Introduction to

Biostatistics

Lecture Handouts
St. Luke’s College of Nursing
SY. 2016 - 2017
 SCOPE OF BIOSTATISTICS AND
EPIDEMIOLOGY
“STATISTICS”

= Latin word: status -“manner of standing”

= data or numbers
= the process of analyzing data
= a field of study
 Interpreting Vital Statistics

Understanding Epidemiologic Problems

Interpreting Information about Drugs and Equipments

Using Diagnostic Procedures

 Being Informed

Appraising Guidelines

Evaluating Study Protocols and Articles

Participating in or Directing Research Projects

 Nature of Biostatistics (Rosner)
Biostatistics is the branch of applied statistics
that applies statistical methods to
.

Applied Statistics – involves applying the methods of

mathematical statistics to specific subject areas, such as
economics, psychology, and public health.
Branches of Statistics (Mendoza et al.)

• Statistical technique • Concerned with making

whose main objective is estimates, predictions,
to summarize and generalizations and
present data in a form
conclusions about a target
that will make them
population based on
easier to analyze and
interpret information from a sample

e.g. age of students, proportion e.g. comparison of mean (ave.)

of patients with HMOs height between males and females,
test of strength of relationship
between BP and stress level
 Definition of Data

Data are observations, such as

measurements, genders, & survey
responses, that have been collected
(Triola)
Constant vs. Variable (Mendoza et al.)
Constant - value remains the same from person to
person, from time to time or from place to place.
e.g.

Variable - values or categories cannot be predicted

with certainty. Values differ from one individual to
another, or from one period to another in the same
individual.
e.g.
Phenomenon of Variation (Mendoza et al.)

The tendency of a measurable characteristic to

change from one individual or one setting to
another, or from one instant of time to another
instant within the same individual or setting.
e.g. demand of nurses over time, prices of medicine, ethnic
practices hygiene

*There are few constants in life, hence, a systematic way

of describing and analyzing the variability of different
phenomena was developed.
 Types of Data
Qualitative

Quantitative
– Discrete
– Continuous
 Qualitative Data
Data that can be separated into
that are distinguished by some
non-numeric characteristic. (Triola)
e.g. cause of death

Numerical representation of the categories

are for and not for
comparison. (Mendoza et al.)
e.g. Levels of water supply (I - III)
 Quantitative Data (Triola)

Data consist of numbers representing

.

e.g. # of patients in ARMMC, 200 miles, $ 542.00

 Quantitative Data (Triola)
Discrete Continuous
The number of possible Infinitely many possible
values is either a finite values that correspond to
number or a countable some continuous scale that
number. covers a range of values
without gaps, interruptions
Can assume only in or jumps.
______________
Can attain any value with
e.g. SLMC bed capacity, pulse __________________
rate
e.g. Salary of Nurses, Blood
Pressure
 Levels of Measurement
Nominal

Ordinal

Interval

Ratio
Levels of Measurement: Nominal
Different data values can be classified into
categories but the categories have no specific
ordering. (Rosner)

A classificatory scale where the categories are

used as labels only and
. (Mendoza et al.)
e.g. work in the hospital
Medical Physical
OR Nurse Pediatrician
Technologist Therapist

e.g. Positive with HepBV Infection Yes No

Levels of Measurement: Ordinal
Same Characteristics as e.g. Antimicrobial Susceptibility
nominal scale but the Susceptible/Sensitive
classes can be ordered or
Intermediate
ranked (Mendoza et al.)
but do not have a specific Resistant
numeric value. (Rosner)
e.g. Pain Scale
The distance between
two categories cannot
be clearly quantified
(Mendoza et al.)
Levels of Measurement: Interval
There is a meaningful e.g. Year
measurement of
distance between
possible data values e.g. Temperature
and the value of zero
point is arbitrary.
(Rosner)
Zero does not mean
absence of the
characteristic
(Mendoza et al.)
 Levels of Measurement: Ratio
Same as Interval, only that the value of zero
point is fixed (Rosner) or it means
.
e.g. Statistical Strength of Relationship
Levels of Measurement Comparison
Level of Measurements
Characteristics
Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio
Distinctiveness

Ranking

Equal Intervals

Fixed Zero
 Sources of Data
Primary

Secondary
 Primary Data
Primary data are those
to help him answer specifically the
purpose/s of the study. (Mendoza et al.)

e.g.Data from community assessment of Brgy. San Rafael

Test results from experiment on effectiveness of a new
Herbal medicine
 Secondary Data
Secondary data are those which are

for purposes not necessarily those of the

investigator’s. (Mendoza et al.)

e.g.Health registries from the Quezon City Health Office

Medical records in National Children’s Hospital
Review of literature from different journals
Philippine Census of 2007
Qualities of Statistical Data (Mendoza et al.)

The interval between the

date of occurrence of the
different events considered
and the time the data is
ready to be used or
disseminated.

Completeness of coverage
and completeness in
accomplishing all the items
during data collection.
Qualities of Statistical Data (Mendoza et al.)

How close the The extent to which similar

measurement of the data information is obtained
is to its true value. when a measurement is
performed or an
It answers the question, observation is made more
“Do the data reflect the true than once.
situation?”
Repeatability &consistency
of the information.
Qualities of Statistical Data (Mendoza et al.)
Qualities of Statistical Data (Mendoza et al.)

The consistency of the data

produced with the needs
of the data users.

It answers the question,

“Do the collected data provide
all the basic information needed
to meet the requirements of the
user?”
 Data Processing
A systematic procedure to ensure that the
information/data gathered are complete,
consistent and suitable for .

Three Major Activities in Data Processing:

1. Data Coding
2. Data Encoding
3. Data Editing
 Data Coding
Conversion of verbal/written information
into numbers or other symbols, called
codes, which can be more easily encoded,
counted and tabulated
Purpose: Permits rapid storage of data
Helps to avoid errors in encoding data
Statistical software can perform various analyses
on data
 Data Coding
Type of Codes
1. Code – The actual values gathered are coded/recorded
e.g. Age
Dengue Treatment Interventions Results
(Journal 1)
(Journal 2)

2. Code – Data are recorded as range of values

e.g. Annual household income in Php (Urban setting)
1 – Less than or equal to 10,000
2 – In between 10,000 and 15,000
3 – More than or equal to 15,000
 Data Coding
Type of Codes
3. Code – Codes are assigned to a list of categories of a
given variable
e.g. Preferred emergency drug for hyperacidity attacks
1 – Magnesium Hydroxide + Aluminum Hydroxide
2 – Ranitidine
3 – Esomeprazole
0 – None

4. Code – Allow multiple responses (Select all that applies)

e.g. Effects of drinking coffee
1 – Physical Energy
2 – Mental Sharpness
3 – Social Enthusiasm
 Data Coding
Coding Manual
A document which
contains a record of all
codes assigned to the
responses to all
questions in the data
collection
 Data Encoding
Actual entering of data/answers in a
spreadsheet or data editor
 Data Editing
Inspection and correction if there are any errors.

Field Editing – during collection of data, to review the

accomplished forms to verify completeness and clarify vague
data

Central Editing – after collection of data, to check

inconsistencies and incorrect entries
 Other References

Lecture notes on Introduction to Biostatistics for Biostatistics 201

by M.P. Borja, 2013.

Lecture notes on Data Processing for Biostatistics 201 from UPM

CPH DEBS, 2013.