1.

INTRODUCTION
1.1. Electric car with PVC pipes:
Electric go-karts are low maintenance, requiring only that the lead-acid batteries
of the karts be plugged into an array of chargers after each run. Since they are pollution-
free and emit no smoke, the racetracks can be indoors in controlled environments. Most
fully charged electric karts can run a maximum of 20 minutes before performance is
affected. Some karts have been fitted with hydrogen fuel cells. Battery is changeable so it
is cheaper than other karts and more options where to run these karts . Many recreational
karts can be powered by electric motors, while racing karts use a two-stroke or, rarely,
higher powered four-stroke engines. Most of them are single seater but some recreational
models can accommodate a passenger.

1.2. Description:

A go-kart (often just kart) is a small four-wheeled vehicle. Go-karts come in all
shapes and forms, from motor less models to high-powered racing machines, some, like
Super karts, being able to beat racing cars on long circuits. Gravity racers, usually
referred to as Soap Box Derby carts, are the simplest type of go-karts. They are propelled
by gravity, with some races taking place down a single hill. Amusement park go-karts
can be powered by electric motors, while racing karts use small batteries. Most of them
are single seater but recreational models can sometimes accommodate a passenger.

1.3. There are two kinds of tracks that provide go-karting experience.
These are:

 Outdoor go-kart tracks: Indoor Go Karts near me have the carts that are more
powerful and strictly for amusement. These tracks can also be used for traditional
kart races. The primary focus is to provide sprint on the tracks.
 Indoor go-kart tracks: Outdoor Go Karting near me have tracks are located in old
and refurbished factories. There are Championships conducted to make the sport
more exciting.

1
 There are many motor sports in the world. Bikes, Cars, one are examples of them.
The drivers in these are very professionals and accurate. They can drive it very fast. But
there are also motor sports which do not need professional drivers and need no great
speed. The vehicles used are also very cheap. Such a motor sport is Go-Karting. They
resemble to the formula one cars but it is not as faster as F1 and also cost is very less. The
drivers in go-karting are also not professionals. Even children can also drive it. They are
widely used in racing in US and also they are getting popular in India.

2
 2. HISTORY
Karting is form of racing in a small four-wheel vehicle known as a go kart. In the
beginning, the first-ever go kart was created in Los Angeles by Art Ingels in 1956. The
first official organized race took place with several dozen home-built machines in 1957 in
the parking lot of the famed Rose Bowl in Pasadena, California. Now, it has been
estimated that over 1.6 billion people worldwide have raced go karts. Ingels’ one-off two-
stroke creation was the inspiration for Duffy Livingstone and Roy Desbrow to start Go
Kart Manufacturing, Co., Inc in 1958. The pair created their own versions of the go kart
and then found inexpensive engines from the failed West Bend rotary lawn mower
venture. Presently, karting continues to grow, especially the form known as indoor
karting.

Fig: 2.1 Olden Electric cars

The go karts used at Pole Position Raceway feature the latest state-of-the-art
technology. Our adult go karts produce an incredible 18 horsepower and have immediate
throttle response. Simply put, they are the best indoor electric go karts in the world, and
you'll see why they represent the future of our sport. We spent several million dollars on
this technology because it offers the best performance, produces no smelly fumes, and
allows us to maintain the most-consistent fleet of karts in the United States. We are able to
electronically tune each kart so that performance is nearly identical and measurable -

3
something you can't do with gas technology in the world of indoor karting. The end result
at Pole Position Raceway is an adrenaline-filled ride and the ultimate racing experience.

Fig 2.2 An old model car

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 3. WORKING OF ELECTRIC CAR
Electric motor is used to convert electrical energy into mechanical energy. Let’s go
through an instance: The rotating blades mash and mix things for you. And if someone
were to ask you how it works, You would probably say that it works on electricity. Well
that’s not incorrect. Motors convert electric energy to mechanical work.

3.1. Principle of electric car

The functioning principle of the electric motor is based on the fact that a current
carrying conductor produces a magnetic field around it. Imagine the following situation.

Take two bar magnets and keep the poles facing each other with a small space in
between. Now take a small length of a conducting wire and make a loop. Keep this loop in
between the space between the magnets such that is still within the sphere of influence of
the magnets. Now for the last bit. Connect the ends of the loop to battery terminals.

Once electricity flows through your simple circuit you will notice that your loop
“moves”. So why does this happen? The magnetic field of the magnets interfere with that
produced due to electric current flowing in the conductor. Since the loop has become a
magnet, one side of it will be attracted to the north pole of the magnet and the other to the
south pole. This causes the loop to continuously rotate. This is the principle of working of
an electric motor.

Fig. 3.1 principle of electric car

5
Electrical Motor The electric motor is a device which converts electrical energy to
mechanical energy. There are mainly three types of electric motor. All of these motors
work in more or less same principle. Working of electric motor mainly depends upon the
interaction of magnetic field with current.

Fig.3.2 design of electric car

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 4. MAJOR CLASSIFICATION

Sometime around the early spring season, hardware stores like to show off their
go-karts in outdoor displays. These go-karts look fun, and often are, but if your idea of
kart racing stems from this picture of a go-kart in front of a hardware store, you're in for a
sweet surprise.

Kart racing take note of the missing prefix involves karts that are much more
refined, faster and designed for serious competitive racing. In other words, if you want to
ride around in your yard then go with the go-karts at the hardware store, but if you want to
start a career in competitive racing, then take a look at the karts you can't find at The
Home Depot. In fact, some competitive karts can go faster than 100 miles per hour (160.9
kilometers per hour) and karting is often the inlet for further competitive motor-sport
racing.

Sometime around the early spring season, hardware stores like to show off their go-
karts in outdoor displays. These go-karts look fun, and often are, but if your idea of kart
racing stems from this picture of a go-kart in front of a hardware store, you're in for a
sweet surprise.

You can find three distinct types of karts in competition: sprint, enduro and oval.
Sprint is by far the most common type of kart and is used in the majority of races. When
karting first began, modified lawnmower engines were used to power the karts.

Sprint karts are the most frequently used type of karts because of their ability to go
fast and to be used on a variety of track types. Sprint karts cost about $2,000 to $5,000.

Oval karts are the second most popular type of competitive karts. They're typically
raced more in the southern areas of the United States where competitors are familiar with
oval tracks, like the ones used in NASCAR. Oval-kart chassis are built specifically for
tight turns in only one direction.

Enduro karts are the smallest division in kart racing, but they're also the fastest.
During a race average speeds for enduro karts are well over 90 miles per hour (144.8

7
kilometers per hour). Enduro kart racers lay down flat in their karts to achieve maximum
aerodynamics and some karts utilize two engines instead of one for increased speed.

There's much more to kart racing than just the speed, however. Karts need to be
able to handle well on the different types of tracks they race on. The last type of track is
for the enduro races, which are held on race tracks like the Daytona International
Speedway. These races go on for 30 minutes or up to a full hour and the karts are built so
that the driver is laying down in the kart for the entire race.

Although track locations vary, there are kart tracks located throughout the entire
United States. Oval and sprint tracks can be found in any state and many states have
numerous tracks. Drivers may switch between different types of racing, if they have the
karts for it, in order to get the opportunity to compete in more races. Because of the variety
of kart types, tracks, and variations in age classes, karting offers a wide range of
competition.

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 5.COMPONENTS AND TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION

5.1 Components of electric car:

5.1.1.PVC PIPES

5.1.2.PLYWOOD

5.1.3.MOTOR

5.1.4.WHEELS

5.1.5.SHAFT COUPLING

5.1.6.BALL BEARING

5.1.7.NUTS AND BOLTS

5.1.8.DOOR HINGES

5.1.9.SPEED CONTROLLER

5.1.10.DC BATTERY

5.2.Technical Description:

The most common types of the hub motors use in electrical bicycles are brushless.
There are many possible types of electric motorised bicycles with the several technologies
available, varying in cost and complexity; direct-drive and general units are both used.

An electric power-assist system may be added to almost any pedal cycle using
chain drive, hub motors or friction drive.

BLDC hub motors are a common modern design with the motor build into the
wheel hub itself and the stator fixed solidly to the axle and the magnets attached to and
rotating with the wheel. The bicycle wheel have is the motor. The power levels of motor
used are influenced by available legal categories and are often, but not always limited to
under 750 watts picking an engine was the initial phase in making a suitable framework
for the electric bicycle. At first, the task was to be driven by DC miniaturized scale
engines that were arranged to turn a sprocket.

9
 Fig:5.1 Brushless dc motor

The sprocket is utilized to transmit revolving moment between two shafts. To

change riggings and rates of the cars, the breadth of sprocket should be change. Rather
than having various estimated sprockets in parallel, the underlying thought was to put
numerous miniaturized 12 scale engines in parallel to expand the measure of current
supplied to sprocket for more yield force. This framework appeared to be over confused
and the smaller scale engines would not supply enough power and torque to bolster a cars
at high speeds.

It was settled that the best arrangement in driving the bicycle is with an electric DC
engine; along these lines, making an electric bicycle. In the DC engine, a static field flux is
impelled utilizing lasting magnets or a stator field winding. Situated and the rotor of the
DC engine is the armature winding. The armature winding is arrangement of leading
loops, each associated in fragments of a commutator that are twisted around the iron centre
in which voltage is incited

Fig: 5.2 DC motor

10
 This causes it to pivot inside an attractive field; if the wires are broken or harmed,
the armature won’t turn appropriately. For the DC engine to create any torque, the curls of
the armature must be associated with an outside DC circuit with a considerably number of
brush heads.

5.2.1 Advantages:

The main advantages and characteristics of a BLDC motor compared to a

conventional DC motor include.

 Longer life and higher reliability

 Higher efficiency
 Ability to operate at various speeds, including high speed

5.2.2 Disadvantages:

 Initial cost of the motor is high.

 If the load on motor increases speed of motor decreases.

5.2.3 Applications:

 Can reach peak torque from stand still

 Construction of motor rigid
 Operational in vacuum or in explosive or hazardous environments
 Eliminates radio frequency interference due to brush commutation
 Heat is generated in the stator : Easier to remove and maintain
 Rotor has permanent magnets Vs . coils thus lighter less inertia: easier to start and
stop
 Linear torque / current relationship smooth acceleration or constant torque
 Higher torque ripple due to lack of information between sectors
 Low cost to manufacture
 Simple, low – cost design fixed – speed applications
 Clean, fast and efficient
 Speed proportionate to line frequency(50 or 60HZ)
 Complex control for variable speed and torque All of this contributed to decision
to use a BLDC motor as the driving source of our electric cars. The benefits of the

11
 BLDC motor give the electric cars the reliability and features it needs to make it a
practical and reliable alternative source of transportation.
Additionally , the rotor magnets in BLDC motor generate the rotors magnetic
flux, in turn giving it higher efficiencies than a normal DC motor. The BLDC motor is
essentially the opposite of a brushed DC commutator motor, in which the permanent
magnets in motor rotate around the conductors while the conductors are stationary.
Current polarity in the DC commutator motor is controlled and varied by the brushes
and commutator. With the BLDC, the polarity of the current is driven by power
transistors that switch synchronously with respect to the rotor position. In order to
monitor the position of the rotor, sensors are typically used, one of which is the hall
Effect sensor which is not needed in conventional DC commentator motors.

Fig :5.3 internal side of motor

All of this contributed to the decision to use a BLDC motor as the driving source
of our electric cars. The benefits of the BLDC motor give the electric cars the reliability
and features it needs to make it a practical and reliable alternative source of
transportation.
Compare to a typical DC motor, the BLDC motor implements an electric
commutator instead of a mechanical commutator which , in effect , increase the
reliability.
Another type of electric assist motor, often refer to as mid-drive system, is
increasing in popularity. With this system , the electric motor is not built into the wheel
but is usually mounted near(often under) the bottom bracket shell. In more typical
configurations , a cog wheel on the motor drives a belt or chain that engages with a
pulley or sprocket fixed to one of the arms of the bicycle’s crank set. Thus , the

12
propulsion is provided at the pedals rather than at the wheel , being eventually applied to
the wheel via the bicycle standard drive train.
An electric mid-drive combined with a hub gear at the back hub may require care
due to the lack of the clutch mechanism to soften the shock to the gears at the moment of
re-engagement.
A step less /continuous ratio gear hub or a fully automatic gear hub may reduce
the chocks due to the viscosity of oils used for liquid coupling instead of the mechanical
couplings of the conventional gear hubs.

5.3. Batteries
Electric car use rechargeable batteries, electric motors and some form of control.
Battery systems in use include sealed lead – acid (sla), nickel – cadmium (NiCAd), nickel
metal hydride (NiMH) or lithium -ion polymer(Li – ion). Batteries vary according to the
voltage, total charge capacity (amp hours), weight , the number of charging cycles before
performance degrades , and ability to handle over – voltage charging conditions. The
energy costs of operating go-karts are small, but they can be considerable battery
replacement costs. The life span of a battery pack varies depending on the type of usage.
Shallow discharge /recharge cycles will help extend the overall battery life.

Fig: 5.4 Batteries

Range is the key consideration with e-cars, and is affected by factors such as
motor efficiency, battery capacity, efficiency of the driving electronics aerodynamics,
hills and wait of the cars and raider. Some manufacturers, such as the Canadian BionX or

13
 American (manufactured by Electric Motion Systems), have the option of using
regenerative braking, the motor acts as a generator to slow the bike down prior to the
brake pads engaging.

5.3.1. Seal Lead Acid Battery:

The lead-acid battery was developed in 1859 by French physicist Gaston
Planet and is the most established kind of rechargeable battery. In spite of having a low
vitality to wait proportion and a low vitality to-volume proportion, its capacity to supply
high surge steams implies that the cells have a moderately extensive energy to-wait
proportion
This element, alongside their minimal effort, makes it appealing for use in engine
vehicles to give the high current required via car starter engines. As they are cheap
contrasted with more up to date advancements, lead -acid batteries are generally utilized
not wit standing when surge current is not vital and different plants could give higher
vitality densities. Extensive arrangement lead-acid plants are generally utilised for
capacity as a part of reinforcement force supplies in mobile phone towers, high
accessibility settings like healing facilities, and standalone power frame works. For this
parts, altered variants of the standard cell might be utilised to enhance stockpiling times
and lessen support prerequisites.
Gel-cells and consumed glass-mat batteries are basic in this parts, all in all none as
VRLA(valve-directed lead-acid) batteries. Charging: Charging. Sealed Lead-Acid (SLA)
batteries does not appear an especially troublesome procedure, but rather the critical step in
charging a SLA battery is boosting life.
Basic consistent current/steady voltage chargers will carry out the occupation for
some time , yet the battery feature cited by the producer will be enormously decreased by
utilizing non – clever charges like this. Amplifying the life of your SLA battery by
utilizing an insightful charger is not just practical, it is likewise better for the earth. Before
taking a gender at the distinctive charging strategies it is vital to comprehend the battery
science and what happens amid typical charge and release cycles.

5.3.2. Lithium-ion Battery:

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 A lithium -ion battery or Li-ion battery ( abbreviated as LIB) is a type of
rechargeable battery in which lithium ions move from the negative electrode to the
positive electrode during discharge and back when charging. Li-ion batteries use an
intercalated lithium compound as one electrode material ,compared to the metallic lithium
used in a non- rechargeable lithium battery.

The electrolyte, which allows for ionic movement, and the two electrodes are the
constituent components of a lithium-ion battery cell.

Lithium-ion batteries can pose unique safety hazards since they contain a
flammable electrolyte and may be kept pressurized. an expert notes "If a battery cell is
charged too quickly, it can cause a short circuit ,leading to explosions and fires".

Because of these risks, testing standards are more stringent than those for acid-
electrolyte batteries ,requiring both a broader range of test conditions and additional
battery-specific tests. There have been battery-related recalls by some companies,
including the 2016 Samsung Galaxy Note 7 recall battery fires.

Lithium -ions batteries are common in home electronics. They are one of the most
popular types of rechargeable batteries for portable electronics , with a high energy
density, tiny memory effect and low self-discharge. LIBs are also growing in popularity
for military, battery electric vehicle and aerospace applications.

5.4. Controller:

There are two distinct types of controllers designed to match either a brushed
motor or brushless motor. Brushless motor are becoming more common as the cost of
controllers continues to decrease. (see the page on dc motors which covers the difference
between these two types.)

Controllers for brushless motors: E-cars require high initial torque and therefore
models that use brushless motors typically have Hall sensor commutation for speed and
angle measurement. An electronic controller provides assistance as a function of the
sensor inputs, the vehicle speed and the required force.

15
 The controllers generally allow input by means of potentiometer or hall effect twist
grip (or thumb-operated lever throttle), closed -loop speed control for precise speed
regulations, protection logic for over-voltage, over-current and thermal protection. Cars
with a pedal assist function typically have a disc on the crank shaft featuring a ring of
magnets coupled with a hall sensor giving rise to a series of pulses, the frequency of which
is proportional to pedaling speed.

fig.5.5speed controller

The controller uses pulse width modulation to regulate the power to the motor.
Sometimes support is provided for regenerative braking and the low mass of bicycles
limits recovered energy. An implementation is described in an applications note for a 200
W,24V Brushless DC(BLDC) Motor.

1.Controllers for brushed motors : Brushed motors are also used in e-cars but are
becoming less common due to their intrinsic lower efficiency. Controller for brushed
motors however are much simpler and cheaper due to the fact they don't require hall
sensor feedback and are typically designed to be open-loop controllers. Some controllers
can handle multiple voltages.

16
 fig.5.6.working principle of speed controller

There are two distinct types of controllers designed to match either a brushed
motor or brushless motor. Brushless motors are becoming more common as the controllers
continues to decrease. (see the page on dc motors which covers the difference between
these two types.)

2.Controllers for brushless motor: E-cars require high initial torque and therefore
models that use brushless motors typically have hall sensor commutation for speed and
angle measurement. An electronic controller provides assistance as a function of the
sensor inputs, the vehicle speed and the required force. The controllers generally allow
input by means of potentiometer or hall effect twist grip (or thumb-operated lever
throttle),closed-loop speed control for precise speed regulation, protection logic for over-
voltage, over-current and thermal protection.

Bikes with a pedal assist function typically have a disc on the shaft featuring a ring
of magnets coupled with a hall sensor giving rise to a series of pulses, the frequency of
which is proportional to pedaling speed. the controller uses pulse width modulation to
regulate the power to the motor. Sometimes support is provided for regenerative braking
but infrequent braking and the low mass of bicycles limits recovered energy. An

17
implementation is described in an application note for a 350 W, 24 V brushless DC
(BLDC) motor.

3.Controllers for brushed motors: brushed motors are also used in cars but are
becoming less common due to their intrinsic lower efficiency. Controllers for brushed
motors however are much simpler and cheaper due to the fact they don't require hall
sensor feedback and are typically designed to be open-loop controllers. Some controllers
can handle multiple voltages.

5.5.Wheels:

Fig; 5.7 wheels

Wheeled robots are robots that navigate around the ground using motorized wheels
to propel themselves. This design is simpler than using treads or legs and by using wheels
they are easier to design, build, and program for movement in flat, not-so-rugged terrain.
They are also more well controlled than other types of robots. Disadvantages of wheeled
robots are that they cannot navigate well over obstacles, such as rocky terrain, sharp
declines, or areas with low friction. Wheeled robots are most popular among the consumer
market, their differential steering provides low cost and simplicity. Robots can have any
number of wheels, but three wheels are sufficient for static and dynamic balance.

18
Additional wheels can add to balance; however, additional mechanisms will be required to
keep all the wheels in the ground, when the terrain is not flat.

5.5.1Navigation

Most wheeled robots use differential steering, which uses separately driven wheels
for movement. They can change direction by rotating each wheel at a different speed.
There may be additional wheels that are not driven by a motor these extra wheels help
keep it balanced.

5.5.2. 2-wheeled CAR

Two wheeled robots are harder to balance than other types because they must
keeping moving to maintain upright. The centre of gravity of the robot body is kept below
the axle, usually this is accomplished by mounting the batteries below the body. They can
have their wheels parallel to each other, these vehicles are called dicycles, or one wheel in
front of the other, tandemly placed wheels. Two wheeled robots must keep moving to
remain upright and they can do this by driving in the direction the robot is falling. To
balance, the base of the robot must stay with under its centre of gravity. For a robot that
has the left and right wheels, it needs at least two sensors. A tilt sensor that is used to
determine tilt angle and wheel encoders which keep track of the position of the platform of
the robot.

Fig:5.8 Wheeled car

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5.5.3. Car-like steering

Fig: 5.9 Differential Steering

Kart racing take note of the missing prefix involves karts that are much more
refined, faster and designed for serious competitive racing. In other words, if you want to
ride around in your yard then go with the go-karts at the hardware store, but if you want to
start a career in competitive racing, then take a look at the karts you can't find at The
Home Depot. In fact, some competitive karts can go faster than 100 miles per hour (160.9
kilometers per hour) and karting is often the inlet for further competitive motor-sport
racing.

This method allows the robot to turn in the same way a car does. This is a far
harder method to build and makes dead reckoning much harder as well. This system does
have an advantage over previous methods when your robot is powered by a combustion
engine: It only needs one motor (and a servo for steering of course). The previous methods
would require either 2 motors or a very complicated gearbox, since they require 2 output
axles with independent speed and direction of rotation.

More stable than the three wheel version since the center of gravity has to remain
inside the rectangle formed by the four wheels instead of a triangle. This leaves a larger
useful space. Still it's advisable to keep the center of gravity to the middle of the rectangle
as this is the most stable configuration, especially when taking sharp turns or moving over
a non-level surface.

When choosing the wheels for your project you should consider the type of motors
you intend to use. The motors speed and torque (turning force) will play an important role

20
in the final operation of your robot. A small motor with a low torque may not be able to
drive a large wheel, but a small motor with a gearbox to change the velocity and torque of
the output may be able to drive what an un-geared motor cannot. Also consider the speed
of the motor and the circumference of your wheel so that your robot moves at the speed
you desire. Consider using a motor with an encoder if you want to measure how far and
fast your robot is travelling.

The texture, the width of the wheel and the type of terrain your robot is expected to
cover, are also important factors. A very smooth wheel will have less traction than rough
wheels like foam wheels. Very thin wheels will turn easier than wide wheels. Omni-
directional wheels are designed to roll forwards but slide sideways with almost no friction,
to change direction. Some wheels are constructed with a flange, to allow mounting directly
to a motor shaft. Other motors use aluminum hubs, which are available to fit a range of
motor shafts from 4mm to 10mm diameter. Aluminum brackets are available to provide a
solid mounting for the motors.

5.6. Bearings:

Fig:5.10 Ball bearings

Generally speaking, a bearing is a device that is used to enable rotational or linear

movement, while reducing friction and handling stress. Resembling wheels, bearings

21
literally enable devices to roll, which reduces the friction between the surface of the
bearing and the surface it’s rolling over. It’s significantly easier to move, both in a rotary
or linear fashion, when friction is reduced this also enhances speed and efficiency.
5.6.1 . How Bearings Work
In order to serve all these functions, bearings make use of a relatively simple
structure: a ball with internal and external smooth metal surfaces, to aid in rolling. The ball
itself carries the weight of the load the force of the load’s weight is what drives the
bearing’s rotation. However, not all loads put force on a bearing in the same manner.
There are two different kinds of loading: radial and thrust.
A radial load, as in a pulley, simply puts weight on the bearing in a manner that
causes the bearing to roll or rotate as a result of tension. A thrust load is significantly
different, and puts stress on the bearing in an entirely different way. If a bearing (think of a
tire) is flipped on its side (think now of a tire swing) and subject to complete force at that
angle (think of three children sitting on the tire swing), this is called thrust load. A bearing
that is used to support a bar stool is an example of a bearing that is subject only to thrust
load.
Many bearings are prone to experiencing both radial and thrust loads. Car tires, for
example, carry a radial load when driving in a straight line: the tires roll forward in a
rotational manner as a result of tension and the weight they are supporting. However,
when a car goes around a corner, it is subject to thrust load because the tires are no longer
moving solely in a radial fashion and cornering force weighs on the side of the bearing.

5.6.2. Types of Bearings:

There are numerous different kinds of bearings that are designed to handle radial
load, thrust load, or some combination of the two. Because different applications require
bearings that are designed to handle a specific kind of load and different amounts of
weight, the differences between types of bearings concern load type and ability to handle
weight.

 BALL BEARINGS

Ball bearings are extremely common because they can handle both radial and
thrust loads, but can only handle a small amount of weight. They are found in a wide array

22
of applications, such as roller blades and even hard drives, but are prone to deforming if
they are overloaded.

 ROLLER BEARINGS

Roller bearings are designed to carry heavy loads—the primary roller is a cylinder,
which means the load is distributed over a larger area, enabling the bearing to handle
larger amounts of weight. This structure, however, means the bearing can handle primarily
radial loads, but is not suited to thrust loads. For applications where space is an issue, a
needle bearing can be used. Needle bearings work with small diameter cylinders, so they
are easier to fit in smaller applications.

 BALL THURST BEARINGS

These kinds of bearings are designed to handle almost exclusively thrust loads in
low-speed low-weight applications. Bar stools, for example, make use of ball thrust
bearings to support the seat.

 ROLLER THURST BEARINGS

Roller thrust bearings, much like ball thrust bearings, handle thrust loads. The
difference, however, lies in the amount of weight the bearing can handle: roller thrust
bearings can support significantly larger amounts of thrust load, and are therefore found in
car transmissions, where they are used to support helical gears. Gear support in general is
a common application for roller thrust bearings.

 TAPERED ROLLER BEARINGS

This style of bearing is designed to handle large radial and thrust loads—as a result
of their load versatility, they are found in car hubs due to the extreme amount of both
radial and thrust loads that car wheels are expected to carry.

 SPECIALIZED BEARINGS

There are, of course, several kinds of bearings that are manufactured for specific
applications, such as magnetic bearings and giant roller bearings. Magnetic bearings are
found in high-speed devices because it has no moving part this stability enables it to

23
support devices that move unconscionably fast. Giant roller bearings are used to move
extremely large and heavy loads, such as buildings and large structural components.

5.7. Door Hinges :

Fig: 5.11 door hinges.

Specification: 2pcs 360 Degree Door Pivot Hinge Hardware Silver 74mm Length
Color: Sliver Length approx 74cm
Features: The product is made of stainless steel Quality assurance, non-corrosive, Anti-
oxidation, safer and more reliable Suitable for internal doors and Screens. Easy to install
,Can rotate 360 ??degrees. Suitable for wooden doors, aluminum frame doors, hidden door
hinges up and down Package included: 2×Rotating hinges.

24
 6.ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

6.1 Advantages

 No gas required, so no smoke emitted.

 No fuel is required, so pollution free.
 Eco-friendly, they are even better than hybrid cars.
 Safe to drive.
 Low maintenance.
 Reduces noise pollution.
 Produces "zero emission".
 More efficient.

6.2 Disadvantages:
 Limited distance that they can be driven.
 They cannot be accelerated or climbed fast.
 Rechargeable batteries, so more costly.
 Not suitable where there is no power.

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 CONCLUSION
Battery-operated vehicles gave way to internal-combustion vehicles because a liter
of gasoline provides at least 100 times the energy of a battery taking the same space. This
extraordinary energy density overcomes the inherent disadvantage of the spark-ignition
engine: 80% of the energy is wasted in combustion and only 20% gets to the wheels. Now,
the battery-operated engines vehicles are making a comeback, with a new twist. The
engines are not strictly battery-operated. They are a combination of battery and internal-
combustion engines. They are called Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs).It is our intention to
investigate whether or not HEVs actually cause more environmental damage than internal-
combustion vehicles. Hybrid cars are definitely more environmentally friendly than
internal-combustion vehicles. Batteries are being engineered to have a long life. When the
hybrid cars become more widespread, battery recycling will become economically
possible. Research into other energy sources such as fuel cells and renewable fuels make
the future look brighter for hybrid cars.

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