CHAPTER 1

CURRENT SOURCE HVDC TRANSMISSION REVIEW

1.1 OVERVIEW OF HVDC TRANSMISSION LINE

The industrial growth of a nation requires increased consumption of energy, particularly

electrical energy. This has led to increase in the generation and transmission facilities to meet the
increasing demand. In a modern countries, till early seventies, the demand doubled every ten years
[1]. In developing countries, the demand doubles every seven years which requires considerable
investment in electrical power sector.

Remote generation and system interconnections lead to a search for efficient power
transmission at increasing power levels. The increase in voltage levels is not always feasible. The
problems of AC transmission particularly in long distance transmission has led to the development
of high voltage direct current (HVDC) transmission. However, as generation and utilization of
power remain at alternating current, the HVDC transmission requires conversion at two ends, from
AC to DC at sending end and back to AC at the receiving end. The HVDC technology is still
undergoing many changes due to continuing innovations directed at improving reliability and
reducing costs of converter stations. The latest development is the introduction of multi-terminal
system operation which increases the scope of application of HVDC systems.

When the number and size of DC systems are small, it was common to consider the HVDC
power transmission as too specialized and fit only be taken up by manufacturers and consultants.
With the growth of HVDC systems, there is now a greater a wariness among engineers from
utilities, regarding the potential of DC transmission from the point of view of interactions with AC
systems. While it is true that the HVDC systems are quite reliable and converter control allows
flexibility in system operation, full realization of the potential benefits of HVDC transmission
requires detailed studies during the planning and design stage. This necessitates proper modeling
and analysis of HVDC systems.
The HVDC transmission made a modest beginning in 1954 when a 100 kV, 20 MW DC link
was established between Swedish mainland and the island of Gotland. Until 1970, the converter
stations utilized mercury arc valves for rectification. The successful use of thyristors for power
control in industrial devices encouraged its adoption in HVDC converters by development of high
power semiconductor devices. HVDC has been used in overhead connections in the United States,
Canada, England, Japan, Zaire, and between Mozambique and South of Africa. Table 1.1 shows
the HVDC converters around the world [2].

1
 1.2 ADVANTAGEOUS AND LIMITATIONS OF HVDC TRANSMISSION

The HVDC transmission has some positive features which are lacking in AC transmission.
These are mainly due to the fast controllability of power in DC lines through converter control. The
following are the advantages:

1. The primary economy in DC transmission is that only two conductors per circuit are needed
rather than three required for AC. Consequently, DC transmission towers carry less conductor
dead weight, and they can be smaller, less costly to fabricate, and easier to errect.

2. In the event of a single-line fault on a DC link, the remaining conductors will still be
functional through the ground of return (for both bipolar and homopolar links). This enables the
repair of faulty sections without considerable reduction in service level.

3. Switching surges on DC cases are lower than those on AC lines. In overhead lines, attempts
are made to limit them to peak value to 1.7 times in the DC case [3,4].

4. The AC resistance of a conductor is commonly to be higher than its DC resistance, due to skin
effect.

5. A DC transmission link has no stability problem. This contrasts to the AC case where a steady
state stability limit exists.

6. The transient reactance in some hydro plants is abnormally low (to raise the stability limit),
necessitating a higher generator cost. This would not be required if DC transmission is used [3].

7. One of the most important economics achieved can be appreciated if we observe that using the
HVDC transmission, the prime mover speed need not be confined to correspond to 50 or 60 Hz,
but could rather be chosen for best economy.

8. A DC itself does not require reactive power. The converters at both ends of the line draw reactive
power from the AC system. This independent on the line length, in contrast with AC where
reactive power consumption varies almost linearly with distance.

2
9. The voltage at an open end of a long AC line is considerably higher than rated. This phenomenon
is called Ferranti effect and is a limiting factor for the AC lines. The voltage at an open end of a
long line presents a special problem when the line is put in service by first connecting it to the
main AC system. It is not feasible to close both ends at exactly the same instant. Clearly this
difficulty is avoided in DC lines.

10. For the same amount of transmitted power over the same size conductors, the DC line losses
are smaller than with AC transmission lines. Neglecting AC skin effect, AC line losses are 33
percent greater than DC line losses [3].

The Scope of Application of HVDC Is Limited By The Following Factors:

1. The lack of HVDC circuit breakers is regarded as limitation of HVDC transmission. In AC

circuits, circuit breaker takes advantage of the current zeros occurring twice per cycle. The
arc does not restrike between contacts because the design is such that the breakdown
strength of the arc path between contacts is increased so rapidly as to enable extinction.
Grid control in converter valves on radial lines is used to block the DC temporarily. The
realization of multi-terminal systems requires the use of HVDC circuit breakers. A number
of breaker concepts have been described, and several laboratory prototypes have been
developed [3,5]. With the availability of these commercially, utility planners can proceed
with serious consideration of multi-terminal HVDC systems.
2. The reliability and maintenance of converters have been a major problem for DC systems
with mercury-arc converters. These valves have little overload capacity, which can present
a problem when one bipolar line is involved.
3. Production of harmonics due to converter operation leads to audio frequency telephone line
interference. Filters in both sides of DC systems, are required to suppress this harmonics.
4. High cost of conversion equipment.
5. Complexity of control.

1.3 APPLICATIONS OF HVDC

Several advantages of DC transmission in terms of economic and technical performance,

lead to the following areas of application for HVDC transmission:

3
1. For crossing the seas. Where power system that separated by more than about 40 km of deep
water need to be connected, HVDC is indispensable. The application requires the technology
for a couple of good reasons.
First, all AC lines, both overhead and cable, need a charging current, which contribute to the
so-called reactive power. As a result, over a 30 km or so stretch of submarine cable, the charging
current supplied from core will fully load the cable, and leave no room for transmission real
power. Granted, this charging current can be reduced by connecting shunt inductors to the cable
at intervals of 15-20 km [2]. But that solution is not economic when a large body of water must
be crossed.
The second reason is that DC cable is much cheaper than the AC cable. Each AC circuit
requires three cables, whereas DC cable requires one for monopolar and two for bipolar and
homopolar operation. Because sea water has a low resistivity (0.3 m in orders of magnitude
lower than resistivity of ground [2]), the sea itself can often be utilized for current return.

2. for long-distance overhead transmission lines and underground cables . If the transmission
distance is greater enough, say, a few hundred kilometers, the saving in capital cost and
lower losses with DC transmission line may be enough to pay for two conductors, one at
either end, this known as the break-even point. If the cost of underground transmission is
included, the break-even distance can be 80-100 km. To date, however, there has been no
long distance underground projects, either AC or DC, because overhead lines cost so much
less than underground lines (about 25-40 percent of underground cable cost).

As for overhead lines, the DC line may carry about twice as much power as an AC lines
over a given right of way [2]. Here the break-even distance is around 600 km. Several
projects of this kind are in operation in the United States, Canada, Brazil, New Zealand, and
China. When such a long distance is involved, the lines would generally be high capacity.

3. The DC systems have an inherent short-time overload capacity that can be used for damping
systems oscillations. Two systems when interconnected by AC lines sustain instability. A DC
link interconnecting the two systems would overcome this difficulty.

4. Different frequency link. Two systems with different frequencies may be tied together through
a DC interconnection.

4
 5. For transmission in underground metropolitan cable systems where long distance are involved.

6. Two AC systems which have different strategies of control technique may tied together
through a DC interconnection.

1.4 HVDC SYSTEM CONFIGURATIONS AND COMPONENTS

1.4.1 Classification of HVDC Links

Direct current links are classified into three types which are defined as follows:
1. The monopolar link has one conductor (usually of negative polarity) and uses ground and sea
return. This type of configuration may also be the first stage in the development of bipolar
systems. Instead of ground return, a metallic return may be used in situation where the earth
resistivity is too high. A monopolar link is shown in Figure 1.1.
2. A bipolar link consists of two conductors, one positive and the other negative. The neutral
point given by the junctions between the converters is grounded at one or both ends. Each
terminal of bipolar link has two converters with equal rated voltages in series on the DC side
and parallel on the AC side. Figure 1.2 shows the bipolar link which is considered to be
equivalent to a double-circuit AC transmission line. Under normal operation, it will cause
considerably less harmonic interference on nearby facilitate than the monopolar system.
Reversal of power-flow direction is achieved by changing the polarities of the two poles
through controls.
3. The homopolar link has two or more conductors having the same polarity (usually negative),
and always operates with ground return. The homopolar link is shown in Figure 1.3. The main
advantageous of homopolar is that a negative polarity causes less radio interference due to
corona.

+
AC
AC
system
system

Figure (1.1) Monopolar HVDC link

5
 +
AC AC
system system

Metallic return

Figure (1.2) Bipolar HVDC link

AC AC
system system

Metallic return

Figure (1.3) Homopolar HVDC

link

1.4.2 Components of HVDC Transmission

The main components associated with an HVDC bipolar system are shown in Figure 1.4.

Converters
Conversion from AC to DC (Rectifier station) and from DC to AC (Inverter station) are performed
by converters, and consists of valve groups and transformers with tap changers. A point-to-point
transmission requires two converters. The role of rectifier and inverter stations can be reversed
(resulting in power reversals) by suitable converter control.

Converter unit usually consists of three phase converter bridge arranged in a 6-pulse or 12-pulse.
The converter is fed from converter transformer connected in star/star or star/delta arrangement.
Converter valves firing signals are generated in the converter control at ground potential and are

6
transmitted to each thyristor through a fiber optic light guide system. The light signal received at the
thyristor level is converted to electrical signal using gate drive amplifier with pulse transformers.
The converter valves are protected using damper circuit, protective firing and gapless surge
arrestors.

Converter transformers can have different configurations (i) three-phase two winding, (ii) single-
phase, three winding. The converter side is connected in star (with neutral point ungrounded) or in
delta connection. On the AC side, the transformer winding is connected in star connection with
neutral point grounded. The transformers are designed to withstand DC voltage stresses and
increased eddy current losses due to harmonic currents.

Smoothing
AC
reactor AC
system
system
Converter + DC
Bridge filter
CB

Transformer Metallic return Transformer

DC
filter

AC reactive
reactive AC
filter power
power filter DC
sources
sources line
CB: Circuit breaker
Figure (1.4) A schematic of a bipolar HVDC system identifying main components

Filters
There are three types of filters used:
1. AC filters, both low and high frequency filters are used to suppress the AC current
harmonics.
2. DC filters, both low and high frequency filters are used for the filtering of DC harmonics.
3. High frequency filters, these are connected between the converter transformer and the station
AC bus to suppress any high frequency currents.

7
Reactive power sources
Converter stations require reactive power supply that is dependent on the active power loading
(about 50 to 60% of the active power) [4]. Fortunately, part of this reactive power requirement is
provided by the AC filters. In addition, synchronous condensers and static var systems are used
depending on the speed of control desired.

Smoothing reactors
A sufficient large series reactor is used on DC side to smooth DC current and also for protection.
The reactor is designed as a linear reactor and is connected on the line side, neutral side, or in both
in the line and neutral side.

Electrode
Most DC links designed to use earth as neutral conductor for at least brief periods of time. The
connection to the earth requires a large-surface-area conductor to minimize current densities and
surface voltage gradients. This conductor is referred to as an electrode.

DC lines
They may be overhead lines or cables. Except for the number of conductors and spacing required,
DC lines are very similar to AC lines.

AC circuit breakers
For clearing faults in the converter transformer and for taking the DC link out of service, circuit-
breakers are used on the AC side. They not used for clearing DC fault, since this fault can be
cleared more rapidly by the converter control.

DC switchgear
This usually a modified AC equipment used to interrupt small DC currents. DC breakers are also
used, for interruption of rated load currents.

8
Evaluation Of Transmission Costs

The cost of a transmission line comprises of the capital investment required for the actual
infrastructure (i.e. Right of Way (RoW), towers, conductors, insulators and terminal equipment) and
costs incurred for operational requirements (i.e. losses). Assuming similar insulation requirements
for peak voltage levels for both AC and DC lines, a DC line can carry as much power with two
conductors (having positive/negative polarities with respect to ground) as an AC line with three
conductors of the same size. Therefore for a given power level, a DC line requires smaller RoW,
simpler and cheaper towers and reduced conductor and insulator costs. The power transmission
losses are also reduced to about two-thirds of the comparable AC system. The absence of skin effect
with DC is also beneficial in reducing power losses marginally, and the dielectric losses in case of
power cables is also very much less for DC transmission. Corona effects tend to be less significant
on DC than for AC conductors. The other factors that influence line costs are the costs of
compensation and terminal equipment. DC lines do not require reactive power compensation but the
terminal equipment costs are increased due to the presence of converters and filters.

Figure 1-5 shows that variation of costs of transmission with distance for AC and DC
transmission. AC tends to be more economical than DC for distances less than the “breakeven
distance (BD)” but is more expensive for longer distances. The breakeven distances can vary
between 400 to 700 km in overhead lines depending on the per unit line costs. With a cable system,
this breakeven distance lies between 25 to 50 km.

Cost
AC

DC

BD
Distance

Fig. (1.5) Comparisons between AC and DC Lines

9
Table 1.1 HVDC converters around the world
Location Power Location Power
MW MW
North and South America Fenno-Skan, Sweden- 500 
Finland
Chateauguay, Quebic 1000 Gotland, Sweden 269 
Nelson River, Manitoba 3420 Kontl-Skan, Sweden- 550 
Denmark
Square Butte, North Dacota- 500 Volgograd-Donbass, Russia 720 
Minnesota
McNeill, Alberto 150 Etinzenricht, Germany 600 
Vancouver, British Columbia 682 Wien SO, Austria 550 
Virginia Smith at Sidney, 200 Durnrohr, Austria 550 
Nebraska
David A. Hamil, Nebraska 100 Sardinia-Italy, Italy 300 
Miles City, Manitoba 200 Africa
Intermountain, Utah- 1920 Inga-Shaba, Zaire 560 
California
Pacific Intertie, Oregon- 3100 Cabora Bassa, South-Africa- 1920 
California Mozambique
Eddy Country, New Mexico 200 Australasia
CU Project, North Dakota-  1 Zhushan Island, China 50 
Minnesota 000
Blackwater, New Mexico 200 Minami-Fukumitsu, Japan 300 
Oklaunion, Texas 200 Higashi-Shimizu, Japan 300  
Welsh, northeast Texas 600 Hokkaido-Honshu, Japan 600 
Madawaska, Quebec 350 Cheju Island, South Korea 300 
Quebec-New England 2690 Shikoku-Kausai, Japan 3400 
Eel River, New Brunswick 320 Shin-Shinano, Japan 600  
Highgate, Vermont 200 Sakuma, Japan 300  
Urugaiana, Brazil 50 Gehuba-Shanghai, China 1200 
Acaray, Paraguay 50 Leyte-Luzon, Philippines 440 
Itaipu, Brazil 3600 Rihand-Delhi, India 1500 
Vindhyachal, India 500
Corsica Tapping-Italy 25 Sileru-Barsoor, India 100 
Cross Channel, United 2000 Chandarpur-Padghe, India 1500 
Kingdom- France
Skarerrak, Norway-Denmark 940 Chandarpur-Padghe 1000 
(Back-to-Back)
Wyborg, Russia 1050 Vishakapatanam, India 500 
Kontek, Denmark-Germany 600 Broken Hill, Australia 40 
Baltic Cable, Sweden- 600 North and South Island, 1240 
Germany Newzeland

10