Lec_01_Introduction.

pdf
Lec_2_TOP1.pptx
Lec_3_TOP2.pptx
Lec_04_Points and Lines.pptx
Lec_05_Dimensioning.pptx
Lec_06_Sectioning.pptx
Lec_08_Ortho Reading Writing.pptx
Lec_10_Engineering Curves.pptx
Lec_11_Develpment of Surrfaces.pptx
Lec_12_Joining of Materials.pptx
Lec_13_Geometric Tolerancing (1).pptx
Lec_14_Production_Drawing_2.pptx
Lec_15_Assembly_Drawing.pptx
 ME-102
Engineering Graphics
Lecture 1
Introduction
Course Instructor:
Aaqib Ali
Research Associate
Office # G-07 – FME
Office Ext. 2368
 Outcome Based Education (OBE)
• System of education that revolves around goals
(outcomes) the students are to achieve through a
degree program.
Outcome Based Education (OBE)
Institute
Vision/Mission

Faculty
Vision/Mission

Program
Eductional
Objectives
(PEO's)

Program
Learning
Outcomes
(PLO's)

Course Course Course Course

Learning Learning Learning Learning
Outcome Outcome Outcome Outcome
(CLO1) (CLO2) (CLO3) (CLO4)
 Course Learning Outcomes
Sr. No Course Learning Outcomes PLOs Blooms Taxonomy

Students will demonstrate the

CLO_1 basic understanding of PLO1 C2
engineering graphics

Student will be able to

CLO_2 communicate, represent and PLO10 A4
document the design ideas.

Students will be able to use

CLO_3 modern CAD tools to basic PLO5 P2
design levels
 Course Learning Outcomes
• The CLO’s are mapped to PLO’s and are
evaluated at the end of each course.
• You need to achieve at least 40% of each PLO.
• If you fail to achieve at least 40% in any of the
12 PLO’s at the end of your 4 year program,
necessary action may be taken against you.
• PLO’s, PEO’s and vision/mission of faculty
and institute are available on the GIKI web site
 Text Book and Other Resources
• Text Book: Technical Graphics Communication 3rd
edition by Eric N. Wiebe and Garry R. Bertoline
(Soft copy be made available through e-mail/portal)

• Lectures, E-Books and other Self Study Material

(Will be shared through e-mail/portal)
Please reach in class at least 5 minutes earlier.
Door will be locked after 5 minutes.
Grading Policy (Subject to Change)

• Quizzes = 10% (2 Mega Quizzes)

• Assignments = 5% (At least 3)
• Lab = 40%
• Mid Exam = 15%
• Final Exam = 30%
Please note that you have to
score a minimum of 35 to pass
the course (FME Policy)
What is Engineering Design??
Typical Engineering Design Cycle
Problem
Identification

Preliminary Ideas

Design Refinement

Analysis

Optimization

Documentation
 Graphics in Design Process
Technical graphics is a real and complete language
used in the design process for:

1. Visualization
2. Communication
3. Documentation
Visualization
• Visualization is the ability to mentally picture things
that are not there.
• Ability to visualize problem solutions and
communicate them through sketches is one of the
most important skill of a designer.
Communication
• Refinement of your initial
sketches so that your design
solution can be communicated
to others without ambiguity.

• Usually done by creating a

three dimensional (3D) model
Documentation
• Is a process to permanently
record that solution/Final
sketch/Design.

• 2D drawing follow strict standard

practices. These standards are
the language used to
communicate graphically.

• 3D graphical representation can

also be part of the final
documentation
 Engineering Graphics
It refers basically to the use of
Drawings/Sketches to represent
design ideas, configurations &
specifications and analysis for an
engineering project.
Effectiveness of Graphics Language
1. Try to write a description of
this object.

2. Test your written description

by having someone attempt
to make a sketch from your
description.

You can easily understand that …

The word languages are inadequate for describing the
size, shape and features completely as well as
concisely.
Composition of Graphic Language
Graphic language in “engineering application” uses
lines to represent the surfaces, edges and contours
of objects.

The language is known as “drawing” or “drafting” .

A drawing can be done using freehand, instruments

or computer methods.
Freehand drawing
The lines are sketched without using instruments other
than pencils and erasers.

Example
Instrument drawing
Instruments are used to draw straight lines, circles, and
curves concisely and accurately. Thus, the drawings are
usually made to scale.

Example
 Computer Aided drawing
The drawings are usually made by commercial software
such as AutoCAD, Pro-E/ CREO, solid works etc.

Example
 Engineering Drawing
• An engineering drawing is a set of
drawings/Views/Sections etc. that communicates an
idea, design, schematic or model.
• Engineering drawing is an universal graphic language,
known as the language of engineers.
• It is used by engineers to develop and record their
ideas and transmit them to others for execution.

Different types of drawing

For e.g. mechanical engineers need productions
drawing to manufacture a component or assembly.
 Elements of Engineering Drawing
Engineering drawing are made up of graphics language
and word language.

Graphics
language
Describe a shape/geometry
(mainly).

Word
language
Describe size, location and
specification of the object.
 Drawing Standards
Standards are set of rules that govern how technical
drawings are represented.

Drawing standards are used so that drawings convey

the same meaning to everyone who reads them.
 Standard Code
Country Code Full name

Turkey TS Turkish Standard

USA ANSI American National Standard Institute
Japan JIS Japanese Industrial Standard
UK BS British Standard
Australia AS Australian Standard
Germany DIN Deutsches Institut für Normung

ISO International Standards Organization

 Drawing Sheet
A4
Trimmed paper of
a size A0 ~ A4.
A3
Standard sheet size
(ISO) A2

A4 210 x 297
A3 297 x 420 A1
A2 420 x 594
A1 594 x 841
A0 841 x 1189
(Dimensions in millimeters) A0
 Orientation of drawing sheet

1. Type X (A0~A4) 2. Type Y (A4 only)

c
d
d c Drawing
Border Drawing space
space Title block
lines Title block
c

Sheet size c (min) d (min)

A4 10 25
A3 10 25
A2 10 25
A1 20 25
A0 20 25
 Drawing Scales
Length, size
Scale is the ratio of the linear dimension of an element
of an object shown in the drawing to the real linear
dimension of the same element of the object.

Size in drawing Actual size

:
 Drawing Scales
Designation of a scale consists of the word “SCALE”
followed by the indication of its ratio, as follow

SCALE 1:1 for full size

SCALE X:1 for enlargement scales (X > 1)
SCALE 1:X for reduction scales (X > 1)

Dimension numbers shown in the drawing are correspond

to “true size” of the object and they are independent of
the scale used in creating that drawing.
 Basic Line Types
Name according
Types of Lines Appearance
to application

Continuous thick line Visible line

Continuous thin line Dimension line

Extension line
Leader line

Dash thick line Hidden line

Chain thin line Center line

NOTE : We will learn other types of line in later chapters.

 Meaning of Lines
Visible lines represent features that can be seen in the
current view
Hidden lines represent features that can not be seen in
the current view

Center line represents symmetry, path of motion, centers

of circles, axis of axisymmetrical parts

Dimension and Extension lines indicate the sizes and

location of features on a drawing
Example : Line conventions in engineering drawing
DRAWING TOOLS

Drawing Boards
 DRAWING TOOLS

1. T-Square 2. Triangles
 DRAWING TOOLS

2H or HB for thick line

4H for thin line

3. Adhesive Tape 4. Pencils

 DRAWING TOOLS

5. Sandpaper 6. Compass
 DRAWING TOOLS

7. Pencil Eraser 8. Circular Template 10. Sharpener

DRAWING TOOLS

11. Scales
Sketching Techniques
Self study
• Engineering Drawing rules
• Freehand sketching
• Line types
• Lettering

• Student’s should contact Teaching

Assistants/Lab Engineers incase of any
problem.
• If not solved
• Office hours (14:30 ~ 16:30 HRS)
Monday ~ Thursday
End of Lecture 1
Thank you…
 ME-102
Engineering Graphics

Lecture #: 2
Projection Theory
(Part: One)

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering

Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences & Technology
 PROJECTION METHOD

Perspective Parallel

Oblique Orthographic

Axonometric Multiview
2
 PROJECTION THEORY

The projection theory is used to graphically represent

3-D objects on 2-D media (paper, computer screen).

The projection theory is based on two variables:

1) Line of sight
2) Plane of projection (image plane or picture plane)

3
 OBJECT FEATURES
Edges are lines that represent the boundary
between two faces.

Corners Represent the intersection of two or

more edges.
Edge Edge No edge

Corner No corner No corner

 OBJECT FEATURES
Surfaces are areas that are bounded by edges
or limiting element.
Limiting is a line that represents the last visible
element part of the curve surface.
Surface Surface Surface

Limit
Limit
 Line of sight is an imaginary ray of light between an
observer’s eye and an object.(projectors)

There are 2 types of LOS : parallel and converge

Parallel projection Perspective projection

Line of sight
Line of sight

6
Plane of projection is an imaginary flat plane which
the image is created.

The image is produced by connecting the points where

the LOS pierce the projection plane.

Parallel projection Perspective projection

Plane of projection Plane of projection

7
Orthographic projection is a parallel projection
technique in which the parallel lines of sight are
perpendicular to the projection plane

Object views from top

1

2
1 5 2 3 4

5
3

Projection plane
8
 ORTHOGRAPHIC VIEW
Orthographic view depends on relative position of the object
to the line of sight.
Rotate

Two dimensions of an
object is shown. Tilt

More than one view is needed

to represent the object.

Multiview drawing

Three dimensions of an object is shown.

Axonometric drawing
9
 ORTHOGRAPHIC VIEW
NOTES

Orthographic projection technique can produce either

1. Multiview drawing : that each view show an object in two
dimensions.
2. Axonometric drawing : that show all three dimensions of
an object in one view.

Both drawing types are used in technical drawing for

communication.

10
Axonometric (Isometric) Drawing
Advantage Easy to understand

Disadvantage Shape and angle distortion

Example Distortions of shape and size in isometric drawing

Circular hole
becomes ellipse.

Right angle becomes obtuse angle.

11
 Multiview Drawing
Advantage It represents accurate shape and size.

Disadvantage Require practice in writing and reading.

Example Multiviews drawing (2-view drawing)

12
 MULTIVIEW PROJECTION
Three principle dimensions … can be presented only
of an object … two in each view.

Adjacent view(s)

Depth
is needed to
Height fulfill the size
description.

Width Depth
Height

Width Depth 13
 TO OBTAIN MULTIVIEW
REPRESENTATION OF AN OBJECT

1. Revolve the object with respect

to observer.

2. The observer move around the

object.

14
REVOLVE THE OBJECT

Top view

Front view Right side view 15

OBSERVER MOVE AROUND
Top view

Front view Right side view 16

 THE GLASS BOX CONCEPT

Rear view

Left side view

Bottom view 17
History

Depth
Width
Height

18
 Six Principal View
(Object in Glass Box)

Page 19 of 30
 Six Principal Views
Six principal views produced
by mutually perpendicular
planes of projection.

Page 20 of 30
 PROJECTION SYSTEMS
1. First angle system
- European country
- ISO standard First Quadrant

2. Third angle system

- Canada, USA,
Japan, Mostly In PAK

Third
Quadrant
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
1st angle system 3rd angle system
 ORTHOGRAPHIC VIEWS
1st angle system 3rd angle system

Folding
line

Folding
line
Folding
line

Folding
line
 ORTHOGRAPHIC VIEWS
1st angle system 3rd angle system

Right Side View Front View Top View

Top View Front View Right Side View

 PROJECTION SYMBOLS
First angle system Third angle system
How to make an Orthogonal Multi-View Drawing

1. Draw the front view.

2. Then project the view vertically
to form the top view.
3. Project lines from the top and
front views to make the side
view. You need to construct a 45
degree line to achieve this.
End of Lecture 2
Thank you….

27
 ME-102
Engineering Graphics

Lecture #: 3
Projection Theory
(Part: Two)

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering

Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences & Technology
 PROJECTION METHOD

Perspective Parallel

Oblique Orthographic

Axonometric Multiview
Perspective Projection
• Perspective projection mimic what the
human eye sees.
• Requires that the object be positioned
at finite distance and viewed from a
single point (SP: Station Point)

• Projectors are not parallel.

• Image formed is always
shorter/larger than the actual
dimension of the object.
• Are somewhat difficult to create.
Disadvantage of
Perspective Projection

Perspective projection is not

used by engineer for
manufacturing of parts,
because:

1) It is difficult to create.
2) It does not reveal exact
Width is distorted
shape and size.
One, Two & Three Point Perspective Projection
One, Two & Three Point Perspective Projection
One, Two & Three Point Perspective Projection
 Axonometric Projection
Parallel & normal
to picture plane
B
A

D
Line C
of B
A
sight
D
C
Axonometric Projection
Type of axonometric drawing
Axonometric axis
a
1. Isometric All angles are equal.
b c

B
A B
a Axonometric axis
AC D
2. Dimetric b c Two angles are equal.
D

a Axonometric axis
3. Trimetric b c None of angles are
equal.
 Isometric Drawing
Isometric drawing is a drawing drawn on an isometric
axes using full scale.

Isometric projection Isometric drawing

(True projection) (Full scale)

Forshorten

Full scale
 Positions of Isometric Axes
Isometric axes can be arbitrarily positioned to create
different views of a single object.

Regular Reverse axis Long axis

isometric isometric isometric

View point is looking View point is looking View point is looking

down on the top of up on the bottom of from the right (or left)
the object. the object. of the object.
Distance in Isometric Drawing
True-length distances are shown along
isometric lines.
Isometric line is the line that run parallel to any of
the isometric axes.

Nonisometric lines

Isometric axes
 Sketch from an actual object
1. Place the object in the position which its shape
and features are clearly seen.

2. Define an isometric axis.

3. Sketching the enclosing box.

4. Estimate the size an and relationship of each
details.
5. Darken all visible lines.
 Sketch from an actual object

STEPS

1. Positioning object.

2. Select isometric axis.

3. Sketch enclosing box.

4. Add details.

5. Darken visible lines.

 Sketch from an actual object
STEPS
1. Positioning object.
2. Select isometric axis.
3. Sketch enclosing
box.
4. Add details.

5. Darken visible lines.

Note In isometric sketch/drawing), hidden lines are omitted

unless they are absolutely necessary to completely
describe the object.
 Sketch from multiview drawing

1. Interprete the meaning of lines/areas in

multiview drawing.

2. Locate the lines or surfaces relative to isometric

axis.
Example 1 : Object has only normal surfaces

Top
Regular H
Top View
Front
Side

W
D
Front View Side View
H

W D
Side
Front
Reverse
Bottom View
Bottom
Example 2 : Object has inclined surfaces

D
Nonisometric line

H
y

x
x Front View
W
Example 3 : Object has inclined surfaces

C B A x

x x
B

C A

y y

C
B A

Nonisometric line
 Oblique Projection

Parallel & oblique

to picture plane

A
A
Line
B B
of C
sight C
D
D
 Oblique Projection
• Is the basis for oblique drawing and sketching.
• Form of parallel projection, projectors are parallel to each other.
• Projectors are not perpendicular to the plane of projection.
• One face of an object is parallel to the plane of projection.
 Oblique Projection
Oblique drawing angle

60o
45o
A
30o
B

C
A B Type of Oblique drawing
D
1) Cavalier 2) Cabinet
C D
Full
scale Half
scale

45o 45o
 Oblique Drawings
Place complex features (arc, hole, irregular shape
surface parallel to frontal plane.

Orientation Guidelines
 Object Orientation Guidelines
The longest dimension of an object should be
parallel to the frontal plane.

GOOD GOOD

WORSE WORSE
 Object Orientation Guidelines

Which orientation is better ?

Sketch from actual object

ESTIMATE DEPTH
ESTIMATE LINES

45
Sketch from multiview drawing
Sketch from multiview drawing
 ASSIGNMENT #1
Draw two isometric drawing (both on single page) of a cube
with length of each side =40mm & 50mm. Draw inscribed
circles on each of the expose faces of the cubes (As in Fig)
Instructions:
Draw on A4 paper, in portrait
layout with Margins & Title Box
as demonstrated.
Draw circles as per Hints on next
slide
SUBMIT IN THE NEXT
CLASS
No assignments to TA’s or my
office Acceptable.
Late submissions = ZERO
Hints for Inscribed circles

Cube 1 (40mm) Cube 2 (50mm)

 Thank you….
End of Lecture 3
 ME-102
Engineering Graphics
Lecture #: 4

Projection of Points
and Lines

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering

Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences & Technology
Quadrants & Plane of Projection
Quadrant System
• If the Horizontal and the
frontal planes are
extended to an infinite
distance, they will form
a quadrant system. 2nd Q 1st Q

• Each of the quadrant 4th Q

3rd Q
has specific name and
properties
Note
Q = Quadrant
Projection of Points
 The position of a point in the quadrant system can be better judged
by the provided statement.
1. In front of Vertical plane (VP)
2. Behind the Vertical plane (VP)
3. Above the Horizontal plane (HP)
4. Below the Horizontal plane (HP)
 The distance from the vertical plane is visible in the top view.
 The distance from the Horizontal plane is visible in the front view.
Projection of Points
With Reference to H.P. With Reference to V.P.
Above In Front
Below Behind
Within Within

Nine possible positions with respect to the two reference planes.

Above the H.P. & In Front of the V.P. 1st Q
Above the H.P. & Behind the V.P. 2nd Q
Below the H.P. & Behind the V.P. 3rd Q
Below the H.P. & In Front of the V.P. 4th Q
Above the H.P. & Within the V.P. -----
Below the H.P. & Within the V.P. -----
Within the H.P. & In Front of the V.P. -----
Within the H.P. & Behind the V.P. -----
Within the H.P. & Within the V.P. On the Reference Line
Point Infront VP and Above HP
Front View
Elevation (F.V.)
Point

X Y

Plan (T.V.)

Final representation on paper.

Top View
Point Behind VP and Above HP
Front View
Top View Elevation (F.V.)

Plan (T.V.)

X Y

Point

Final representation on paper.

Point Behind VP and Below HP

Plan (T.V.)

X Y

Top View
Elevation (F.V.)

Final representation on paper.

Point
Front View
Point Infront VP and Below HP

Top View

X Y
Elevation (F.V.)

Plan (T.V.)

Final representation on paper.

Front View

Point
Point Lying on a Plane

Top View
Elevation (F.V.)
X Y

Plan (T.V.)
Front View

Final representation on paper.

Point
Point Lying on Origin

Front View

Top View
Elevation (F.V.)
X Y
Plan (T.V.)

Final representation on paper.

Point
Projection of Lines
Positions of a straight lines w.r.t Horizontal and Vertical Planes
1. Parallel to both planes
2. Perpendicular to one plane (must be parallel to the other plane)
– Perpendicular to the H.P. (must be parallel to the V.P.)
– Perpendicular to the V.P. (must be parallel to the H.P.)
3. Inclined to one plane and parallel to the other plane
– Inclined to the H.P. and parallel to the V.P.
– Inclined to the V.P. and parallel to the H.P.
4. Inclined to both planes
Line Parallel to both Planes
1st Quadrant Elevation (F.V.)
Front View
a´ b´

b´
X Y
a´ B

a b
A b Plan (T.V)

In this case both ab and a΄b΄ will be equal in

length and both will represent true length of
Top View line AB. Both ab and a΄b΄ will be parallel to
XY line.
Line Perpendicular to Horizontal Plane
1st Quadrant
Elevation (F.V.)
Front View
a´

b´ b´
B
X Y

a´
A ab
Plan (T.V)
ab

In this case elevation a´b´ will show the true

length of the line, whereas the plan of the
Top View line will be a point represented by ab.
Line Perpendicular to Vertical Plane
1st Quadrant
Elevation (F.V.)
Front View
a´ b´

a´ b´
X Y
A a
B

Plan (T.V) b

In this case plan ab will show the true

length of the line, whereas the elevation of
Top View the line will be a point represented by a´b´.
Line Inclined to Horizontal Plane b´1
1st Quadrant
Elevation (F.V.)
Front View
b´ 
a´ b´

B
X Y
a´

a b1 b
A
b Plan (T.V)
 = angle w.r.t. to HP
a

In this case the elevation will show its true

length and true inclination with HP. The
Top View length of the plan will be shorter than the
length of the line itself.
Line Inclined to Vertical Plane
1st Quadrant
Elevation (F.V.)  = angle w.r.t. to VP
Front View
a´ b´1 b´

b´
X Y
a´
B a b

A Plan (T.V)
b
a b1

In this case the plan will show the true

length and inclination with the VP. The
Top View elevation will be shorter in length than the
true length of the line itself.
Line Inclined to Both Planes
b´2 b´
1st Quadrant
Elevation (F.V.)
Front View

b´ a´ b´1

B X Y
a´
a b

A
Plan (T.V.)
b
a
b2 b1
Let  be the angle w.r.t. HP and  be the
angle w.r.t. VP.
Top View
In this case neither plan nor elevation will
show the true length and true inclinations.
Example: Line Inclined to Both Planes
Example:
A line AB 80 mm long has its end A 30 mm above the H.P. and 20
mm in front of the V.P. The line is inclined at 30º to the H.P. and at
45º to the V.P. Draw its projections.

Given:
AB = 80 mm = T.L.
End A is 30 mm above H.P.
and 20 mm in front of V.P.
True Inclination with H.P. = θ = 30º
True Inclination with V.P. = Φ = 45º
Solution: Line Inclined to Both Planes
1. Firstly assuming AB
parallel to VP and inclined at
an angle of 30º to HP. Draw Elevation (F.V.)
its elevation a´b´ and plan
ab.
2. Similarly now assume AB
to be parallel to HP and
incline to VP at an angle of
45º. Draw ab1 (plan) and
a´b1´ (elevation).
3. Now with a´ as center and
radius equal to a´b1´ draw
an arc intersecting line Plan (T.V.)
B(F.V). Join a´ and b2´.
4. Now with a as center and
radius equal to ab draw an
arc intersecting line B(T.V).
Join a and b2. ANS: Lines ab2 and a´b2´ are the required projections of
line AB.
Finding the True Length & Angles of Line
When a line is inclined to both the reference, its projection will
neither show true length nor true inclination. The following are the
methods of determining true length and true inclination of the line
when line is inclined to both the planes.

1. Rotation Method
2. Auxiliary Method
Rotation Method
Example:
A line AB has its end A 30 mm above the H.P. and 20 mm in front
of the V.P. The front view of the line 65 mm long and is inclined at
60º to the xy line whereas its top view is inclined at 45º to the xy
line. Draw the projections of the line AB and find its true length.
Also find its true inclinations with the H.P. and the V.P.
Given:
Line AB
End A is 30 mm above H.P.
and 20 mm in front of V.P.
Length of Front View = 65 mm
Angle of Front View = α = 60º
Angle of Top View = β = 45º
Solution: Finding the True Length & Angles of Line
1. Draw the 65mm front view
a´b´ of the line inclined at an
angle of 60º w.r.t. XY line.
Project a vertical line from
Elevation (F.V.)
the end b´.
2. Now draw a line ab at an
angle of 45º w.r.t. to XY line
from the point a, until it
intersect with the vertical
line.
3. Now with a´ as center and
radius equal to a´b´ draw an
arc intersecting line A(F.V.).
Join a´b2´. Project point b2´
vertically until it intersects Plan (T.V.)
B(T.V). Join ab2.
4. Perform the same
procedure in the T.V. ANS: True length of line is a´b1´ or ab2.  is the true
angle w.r.t. HP and  is the true angle w.r.t. VP.
Assignment # 2
A line AB has its end A (20+x) mm below the H.P. and (30+x) mm behind
the V.P. The front view of the line (40+x) mm long and is inclined at
(45+x)º to the xy line whereas its top view is inclined at (65+x)º to the xy
line. Draw the projections of the line AB and find its true length. Also find
its true inclinations with the H.P. and the V.P. Where x = last digit of your
registration number.

Instructions
Use the rotation method
Submit on a single A4 paper with margins and title box.
Submission Deadline: next Class
Submit in class no submission to TA or me at office accepted.
 Thank you…
End of Lecture 4
 ME-102
Engineering Graphics

Lecture #: 5

Dimensioning

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering

Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences &
Technology
 DEFINITION
Dimensioning is the process of specifying part’ s
information by use of figures, symbols and notes.

This information are such as:

1. Sizes and locations of features
2. Material’s type
3. Number required
4. Kind of surface finish
5. Manufacturing process
6. Size and geometric tolerances
 DIMENSIONING SYSTEM

1. Metric system : ISO and JIS standards This

course
Examples 32, 32.5, 32.55, 0.5 (not .5) etc.

2. Decimal-inch system
Examples 0.25 (not .25), 5.375 etc.

3. Fractional-inch system
1 3
Examples , 5 etc.
4 8
DIMENSIONING COMPONENTS
Extension lines
Dimension lines Drawn with
(with arrowheads) 4H pencil
Leader lines
Dimension figures
Notes : Lettered with
- local note 2H pencil.
- general note
 EXTENSION LINES
indicate the location on the object’s features that
are dimensioned.
 DIMENSION LINES
indicate the direction and extent of a dimension, and
inscribe dimension figures.

10 27

13
43
Arrow Head for Dimension Lines
 LEADER LINES

indicate details of the feature with a local note.

10 27 10 Drill, 2 Holes
R16

13
43
 EXTENSION LINES
Leave a visible gap (≈ 1 mm) from a view and
start drawing an extension line.
Extend the extension lines beyond the (last)
dimension line 1-2 mm.

COMMON MISTAKE
Visible gap
 EXTENSION LINES
Do not break the lines as they cross object lines.

Continuous
 DIMENSION LINES
Dimension lines should not be spaced too close
to each other and to the view.

Leave a space at least

2 times of a letter height.
16

34
11
35

Leave a space at least

1 time of a letter height.
 DIMENSION FIGURES
The height of figures is suggested to be 2.5~3 mm.
Place the numbers at about 1 mm above dimension
line and between extension lines.

34 COMMON MISTAKE
11

34
11
 DIMENSION FIGURES
When there is not enough space for figure or
arrows, put it outside either of the extension lines.

Not enough space Not enough space

for figures for arrows
16.25 1
16.25 1 1

or
 DIMENSION FIGURES : UNITS
The JIS and ISO standards adopt the unit of

Length dimension in millimeters without

specifying a unit symbol “mm”.

Angular dimension in degree with a symbol “o”

place behind the figures (and if necessary
minutes and seconds may be used together).
 LOCAL NOTES
Place the notes near to the feature which they
apply, and should be placed outside the view.
Always read horizontally.

COMMON MISTAKE
10 Drill 10 Drill

10 Drill
≈ 10mm
Too far
 THE BASIC CONCEPT
Dimensioning is accomplished by adding size and
location information necessary to manufacture
the object.

This information have to be

Clear
Complete
Facilitate the
- manufacturing method
- measurement method
EXAMPLE L L

Designed
part

L
S

L
S
To manufacture this part S
we need to know…

1. Width, depth and S

thickness of the part.
2. Diameter and depth
of the hole.
“S” denotes size dimension.
3. Location of the holes.
“L” denotes location dimension.
 ANGLE
To dimension an angle use circular dimension
line having the center at the vertex of the angle.

COMMON MISTAKE
 FILLETS AND ROUNDS
Give the radius of a typical fillet only by using a
local note.
If all fillets and rounds are uniform in size,
dimension may be omitted, but it is necessary to
add the note “ All fillets and round are Rxx. ”
R6.5 R12

NOTE:
NOTE: All fillets and round are R6.5
All fillets and round are R6.5 unless otherwise specified.

Drawing sheet
 CYLINDER
Diameter should be given in a longitudinal view
with the symbol “ ” placed before the figures.

 100

 70
 HOLES
Size dimensions are diameter and depth.
Location dimension must be located from its
center lines and should be given in circular view.

Measurement
method
 HOLES : SMALL SIZE
Use leader line and local note to specify diameter
and hole’s depth in the circular view.
1) Through thickness hole

 xx  xx Thru. xx Drill. xx Drill, Thru.

or or or
 HOLES : LARGE SIZE

Use extension and Use diametral Use leader line

dimension lines dimension line and note

 xx
 CHAMFER
Use leader line and note to indicate linear
distance and angle of the chamfer.

S q
S

For a 45o chamfer

or

CS S S
 ROUNDED-END SHAPES
Dimensioned according to the manufacturing
method used.

 12 Center to Center Distance

R12

21
5
 RECOMMENDED PRACTICE
1. Extension lines, leader lines should not cross
dimension lines.

POOR GOOD
 RECOMMENDED PRACTICE
2. Extension lines should be drawn from the nearest
points to be dimensioned.

POOR GOOD
 RECOMMENDED PRACTICE
3. Extension lines of internal feature can cross visible
lines without leaving a gap at the intersection point.

WRONG CORRECT
 RECOMMENDED PRACTICE
4. Do not use object line, center line, and dimension
line as an extension lines.

POOR GOOD
 RECOMMENDED PRACTICE
5. Avoid dimensioning hidden lines.

POOR GOOD
 RECOMMENDED PRACTICE
6. Place dimensions outside the view, unless
placing them inside improve the clarity.

POOR GOOD
 RECOMMENDED PRACTICE
6. Place dimensions outside the view, unless
placing them inside improve the clarity.

JUST OK !!! BETTER

 RECOMMENDED PRACTICE
7. Apply the dimension to the view that clearly show
the shape or features of an object.

POOR GOOD
 RECOMMENDED PRACTICE
8. Dimension lines should be lined up and grouped
together as much as possible.

POOR GOOD
 RECOMMENDED PRACTICE
9. Do not repeat a dimension.

POOR GOOD
 QUIZ No. 1…

28 th Feb 2017 (Tuesday)

AS COMMUNICATED BY DIRECTOR
(A/E) OFFICE
 Thank you….
End of Lecture 5
 ME-102
Engineering Graphics

Lecture #: 6

Sectioning

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering

Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences &
Technology
SECTIONING
 PURPOSES OF
SECTION VIEWS
Clarify the views by
❖ reducing or eliminating the hidden lines.
❖ revealing the cross sectional’s shape.

Facilitate the dimensioning.

Let See the example

EXAMPLE : Advantage of using a section view.
 CUTTING PLANE
Cutting plane is a plane that imaginarily cuts
the object to reveal the internal features.

Cutting
plane Cutting plane line

Section lines
 CUTTING PLANE LINE
Cutting plane line is an edge view of the cutting plane.

Indicate the path

of cutting plane.
 CUTTING PLANE LINESTYLES
Thick line
ANSI
Viewing
standard direction
Thick line

Viewing
direction

TS & ISO Thin line

standard

Viewing
direction
 SECTION LINING
Section lines or cross-hatch lines are used to
indicate the surfaces that are cut by the cutting
plane.

Section
lines
Drawn with thin lines.
 SECTION LINES SYMBOLS
The section lines are different for each of
material’s type.
For practical purpose, the cast iron symbol is
used most often for any materials.

Cast iron, Steel Concrete Sand Wood

Malleable iron
SECTION LINING PRACTICE
The spaces between lines may vary from 1.5 mm
for small sections to 3 mm for large sections.

COMMON MISTAKE
SECTION LINING PRACTICE
It should not be drawn parallel or perpendicular
to contour of the view.

COMMON MISTAKE
TREATMENT OF HIDDEN LINES
Hidden lines are normally omitted from section
views.
 TYPES OF SECTIONS
1. Full section
2. Offset section
3. Half section
4. Broken-out section
5. Revolved section (aligned section)
6. Removed section (detailed section)
 FULL SECTION VIEW
The view is made by passing the straight cutting
plane completely through the part.
 OFFSET SECTION VIEW
The view is made by passing the bended cutting
plane completely through the part.

Do not show the edge views

of the cutting plane.
 HALF SECTION VIEW
The view is made by passing the cutting plane halfway
through an object and remove a quarter of it.
HALF SECTION VIEW
A center line is used to separate the sectioned half
from the unsectioned half of the view.
Hidden line is omitted in unsection half of the view.
BROKEN-OUT SECTION VIEW
The view is made by passing the cutting plane normal
to the viewing direction and removing the portion of an
object in front of it.
BROKEN-OUT SECTION VIEW

A break line is used to separate

the sectioned portion from the
unsectioned portion of the view.

Break line is a thin continuous

line (0.25) and is drawn
freehand.
There is no cutting plane line.
EXAMPLE : Comparison among several section techniques
REVOLVED SECTION VIEW

Revolved sections show cross-sectional

features of a part.

No need for additional orthographic views.

This section is especially helpful when a

cross-section varies.
 REVOLVED SECTION VIEW
Basic concept
 REVOLVED SECTION VIEW
Basic concept
REVOLVED SECTION VIEW
Placement of revolved section
1. Superimposed to orthographic view.

2. Break from orthographic view.

Break Superimposed
REVOLVED SECTION VIEW
REMOVED SECTION VIEW

Removed section is revolved section.

Section view is shown outside the view.

Used where space does not enough for

revolved section
Can be located elsewhere on a drawing with
properly labeled
It may be appropriate to use removed
sections, for beams or arms etc,
REMOVED SECTION VIEW
Note the absence of
viewing arrows.
REMOVED SECTION VIEW
Revolved section Removed section
REMOVED SECTION VIEW
Poor Preferred

Too messy !!
Conventional Breaks
• Conventional breaks are used to
shorten elongated part.
• This allows to draw a part at larger
scale.
End of Lecture 6
Thank you….
 ME-102
Engineering Graphics
Lecture #: 8
Orthographic Writing & Reading,
Tangency & Intersection

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering

Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences &
Technology
 DEFINITION
Orthographic writing is the process of presenting the
object’s Geometric features with the help of the
orthographic views.
Reading a drawing is the process of recognizing the shape
of an object by interpreting the orthographic views.

Orthographic
Writing

Orthographic
Reading
 STEP 1 : Orient the Object
The object should be placed in its natural position.
The object should presents its features in actual
size and shape in orthographic views.

GOOD NO !
 STEP 2 : Select a Front View
The object’s longest dimension should be presented as a
width.
First choice Second choice
Waste more space

Inappropriate GOOD
 STEP 2 : Select a Front View
The adjacent views that are projected from the selected
front view should appear in its natural position.

Inappropriate
 STEP 2 : Select a Front View
Choose the view that have the fewest number of
hidden lines.

GOOD Inappropriate
STEP 3 : Select an Adjacent View
Choose the minimum number of views that can
represent the major features of the object.
Necessary Hole’s location can be
specified on the same view.
Easy to understand

Difficult to interprete.

Necessary
 STEP 3 : Select an Adjacent View
Choose the view that have the fewest number of
hidden lines.

GOOD

Inappropriate

GOOD
Inappropriate
STEP 3 : Select an Adjacent View
Choose the views that are suitable to a drawing
space.

POOR

Not enough space

for dimensioning.
STEP 3 : Select an Adjacent View
Choose the views that are suitable to a drawing
space.

GOOD
 ONE-VIEW DRAWING
Flat part having a uniform thickness.

1 Thick

Unnecessary These 2 views provide only information

about the part thickness !
 ONE-VIEW DRAWING
Cylindrical-shaped part.

Unnecessary
Repeat !

Infer from CL

Unnecessary
 TWO-VIEW DRAWING
There exists an identical view.

Repeat !
Unnecessary
 TWO-VIEW DRAWING
The 3rd view has no significant contours of the object.

Unnecessary
TWO-VIEW DRAWING

Unnecessary
 Orthographic Reading
Objects are Analyzed by Close Consideration of
solid geometric primitives and their surfaces.

Some of familiar solid objects

Rectangular prism

Cylinder

Negative cylinder (Hole)

 BASIC IDEA
Objects are decomposed into solid geometric
primitives.

Some of familiar solid objects

Cone

Pyramid

Sphere
 READING STEPS
1. Orient yourself with the views given.
(Choose the viewing direction.)

2. Read the individual surfaces that appeared in

each view and related to each other.

3. Create a proper solid geometric primitive from

each reading.

4. Assembly all of solid geometric primitive

according to orthographic views.
 EXAMPLE A

Given Composition
Rectangular prism
Hole

Front View
 EXAMPLE B

Given Composition
Rectangular prism
Cylinder

Front View
 EXAMPLE C

Given Composition
Cylinder with a blind
hole.
L-shaped with round
end
Hole
 EXAMPLE D
Composition
Given
Wedge
 EXAMPLE D
Composition
Given
Wedge
L-shaped block
 GUIDANCE 1
Adjacent areas that are not in the same plane must be
separated by lines.

Different plane
Same plane
Line
exists

Edge view

Edge view
 EXAMPLE
Top view
B
All surfaces A, B and
A C are not in the same
C plane.

Some of possible objects’ shape.

A A A
B
B B
C C C
 TANGENT & INTERSECTION
No line is formed when curved surface tangent
to a plane surface.
Line is formed when curved surface intersects
a plane surface.
No line

tangent intersect

No line

tangent intersect
 TANGENT & INTERSECTION

limiting element

tangent tangent
tangent
intersect plane
 TANGENT & INTERSECTION
tangent

No line tangent
intersect

tangent tangent

No line No line tangent

tangent
End of Lecture 8
Thank you….
 ME-102
Engineering Graphics

Lecture # 10

Engineering Curves

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering

Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences &
Technology
 ENGINEERING CURVES

INVOLUTE CYCLOID SPIRAL HELIX

1. Involute of a circle 1. General Cycloid 1. Spiral of

1. On Cylinder
a)String Length = D One Convolution.
4. Epi-Cycloid
2. On a Cone
b)String Length > D 2. Spiral of
5. Hypo-Cycloid Two Convolutions.
c)String Length < D
Loci
A loci (plural of locus) is the path traced out by a point moving
in accordance with a definite law.

A simple example of a loci:

One of the most common loci is that of a point, which moves,
so that its distance from another fixed point remains constant:
this produces a circle, as shown below.

R=
radius

C
Dividing the Circle
Involute Curve
• The involute is the path of a point on a straight line which rolls (without
slipping) around a circle.
• It can best be visualized by imagining a piece of string wound around a
cylinder. If the string is unwound and kept taut, the free end will trace an
involute.
Problem: Draw involute of an equilateral triangle of 35 mm sides.

35 3X35
105
Problem: Draw involute of a square of 25 mm sides

25 100
 Draw Involute of a circle.
String length is equal to the circumference of circle. INVOLUTE OF A CIRCLE
Solution Steps:
1) Point or end P of string AP is
exactly D distance away from A.
Means if this string is wound round
the circle, it will completely cover
P2
given circle. P will meet A after
winding.
2) Divide D (AP) distance into 8 P3
number of equal parts. P1
3) Divide circle also into 8 number
of equal parts.
4) Name after A, 1, 2, 3, 4, etc. up
to 8 on D line AP as well as on
circle (in anticlockwise direction).
5) To radius C-1, C-2, C-3 up to C-8
draw tangents (from 1,2,3,4,etc to 4 to p
circle). P4
4
6) Take distance 1 to P in compass 3
and mark it on tangent from point 1 5
on circle (means one division less 2
than distance AP). 6
7) Name this point P1 1
8) Take 2-P distance in compass 7 A 8
and mark it on the tangent from P5 P
point 2. Name it point P2. P8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
9) Similarly take 3 to P, 4 to P, 5 to P7
P up to 7 to P distance in compass P6 D
and mark on respective tangents
and locate P3, P4, P5 up to P8 (i.e.
A) points and join them in smooth
curve it is an INVOLUTE of a given
circle.
Involute Gear
• Used in the design of spur gears
• The contact surfaces b/w gear teeth are design as involutes.
Drawing Gears
Helix Curve
Helix is an important locus being the basic form of the screw
thread.
It can be regarded as a line of uniform gradient on a cylinder.
Helix Curve - Construction
1. Draw the top and front view of the given cylinder.
2. Divide the top view into 12 equal divisions. Then
project the divisions upwards as vertical lines to the
front view.
3. Divide the lead into 12 equal divisions, using the
method for dividing a line. Project the divisions as
horizontal lines across the front view. Then number
the points as shown.
4. For each point on the circle, follow the vertical
line upwards until you reach the horizontal line(s)
with the same number, and make a mark.
4. Join these points. The result is a helix curve.
Examples – Springs

Square Section Round Springs

Practical examples.
Draw a spiral of one convolution. Take distance PO 40 mm.
SPIRAL
IMPORTANT APPROACH FOR CONSTRUCTION!
FIND TOTAL ANGULAR AND TOTAL LINEAR DISPLACEMENT
AND DIVIDE BOTH IN TO SAME NUMBER OF EQUAL PARTS.

P2
3 1
Solution Steps P1
1. With PO radius draw a circle
and divide it in EIGHT parts. P3
Name those 1,2,3,4, etc. up to 8
2 .Similarly divided line PO also in
EIGHT parts and name those 4 P4 O P
1,2,3,-- as shown. 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
P7
3. Take O-1 distance from op line
and draw an arc up to O1 radius P5 P6
vector. Name the point P1
4. Similarly mark points P2, P3, P4
up to P8 5 7
And join those in a smooth curve.
It is a SPIRAL of one convolution.
6
Cycloid
The cycloid is the locus of a point on the circumference of a
circle which rolls, without slipping, on a straight line.
 Draw locus of a point on the periphery of a circle which rolls on straight line path. Take
circle diameter as 50 mm. Draw normal and tangent on the curve at a point 40 mm above
the directing line.

6 p5 p6
7 5 p7

4 p4 p8
8
C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C9 C10 p9
C11 C12
9 p3 3
p2 p10
10 p1 2
p11
11 1 p12
12 P
D

CYCLOID
Solution Steps:
1) From center C draw a horizontal line equal to D distance.
2) Divide D distance into 12 number of equal parts and name them C1, C2, C3__ etc.
3) Divide the circle also into 12 number of equal parts and in anticlockwise direction, after P name 1, 2, 3 up to 12.
4) From all these points on circle draw horizontal lines. (parallel to locus of C)
5) With a fixed distance C-P in compass, C1 as center, mark a point on horizontal line from 1. Name it P.
6) Repeat this procedure from C2, C3, C4 up to C12 as centers. Mark points P2, P3, P4, P5 up to P12 on the
horizontal lines drawn from 1,2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 respectively.
7) Join all these points by curve. It is Cycloid.
Assignment # 3

Instructions

DRAW EPI CYCLOID (Odd Reg Numbers)

DRAW HYPO CYCLOID (Even Reg Numbers)

Submit on a single A4 paper with margins and title box.

Submission Deadline: In Next Class .
ZERO Marks for Late submission.
 DRAW LOCUS OF A POINT ON THE PERIPHERY OF A CIRCLE WHICH ROLLS ON A CURVED
PATH. Take diameter of rolling Circle 50 mm And radius of directing circle i.e. curved path,
75 mm.
Solution Steps:
1) When smaller circle will roll on
larger circle for one revolution it will
cover D distance on arc and it will
be decided by included arc angle .
2) Calculate  by formula  = (r/R)
c9 c10
x 3600. c8
c11
3) Construct angle  with radius c7
c12
OC and draw an arc by taking O as c6
center OC as radius and form sector
of angle . c5
9
4) Divide this sector into 12 7
8 10
11
number of equal angular parts. And 6 12
c4
from C onward name them C1, C2,
C3 up to C12. 5

5) Divide smaller circle (Generating c3

circle) also in 12 number of equal 4

parts. And next to P in anticlockw-

ise direction name those 1, 2, 3, up
3
c2
to 12.
6) With O as center, O-1 as radius 3’
2
4’ 2’
draw an arc in the sector. Take O-2,
c1
O-3, O-4, O-5 up to O-12 distances 1
5’
with center O, draw all concentric 1’

arcs in sector. Take fixed distance C-

P in compass, C1 center, cut arc of 1
at P1.
6’
C 12’
θ
P
Repeat procedure and locate P2, P3,
P4, P5 unto P12 (as in cycloid) and 7’ 11’ OP=Radius of directing circle=75mm O
join them by smooth curve. This is PC=Radius of generating circle=25mm
EPI – CYCLOID. 8’ 10’ θ=r/R X360º= 25/75 X360º=120º
9’
DRAW LOCUS OF A POINT ON THE PERIPHERY OF A CIRCLE WHICH ROLLS FROM THE
INSIDE OF A CURVED PATH. Take diameter of rolling circle 50 mm and radius of
directing circle (curved path) 75 mm.

Solution Steps:
1) Smaller circle is rolling
here, inside the larger
circle. It has to rotate 7
8 9 10
11
anticlockwise to move 6 12

ahead. 5
2) Same steps should be
taken as in case of EPI – 4
c7
c8 c9 c10
c11
CYCLOID. Only change is in
c12
c6
3
c5
numbering direction of 12 c4
number of equal parts on 2 3’ c3
the smaller circle.
2’ 4’
c2
3) From next to P in 1 1’ 5’
clockwise direction, name
c1

1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12 12’ 6’
θ
4) Further all steps are P C

that of epi – cycloid. This 11’ 7’ O

is called
8’
HYPO – CYCLOID. 10’
9’
OP=Radius of directing circle=75mm
PC=Radius of generating circle=25mm
θ=r/R X360º= 25/75 X360º=120º
End of Lecture 10
Thank you….
 ME-102
Engineering Graphics

Lecture # 11

Development of Surfaces

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering

Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences &
Technology
 Developments
A development is the unfolded or unrolled,
flat or plane figure of a 3-D object.
-Called a pattern, the plane figure may show the true
size of each area of the object. When the pattern is
cut, it can be rolled or folded back into the original
object.
Development is different……

1. Development is different drawing than

PROJETIONS.
2. It is a shape showing AREA, means it’s a 2-D
plain drawing.
3. Hence all dimensions of it must be TRUE
dimensions.
4. As it is representing shape of an un-folded sheet,
no edges can remain hidden And hence DOTTED
LINES are never shown on development.
ENGINEERING APLICATION:

There are so many products or objects which are

difficult to manufacture by conventional manufacturing
processes, because of their shapes and sizes.
These products are fabricated in sheet metal industry by
using development technique. there is a vast range of such
objects.
EXAMPLES:-
Boiler Shells & chimneys, Pressure Vessels, Shovels,
Trays, Boxes & Cartons, Feeding Hoppers, Large Pipe
sections, Body & Parts of automotive, Ships, Aeroplanes
and many more.
APLICATIONS……
Types of Developments
• Parallel-line Development
• Radial-line Development
• Triangular Development
• Approximate Development
▪ Parallel line development uses parallel lines to
construct the expanded pattern of each three-
dimensional shape. The method divides the surface
into a series of parallel lines to determine the shape of
a pattern. Example: Prism, Cylinder.
▪ Radial line development uses lines radiating from
a central point to construct the expanded pattern of
each three-dimensional shape. Example: Cone,
Pyramid.
▪ Triangular developments are made from polyhedrons,
single curved surfaces, and wrapped surfaces.
Example: Tetrahedron and other polyhedrons.

▪ In approximate development, the shape obtained is only

approximate. After joining, the part is stretched or
distorted to obtain the final shape. Example: Sphere.
Development of a Cube
Development of a Prism
Draw the development of the following prism
Development of a Prism
 Development of lateral surfaces of different solids.
(Lateral surface is the surface excluding top & base)
Cylinder: A Rectangle
Pyramids: (No.of triangles)
Cone: (Sector of circle)

D

D
H= Height D= base diameter

Prisms: No. of Rectangles R=Base circle radius. L= Slant edge.

L=Slant height. S = Edge of base
=
R 3600
L
H

S S H= Height S = Edge of base

Tetrahedron: Four Equilateral Triangles

All sides
equal in length
 Development of a Cylinder
Draw the development of a cylinder of 40 mm diameter and 60 mm high
Development of Truncated Cylinder
Development of Hexagonal Prism
Draw the development of a hexagonal prism of base edge 25 mm
and axis 60 mm long
Development of a Cone
Development of Cone
Radius, R = 20mm
Slant edge length, L = 100mm
Circumference, 2πR = 2 x 3.14 x 20
= 125.71 mm
Now angle (θ) of arc for cone

For development:
S=rxθ
(here r = L, S= 2 πR)

θ = S/r = 125.71/100 = 1.2571 radians R

= 3600
θ = 1.2571 x (180/3.14) = 72 degrees L
Development of Cone
 FRUSTUMS
DEVELOPMENT OF DEVELOPMENT OF
FRUSTUM OF CONE FRUSTUM OF SQUARE PYRAMID
Base side

Top side

=
R 3600
L

R= Base circle radius of cone

L= Slant height of cone L= Slant edge of pyramid
L1 = Slant height of cut part. L1 = Slant edge of cut part.
Practice Problem (Pyramid)

(Self Study)
Practice Problem (Truncated Prism)

(Self Study)
Practice Problem (Truncated Cone)

(Self Study)
End of Lecture 11
Thank you….
 ME-102
Engineering Graphics
Lecture # 12

Joining of Materials
(Threaded Fasteners & Welding )

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering

Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences &
Technology
Joining of Materials
• Joining is the act or process of putting or bringing things
together to make them continuous or to form a unit.

• As it applies to fabrication, joining is the process of attaching

one component, structural element, part to create an
assembly, where the assembly of component parts or
elements is required to perform functions that are needed or
desired and that cannot be achieved by a simple component
or element alone.

• Engineering applications are mostly consisted of assemblies.

Assemblies
• An assembly is a collection of manufactured parts, brought
together by joining to perform one or more than one primary
function.

Three major types of Assemblies

• Structural Assemblies
• Mechanical Assemblies
• Electrical Assemblies
Types of Assemblies
• Structural Assemblies: Primary function is to carry load
(static, dynamic or both)
Ex: Building, bridges, and dams etc.

• Mechanical Assemblies: Primary function is to create,

enable or permit some desired motion or series of motion
through the interaction of properly positioned, aligned and
oriented components.
Ex: Engines, gear trains, linkages, actuators etc.

• Electrical Assemblies: Primary function is to create,

transmit, process or store electromagnetic signal or stat to
perform some desired function.
Ex: PCBs, motor, generator, power transformers etc.
Types of Joints
• Non-permanent (Temporary) Joints
Allows intentional disassembly w/o damaging the assembly.

• Permanent Joint:
• Doesn’t allow disassembly once applied
 FASTENING TYPE
1. Permanent
Welding Gluing Riveting
 FASTENING TYPE
2. Temporary
2.1 Threaded fastener
- bolts
- studs
- screws

2.2 Non-threaded fastener

- keys key

- pin
 THREAD APPLICATION

1. To hold parts together.

2. To move part(s) relative to others.

Part A Part B

Part C
 THREAD APPLICATION

1. To hold parts together.

2. To move part(s) relative to others.

Wood working vise Palm fruit pressing machine

 THREAD TERMINOLOGY
The largest diameter on
Major diameter an internal or external thread.
The smallest diameter on
Minor diameter an internal or external thread.

External Thread Internal Thread

Minor dia.
Major dia.

Major dia.
Minor dia.
 THREAD TERMINOLOGY
Form is the profile shape of the
Thread Form
thread.

Example :
“knuckle thread form”
 EXTERNAL THREAD CUTTING
Tools Operation
Threading Die

Die stock
 INTERNAL THREAD CUTTING
Tools Operation
Twist drill

Tap

Tap wrench
THREAD REPRESENTATION

1. Detailed representation

2. Schematic representation

3. Simplified representation
DETAILED REPRESENTATION
Use slanting lines to represent crest and root.
Roots and crest are drawn in sharp Vs.

External thread Internal thread

Thread runout

Pitch 60o
SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION
Use alternate long and short lines for representing
crests and roots of the thread, respectively.

External thread Internal thread

Root (thick line)

Pitch Crest (thin line)
SIMPLIFIED REPRESENTATION
Use thick continuous lines for representing crest
and thin continuous lines for representing root of
the thread, respectively.

External thread Internal thread

Thread runout

Pitch/2

Root
Crest
SIMPLIFIED REPRESENTATION
Use thick continuous lines for representing crest
and thin continuous lines for representing root of
the thread, respectively.

External thread Internal thread

Sectional view
 ISO (METRIC) THREAD
P/8
Internal
60o
thread

P/4

External
thread
Pitch, P

Center of thread assembly

Thread assemble occurs if and only if both (internal & external)

thread have an equal nominal size (or diameter) and pitch.
 METRIC COARSE THREAD
Nominal Major Pitch Minor Tap drill size
size diameter diameter
M6 6.00 1.00 4.92 5.00
M8 8.00 1.25 6.65 6.75
M10 10.00 1.50 8.38 8.50
M12 12.00 1.75 10.11 10.00

Metric thread
Minor diameter ≈ Tap drill size
In thread drawing, the following relationship is used.
Minor diameter = Major diameter – Pitch
 METRIC FINE THREAD
Nominal Major Pitch Minor Tap drill size
size diameter diameter
0.75 7.188 7.25
M8 8.00
1.00 6.917 7.00
0.75 9.188 9.25
M10 10.00 1.00 8.917 9.00
1.25 8.647 8.75

Minor diameter ≈ Tap drill size

In thread drawing, the following relationship is used.

Minor diameter = Major diameter – Pitch

DIMENSIONING EXTERNAL THREAD
Use local note to specify :- thread form, nominal size,
pitch (if it is a fine thread)

Use typical method to specify :- thread length.

M 10 ×1.5 Coarse thread

×1.0 Fine thread

Thread
xx length
 DIMENSIONING THREADED HOLE

Use local note to

specify
8.50 Drill, 20 Deep,
1. Tap drill size
M10 Tapped, 15 Deep
2. Drill depth
3. Thread form
4. Nominal size
5. Pitch
6. Thread depth
Unified Threads (inch)
Unified Threads (inch)

• Identify the different components of the following Unified

National thread note.
• 1/4 – 20 UNC – 2A – RH

1/4 .25 inch Major DIA

20 20 threads per inch (P = 1/20 = .05)
UNC Thread form & series – UN Coarse
2 Thread Class – Normal Production
A External Threads
RH Right Handed Threads
Welding
• Joining process in which two (or more) parts are joined at
their contacting surfaces by application of heat and/or
pressure
• Many welding processes are accomplished by heat alone,
with no pressure applied
• Others by a combination of heat and pressure
• In some welding processes a filler material is added to
facilitate joining
Figure Basic configuration
of an welding process
The Weld Joint
The junction of the edges or surfaces of parts that have been
joined by welding
• Two categories about weld joints:
– Types of joints
– Types of welds used to join the pieces that form the joints

Figure: weld joint

Five Types of Joints
1. Butt joint 1
2. Corner joint 2
3. Lap joint
4. Tee joint 3
5. Edge joint

5
Types of Welds
• Each of the preceding joints can be made by welding
• Other joining processes can also be used for some of the
joint types
• There is a difference between joint type and the way it is
welded - the weld type
• Common weld types
– Fillet Weld
– Groove Welds
– Spot Welds
Fillet Welds
• Used to fill in the edges of plates created by corner, lap, and
tee joints
• Filler metal used to provide cross section in approximate
shape of a right triangle

Figure Various forms of fillet welds: (a) inside single fillet corner
joint; (b) outside single fillet corner joint; (c) double fillet lap joint; and
(d) double fillet tee joint. Dashed lines show the original part edges
Groove Welds
• Usually requires part edges to be shaped into a groove to
facilitate weld penetration
• Grooved shapes include square, bevel, V, U, and J, in single
or double sides
• Most closely associated with butt joints

(a) square groove weld, one side; (b) single bevel groove weld; (c) single
V-groove weld; (d) single U-groove weld; (e) single J-groove weld; (f) double
V-groove weld for thicker sections. Dashed lines show original part edges.
Spot Welds
Fused section between surfaces of two plates
• Used for lap joints

Spot Weld
Welding Symbols in Engineering Drawing
Pitch and length of the Weld( Explained in The Picture)
 QUIZ No. 2
Next Week,
Date and Time will be communicated
through COE office
Lecture 10, 11, 12 & Lab
Sessions
 Thank you….
End of Lecture 12
 ME-102
Engineering Graphics

Lecture # 13

Geometric Tolerances

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering

Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences &
Technology
Geometric Tolerance
 No component can practically be manufactured to exact
dimensions (sizes).
 Tolerances are used to control the variation that exists on all
manufactured parts.
 It is the amount, each part is allowed to vary depending upon
the function of the part and assembly.
 Toleranced dimensions control the amount of variation on
each part of an assembly.
 When different parts are assembled, they must fit together
and function correctly.
Tolerancing / Interchangeability
➢ Tolerancing is dimensioning for
interchangeability.

➢ What is interchangeability?
An interchangeable part is simply a mass
produced part (a replacement part).
 Tolerancing / Interchangeability
➢ How is a feature on an interchangeable
part dimensioned?

SIZE DIMENSION
The feature is
not dimensioned
using a single
value,
but a range of values. WHAT DOES
THIS MEAN?

2.007
2.003
Tolerancing / Interchangeability
➢ A tolerance is the amount of size
variation permitted.
→ You can choose a tolerance that specifies a
large or small variation.

1.005
Size limits =
0.994

Tolerance = 1.005 - .994 = .011

Tolerancing / Interchangeability
➢ Why do we want a part’s size to be
controlled by two limits?
It is necessary because it is impossible to
manufacture parts without some variation.

The stated limits are a form of quality control.

Tolerancing / Interchangeability
➢ Choosing a tolerance for your design.

→ Specify a tolerance with whatever degree of

accuracy that is required for the design to
work properly.

→ Choose a tolerance that is not unnecessarily

accurate or excessively inaccurate.
Tolerancing Standards
➢ The two most common standards
agencies are;

→ American National Standards Institute

(ANSI) / (ASME)

→ International Standards Organization (ISO).

Important Terms
➢ Basic Size (Nominal Size): The theoretical size used as a
starting point for the application of tolerance. Or nominal
dimension from which tolerances are derived.
➢ Actual Size: The measured size of the finished part after
machining.
➢ Limits: The maximum and minimum sizes shown by the
tolerance dimension.
➢ Allowance: The minimum clearance or maximum
interference between parts, or the tightest fit b/w two mating
parts.
Important Terms
Maximum material condition (MMC):
The condition of the part when it contains the greatest amount
of material.
The MMC of an external feature (such as shaft), is the upper
limit.
The MMC of an internal feature (such as a hole), is the lower
limit.

Least material condition (LMC):

The condition of a part when it contains the least amount of
material possible.
The LMC of an external feature is the lower limit.
The LMC of an internal feature, is the upper limit.
Tolerance Representation Types
➢ The tolerancing methods to present
tolerances are:

→Limit dimensions
→Plus or minus tolerances
→Page or block tolerances
Tolerancing Methods
a) Limit dimensioning

b) Plus minus Tolerance

• Bilateral Tolerance
• Unilateral Tolerance
Bilateral Tolerance
A bilateral tolerance varies in both direction from the basic size.
If the variation is equal in both direction, then the variation is
preceded by ± symbol.
The ± approach is used when the two variations are equal.
Unilateral Tolerance
When the tolerance value is specified in only one direction from
the basic size it is known as unilateral tolerance.
Other Approaches
Tolerance specified
in a tabulated
manner.

Tolerance can be specified in

a general way to cover for a
wide range of dimensions
Types of Fits Clearance fits - allowance
always positive
The degree of tightness between
mating parts is called fit.

Clearance Fit (Sliding Fit):

In which the shaft is always smaller than
the hole into which it fits. A clearance fit
always has a gap between the two
mating parts.
Interference fits - allowance
always negative,
Interference Fit:
In which the shaft is always bigger than
the hole into which it fits. Interference fits
always overlap and are used mainly for
press fits where the two parts are
pushed together, and require no other
fasteners.
Types of Fits….
Transition Fit:
• In which the shaft may be either bigger or smaller than the
hole into which it fits – it will therefore be possible to get
interference or clearance fits in one group of assemblies.
• A transition fit exist when the maximum clearance is positive
and the minimum clearance is negative
• Transition fits are used only for locating a shaft relative to a
hole, where accuracy is important but either a clearance or
an interference is permitted.

Transition fit—allowance may

be positive or negative
Examples
• From everyday life, some examples of clearance,
interference and transition fits.
Fit Example
Clearance Lock and Key
Door and Door frame
Coin and Coin slot
Interference Pin in a bicycle chain
Hinge pin
Wooden peg and hammer toy

Transition Piston and cylinder

Bearing Assembly
Determining Fits
The loosest fit is the difference
between the smallest feature A and
the largest feature B.

The tightest fit is the difference

b/w the largest feature A and the
smallest feature B.
Systems for Fits and Limits
The two bases for a system of limits and fits:
(a) The hole basis
(b) The shaft basis

Hole Basis: Shaft Basis:

• Hole diameter constant. • Hole diameter varies.
• Shaft diameter varies. • Shaft diameter constant.
• Economical as only a single drill • Tends to be costly, as more
will be used then one drill is required.
Basic Hole / Basic Shaft Systems
• Basic hole system: The basic hole system is used when
you want the basic size to be attached to the hole dimension.

– For example, if you want to tolerance a shaft based on a

hole produced by a standard drill, reamer, broach, or
another standard tool.

• Basic shaft system: The basic shaft system is used

when you want the basic size to be attached to the shaft
dimension.

– For example, if you want to tolerance a hole based on the

size of a purchased a standard drill rod.
Metric Tolerances
• Upper deviation: The upper deviation is the difference
between the basic size and the permitted maximum size of
the part.

▪ UD = |Basic size – Dmax|

• Lower deviation: The lower deviation is the difference

between the basic size and the minimum permitted size of
the part.

▪ LD = |Basic size – Dmin|

Tolerance Designation
• Fits are specified by using the:
– fundamental deviation (letter)
– IT# (International Tolerance Grade #).
• When specifying the fit:
– The hole = upper case letter
– The shaft = lower case letter
Available Metric Fits

Hole Basis Shaft Basis Fit

H11/c11 C11/h11 Loose running
H9/d9 D9/h9 Free running
H8/f7 F8/h7 Close running
H7/g6 G7/h6 Sliding
H7/h6 H7/h6 Locational clearance
H7/k6 or K7/h6 or Locational transition
H7/n6 N7/h6
H7/p6 P7/h6 Locational interference
H7/s6 S7/h6 Medium drive
H7/u6 U7/h6 Force
 QUIZ No. 2
Next Week,
Date and Time will be communicated
through COE office
Lecture 10, 11, 12 & Lab
Sessions
Thank you….
Geometric Tolerance
 Tolerances are used to
control the variation
that exists on all
manufactured parts.
 Toleranced dimensions
control the amount of
variation on each part
of an assembly.
Feature of Control Frame
Feature of Control Frame
 Tolerance Designation
Fits are specified by using the:
fundamental deviation (letter)
IT# (International Tolerance Grade #).
When specifying the fit:
The hole = upper case letter
The shaft = lower case letter
 Available Metric Fits
Hole Basis Shaft Basis Fit
H11/c11 C11/h11 Loose running
H9/d9 D9/h9 Free running
H8/f7 F8/h7 Close running
H7/g6 G7/h6 Sliding
H7/h6 H7/h6 Locational clearance
H7/k6 or K7/h6 or Locational transition
H7/n6 N7/h6
H7/p6 P7/h6 Locational interference
H7/s6 S7/h6 Medium drive
H7/u6 U7/h6 Force
Geometric Tolerance
 Tolerances are used to
control the variation
that exists on all
manufactured parts.
 Toleranced dimensions
control the amount of
variation on each part
of an assembly.
Feature of Control Frame
Feature of Control Frame
 1.Part Drawing

1. Orthographic
views
2. Dimensions
& Tolerances
3. Surface
finishing

Title block
General note
Gen. tolerance Projection
Revision table
End of Lecture 14
Thank you….
3. DETAILED ASSEMBLY
(working-drawing assembly)
 ME-102
Engineering Graphics

Lecture # 15

Assembly Drawings

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering

Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences &
Technology
3. DETAILED ASSEMBLY
(working-drawing assembly)
End of Lecture 15
Thank you….
Welding Symbols in Engineering Drawing
Pitch and length of the Weld( Explained in The Picture)