EFFECTIVE SOLOING STRATEGY

T HE METHOD BEHIND CRAFTING AN UNFORGETTABLE SOLO

By Timothy Pedone

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SUMMARY

Learning improvisation can be a daunting task. There is a lot of information on the subject,
but it’s not exactly making things clearer or easier to understand. This is something which
puzzled me for years, but now I have found a way to take a bit of the mystery away for those
who want to study it.

After continuous wondering, experimenting, studying, analyzing I came to the question “How
can I practice building a solo to a climax when I’m improvising?”

The way I went about that was I transcribed 3 solos that build to a climax. I analyzed them
according to their build-up and I investigated what was happening within each phase of the
build-up.

What I found there is that you can categorize vocabulary according to function. Everything
played, every action creates a certain reaction. If you know what action creates which reaction,
you can start to have more control over the way your solos take shape and you’ll be able to
communicate better, because your thoughts are more clear.

In all the solos there’s an interplay between these categories which are strong melodies,
motifs, sequences (or patterns) and effect licks.

Next to these categories there is the element of contrast which is used to create tension and
release. Contrast can occur in the form of (but are usually a combination of) dynamics,
rhythm and pitch (i.e. louder, faster and higher).

Now I can use these solos not only as sources for my own vocabulary, but also as molds to
pour my own solo in. The sections are all laid out: where to introduce a new motif, where to
develop it, where to play a fast outside line, … I just have to follow the path.

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CONTENTS
Summary .................................................................................................................................... 2

Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 4

Method ....................................................................................................................................... 7

How is the solo constructed? .................................................................................................. 7

What causes the rise in intensity? .......................................................................................... 7

How can this be used as a method to practice improvisation? ............................................... 7

Results ........................................................................................................................................ 8

1. How is the solo structured? ............................................................................................. 8

2. What causes the rise in intensity? ................................................................................. 31

3. How can this be used as a method to practice improvisation? ...................................... 36

Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 40

Works Cited.............................................................................................................................. 42

Appendix .................................................................................................................................. 44

Pacing – Play/Rest Relation: ................................................................................................ 46

Phrase Lenghts: .................................................................................................................... 47

Rhythmic Density ................................................................................................................. 48

Dynamics:............................................................................................................................. 48

Peak Points: .......................................................................................................................... 48

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INTRODUCTION
When I first started studying jazz, a lot of it was very intellectual. “You must play this scale
over that chord, you must play the 3rd and 7th of every chord, you must use chromatic
embellishment, …”
They were probably said to me for the very best of reasons, so that I could become a better
improviser. But it actually only gave me anxiety. I feared playing “wrong notes”, feared
playing in a wrong kind of way.

I think the things listed above are certainly valuable and are necessary to know and master if
one wants to be a professional musician, but I also think that there is a much better way to
implement these things in such a way that it makes sense and doesn’t create a lot of frustration
when trying to improve your skills.

Throughout the years, more of the pieces started falling into place and I got a clearer view on
the matter of improvising. Then I changed teachers and his approach of studying the guitar
and improvising really turned my approach on its head. He learned me how to construct a solo,
how to create a crescendo, how to think in phrases of a certain number of bars, using contrast,
using rhythm, getting it in your ears… basically everything that I wasn’t doing.
Along with this came the issue of vocabulary and my lack of it.

With all of this information I needed a way to get all of this into my playing as efficient as
possible. I knew a lot intellectually, but I couldn’t create a lot on stage.

Then when I heard Scott Henderson talk about improvising in jazz, he mentioned something
about telling a story, making phrases. He always compared it with a language and with words
and constructing sentences. (Scott Henderson - Melodic Phrasing, 1992)
Another similar thing is said in the book “How to improvise” by Hal Crook (Crook, How To
Improvise: An Approach To Practicing Improvisation, 1991).

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He says:
From a macroscopic point of view (overall view), an improvised solo should deliver a musical
message or statement with a sense of completeness to it – that is, with a beginning, middle
and end. The length or duration of the solo will obviously influence its structure and
development in this regard.

With short solos (generally less than one minute) the challenge is to achieve this completeness
in a relatively small amount of time, similar to the way the plot of a short story unfolds and
concludes. Each solo’s ending should be clear, obvious and musical.

Longer solos require a different timing or pacing of ideas, more like a novel than a short
story. The challenge is to achieve a sense of completeness while pursuing many different
directions and/or developments of ideas without losing the general continuity of the solo.

The different directions pursued in a short or long solo might include some of the following:
loud and soft playing; dense and sparse playing; motif development and through-composed
(no development, contrasting ideas); long phrases and short phrases; strong rhythmic
definition and floating time; wide melodic intervals and stepwise motion, etc.

Both short and long solos can be practiced by predetermining the amount of time (and/or
choruses) each solo will last. (Crook, Solo Lengths, 1991)

That whole text makes sense, but I needed an even more holistic approach. Something that
integrated all the micro-level topics, such as vocabulary, phrase length, dynamics, timing,
rhythm, … into the macro-level i.e. the construction of the story.

At the same time I was working on constructing my solos in such a way that I develop a
crescendo across the solo. So that I start low and end high. But I didn’t really know what to do
to make the intensity rise or what to do in each “stage of intensity”.
So I chose to examine a couple a solos that did exactly that. Some solos which I think are
great examples of this (and which are the solos that I used for this research) are “Ished” by
Eric Marienthal; “Syzygy” by Pat Metheny and “Bird’s Eye View” by Greg Howe.

The reasons why I chose these solos are because they are all played by internationally
recognized musicians, they are concise (so no 34 chorus solos), there’s a clear build-up and of
course just because I like them.

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This of course led me to the questions: How can I practice building a solo to a climax when
I’m improvising? How are the solos constructed? What causes the rise in intensity? How can
this be used as method for practicing improvisation?

This is why I am working on finding ways to increase the intensity in an improvised solo and
create a story, because I want to figure out how to practice improvisation more effectively and
express myself more clearly through improvisation, so you and I will gain more insight in the
way improvisation can be practiced for performance, so you and I will be able to accelerate
our improvisational skills to a higher level more quickly.

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METHOD
HOW IS THE SOLO CONSTRUCTED?
In this part of the research I transcribed the 3 solos and analyzed them. The choice of these 3
solos is very subjective. These are solos which I like very much and they are all coming from
a different stylistic angle. It may very well be that others do not like these solos and that’s
okay. The principles and method extracted from this process is what’s important.

I looked at how the solos were built, how the phrases were built and how they relate to the
bigger arch. I looked at how long the phrases last, what happens within the phrases, how long
a “paragraph” lasts etc.

WHAT CAUSES THE RISE IN INTENSITY?

In this part of the research I looked at how the rise in intensity takes place. To analyze the
solos I color coded them. The colors represent “paragraphs” and intensity level, green being
low intensity and then it goes from yellow to orange to red. Red meaning the peak of the solo.

I chose to focus only on the soloist, in relation to what’s going on with the intensity.
However, I cannot exclude the importance of the rhythm section entirely. So when their role
became obviously of importance for the development of the solo, I included it in the analysis.

HOW CAN THIS BE USED AS A METHOD TO PRACTICE IMPROVISATION?

Here I looked if the information gained from this way of looking at transcribed solos can be
used as a method to study and practice improvisation. I used myself as a guinea-pig and
adjusted my practice routines. I recorded myself using these layed-out solos and I followed
their thought process. Aftwards I would listen back and critique.

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RESULTS

1. HOW IS THE SOLO STRUCTURED?

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 General analysis

This solo is a textbook example of how a solo is built to a climax.

It starts very open. He doesn’t really play a melody, just sounds as you can see with this
octave figure

Then another chromatically descending octave but with a rhythmic pattern.

Now that he has established a certain mood, he answers that with a contrast.
In bar 8 he plays an actual melodic statement, which I will call Motif A (in green) and another
motif, which I will call surprise, surprise… Motif B (marked in orange) which will reoccur
several times during the solo in some variation.

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Next he continues on the melodic statement he played in bar 8 (marked in green), by playing
an extended pattern with the same melodic content. In this case an E7add11 arpeggio.

After that he concludes the “paragraph” with another harmonically contrasting answer,
utilizing the diminished scale (orange) and a Major 7 augmented triad (yellow).

The next paragraph starts off with Motif B which I mentioned earlier. He uses this melodic
material to make a 2 bar statement.

Answers that with a 1 bar statement.

And concludes it with still the same motif leading into yet again another contrasting phrase 2
bar ending phrase. The reason why the end is contrasting is again in the melodic content. He
switches from the E7#9 arpeggio to a line that goes outside the harmony.

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After all this crazy stuff, he goes back to the good old pentatonic and plays a pattern using
that.

But apparently he grows tired of the pentatonic scale rather quickly and swiftly changes back
to chromatic craziness, which I think can be explained like this:

He ends the paragraph with another effect-lick without real harmonic clarity. He’s really
going for achieving a certain effect by using a dense rhythm, false fingerings and using a
chromatically dense sound.

Next up is our Motif B again which he uses to create another pattern with and not really a
melody.

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He continues to play a pattern through the pentatonic scale for one bar and goes outside again
for the remaining 3 bars, again contrasting what he played before.

Contrast again: after having a series of 16th notes going outside the harmony, he now only
plays the D in quarter notes on the beat (the D being the minor seventh of the chord).

He expands the idea just by adding 2 extra notes before the D, creating a kind of 3 over 4
polyrhythm.

He starts the final 4 bars of the solo with an outside line going the Em pentatonic again and
then ends with a big glissando from the 5th to the root and ending on the highest note of the
solo.

This solo is very clearly built up out of different blocks. Each block lasts 8 bars and starts
with either a motif which he then develops or a pattern. This creates continuity within the
block and to finish the block off he plays an effect lick (he goes outside the harmony, uses a
lot a chromatic notes, fast passages, …).
Every new block therefor starts with something contrasting from what was used to end the
previous block.

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 General Analysis:

The solo starts with Pat quoting part of the melody. The chords may be a bit out there, but he
just plays a melody in F Major. The melody lasts for 3 bars and then there’s a rest for almost a
whole bar. The melody is a variation on the original melody of the tune and can be labeled as
antecedent.

This melody is an answer to the previous melody (consequent)

This melody is again a variation on the opening melody (antecedent)

And then he answers that again with a melody that has the same shape as the consequent.
This was one block which was constructed with 2 melodies complementing each other by
going in opposite direction.

Here he introduces 8th notes and more chromaticism, which is an obvious break from the
previous section.

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Then he goes back to the more melodic lines with more 4th notes. He plays a sequence,
transposes it and then ends with a variation of it.

Next he increases the rhythmic density again and plays a line with a typical Pat Metheny
approach (shown in blue) leading to a repeating pattern.

This pattern then leads back to another very nice melodic line, which is actually just an F
Major scale with an added #5 played in a rhythmically interesting way.

What makes this next one a nice melody (I think) is that he goes from F Major pentatonic to
the 11 of the scale (Bb), which then goes stepwise to the seventh. Which leaves it unresolved,
but in a very melodic way.

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Here he creates an interesting sound with the use of false fingering to play the A note.

Next he goes into line mode and just begins to burn through them relentlessly, leaving very
little rest in between. He stops playing these thematic melodies and instead plays long lines
with a couple of chromatic patterns.

Here he introduces a new pattern which he sequences for 4 bars. After this he basically plays
a scale up to the highest note in the solo.

The combination of the contrast of the repetitive pattern, the upward line and the rise in
dynamics when he plays the upward line, create the rise in intensity to the climax of the solo.

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To end the solo he states the melody again before actually returning to the theme.

This solo utilizes more melodic playing and less motifs to build the blocks, but the blocks are
definitely still there. Apart from the melodies, we see again the use of little motifs within the
melodies, development of the motifs and patterns. An effect lick is used once. This lick is
similar to the long 8th note line further down in the solo. What makes this line an effect lick
however, is that this line comes at the end of a block, creating a contrasting closing statement
to the previous melodies.
The climax in this solo is not as outspoken as in the previous solo. It is more an overall
feeling of heightened excitement. This is caused by Pat establishing a base line by the use of
very melodic playing, using mostly 4th notes and then contrasting that with playing the
extended line in 8th notes. This feels like shifting gears. When this line transfers into a pattern
which rises in pitch and then transfers into the scalewise rising line which he ends on the
highest note in the solo, the excitement is raised further. He also raises the dynamic of the line
according to the pitch i.e. the higher note, the louder the note.So there are three contrasts after
each other are what create the rise in intensity.

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 General analysis:

Again like we saw in “Ished”, the solo starts pretty open. Rhythms that last 4 beats and spaces
that last at least the same amount.

Slightly contrasting rhythm and more angular line

Motif of up a 2nd, down a 5th taken through the C Dorian scale

Answers that starts with an alternate version of the motif (up a 2nd, down a 3rd) and then has
an ending tied to it

From here the rhythm section kicks in at the normal feel.

The phrases start to become longer here. Where at the beginning the phrases were mostly 4
bars, here they last an entire round of 8 bars.
Here he alternates between F Major/D minor and C minor on the Cm7 and on the Am7 he
alternates between C and Bm.

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So far he played pretty tonal. He did use upper structures almost exclusively, but in the 2nd bar
of the G7 he really plays a line with chromatics, which creates another great contrast.

EbMaj7 D7 Am pentatonic

Gm pentatonic

From here on the solo gets really dense. He uses small motifs and repeating patterns to
connect from chord to chord and so creates one big line.

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Targetting the 9, A melodic minor, CMaj7#5

At the end here we have a little repeating pattern that breaks up the more or less horizontal
shape of the lines.

Bm pentatonic

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What he also does to create interest in the lines is to alternate horizontally shaped lines with
lines that have jumps in them (such as using arpeggios or using larger intervals such as 5ths).

The high G note going into the Bb creates a huge release after all the previous runs.

And because this is also the highest note of the whole solo the climax is created.

This solo would seem to be constructed differently than the other two. But in fact it is, the
proportions are merely different. The baseline he establishes as a start from where he builds
doesn’t lasts as long in comparison with the rest. This baseline is established where the feel is
in half-time. This is the introduction. Here he does play motifs which he develops, answers
and contrasts. When the normal feel kicks however, it’s all a straight line up from there. The
rhythm is dense all the way through to the sustained high note. Whereas in the other solos
these parts of increased activity didn’t last that long. He breaks up the monotony long dense
lines can bring by switching up the rhythm, throwing in larger intervals and sequencing
patterns.

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The melodic material he uses over the chords is not very complicated and is actually very
straight-forward. Yet he plays very nice flowing lines over the chords with very little rest. He
uses mainly upper structures, such as Bm pentatonic over Am7, EbMaj7 over Cm or Gm over
AbMaj7. This way he has all the color notes to play with next to the normal chord tones,
which creates movement within the sound of the lines even if the chord is static.

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 2. WHAT CAUSES THE RISE IN INTENSITY?

I’m going to refer back to a section from the Hal Crook book for a moment .

“An improvised solo will often start out at a low level of intensity (i.e. low volume, less
activity, more space, etc.) and build more or less gradually toward higher levels. Although
other approaches are certainly possible to begin a solo, this is a popular one because it
enables the soloist to control and develop the direction of the solo from the beginning, under
more relaxed, less demanding conditions.

As the solo builds in intensity toward and throughout each peak section, the soloist and
accompanying players get energy from the excitement created. Ideally, this energy is used to
maintain a cool, relaxed state of mind…

The peak points in the solo can vary in quantity (from one to several) and degree of intensity
(from mild to strong. Once reached, they may be sustained for various lengths of time also,
e.g. a few beats, several measures, a full chorus, the remainder of the solo. Sustaining highly
intense peak points for long periods of time requires considerable instrumental control and
endurance by the soloist as well as proper support from the accompanying players.

During highly intense peak periods, the accompanying players must stoke or fan the intensity
level of the music so that it doesn’t drop, especially when the soloist pauses for a breath or
rest or to create space in the melody line. Space is important during building periods and
peak periods of the solo for musical reasons, and, in the case of certain instruments (e.g.
trumpet, trombone, etc.), for endurance reasons as well.

The soloist’s responsibility is to cue or signal the accompanying players to sustain the peak
section. This is achieved primarily through consistently loud or strong playing by the soloist
(matched by the accompanying players) but not necessarily through constant playing – unless
that is the soloist’s desire.

Accompanying players maintain the present level until cued or signaled by the soloist to
change.” (Crook, Peak Points, 1991)

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The rise in intensity is caused not only by playing consistently loud or strong, as Crook
mentions, but also by the release that happens after the tension that is created.
This is what pushes everything upwards.
In all of the solos above, the first thing that happens is that there is some baseline that is
established. The volume and dynamic go way down and then the soloist has all the time to
start something and develop it.
The solos all start with a melodic statement. These can be an actual melody (like in the
example of Pat Metheny or Greg Howe) or they can be a motif (like with Eric Marienthal).
This provides another baseline, this provides stability. The tension is then created by using
instability. This instablity is the use of what I coined effect licks: fast passages, usually
chromtically dense, outside of the harmony, rhythmically dense, …

This is most clearly seen (and heard) in the Eric Marienthal solo. He plays a motif, develops it
and concludes it with an effect lick. When we rise in intensity, he starts playing sustained high
notes at the start of a new passage. This also occurs after a rhythmically and chromatically
dense line at the end of the previous passage. This contrast creates interest and pushes the
intensity higher.
Every new passage he starts, he seems to center around a new higher note, as if he’s raising
the ceiling. These can be seen on the sheet marked as the red notes.

Another thing to mention is the role of the rhythm section. There is quite some interplay going
on, especially in bars 3, 10, 13, 18, 20 and 24. These are all instances of the rhythm section
responding to the soloist, except in bar 3 where the soloist reacts on the keyboard.
The drums also starts playing more and more busy and in your face while the solo develops.

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Pat Metheny begins his solo by establishing a base line by the use of very melodic playing.
He also uses mostly 4th notes. The rise in intensity is created when he starts playing the
extended line in 8th notes. The rhythm gets very dense and although he does use some rests,
the section feels very relentless. Like he has no mercy and just keeps on throwing lines at the
listener.
This line transfers into a pattern which rises in pitch and then that pattern transfers into a
scalewise rising line which he ends on the highest note in the solo.
He also raises the dynamic of the line according to the pitch i.e. the higher note, the louder the
note. These three contrasts after each other create a very the rise in intensity.

In Greg Howe’s solo, the rise in intensity comes from the contrast of (again) the high
sustained harmonic note against 4 choruses of nearly constant 16th note lines.
The 16th note lines in their turn are a contrast to the beginning section which starts quite open
and low in intensity.
The release that occurs at the end off the relentless lines of dense sound is so big that it really
creates an uplifting feeling.

Here the role of the rhythm section is again of importance.

The first obvious thing is the beginning of the solo, where they go into halftime. They respond
to the soloist a little by sometimes following the triplets played by the soloist, but for the rest
they just keep the groove going. As the solo continues the become more and more active.
There is also a rhythm guitar that comes more and more into the foreground and is at it’s most
actice point when solo reaches the highest point. Then he backs down quite fast as the solo
finishes. This way there are a lot of different things going on at once, so the intensity is
increased further and the soloist can just blow at the same level of intenstiny for an extended
period of time.

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 3. HOW CAN THIS BE USED AS A METHOD TO PRACTICE IMPROVISATION?

I find that this way of transcribing and analyzing solos can be used as a method for studying
improvisation.
By dividing the vocabulary found in the solos into categories it is possible to practice and
study more effectively.
The categories that I extracted from the solos are melodies, motifs, patterns, sustained notes
and effect licks. All of these categories can be thought of as tools or vehicles for developing
the solo.
The solos can now be used as a mold to build your own solos; there is a path to follow.
So now you can also build your own vocabulary according to category. This means building a
vocabulary of motifs, patterns, melodies and effect licks and now you also know how to use
them to build a solo. There are specific places within a solo where you can use them to create
a certain outcome.

The way I approached this, was by combining two sources. The first source was from my
teacher Edoardo Righini. The way he instructs to implement a certain element in a solo is by
pre-determining where to play this element in the solo. For instance, if you want to implement
a certain melody over a certain chord, you take a chord scheme and you fix the places where
you will this specific melody. The other places you just improvise. Like so:

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The other source was from the book “Comprehensive Techniques for Jazz Musicians” by Bert
Ligon. (Ligon, 1999)

He suggests using what he calls “Agendas”. “On a piece of paper, sketch out a list of different
approaches. Play each for a four measure phrase. For example, play the blues alternating
between major and minor blues scales for each four measure phrase:

• Minor Blues Scale/Major Blues Scale/Minor Blues Scale

• Major Blues Scale/Minor Blues Scale/Major Blues Scale

Or try combinations likes:

• Specific (outlines, arpeggios, chord specific material)/Major Blues Scale/Minor Blues

Scale
• Minor Blues Scale/Specific/Major Blues Scale
• Specific/Minor Blues Scale/Specific

Other agenda items:

• Practice applying several different concepts to the same section of a piece

• Create “improvisations” from a predetermined agenda and learn them as an etude
• Practice improvising following the agenda several times, but creating unique lines

The variations are endless. Practicing this way should open up the door to more variety.
Ultimately, strive for seamless construction and remember to tell a story. (There it is again)
(Ligon, 1999, pp. 274-275)

So if I am to come up with an agenda, I can just take the agenda of an existing solo that I like
and copy what is happening. This way I learn how to properly pace and build a solo. I use the
work of an accomplished musician to study and learn how to build phrases, how to construct
melodies, how and when to alternate between “colors” (by color I mean, melodies, patterns,
outside playing, …).

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So an agenda could look like this:

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This example agenda is taken from the Eric Marienthal solo. I just “deleted” the first 8 bars
and I also added the pacing (i.e. where to play and where to shut up).

Now you follow the agenda and record yourself. This is a crucial part of it, for this allows you
to actually hear and observe the effect of it, take note of it and correct or adjust where it needs
to.

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CONCLUSION
So how can we practice building a solo to a climax when improvising?

Well what I have discovered by studying these solos in this manner is that the “secret” to
improvising better is to take a closer look at the “macro-level” first and really understand the
greater arch of a solo and not go directly to all the “hip licks” you can play in a solo.

There is loads of information on scales, patterns, outside playing etc. but with this approach
there is a framework to make sense of all of this. This information is valuable, but it is
something that was extracted by observation. On its own it doesn’t mean anything.
“You can play melodic minor over this chord, you can play diminished over that chord, then
you can play C Major 7 #5 b16 over this, …”
Why? Why would I play all of that? I don’t doubt that it’s possible, but what’s the reason?
Well, it sounds cool… Great! I can play this line for 2 seconds over those chords… What do I
do in the other 30 bars of the solo?

This is why looking at the macro-level was important for me.

What I have found is that there are certain types of vocabulary with a certain effect and
function. In all the solos above there’s an interplay between strong melodies, motifs,
sequences (or patterns) and effect licks.

The melodies are built up from multiple motifs; sequences are interwoven within them to
transition to another melody; effect licks are used to create antecedent and consequent phrases
(call and answer)… These “effect licks” constitute of rhythmically dense lines and are usually
also chromatically dense (i.e. outside the underlying harmony).

Suddenly all the information out there makes sense; the use of all this information has become
clearer.

Next to the categories there is the element of contrast which is used to create tension and
release. Contrast can occur in the form of (but is usually a combination of) dynamics, rhythm
and pitch (i.e. louder, faster and higher).
This contrast is obtained naturally be following the outline of these solos. It’s all there.

Instead of learning to play the coolest, fastest, harmonically obscure line (which is fine), I
realized I first had to be able to create a certain baseline before that, in order for it to work.
The crazy line had a certain function within the whole of the solo.

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I was focusing solely on the peak of the solo, but didn’t realize that I first had to carve out a
path to that peak. Without the path, there is no story. Without the story, there is nothing of
value for the listener.

When I started playing solos like this, I realized that I didn’t really know any motifs or
patterns or crazy effect licks. At least not many. But now I know what to search for. Now the
possibilities start to become clearer and new connections are made. The importance of melody
and sentence construction are just much more obvious and I can see where I have left gaps in
my understanding of music and what I can do to fix it.

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WORKS CITED
Scott Henderson - Melodic Phrasing (1992). [Motion Picture].

Dramatic Structure. (2013, June 11). Retrieved August 2013, from Wikipedia:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dramatic_structure

Melody. (2013, December 16). Retrieved December 27, 2013, from Wikipedia:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melody

Motif (Music). (2013, October 19). Retrieved December 27, 2013, from Wikipedia:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motif_(music)

Narrative. (2013, August 12). Retrieved August 2013, from Wikipedia:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narrative

Plot (Narrative). (2013, August 20). Retrieved August 2013, from Wikipedia:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plot_(narrative)

Brecker, M. (Composer). (1987). Syzygy. [P. Metheny, Performer]

Corea, C. (Composer). (1993). Ished. [E. Marienthal, Performer]

Crook, H. (1991). How To Improvise: An Approach To Practicing Improvisation. Boston:

Advance Music.

Crook, H. (1991). Peak Points. In H. Crook, How to improvise (p. 143). Verenigde Staten:
Advance Music.

Crook, H. (1991). Solo Lengths. In H. Crook, How to improvise: An approach to practicing

improvisation (p. 145). Advance Music.

Forte, A. (1979). Tonal Harmony in Concept & Practice.

Guck, M. A. (n.d.). Analytical Fictions. Music Theory Spectrum.

Henry George Liddell, R. S. (1996). Melodia. A Greek-English Lexicon. United Kingdom:

Oxford University Press.

Howe, G. (Composer). (n.d.). Bird's Eye View. [G. Howe, Performer]

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Ligon, B. (1999). Application & Etudes: Agendas. In B. Ligon, Comprehensive techniques for
jazz musicians (pp. 274-304). Verenigde Staten: Houston Publishing Inc.

Mott, R. L. (n.d.). Filmsound.org. Retrieved August 2013, from Filmsound.org:

http://filmsound.org/articles/ninecomponents/9components.htm

Nattiez, J.-J. (1990). Music and Discourse: Toward a Semiology of Music. Princeton
University Press.

Saker, B. a. (2003). Music: In Theory and Practice, Vol. I. McGraw-Hill.

Sturm, B. (Director). (2007). Storytelling Theory and Practice [Motion Picture].

White, J. D. (1976). The Analysis of Music.

Wood, S. M., & Juliana, M. (2013). Theme & Variations: New Perspectives in Music History.
Retrieved December 27, 2013, from
http://www.themeandvariations.org/Basics/pitch_elements/melody.html

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APPENDIX
Motif – a small, thematic unit of melody, roughly between 2 and 8 notes, consisting of a
single idea or musical thought, similar to a short sentence in language, generally not longer
than 2 bars. A motif’s ending is determined by a brief or sustained period of rest or inactivity
which defines the idea and allows time for its effect to be realized. The total length of a motif
often includes this period of inactivity which immediately follows it.

Motif Soloing – Playing short, simple ideas which lend themselves well or easily to melodic
development. The primary musical elements involved in development are rhythm and melody.
(Pitch and melodic curve are the result of melody and can be used for development purposes
as well.)

“Developable” ideas, therefore, must have strong rhythmic and/or melodic characteristics
which can be easily recognized (by ear) and used as building material for motif developments
in solos.

It is important to practice and learn how to play developable ideas before working on the
various ways of developing them.

Multi-Motif Phrase – Two or more motifs connected so that no significant rest or space occurs
between them, sometimes creating an overlapping effect, often indistinguishable where one
idea ends and the next one begins. A multi-motif phrase generally contains more than 8 notes,
is usually longer than 2 bars (unless played in double time), and often more than one analysis
of individual motif activity within the overall phrase is possible.

Antecedent and Consequent Phrases

Two important and interrelated types of phrases are antecedent and consequent phrases.
Antecedent and consequent phrases occur when one phrase seems to ask a question (the
antecedent) and the other seems to answer it (the consequent). The antecedent phrase sounds
unfinished or unresolved when it ends because its final pitch is not the tonic pitch. The
consequent phrase then responds to the antecedent and finishes with a stronger sense of
resolution, often by landing on the tonic pitch. (Wood & Juliana, 2013)

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Motif development:

Continuity –The relatedness between 2 or more ideas, or, the result of ideas which have at
least one musical element in common, such as the same rhythm, or melody notes, or melodic
curve. For example, if two motifs have the same (or very similar) rhythm, then continuity is
created by the rhythm.

Sequence – The repetition of certain musical elements for the purpose of creating continuity,
e.g. rhythmic sequence (the rhythm is repeated), melodic sequence (the melody or melodic
curve is repeated), or rhythmic/melodic sequence (the rhythm and melodic curve are both
repeated).

Motif development – Occurs when at least one musical element of a motif is the same as (or
very similar to) that of a previous motif, establishing continuity, while the other musical
elements change to create something new for the sake of interest. For a motif development to
be successful or effective, that which is the same between the 2 ideas and that which is
different must be obvious to the ear.

By far the most common way to develop a motif in an improvised solo is to repeat the rhythm
or a recognizable portion of it (rhythmic sequence) while changing the melody notes, i.e.
same or similar rhythm, new melody. This is called melodic transformation.

Other types of motif development include:

1. Repeating the melody or melodic curve while changing the rhythm

(rhythmic transformation)
2. Repeating the rhythm and intervals of the melody while changing the pitch level
(transposition)
3. Creating slight additions and/or deletions in the melody and/or rhythm of a previous
motif
(embellishments)

With melodic transformation (same or similar rhythm, new melody), a motif development can
be equal in length to the motif it is based on (called Variation), or longer (called Extension),
or shorter (called Fragmentation).

Variation – the rhythm of a previous motif is repeated (more or less) in its entirety, (more or
less) exactly while some or all of the melody changes

Extension – the rhythm of a previous motif (and sometimes the melody or melodic curve also)
is repeated (more or less) in its entirety, (more or less) exactly and is immediately followed
with new material for a brief or sustained period of time. There is no significant rest or space
between the motif and its extension. The new material may immediately precede the motif as
well.

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Fragmentation – the rhythm and usually the melody or melodic curve of only a segment or
recognizable portion of previous motif is repeated as the only material in the motif
development. The fragment may be borrowed from the beginning, middle or end of the
original motif.

There is a fourth possibility, which is actually used quite often, called

“Fragmentation/Extension”.

Fragmentation/Extension – the rhythm and usually the melody or melodic curve of only a
segment or recognizable portion of a previous idea is repeated and immediately followed with
new material for a brief or sustained period of time. There is no significant rest or space
between the fragment and its extension. The new material may immediately precede the
fragment as well. The fragment may be borrowed from the beginning, middle or end of the
original motif. (Crook, How To Improvise: An Approach To Practicing Improvisation, 1991)

Other criteria I kept in mind to analyze the solos have been taken from the book “How to
improvise – an approach to practicing improvisation” by Hal Crook.
The author of this book had already extracted the different components one can practice for
playing a solo, so it made sense to me to use the ones which I felt were useful on a macro-
level.

The criteria I chose are:

PACING – PLAY/REST RELATION:

Music can be thought of as a sound/silence relationship, and therefor space, or rest, should be
considered an important feature. We normally (naturally) spend much more time practicing
the “sound” aspect of this relationship than the “silence”, and consequently our solos tend to
lack balance in this area. The balance between playing and resting – or any pair of opposites –
need not be equal, just musical or desirable. Throughout certain sections of a solo it should be
obvious that the player is purposely controlling the use of rest or space to achieve a desired
balance.

Surrounding ideas with rest gives them shape and definition, in much the same way a frame or
border defines a picture inside. It allows time for the effects of the ideas to be heard, realized
and appreciated by the audience, the band, and most of all, you – the player. Pacing is used to
contrast, balance and build toward climactic sections of a solo, which can involve more
continuous, high-energy playing. These peak points typically occur at or near the end of a solo,
but may happen in the beginning or middle as well. Their effectiveness, however, depends
largely on how well the solo is paced both before and after the climaxes are reached.

Another very important aspect of pacing is that it allows space for interaction to occur
between the soloist and the accompanying players in a performance situation, which is crucial
for communication. (Crook, How To Improvise: An Approach To Practicing Improvisation,
1991)
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PHRASE LENGHTS:
A phrase is defined (here) as a period of continuous, but not necessarily constant,
melodic/rhythmic activity, which can vary in length from one beat to several measures
depending on tempo. Phrase lengths should vary in a solo in order to create interest and avoid
predictability or too much symmetry.
Playing (some) phrases of equal length can have a positive effect, however, especially when
the musical content involves a development or sequence of a previous idea, i.e. borrowed or
repeated elements, such as rhythm, melody notes or melodic curve. But playing numerous
consecutive phrases of equal length in a solo can sound unimaginative, limited and
predictable. As with pacing (and all other topics), balance is the key to being musical.

We begin by dividing phrase lengths into 3 basic categories: short, medium and long (colors
were chosen by myself, not Hal Crook). Then, considering the tempo, an appropriate duration
for each category is assigned as follows:

1. Phrase lengths for slow tempos (60 bpm – 120 bpm) in 4/4 time

Short Medium Long

1 – 4 beats 5 – 12 beats over 12 beats

Within 1 measure between 2 & 3 measures over 3 measures

2. PHRASE LENGTHS FOR MEDIUM TEMPOS (120 BPM – 184 BPM) IN 4/4 TIME

Short Medium Long

1 – 4 beats 5 – 16 beats over 16 beats

Within 1 measure between 2 & 4 measures over 4 measures

1. PHRASE LENGTHS FOR FAST TEMPOS (184 BPM AND UP) IN 4/4 TIME

Short Medium Long

1 – 8 beats 9 – 24 beats over 24 beats

Within 2 measures between 3 & 6 measures over 6 measures

(Crook, How To Improvise: An Approach To Practicing Improvisation, 1991)

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RHYTHMIC DENSITY
Rhythmic density refers to the degree of activity (melodic and/or rhythmic) found in the
music. Like pacing and phrase lengths, rhythmic density is an extremely noticeable aspect of
improvising that is important to balance and use to create variety and interest in a solo.

High rhythmic density in a phrase means the activity sounds busy or complex. This is
achieved by playing many notes, usually of short rhythmic value, such as 8th notes, triplets
and 16th notes, but other longer note values may occasionally be included as well. It is
referred to as a “dense” (or active) phrase and may be any length – short, medium or long.

Low and medium rhythmic density in a phrase means the activity sounds relatively un-busy
and simple. This is achieved by playing fewer notes of longer durations, such as whole notes,
half notes, dotted quarter notes, etc. Occasional notes of shorter values can be included as
well. It is referred to as a “sparse” (or inactive) phrase and usually is at least 4 beats in length
of longer.

Both dense and sparse phrases can incorporate rhythmic syncopation and anticipation to
create the necessary feeling of forward motion in the melody line. (Crook, How To
Improvise: An Approach To Practicing Improvisation, 1991)

DYNAMICS:
Dynamics can create powerful and dramatic effects in an improvised solo, provided they
change enough to be noticed. Contrasting dynamics will always enhance the musicality and
sensitivity of a solo and demonstrate the maturity of the player. (Crook, How To Improvise:
An Approach To Practicing Improvisation, 1991)

PEAK POINTS:
An improvised solo will often start out at a low level of intensity (i.e. low volume, less
activity, more space etc.) and build more or less gradually to higher levels. Although other
approaches are certainly possible to begin a solo, this is a popular one because it enables the
soloist to control and develop the direction of the solo from the beginning, under more relaxed,
less demanding conditions.

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As the solo builds in intensity toward and throughout each peak section, the soloist and
accompanying players get energy from the excitement created.

The soloist’s responsibility is to cue or signal the accompanying players to sustain the peak
section. This is achieved primarily through consistently loud or strong playing by the soloist
(matched by the accompanying players) but not necessarily through constant playing – unless
that is the soloist’s desire. (Crook, How To Improvise: An Approach To Practicing
Improvisation, 1991)

49
The traditional musicological or European-influenced aspects of music often listed are those
the 7 basic elements of music: melody, harmony, rhythm, tone, form, tempo and dynamics.

• Melody is a succession of notes heard as some sort of unit. It is a single line of tones
that moves up, down, or stays the same using steps, skips and repeated tones.
• Harmony is the relationship between two or more simultaneous pitches or pitch
simultaneities, chord progression affects the key.
• Rhythm is the variation of the accentuation of sounds over time.
• Tone color is timbre, see list below.
• Form is the structure of a particular piece, how its parts are put together to make the
whole.
• Tempo is the speed of communicating an emotion in a particular piece, how fast or
slow it's played.
• Dynamics is the volume of all parts as a whole and every layer in the structure.

However, a more comprehensive list is given by stating the aspects of sound: pitch, timbre,
intensity, and duration. (Owen 2000:6)

• Pitch is the perception of the frequency of the sound experienced, and is perceived as
how "low" or "high" a sound is, and may be further described as definite pitch or
indefinite pitch. It includes: melody, harmony, tonality, tessitura, and tuning or
temperament (ibid).
• Timbre is the quality of a sound, determined by the fundamental and its spectra:
overtones or harmonics and envelope, and varies between voices and types and kinds
of musical instruments, which are tools used to produce sound. It includes: tone color
and articulation (ibid).
• Intensity, or dynamics, is how loud or quiet a sound is and includes how stressed a
sound is or articulation.
• Duration is the temporal aspect of music; time. It includes: pulse, beat, rhythm,
rhythmic density, meter, tempo (ibid).

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These aspects combine to create secondary aspects including form or structure, texture, and
style. Other commonly included aspects include the spatial location or the movement in space
of sounds, gesture, and dance. Silence is also often considered an aspect of music, if it is
considered to exist.

• Structure includes: motive, subphrase, phrase, phrase group, period, section,

exposition, repetition, variation, development, and other formal units, textural
continuity (ibid).
• Texture is the interaction of temporal and pitch elements. It includes: homophony,
polyphony, heterophony, and simultaneity. (ibid)
• Style is defined by how the above elements are used. It is what distinguishes an
individual composer or group, period, genre, region, or manner of performance (ibid).
• Aesthetics is how the music affects you emotionally. For example: an upbeat tune may
make you joyful, while a slow violin song may make you feel lonely, cold, and
depressed.

A melody (from Greek µελῳδία, melōidía, "singing, chanting"), (Henry George Liddell,
1996)also tune, voice, or line, is a linear succession of musical tones that the listener
perceives as a single entity. In its most literal sense, a melody is a combination of pitch and
rhythm, while more figuratively, the term can include successions of other musical elements
such as tonal color. It may be considered the foreground to the background accompaniment. A
line or part need not be a foreground melody.

Melodies often consist of one or more musical phrases or motifs, and are usually repeated
throughout a composition in various forms. Melodies may also be described by their melodic
motion or the pitches or the intervals between pitches (predominantly conjunct or disjunct or
with further restrictions), pitch range, tension and release, continuity and coherence, cadence,
and shape.

The true goal of music-its proper enterprise-is melody. All the parts of harmony have as their
ultimate purpose only beautiful melody. Therefore the question of which is the more
significant, melody or harmony, is futile. Beyond doubt, the means is subordinate to the end.

—Johann Philipp Kirnberger (1771) (Forte, 1979)

(Melody, 2013)

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In music, a motif or motive is a short musical idea, (Nattiez, 1990) a salient recurring figure,
musical fragment or succession of notes that has some special importance in or is
characteristic of a composition: "The motive is the smallest structural unit possessing thematic
identity." (White, 1976)

(Motif (Music), 2013)

In music, a sequence is the immediate restatement of a motif or longer melodic (or harmonic)
passage at a higher or lower pitch in the same voice. (Saker, 2003)

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Storytelling

It’s a way of thinking about information. It’s a way of organizing information. It’s perhaps
one of the most powerful ways to organize information. (Sturm, 2007)

What is a story?
Something that has a beginning, middle and an end. It’s about character, about a sequence of
events, a progression of things happening and a way to tie all those disparate pieces in a
unified whole. It’s connecting the dots.
But even more than that, it’s way to convey emotions and build community.

It seems to transport us, it takes us on a journey, it takes us to a different place.

It’s a place J.R.R. Tolkien calls a secondary world that authors try to create when they write.
They try to create this world that lives while the author is creating it and once it’s done, it
evaporates…

There is a requirement for the listener:

• The listener must be willing to give focused attention

• The listener is asked to listen very actively
• The listener has to trust the storyteller, the listener must trust that the storyteller
brings them back from the journey
• A willingness to change: because this is a journey, we almost never come back the
same people we left

The power of influence/storytelling (Ty Bennett)

Tools of engagement (to make the audience hang on to the edge of their seat, make them
part):

• Humor
• Shock
• Entertainment
• Story

In an influential article by Marion A. Guck called “Analytical Fictions”, Guck characterizes

music as participatory: listeners actively engage with musical sounds, and they feel “personal
involvement with musical works” (Guck)

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eJuFDvH8wGs

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History of storytelling

In his Poetics the Greek philosopher Aristotle put forth the idea that "A whole is what has a
beginning and middle and end". This three-part view of a plot structure (with a beginning,
middle, and end – technically, the protasis, epitasis, and catastrophe) prevailed until the
Roman drama critic Horace advocated a 5-act structure in his Ars Poetica.
Renaissance dramatists revived the use of the 5-act structure. In 1863, around the time that
playwrights like Henrik Ibsen were abandoning the 5-act structure and experimenting with 3
and 4-act plays, the German playwright and novelist Gustav Freytag wrote Die Technik des
Dramas, a definitive study of the 5-act dramatic structure, in which he laid out what has come
to be known as Freytag's pyramid. Under Freytag's pyramid, the plot of a story consists of five
parts: exposition, rising action, climax, falling action, and revelation/catastrophe.

Freytag’s analysis:

• Exposition:

The exposition introduces all of the main characters in the story. It shows how they relate to
one another, what their goals and motivations are, and the kind of person they are. The
audience may have questions about any of these things, which get settled, but if they do have
them they are specific and well-focused questions. Most importantly, in the exposition, the
audience gets to know the main character (protagonist), and the protagonist gets to know his
or her main goal and what is at stake if he or she fails to attain this goal.

• Rising Action:

In the rising action part, a related series of incidents build toward the point of greatest interest.
The rising action of a story is the series of events that begin immediately after the exposition
(introduction) of the story and builds up to the climax. These events are generally the most
important parts of the story since the entire plot depends on them to set up the climax, and
ultimately the satisfactory resolution of the story itself.

• Climax:

The climax or turning point of a narrative work is its point of highest tension or drama or
when the action starts in which the solution is given.

• Falling Action:

Freytag called this phase "falling action" in the sense that the loose ends are being tied up.
However, it is often the time of greatest overall tension, because it is the phase in which
everything goes mostly wrong.

• Resolution:

The Resolution: All mystery is solved. In this stage all patterns of events accomplish artistic
or emotional effect.

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Nine Components of Sound

Listed below are nine components that most influence how sound effects are perceived. By
modifying or eliminating any one or a combination of these components, the sound effects are
changed or totally new sounds are created. (Dramatic Structure, 2013)

• "Music components":

Pitch

Timbre

Harmonics

Loudness

Rhythm

• "Sound envelope components":

Attack

Sustain

Decay

• "Record and playback component":

Speed

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