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Polity in Ancient India

Tribal polity in Rig Veda

Early Vedic political institutions, which are referred to in the Rig-

veda, were characterised by elements commonly associated with a
tribal polity. The family or kula was the basic unit of political
organisation headed by the Kulapa or grihapati. The next unit,
grama or village was headed by the gramani. The Vis or a group of
villages was headed by the Vispati. The highest unit, Jana or tribe
consisted of a group of Vis headed by the tribal chief. The
administrative machinery of the Aryans in this period worked
with the tribal chief in the centre, because of his successful
leadership in war. He was called rajan. It seems that in the Rig
Vedic period the king’s post had become hereditary. However, the
chief or the king did not exercise unlimited power, for he had to
reckon with the tribal organizations. The king was called the
protector of his tribe as he protected its cattle, fought its wars and
offered prayers to gods on its behalf.
There are indications to suggest that the early Vedic raja may
have been chosen by his people, the vish or the Jana. Further, in a
situation where the resources for maintaining a regular standing
army were absent, the raja depended on the vish who constituted
the militia.
Thus, although the raja or the janasyagopa (i.e., the protector of
the jana) was certainly more prosperous and powerful than the
other members of the Jana owing to his access to the loot
obtained in battle and the tribute or bali offered by his own
people, he depended greatly on popular support in order to
exercise his powers effectively.
Several tribal or the clan-based assemblies such as the Sabha,
Samiti, Vidatha, Gana are mentioned in the Rigveda. They
exercised deliberative, military and religious functions. The
Vidatha seems to be a more popular assembly than either Sabha
or Samiti in the Rig Vedic period. The Vidatha was an assembly in
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which both men and women participated. It functioned as centers

for settling disputes, redistribution, and provided a place for
performing sacrifice. The Sabha was the ‘Body of the Elders’ and
constituted mainly of the Brahmanas and the elite. The speaker of
Sabha was called Sabhapati and its members, Sabhya.
The Samiti was more in the nature of a folk assembly in which the
entire population could participate. The members of the Samiti
were called Vishah. The most important function of the Samiti
was the election of the king. The Sabha, a selected body was more
like an advisory council.
In the day-to-day administration, the king was assisted by a few
functionaries. We do have references to the senani or the general,
thepurohita or the priest, the gramani or the head of the grama
and to spasas or spies, but these do not seem to have organised
into a formal bureaucracy. The Rigveda does not mention any
officer for administering justice and officer concerned with tax-
collection.
Gana, the technical word for the republic, is found at forty-six
places in the Rigveda. There were a few non-monarchical states
(Gana) whose head was ganapatior Jyestha (elder).
Later Vedic period:
The later Vedic period witnessed certain significant changes in the
political structure which were closely related to the growing
importance of settled agriculture and the consequent social
differentiation. Later Vedic literature contains, probably for the
first time, discussions on the origins of kingship which is quaintly
stated in the Aitareya Brahmana.
Various possibilities are explored. These include a suggestion that
kingship originated out of the need for a leader in warfare. Other
theories emphasised the divine origin of kingship. Certain other
theories emphasised contractual elements, suggesting that the
raja was chosen by his people who hoped for specific material
gains in return.
With the decreasing importance of pastoralism, raids became
insignificant. The raja’s function now was to protect the fields or
crops of the agriculturists rather than cattle wealth. Bali (tribute)
though voluntary in the Rig Vedic period, became compulsory.
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There are also indications to suggest that such exactions could

often be oppressive. Thus, the Kshatriya or the raja is described as
the Visha matta or the eater of the vish in the Satapatha
Brahmana. In later Vedic times popular assemblies lost
importance, and royal power increased at their cost. The Vidatha
completely disappeared. The Sabha and Samiti continued to hold
the ground, but their character changed.
They came to be dominated by chiefs and rich nobles. Women
were no longer permitted to sit on the Sabha. The Sabha was
gradually converted into the King’s court, becoming an even more
exclusive body than earlier.
Another significant development associated with this period was
the emergence of the janapada, literally the area where they’re
placed its foot or settled down. Some of these newjanapadas seem
to have been formed through the amalgamation of separate Janas.
The term rashtra, which indicates territory, first appears in this
period.
The emergence of the janapada was also associated with the
beginning of a rudimentary administrative system. The later
Vedic texts refer to the ministers of the king called ‘ratnins’i.e.
receivers of the jewels which were offered by the king-elect to
each of them at his house at the ceremony called ratnahavimsi.
The Atharva Veda mentions these king makers to be Suta (bard),
the Ratha-Kara, Karmara (artisan), Gramaniand the Rajas
(nobles). These ‘kingmakers’ grew in number in the later texts.
Taittiriya Brahmana mentions twelve ratnins.
They are:
(i) Brahmana (Purohita)
(2) Rajanya
(3) Mahishi (Chief queen)
(4) Vavata (favourite wife)
(5) Parivrikti (discarded wife)
(6) Suta (Charioteer)
(7) Senani
(8) Gramani,
(9) Kshata (Chamberlain)
(10) Samgrahitri (treasurer)
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(11) Bhagadugha (Collector of taxes)

(12) Akshavapa (superintendent of dicing).
During this period, collection of taxes and tribute seems to have
been common. It was collected by Bhagadugha and was deposited
with an officer called Sangrihitri. As the raja became less of a
popular ruler and more coercive, elaborate means were devised to
legitimise his position. These included sacrifices such as the
rajasuya, the vajapeya and ashvamedha.
These rituals were virtually unknown in the early Vedic period
and seem to have been devised to enhance the importance of both
the new rulers and the priestly category who provided them with
support. The rajasuya sacrifice was supposed to confer supreme
power on him. He performed the Ashvamedha, which meant
unquestioned control over an area in which the royal horse ran
uninterrupted.
He also performed the Vajapeya or the chariot race in which the
royal chariot was made to win the race against his kinsmen. Rad-
Yajna was a special ceremony by which a deposed king could get
back his kingdom or a reigning king the lost royalty of his subject.
Coronation was followed by striking the king on the back by the
rod (dandairghanti) by the Adhvaryu priest and his assistant
thereby rendering the king adandya (above punishment). Even in
later Vedic times the king did not possess a standing army. The
later Vedic period witnessed the beginning of territorial
kingdoms. War was fought for territory. The famous Mahabharata
battle fought between the Kauravas and the Pandavas, is
attributed to this period.
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Rig vedic polity

 Aryan – semi nomadic, pastoral communities

Did not form large empire leading to state.
 Developed only Tribal Principalities. So in order to know about political
system, we have to examine the social structure

Social Structure Based on Kinship (family relations.)

 We get to know about terms used like Gotra (cowshed) and Vrata ( • troop
or kin based group , operated under vratapati.)
 Grama (meant collection of related families)
 Basic element of social structure
 Came to denote a village when members took to agricultural and
sedentary life.
 Smallest political unit.

• Terms as Jana and Vis – suggest tribal stage.

Jana :

highest social unit

related to tribe
its chief known as Janapati

Vis :

sub-division of Jana; clan of a tribe

chief – Vispati

Visas were fighting units

 In battles, battalions were arranged as per vis, from which they had
been recruited.
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The Basic elements of a State Fixed territory,Regular source of income &

Strong army were missing in the vedic period. But the process that gave rise
to state organs had already begun.

Tribal Assemblies
1. Vidhata

 It was a Folk assembly attended by both men and women (who took part in
vedic sacrifices and deliberations). Participation of women differed it from
sabha and samiti.
 Performed all kinds of functions- economic, military and social.
 Made laws and ordinances for the regulation of tribal affairs.

2. Sabha

 Popular body (regarded as twin daughters of Prajapati, the creator – sabha

and samiti.)
 Accoerding to Ludwig – it was like the upperhouse – represented by priests
and aristocrats.
 Zimmar – called it village assembly.
 Sabha was a tribal assembly where the member debated over the
domestication of cattle; played dice and offered prayers and sacrifices.
 It transacted both political and non political business. It deliberated over
pastoral affairs and matters related to religion.
 Sabha conducted its business by debate and discussions.
 King attented the sabha and considered its advice to be of supreme
importance.
 Sabha President was known as Sabhapati. Its members were men of
distinction and high social status (who came seated in carriage etc.)
 In Rig Veda Period, women attented sabha but later discontinued.
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3. Samiti

 During Rigveda it was – assembly of vedic tribes.

 Ludwig calls it lower house, a more comprehensive body consisting of all
common people, Brahmans and the rich patrons.
 Members – men of substance and enjoyed high school.
 Imp. Function –
Election of king
2. all matters of state, military and executive affairs were discussed
and decided by samiti.
3. even non-political questions were discussed.
 Debates and discussions were held with a view to achieve concord.
Agreement between king and assembly considered important.

CONCLUSION – The existence of these institution suggest that people in

vedic period took politics seriously. But as state grew large, samiti had
problem in meeting often and excercising regular control. So, with time,
power and king increased and samiti disappeared from political scene.

Later Vedic Developments

 Settled life
 Agriculture
 Regular payment of tribute to the chief/raja.
 Priests developed rituals to ensure subordination of peasantry to
Raja.
 Development of strong central authority.
 Improvement in material situation, in mid-gangatic plain – need of
protection of private properties and particularly family.
 Surplus

All led to formation of state.Even though India, in the past, did not have
democracies in the mod-sense, but govt. by discussion was not unknown.
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