1.

0 Introduction

Open channel is defined as fluid flow with a free surface open to the atmosphere. Pipes not
flowing full also fall into the category of open channel flow because of the presence of the free
surface. Unlike in pipes running full where the pressure varies from point to another, in open
channels, the pressure does not vary in the direction of the flow. In open channels, the flow is
driven by the slope of the channel (difference in potential energy) rather than the pressure. Just
as the diameter of the pipe is important to pipe full flow, the parameter defined as the “Hydraulic
Radius” is important to open channel flow. Steady and unsteady flow depend on whether flow
depth and velocity change with time at a point. In general if the quantity of water entering and
leaving the reach does not change, then the flow is considered steady. Steady flow in a channel
can be either Uniform or Non-uniform (varied).When the average velocities in successive cross
sections of a channel are the same, the flow is uniform. This occurs only when the cross section
is constant. Non-uniform flow results from gradual or sudden changes in the cross sectional area.
Uniform flow and varied flow describe the changes in depth and velocity with respect to
distance.

Drainage is the process in which water leaches downward from the upper soil layers to
lower layers, or how surface water is removed. Proper drainage is important because not all
plants prefer moist conditions. In nature certain minerals such as sand provide rapid drainage,
while heavy minerals like clay can restrict drainage. For container or potted plants drainage is
facilitated by holes in the bottom of the pot. However, nowadays we construct drainage from
cements and sand as a proper drainage.

The objective of this project is to determined differentiation between flow rate of

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2.0 Study Area

The study area used in this investigation is at the drainage near the F2 building. The F2 building
is located in the UTHM Campus at Parit Raja Batu Pahat with the area of 0.3 hectare as shown in
Figure. The condition of the land is flat. The climate of this area is tropical and typical of the
area in the region with high temperature, high rainfall and high humidity throughout the year.

Figure 2.0.1 : Plan view of UTHM

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Figure 2.0.2 : Plan view F2 building

2.0.3 : Specific area of investigation

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3.0 Methods or Equation

To make sure that water flows away quickly and smoothly and is disposed of in a surface
watercourse designing and constructing drainage systems is required. To measure the flow rate
or quantity of a gas or liquid moving through a pipe a flow meter is used. Each situation has its
own constraints and engineering requirements and flow measurement applications are very
diverse. Meanwhile, tape is used to measure the dimensions of the drainage channel. Figure 3.0.1
shown the equipment used.

Figure 3.0.1 Flow Meter and Measuring Tape

The Rational method is widely used to estimate the peak surface runoff rate for design of a
variety if drainage structures, such as a length of storm water. For small urban watersheds that do
not have storage such as ponds, this method is the most suitable . The runoff coefficient, C is the
fraction of rainfall striking the drainage area that becomes runoff from that drainage area. It is an
empirically determined constant, dependent on the nature of the drainage area surface. Table 1
shows the recommended runoff coefficient for various land uses.

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 Runoff coefficient C

Land use For minor system For major system

( 10 years ARI) (> 10 years ARI)

Residential

Bungalow 0.65 0.70

Semi-detached bungalow 0.70 0.75

Link and terrace house 0.80 0.90

Flat and apartment 0.80 0.85

Condominium 0.75 0.80

Commercial and Business Centres 0.90 0.95

Industrial 0.90 0.95

Sport Fields, Park and Agriculture 0.30 0.40

Open Spaces

Bare soil (no cover) 0.50 0.60

Grass cover 0.40 0.50

Bush cover 0.35 0.45

Forest cover 0.30 0.40

Roads and Highways 0.95 0.95

Water Body (Pond)

Detention pond (with outlet) 0.95 0.95

Retention pond (no outlet) 0.00 0.00

Table 1: Recommended runoff coefficients for various land uses (DID, 2012)

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 Figure 3.0.2: Rainfall intensity-duration-frequency relationship of the development site

The drainage area, A, is often determined from a map which includes the drainage area.

The Manning equation is an empirical equation for uniform open channel flow which can be
used for water flow rate calculations in either man made or natural open channels. It also can be
used to calculate values of other uniform open channel flow parameters such as channel slope,
Manning roughness coefficient, or normal depth, when the water flow rate through the open
channel is known. Water flow calculation with the Manning equation uses the channel slope,
hydraulic radius, and Manning roughness coefficient. The Manning roughness coefficient, n, is
an experimentally determined constant, its value depends upon the nature of the channel and its
surface. The smoother the channel surfaces, the Manning roughness coefficient values will be
lower. For the rougher surfaces the Manning roughness coefficient values will be higher.

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Manning flow resistance equation gives

2 1
1
Q AR 3 S o2
n

where, n = Manning roughness coefficient (see Table 2), yo = uniform depth of

Drain/pipe Manning roughness n

Grassed drain

Short grass cover (< 150 mm) 0.035

Tall grass cover ( 150 mm) 0.050

Lined drain

Concrete

Smooth finish 0.015

Rough finish 0.018

Stone pitching

Dressed stone in mortar 0.017

Random stones in mortar or rubble masonry 0.035

Rock riprap 0.030

Brickwork 0.020

Pipe material

Vitrified clay 0.012

Spun precast concrete 0.013

Fibre reinforced cement 0.013

UPVC 0.011
Table 2: Values of Manning roughness coefficent n for open channels (Chow, 1959; DID, 2012)

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For the purpose of channel design, the rate of flow Q can be obtained from the continuity
equation,

Q  AV

where, V = mean velocity of flow (m/s), and A = area of flow (m2).

Table 3 : Open channel geometri

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3.1 Procedure

i. Locate the suitable location of drainage to be tested and the suitable type of drainage.

Figure 3.1.1 : Location of drainage

ii. Setting up the equipment which is the flow meter. Test the unit of the flow meter.

Figure 3.1.2 : Setting up the equipment

iii. Using measuring tape, measure the length, depth, side slope, top width and base of
drainage.

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 Figure 3.1.3 : Measure the spec of drainage

iv. Insert the flow meter in the drain get the flow rate reading (m/s).

Figure 3.1.4 : Get the reading

v. Observe and record data.

vi. Use the recorded data and calculate the value of flow rate of drainage and peak flow by
using the suitable equation and formula.

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4.0 Results

0.74m

0.1m 0.45m 0.1m

0.37m 0.41m

0.105m`

0.11m

0.15m

B = 0.15m

y = 0.105m

T = 0.37m

V = 0.2m/s (from test)

n = 0.018

Find z :

z = 0.3659

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Find A, P and R :

A = (By) + (By + zy²)

= (0.74(0.65)) + (0.15m(0.41m) + 0.3659 (0.41)²)

= 0.481 + 0.123

= 0.604m²

P = (B + 2y)+(B + 2y√(1+z²))

= (0.2 + 2(0.74)) + (0.15m + 2(0.41m)√(1+0.3659²))

= 1.68 + 1.023

= 2.703m

R = A/P

= 0.604m² / 2.703m

= 0.2235m

Find the discharge, Q

Q = AV

= 0.604(0.2)

= 0.1208m³/s

Find the slope, S

0.1208m³/s =

= (0.1208/12.358)²

= 0.0098

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Find the peak discharge, Q

Runoff coefficient, = 0.95 (from table)

Rainfall intensity, (from graph)

= 140mm/hr

Drainage area, A (hectare)

A = 0.3 ha (assume area around F2 UTHM)

= 0.1108m³/s So, Q drainage > Q peak flow

5.0 Conclusion

The flow rate of a liquid is a measure of the volume of liquid that moves in a certain amount of
time. The flow rate depends on the area of the pipe or channel that the liquid is moving through,
and the velocity of the liquid. From the finding and calculation done, the flow rate of drainage is
equal to 0.00546m3/s and the flow rate of peak flow is 0.0051 m3/s. The result show that the flow
rate of drainage is higher than the flow rate of peak flow. Based on this calculation it can be
concluded that the drainage measured and tested at F2 building in UTHM Batu Pahat, do not
required redesign.

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