High Pressure Sensor:

Application High-pressure sensors are used in a motor vehicle to measure fuel pressure and
brakefluid pressure, e.g: Rail-pressure sensor for gasoline direct injection (pressure up to
200 bar) Rail-pressure sensor for common-rail diesel-injection system (pressure up to 2000
bar) Brake-fluid pressure sensor in the hydraulic modulator of the Electronic Stability
Program (pressure up to 350 bar)

High-pressure sensors operate according to the same principle as micromechanical pressure

sensors. The core of the sensor is a steel diaphragm, onto which deformation resistors have
been vapor-deposited in the form of a bridge circuit (Fig. 6, Pos. 3). The sensor’s measuring
range is dependent on the thickness of the diaphragm (thicker diaphragms for higher
pressures, thinner diaphragms for lower pressures). As soon as the pressure to be measured
is applied to one side of the diaphragm via the pressure port (4), the deformation resistors
change their resistance values as a result of the deflection of the diaphragm. The output
voltage generated by the bridge circuit is proportional to the applied pressure. This voltage
is transmitted via connecting leads (bonding wires) to an evaluation circuit (2) in the sensor.
The evaluation circuit amplifies the bridge signal to 0...5V and transmits it to the ECU, which
calculates the pressure with the aid of a characteristic curve.
 EXHAUST EMISSION
Major constituents of exhaust gas:
Water (H2O) The hydrogen chemically bound within the fuel burns with the oxygen in the air
to form water vapor, most of which condenses as it cools. This is the source of the exhaust
plume visible on cold days. Water makes up about 13% of the exhaust gas.

Carbon dioxide (CO2) During combustion, the carbon chemically bound within the fuel
produces carbon dioxide (CO2), which makes up approximately 14% of the exhaust gas.
Carbon dioxide is a colorless, odorless, non-toxic gas and occurs naturally in the
atmosphere. It is not classed as a pollutant with regard to motor-vehicle exhaust emissions.
However, it is one of the substances responsible for the greenhouse effect and the global
climate change that this causes. Since industrialization, the CO2 content in the atmosphere
has risen by roughly 30% to today’s figure of 367ppm. Reducing CO2 emissions by reducing
fuel consumption is therefore seen more and more as a matter of urgency.

Nitrogen (N2) Nitrogen makes up 78% of air and is therefore its primary constituent. It plays
virtually no part in the combustion process and at roughly 71% makes up the majority of the
exhaust gas.

Pollutants:
During combustion, the air-fuel mixture generates a number of by-products. With the
engine warmed to its normal operating temperature and running with a stoichiometric
mixture composition (λ = 1), the proportion of these by-products in the engine’s untreated
emissions (exhaust gas after combustion, but before treatment) is about 1% of the total
exhaust-gas quantity. The most significant of these combustion by-products are Carbon
monoxide (CO) Hydrocarbons (HC), and Nitrous oxides (NOX) With the engine at normal
operating temperature, catalytic converters can convert these pollutants at a rate of more
than 99% into harmless substances.

Carbon monoxide (CO) Carbon monoxide results from incomplete combustion of rich
air/fuel mixtures due to an air deficiency. Although carbon mono xide is also produced
during operation with excess air, the concentrations are minimal, and stem from rich zones
in the unhomogeneous air/fuel mixture. Fuel droplets that fail to vaporize form pockets of
rich mixture that do not combust completely. Carbon monoxide is a colorless and odorless
gas. In humans, it inhibits the ability of the blood to absorb oxygen, thus leading to
poisoning.
Hydrocarbons (HC) Hydrocarbons are the chemical compounds of carbon (C) and hydrogen
(H). HC emissions are caused by incomplete combustion of the air/fuel mixture where there
is an oxygen deficiency. The combustion process also produces new hydrocarbon
compounds not initially present in the original fuel (e.g., through the separation of extended
mole cular chains). Aliphatic hydrocarbons (alkanes, alkenes, alkines, and their cyclic
derivatives) are virtually odorless. Cyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (such as benzene, toluene,
and polycyclic hydrocarbons) emit a discernible odor. Some hydrocarbons are considered to
be carcinogenic in the event of long-term exposure. Partially oxidized hydrocarbons (e.g.,
aldehydes, ketones) emit an unpleasant odor.

Nitrous oxides (NOX) Nitrous oxide is the generic term for compounds of nitrogen and
oxygen. Nitrous oxides are produced during all combustion processes with air as a result of
secondary reactions with the nitrogen contained in the air. The main forms found in the
exhaust gases from internal-combustion engines are nitrogen oxide (NO) and nitrogen
dioxide (NO2), with dinitrogen monoxide (N2O) also present in small concentrations.
Nitrogen oxide (NO) is colorless and odorless and is slowly converted in air into nitrogen
dioxide (NO2). Pure NO2 is a toxic, reddish-brown gas with pungent odor. NO2 can induce
irritation of the mucous membranes when present in the concentrations found in heavily
polluted air. Nitrous oxides play their part in damaging woods and forests (acid rain) and
creating smog.

Sulfur dioxide (SO2) Sulfur compounds in exhaust gases – primarily sulfur dioxide – are
produced by the sulfur content in fuels. SO2 emissions are caused only to a small extent by
motor vehicles and are not restricted by emission- control legislation. Nevertheless, the
production of sulfur compounds must be avoided to the greatest possible extent, since SO2
sticks to catalytic converters (Three-Way Catalysts, TWC, NOX accumulator-type catalysts)
and poisons them, i.e., reduces their reaction capability. Like nitrous oxides, SO2
contributes to the creation of acid rain, because it can be converted in the atmosphere or
after settling into sulfuric or nitric acid.

Particulates Solids are created in the form of particulates as a result of incomplete

combustion. While exhaust composition varies as a function of combustion process and
engine operating condition, these particulates basically consist of chains of carbon particles
(soot) with an extremely extended specific surface ratio.

Factors affecting untreated emissions:

The primary by-products when the air/fuel mixture is combusted are the pollutants NOX, CO
and HC. The quantities of these pollutants present in untreated exhaust gases (post-
combustion gases prior to exhaust treatment) display major variations in response to
different kinds of engine operation. The excess-air factor λ and the moment of ignition have
a crucial influence on the formation of pollutants

Air/fuel ratio Another primary factor defining the engine’s toxic emissions is the air/fuel
ratio (excessair factor λ). To obtain maximum emissions reductions from three-way catalytic
converters, manifold-injection engines run on a stoichiometric air/fuel mixture (λ= 1) in
most operating ranges.

Mixture formation In the interests of optimal combustion efficiency, the fuel destined for
combustion should be thoroughly dispersed to form the most homogeneous mixture
possible with the air. In manifold-injection engines, this refers to the overall combustion
chamber, while in engines with gasoline direct injection this refers only to the stratified-
charge cloud in the center of the combustionchamber

Engine speed Higher engine speeds lead to greater friction losses within the engine as well
as increased power consumption by auxiliary systems (e.g., water pump). Under these
conditions, the power output per consumed unit of energy decreases. The engine’s
operating efficiency falls as engine speed rises

Engine load The engine load or the generated engine torque has different effects on the
pollutant components carbon monoxide (CO), unburnt hydrocarbons (HC) and nitrous
oxides (NOX). The various influences are described in more detail below.

Moment of ignition The ignition of the air/fuel mixture, i.e., the period of time between
flashover and the formation of a stable flame front, is of decisive significance to the
combustion s equence. The character of the ignition process is shaped by the timing of the
flashover, the ignition energy, and the composition of the mixture at spark plug
Three Way Catalytic Converter:
The three-way catalytic converter converts the following pollutant components into non-
toxic components during the combustion of the air/fuel mixture: hydrocarbons (HCs),
carbon monoxide (CO) and nitrous oxides (NOX). The end products which result are water
vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2) and nitrogen (N2).

Conversion of pollutants:

The conversion of pollutants can be divided into oxidation and reduction reactions. For
example, oxidation of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons takes place according to the
following equations:

2 CO + O2 2 CO2 (eq. 1)

2 C2H6 + 7 O2 4 CO2 + 6 H2O (eq. 2)

Reduction of nitrous oxides takes place according to the following exemplary equations:

2 NO + 2 CO N2 + 2 CO2 (eq. 3)

2 NO2 + 2 CO N2 + 2 CO2 + O2 (eq. 4)

The oxygen needed to oxidize HCs and CO is drawn either directly from the exhaust gas or
from the nitrous oxides present in the exhaust gas, depending on the composition of the
air/fuel mixture.

Conversion rate: The quantity of released pollutants is derived from the concentration of
the pollutants in the untreated exhaust gas and from the conversion rate, i.e., from the
proportion that can be converted in the catalytic converter. Both variables are dependent
on the set excess-air factor λ.

The highest possible conversion rate for all three pollutant components requires a mixture
composition in the stoichiometric ratio of λ = 1.0. The window (lambda control range) in
which the air/fuel ratio λ must be situated is therefore very small. Mixture formation must
therefore be followed up in a lambda closed-loop control circuit.

NOX accumulator-type catalytic converter:

During lean-burn operation, it is impossible for the three-way catalytic converter to convert
the nitrous oxides (NOX) which have been generated during combustion. CO and HCs are
oxidized by the high residual-oxygen content in the exhaust gas and are therefore no longer
available as reducing agents for the nitrous oxides. The NOX accumulator-type catalytic
converter (NSC, NOX Storage Catalyst) converts the nitrous oxides in a different way.

The NOX accumulator-type catalytic converter is similar in design to the conventional three-
way converter. In addition to the platinum, palladium and rhodium coatings, the NOX
converter is provided with special additives which are capable of accumulating nitrous
oxides. Typical accumulator materials contain, for example, the oxides of potassium,
calcium, strontium, zirconium, lanthanum, or barium.

Method of operation At λ = 1, due to the noble-metal coating, the NOX converter operates
the same as a three-way converter. It also converts the non-reduced nitrous oxides in lean
exhaust gases. However, conversion is not a continuous process as it is with the
hydrocarbons and the carbon monoxide, but instead takes place in three distinct phases:

1. NOX accumulation (storage) 2. NOX removal 3. Conversion

NOX accumulation (storage) In lean-burn engine operation (λ > 1), the nitrous oxides (NOX)
are catalytically oxidized on the surface of the platinum coating to form nitrogen dioxide
(NO2). Then the NO2 reacts with the special oxides on the catalyst surface and with oxygen
(O2) to form nitrates. Thus, for instance, NO2 combines chemically with barium oxide (BaO)
to form the chemical compound barium nitrate Ba(NO3)2:

There are two methods in use to determine when the NOX converter is saturated and the
accumulation phase has finished: The model-supported process calculates the quantity of
stored NOX taking into account the catalyst temperature An NOX sensor (Fig. 5, Pos. 6)
downstream of the NOX converter measures the NOX concentration in the exhaust gas

NOX removal and conversion As the amount of stored nitrous oxides (charge) increases, so
the ability to continue to bind nitrous oxides decreases. This means that regeneration must
take place as soon as a given level is exceeded, i.e., the accumulated nitrous oxides must be
removed and converted. To this end, the engine is switched briefly to rich homogeneous
mode (λ < 0.8). The processes for removing the NOX and converting it into nitrogen and
carbon dioxide take place separately from each other. H2, HCs, and CO are used as reducing
agents.

Lambda control loop:

In order that the conversion rates of the three-way catalytic converter are as high as
possible for the pollutant components HC, CO and NOX, the reaction components must be
present in the stoichiometric ratio. This requires a mixture composition of λ = 1.0, i.e., the
stoichiometric air/fuel ratio must be adhered to very precisely. Mixture formation must
therefore be followed up in a control loop, because sufficient accuracy cannot be achieved
solely by controlling the metering of the fuel.

When the lambda control loop is used, deviations from a specific air/fuel ratio can be
detected and corrected through the quantity of fuel injected. The residual-oxygen content
in the exhaust gas, which is measured with lambda oxygen sensors, serves as the measure
for the composition of the air/fuel mixture.

For the purpose of two-step control which can only maintain a value of λ= 1, a twostep
lambda sensor is incorporated in the exhaust-gas branch upstream of the primary catalyst.
However, the use of a wide-band lambda sensor also permits continuous lambda closed-
loop control to λ values which deviate from the value 1. Greater accuracy is achieved by a
two-sensor control system in which a second lambda sensor is located downstream of the
main catalyst.

Two-step lambda control maintains the air/fuel mixture at λ = 1. A two-step lambda sensor
serving as a measuring sensor in the exhaust pipe constantly provides information on
whether the mixture is richer or leaner than λ = 1. A high sensor voltage (e.g., 800mV)
indicates a rich mixture, while a low sensor voltage (e.g., 200mV) indicates a leaner mixture.

On each transition from rich to lean and lean to rich, the sensor output signal demonstrates
a voltage jump, which is evaluated by a control circuit. The manipulated variable changes its
control direction in response to each voltage jump: The lambda controller lengthens or
shortens the time that the fuel injector is activated and thereby increases or reduces the
injected fuel quantity.