in ensuring your team can operate in a safe and productive environment is very important.
Measuring flow and pressure can provide this security to the process and personnel.
Fluid flow metering systems provide vital information for the following purpose :
Production Planning ;- the quantities of product supplied to customers generally vary according to seasonal demand.
Usually an average rate of production is planned on a calendar day which takes into account any periods of shutdown necessary
for maintenance and inspection.
 Product Quality ;- flow controllers are necessary in the proportional blending of intermediate products to produce on-
specification finished products of consistent quality.
Control of Process ;- sometimes flow meters are used for control of some other main process variables. Examples in
Separator column, liquid levels are kept constant by varying the flow rate of the process in columns are also kept constant by
varying the flow rate of the process fluid passing through them. Pressure in column are also kept constant by varying the flow rate
of the cooling medium .

FLOW MEASURING DEVICES

A.Pressure-based Flowmeters
Differential pressure flow instruments create a differential pressure in a fluid flowing through a pipe which can be
measured and presented in terms of rate of flow. A restriction is placed in line of a flowing fluid produced a differential pressure
across the restriction element, and the flow rate is proportional to the square root of the differential pressure. Bernaulli Equation
finds its major use in this type of flow measurement. Types of flow meters that employ this principle are Orifice Plates, Venturi, Pitot
tubes, and Flow Nozzle.

 Orifice Plates
D
An Orifice plate is simply a disc with a hole. Orifice plate P
functions as the primary element; it creates restriction as well
as differential pressure between the upstream and

downstream sides. The pressure on the upstream is higher
than the pressure at the downstream, and this pressure
difference is directly proportional to the velocity and rate of Flo
flow of the fluid. w
The bore or hole on the orifice is normally concentric,
but no always the case; some are eccentric or at top of the
plate, especially if fluid contains a lot of dissolved gases, to d
prevent gases build up at the plate.
Its accuracy is about 1.5%. The sharpness of the edge of
the bore is critical; it affects the discharge coefficient ( C ),
thus the accuracy of measurement. There is an overall
pressure loss across the meter of about 50%. The orifice plate
is a non-linear primary element.

Orifice Plate Taps

Taps are where the impulse lines are joined to the orifice plate carrier. Impulse line should always be physical as short as
possible. There are several different arrangements of flange taps. The most common are;
- Flange taps are the most popular tap location for orifice meter runs on large pipes. Flanges may be manufactured with
tap holes pre-drilled and finished before the flange is even welded to the pipe, making this a very convenient pressure tap
configuration. Most of the other tap configurations require drilling into the pipe after installation, which is not only labor-intensive,
but may possibly weaken the pipe at the locations of the tap holes.
- Vena contracta taps offer the greatest differential pressure for any given flow rate, but require precise calculations to
properly locate the downstream tap position. Radius taps are an approximation of vena contracta taps for large pipe sizes (one-half
pipe diameter downstream for the low-pressure tap location). An unfortunate characteristic of both these taps is the requirement
of drilling through the pipe wall. Not only does this weaken the pipe, but the practical necessity of drilling the tap holes in the
installed location rather than in a controlled manufacturing environment means there is considerable room for installation error.
- Corner taps must be used on small pipe diameters where the vena contracta is so close to the downstream face of the
orifice plate that a downstream flange tap would sense pressure in the highly turbulent region (too far downstream). Corner taps
obviously require special (i.e. expensive) flange fittings, which is why they tend to be used only when necessary. Care should be
taken to avoid measuring downstream pressure in the highly turbulent region following the vena contracta. This is why the pipe
tap (also known as full-flow tap) standard calls for a downstream tap location eight pipe diameters away from the orifice: to give
the flow stream room to stabilize for more consistent pressure readings.

Types of Orifice Plates

1. Square-edge Orifice Plate
a. Concentric Orifice Plate
b. Eccentric Orifice Plate
c. Segmental Orifice Plate
2. Non-square-edge Orifice Plate
a. Quadrant-edge Orifice Plate
b. Conical-entrance Orifice Plate

The simplest design of orifice plate is the square-edged, concentric orifice. This type of orifice plate is manufactured by
machining a precise, straight hole in the middle of a thin metal plate. Looking at a side view of a square-edged concentric orifice
plate reveals sharp edges (90o corners) at the hole. Square-edged orifice plates may be installed in either direction, since the orifice
plate “appears” exactly the same from either direction of fluid approach. In fact, this allows square-edged orifice plates to be used
for measuring bidirectional flow rates (where the fluid flow direction reverses itself from time to time).Other square-edged orifice
plates e xist to address conditions where gas bubbles or solid particles may be present in liquid flows, or where liquid droplets or
solid particles may be present in gas flows. One type is called the eccentric orifice plate, where the hole is located off-center to
allow the undesired portions of the fluid to pass through the orifice rather than build up on the upstream face. Another off-center
orifice plate type is called the segmental orifice plate, where the hole is not circular but rather just a segment of a concentric circle.
Some orifice plates employ non-square-edged holes for the purpose of improving performance at low Reynolds number
values, where the effects of fluid viscosity are more apparent. These orifice plate types employ rounded- or conical-entrance holes
in an effort to minimize the effects of fluid viscosity. Two common non-square-edge orifice plate designs are the quadrant-edge
and conical-entrance orifices. The conical-entrance orifice plate looks like a beveled square-edge orifice plate installed backwards,
with flow entering the conical side and exiting the square-edged side.

 Venturi Tubes

Venturi tube is a pipe purposefully narrowed to create a region of low thro

pressure. If the fluid going through the venturi tube is a liquid under relatively low at

pressure, we may vividly show the pressure at different points in the tube by
means of piezometers, which are transparent tubes allowing us to view liquid
column heights. The greater the height of liquid column in the piezometer, the
10. 5 -
greater the pressure at that point in the flowstream: The classic venturi tube 15
5
pioneered by Clemens Herschel in 1887 has been adapted in a variety of forms
broadly classified as flow tubes. All flow tubes work on the same principle: D d
developing a differential pressure by channeling fluid flow from a wide tube to a
narrow tube. The venturi flow meter should always be used for turbulent flow.Its
accuracy for a wide range of instruments is about 0.5%. ideal for use in Heat
Ventilation Air Cond. (HVAC) applications, or air to furnaces and boilers and for d
liquids containing particles and slurries.
Variations of Venturi Tube
1. Flow Nozzle
2. V-cone
3. Segmental wedge
A flow nozzle is designed to be clamped between the faces of two pipe flanges in a manner similar to an orifice
plate. The goal here is to achieve simplicity of installation approximating that of an orifice plate while improving
performance (lesspermanent pressure loss) over orifice plates. The V-cone may be thought of as a venturi tube or
orifice plate in reverse17: instead of narrowing the tube’s diameter to cause fluid acceleration, fluid must flow around a
cone-shaped obstruction placed in the middle of the tube. The tube’s effective area will be reduced by the presence of
this cone, causing fluid to accelerate through the restriction just as it would through the throat of a classic venturi tube.
Segmental wedge elements are special pipe sections with wedge-shaped restrictions built in. These devices, albeit
crude, are useful for measuring the flow rates of slurries, especially when pressure is sensed by the transmitter through
remote-seal diaphragms (to eliminate the possibility of impulse tube plugging.

Flow Nozzle
A flow nozzle is an elliptical or a radius entrance and is particularly
suited for measurement of steam flow and other high velocity fluids,
fluids with some solids, wet gases, and similar materials. A flow nozzle
is essentially a venturi meter with the diffuser cone removed. Since the
diffuser cone is used to optimise head loss caused by the presence of
flo
the meter in the system, larger head losses will occur in flow nozzles w
than in venturi meters. The flow nozzle is preferred to the venturi
meter in many applications because of its lower initial cost and
because it can be easily installed between two flanges in any piping
system.

 Pitot Tubes
The Pitot tube senses pressure as the fluid stagnates (comes to a complete stop) against the open end of a forward-facing
tube. The principle of Pitot tube is a variable head velocity measuring device. It consist of two concentrically tubes bent at right
angle. Inner tube faces the impingement and hence measure the static and dynamic pressures while the outer tube measures the
static pressure. The tube lies along the flow axis having an open end facing into the flow is called the impact probe/tip. The
second tube resides around the pipe wall and it has a hole tangential to the flow is called the static probe.
The pitot tubes depend on differential pressure between the impact probe and the static probe. It can be used for
turbulent and non-turbulent flows. However, to measure velocity greater than speed of sound, special factors must be used, and
the tip can become fouled with solids. It is normally used for air flow measurement particularly in HVAC air ducts, and they are very
common in aircraft to measure airspeed. A variation on the latter theme is the Annubar flow element. An “Annubar” is an
averaging pitot tube consolidating high and low pressuresensing ports in a single probe assembly.

B. Turbine Meters
It is very commonly used for measuring condensate, crude oil and diesel. The flow of the liquid causes the rotor to spin at
an angular velocity which is proportional to the velocity of the liquid. The speed of the rotor is detected by a pick-up on the outside
of the tube, usually by an electromagnetic detector to provide a pulsed electrical signal proportional to flow rate.
The effects of viscosity become negligible with Reynolds numbers over 2000 which sets a limit to the lower flow accuracy
of the meter. Its advantages over DP type devices is that the turbine have a linear flow characteristic and are capable of a wider
flow range. There is a small pressure head drop across the turbine. There are some mechanical friction effects, but these are
negligible except at low flows. They generally used for liquid flow only. These meters are delicate and do not like sudden high
flows caused by gas pockets, or valves sudden opening. The fluid needs to lubricate the turbine bearings and not be too viscous;
this restricts the range of fluids for which the meter is suitable. In practice the angular velocity of the rotor is not directly
proportional to the flow velocity. The liquid may be swirling when it enters the meter which may speed up or slow down the
meter. This can be corrected by using a flow straightener or straitening vane fitted to the pipeline at the entrance to the meter.

C. Positive Displacement Meter

This form of flowmeter divides up the flowing fluid into known volume packets. These measurement devices trap a
known volume of fluid and allow it to pass from meter inlet to outlet. The number of trapped volumes passing through the meter
is counted to obtain the total flow. These are then counted to give the true value of the volume passing through. If the volume
delivered over a particular time is monitored, the volume flow rate is established. The term displacement means that the fluid that
flow through the meter replaces (displaces) the volume of fluid that flowed through the meter immediately before.

D. Magnetic Flowmeter
This type of flow meter uses the principle of inductive voltage/current in accordance with Faraday’s Law and Lenz’s Law.
Two metal electrodes are fit into the wall of the tubing flush with inner wall at opposite sides of the pipe. Two specially shaped
magnetic coils are then attached to the pipe to produce a uniform magnetic fields at the right angles to the pipe. The meter works
by using the flowing liquid as a conductor, moving across the meter generated magnetic field. A voltage is induced across the
moving liquid and the amplitude of this voltage is proportional to the velocity of the liquid and the strength of the magnetic field.
This induced voltage is fed to the measuring amplifier by the electrode pair. The magflow meter has no moving parts and offers no
restriction to the flow, nor any pressure drop running through it. Its accuracy does not depend on viscosity since it measures by
volume. So it can be used for highly viscous slurries or liquids with varying viscosities.

E. Ultra-Sonic Flowmeter
The term ‘ultra sonic’ is used to describe pressure waves at frequencies higher than the human ears can detect. The
velocity of the sound waves in the fluid is the same as the velocity of sound in the fluid. If an ultrasonic beam is transmitted across a
pipeline at an angle to the flow direction, the time taken for the pulse to reach the receiver is a function of the flow velocity of the
fluid, as well as the velocity of sound in the fluid. Thus, this type of flowmeter operates on the principle of transit time differences.
An acoustic signal (ultrasonic) is transmitted from one sensor to another. This can be either in the direction of flow (downstream)
or against the direction of flow (upstream). The time (transit) that the signal requires to arrive at the receiver is then measured.
According to physical principles, the signal sent against the direction of flow requires longer to return than the signal in the
direction of flow. The difference in the transit time is directly proportional to the velocity of flow.

F.Vortex Flowmeter
Vortex flowmeters operate on the physical principle of the Karman vortex
street. When a fluid lows past a bluff body, vortices are alternately formed on the
sides of that body and then detached or shed by the flow. The frequency of vortex
shedding is proportional to the mean flow velocity and, therefore, the volumetric
flow (with Re >4000). Alternating pressure changes caused by the vortices are
transmitted via lateral ports into the bluff body. The DSC sensor is located within
the bluff body and is well protected from water hammer and temperature or
pressure shocks. The sensor detects the pressure pulses and converts these
into electrical signals.

G. Coriolis-Effect Meter
It is so called because the instrument employs the Coriolis principle which states that “A
body of mass M, moving with constant linear velocity, and subject to an angular velocity, (or
vibrating) experiences an inertial force at right angles to the direction of motion”. During
operation, a drive coil, located at the centre of the bend in the tube, is energised periodically,
and causes the sensor tube to oscillate (move up and down) about the support axis as shown
in the figure. The tube vibrates rapidly at a rate of 40-200 cycles per second, and through a
distance of just a few hundredths of a centimeter.
inle suppo I C O
O
t rt axis C
I
H. Rotameter (Variable Area Flow Meter)
Rotameters are a common type of variable area flow meter. Besides being as a standalone meter, they can also be found
on the level bubbler system, and on the caissons. The rotameter consists of a tapered glass metering tube that has a float inside
that is free to move up and down. A scale is engraved on the outside the tube in flow units. As the flow varies the float rises and
falls and the flow value can be read off against the glass. The flow has to pass through the gap between the float and the walls of
the tube, so there is a pressure drop. Since the walls are tapered and the gap between the float and tube walls increases as the
float rises, the pressure drop decreases as the float moves up the tube. The float moves until the fluid pressure balances the weight
of the float. The lifting force on the float is a result from the flow velocity of the fluid against the weight of the float. The greater the
flow rate, the greater the pressure difference for a particular gap, so the float moves to a position depending on the rate of flow. If
the glass were not tapered, the float would not give a meaningful reading. Accuracy of this measurement is around 3-5%.

COMPARISON OF METER CLASSES

Ideal for
Flowmeter Pipe/size Gas/Liquid Accuracy Principle
measuring
Linear scale
Mass flow / Rotating blades
Turbine 0.5” – 2” Liquid/Gas 0.3 %
velocity produce pulses
Positive Traps a
1” – 24” Liquid 0.5 % Mass flow
displacement specific volume
Magnetic 1” – 120” 0.2 – 1 % Mass flow Faraday’s Law
Speed of
Ultrasonic 0.5” – 48” Liquid/Gas 1% Mass flow
sound
Eddies produce
Vortex 0.5” – 16” Liquid/Gas 1% Velocity
pulses
Variable area 0.5” – 3” Liquid/Gas 1% Velocity Diff. Pressure
Coriolis
Coriolis 2” – 150” Liquid 0.5 % Mass flow
principle
Square root
Mass flow /
Orifice 1” – 48” Liquid/Gas 1% Diff. Pressure
velocity
Mass flow /
Venturi 6” – up Liquid/Gas 0.5 % Diff. Pressure
velocity
Mass flow /
Pitot 3” – up Liquid/Gas 2% Diff. Pressure
velocity

Comparison between Turbine meter and Positive Displacement meter

TURBINE METER POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT METER
indirect measurement direct measurement
requires upstream/downstream
no straight lengths required
straight lengths
affected by fluid viscosity free from viscosity effect
for a given small range, a smaller size larger size required to achieve a given
compared to PD meter flowrate range
Lower operating/maintenance/investmentcosts Higher operating/maintenance/investmentcosts