Chapter 3

Research Methodology

Methods of Identification to Measure Water flow Rate:

Float Method

Container Method

Manning’s Equation Method

Current Meter Method

Float Method

If discharge from the site flows through an open ditch or channel, another fairly simple method
to use is the fl oat method. This method requires the measurement and calculation of the cross-
sectional area of the channel as well as the time it takes an object to “fl oat” a designated
distance. This is the least accurate method of those presented in this guide but does provide a
reasonable estimate.

Container Method

A very easy method to estimate discharge is to simply measure the time it takes to fill a container
of a known volume. This method only works for systems with fairly low fl ow volume. Its main
limitation is that the discharge must fall from a pipe or ditch in such a way that the bucket can be
placed underneath it to capture all the discharge. Any size bucket can be used as long as it does
not fill up too fast to get an accurate measurement.

Manning’s Equation Method

This method can be used for open channels and partially filled pipes when the fl ow moves by the
force of gravity only (not pressurized). The Manning method is widely used for fl ow
measurements because it is easy to use once a few initial measurements have been made. This
method provides fairly reliable site discharge estimates. Official requirements state that the
channel should have uniform cross-section, slope, and roughness at least within the vicinity of
the measurement. In addition, the pipe (or channel) should be at least 100 feet long and should
not have any rapids, falls, or backup fl ow. For Ecology’s purposes a 20 foot long channel or
less would probably be sufficient, as long as the water is flowing evenly.

Current Meter Method

This method involves wading across a stream and taking velocity measurements at multiple
places. Both velocity and water depth measurements are taken at the same time and place in
multiple locations across the stream. There are many types of current meters. The most common
types are cup, propeller or magnetic. The cup or propeller types determine fl ow velocity by the
number of revolutions of the cups (or propeller) over a given period of time. Magnetic meters
measure the difference in water pressure as water flows around a sensor. All provide output in
ft/s or m/s. Some meters are more appropriate for small streams, some for larger systems

Method of Identification to Measure Head:

Total Station and Theodolite

Water Filled Tube and Pressure gauge

Dumpy Level

Sighting Meter

Altimeter

Total Station and Theodolite

Total station and theodolite are the most accurate and advance survey instruments and consist of
a pole with a prism, tripod, computer interface and batteries. The control points are required
before taking measurement. It require the skill and knowledge of surveying to operate the
instrument.

Water Filled Tube and Pressure gauge

It is probably the best of the simple methods available, but it does have its pitfalls. The two
sources or error which must be avoided are out of calibration gauges and air bubbles in the hose.
To avoid the first error, you should recalibrate the gauge both before and after each major site
survey. To avoid the second, you should use a clear plastic tube allowing you to see bubbles.

This method can be used on high-heads as well as low ones, but the choice of pressure gauge
depends on the head to be measured.
Dumpy Levels

The use of a dumpy level (or builder's level) is the conventional method for measuring head and should
be used wherever time and funds allow. Such equipment should be used by experienced operators who
are capable of checking the calibration of the device.

Dumpy levels are used with staffs to measure head in a series of stages. A dumpy level is a
device which allows the operator to take sight on a staff held by a colleague, knowing that the
line of sight is exactly horizontal. Stages are usually limited by the length of the staff to a height
change of no more than 3 m. A clear unobstructed view is needed, so wooded sites can be
frustrated with this method.

Dumpy levels only allow a horizontal sight but theodolite can also measure vertical and
horizontal angles, giving greater versatility and allowing faster work.

Sighting Meter

Hand-held sighting meters measures angle of inclination of a slope (they are often called
inclinometers or Abney levels). They can be accurate if used by an experienced person, but it is
easy to make mistakes and double checking is recommended. They are small and compact, and
sometimes include range finders which save the trouble of measuring linear distance. The error
will depend on the skill of the user and will typically be between 2 and 10 %.

Altimeter

These can be useful for high-head pre-feasibility studies. Surveying altimeters in experienced
hands will give errors of as little as 3% in 100 m. Atmospheric pressure variations need to be
allowed for, however, and this method cannot be generally recommended except for approximate
readings.

Penstock Selection and Design

The factors that need to be considered in designing and selecting the penstock material are
briefly described in this section. The most important factor to be considered while designing the
penstock pipe is the material to be used as a penstock. Usually mild steel and HDPE pipes are
used in MHP (Micro Hydro Project). There are several factors to be considered when selecting
material to be used in the penstock pipe. Table 3 illustrates the possibilities of using different
kinds of material based on various factors. The more the number of “stars” the more favorable is
the material type under different characteristics. For example, if friction loss was the major
concern in selection, uPVC type of penstock would clearly be the first choice.

After selecting the material for the penstock pipe, it is necessary to determine its diameter. The
most important design parameter in this selection is that the velocity of the water should be in
between 2.5 m/s to 3.5 m/s. If the velocity is lower or higher it can cause loss in the power output
and thus be uneconomical in the longer run. The equation for determining the diameter of the
pipe (Fox, 2004) is given by;

dpipe = √ 4𝑄
3.14(𝑉)

Where;

dpipe = inside diameter of pipe (m)

Q = flow rate (m3/s)

V = average velocity in the pipe (m/s)

After selecting the material and the diameter of the penstock it is necessary to calculate the head
loss in the pipe length. The head loss is measured by the given formula;

𝑓.𝑙.𝑣^2
hf = 2.𝑔.𝑑

f = friction factor for pipe material (dimension less)

l = length of pipe (m)

𝑚
v = Average velocity in pipe ( 𝑠 )

d = inside pipe diameter (m)

Construction of Settling Basin

For the construction of the settling basin, the first step is to choose a suitable width of the basin
(W). Rule of the thumb dictates that the width of the settling basin should be two to five times
larger than that of the headrace canal trying to make it as bigger as possible depending upon the
available width in the MHP (Micro Hydro Project) location (Pandey B. , 2006). After
determination of the width, the next process is to calculate the length of settling basin (Lsettling) by
using the equation:

Lsettling = 2×Q / (W × Vvertical)

Where,

Q = design flow (m3/s)

Vvertical = fall velocity (For the settling particles of 0.3 mm diameter the fall
velocity is taken as 0.03 m/s)
By this equation the length of the settling basin is determined, but it is very important to check at
this time that the length of the settling basin is around four to ten times its width. After
determination of the length of the settling basin, it is necessary to calculate the silt load (Sload)of
the settling basin, which is given by:

Sload = Q × T × C

where,
Sload = silt load (kg)

Q = discharge (m3/s)

T = silt emptying frequency in seconds. In MHP (Micro Hydro Project), 12

hours or 43,200 seconds is used (Pandey B. , 2006).
C = silt concentration of incoming flow (kg/m3) [If there are no silt concentration data,

0.5 kg/m3 can be safely used (Pandey B. , 2006).

After determination of these dimensions it is necessary to finally calculate the
volume of the silt load by;
VOsilt = S / S density . P factor
load
Where;

VOsilt = volume of silt stored in basin

Sdensity = density of silt (2.600 kg/m3 is generally used)

Pfactor = packing factor of sediments submerged in water (50% is generally used)

After calculating the volume of the silt it is then necessary to calculate the
average depth required for the settling basin (Dcollection) which can be given
by:
Dcollection = VOsilt / (Lsettling × W)

Design of Forebay Tank

Having discussed the construction of the settling basin it should be noted here that the
construction of the forebay tank is very much similar to the design of the settling basin. The only
difference between the construction of the forebay tank and the settling basin is that the forebay
tank is connected to the penstock pipes.

While constructing the forebay tank, the first step is to calculate the submergence head which is
the depth of water above the crown of the penstock pipe. It should be carefully designed because
if the submergence head is too small air can enter into the pipe causing variations in the penstock
flow as well as causing explosion of penstock pipe due to entry of unwanted air in the pipes.
(ENTEC AG, March 2001).The basic rule of the thumb while calculating the submergence head
is given by the equation:

Hs ≥1.5 V2/2g

Where

V=velocity in the penstock

Hs=minimum submergence head

Allowable submergence head=4*Hs

Hdesire=4.dia of penstock

Depth of forebay=Hdesire+2*dia of penstock+Extra Allowance

Volume of Forebay=(60-120).Q

Area of Forebay=Volume/Depth

Selection of Turbine

The parameters that help in the choice of turbine are tabulated below in table 4. It is primarily the
head measurement that determines the selection of a suitable turbine for a particular MHS (Micro
Hydropower System). (Hydraulic Energy Program et al., 2004). For example, in cases where the
head measurement is more than 50 meters, pelton or turgo types of turbines are chosen over
others. Similarly, when the head measurement is in between 10 meters and 50 meters, cross-
flow, turgo or multijet pelton types of tur- bine are preferred. In cases where the head
measurement is lower than 10 meters, cross- flow turbine is preferred. The selection for reaction
type of turbines is also made in a similar way, and these criteria are summarized in table 4.

Table 4: Factors affecting the selection of the Turbine for MHS (Micro Hydropower System)

Head Classification Types of Turbine

Impulse Reaction
Head (>50m) Pelton, Turgo
Medium (10-50m) Cross flow, turgo ,multijet Francis (spiral case)
Pelton
Low (<10m) Cross flow Propeller , Kaplan ,
Francis(open flume)

Generator

Synchronous generators are used in most MHP (Micro Hydro Project) because it has the ability
to establish its own operating voltage and maintain frequency while it is operat- ing in a remote
location. (Harper, December 2011)