CHAPTER 02

LITERATURE SURVEY

The electrical properties of a substation grounding grid such as grid resistance,

ground potential rise, touch and step voltage are the functions of soil resistivity.
During freezing season, soil resistivity increases multiple times. Therefore, resistance
of substation grounding grid and tower footing devices increases which may change
the maximum fault current division factor. The fault current division factor is the ratio
of grid current to the fault current. The grid resistance, GPR, touch and step voltages
are directly proportional to the maximum grid current. A method to determine fault
current division factor, influence of seasonal frozen soil on it, effect of thickness of
frozen soil, number of transmission lines and overhead ground wires connected to
substation is presented [17]. It is at most important to consider the effect of frozen soil
on fault current division factor while designing the substation grounding grid. The
analysis result shows that use of tower footing devices eliminates the seasonal
influence. It is necessary to extend the work for two layer and multilayer soil with
ground rods.

Effect of potential difference within large grounding grid on fault current

division factor analyzed for 1000 kV Ultra high voltage substation using multiport
circuit model for grounding grids with multiple grounding points is addressed [18].
The simulation is carried out using Simulik module of MATLAB software. According
to authors, the multiport circuit model can be easily implemented for finding fault
current distribution and fault current division factor. The factors which governs the
potential difference within the grounding grid and the fault current division factor are
the area of grid, soil resistivity, material of the grid conductor, and relative position of
the grounding points on the fault current distribution are thoroughly analyzed. The
simulation result revels that, the large amount of grid current discharged into earth ;
when area of grounding grid is large, or low soil resistivity, or the high resistivity and
permeability of the over head line conductors , or large distance between the
grounding points.

The fault current distribution in power system depends on type of fault, location
of fault and conductor configuration. Fault current is composed of two components.

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First one is supplied by local sources such as substation transformer, inductive
reactors etc and other feed by terminal substations via phase conductors. The fault
current supplied by phase conductors is three times zero sequence current of the line
3I0. When fault occurs, part of the fault current is diverted by overhead ground wires
or neutral conductor connected to the substation grid and remaining current flows
through the earth and returns to terminal substation which feed the fault. This current
is known as grid current which is responsible for safety touch and step voltages. The
current diverted by the over head ground wires discharge to earth through towers and
terminal substation grid. The complete analysis of fault current division factor and
ground resistance measuring current distribution factor and their correlation is
available [19]. The fault current division factor is the ratio of sum of the fault current
diverted by ground wires to the sum of fault current supplied by all the phase
conductor lines. The current supplied for ground resistance measurement by battery
operated meter is also distributed in the same manner except that there is no current
distribution in the phase conductors. Thus, the measuring current division factor is the
ratio of sum of the currents diverted by ground wires to the total current supplied for
measurement. The fault current division factor is greater than the measuring current
division factor. This is because the fault current discharged by ground wires are due to
two phenomenons like conduction and mutual induction between ground wires and
phase conductors. However, in case of measuring current, there is no induction effect.

Selection of material for earthing system in substation shall be governed by both

technical and economical considerations. Substation earthing systems shall be
designed to produce the desired technical requirements at optimum cost. But in many
cases this consideration has not always formed the basis of selection of material for
earthing grid of a substation and preference is given to copper material. Considering
the scarcity, high cost and pilferages it is necessary to use other cost effective
materials for earthing grids. Generalized formula for calculation of the sizes of
earthing conductors of steel, copper and other materials, basic considerations for
determining corrosion allowance to be provided while calculating the size of steel
conductor for reliable performance is presented [20]. Corrosion of steel depends on
resistivity of the soil hence study should be extended to evaluate the effect of
seasonal changes on resistivity of the soil to obtain the changes in corrosion factor
and the effect of DC offset current should also be taken into account.

35
 Optimum design of substation grounding in a two layer earth structure is
presented. The computer program had been developed which calculate the surface
potential, ground resistance and potential probe location of soil resistivity
measurement in a two layer soil model with complex grid. The complete optimization
procedure has been divided into three parts. In first part, theoretical aspects of the
computer program and two analytical methods of potential calculations, titled the
summation and the integration methods are described. The second part explains the
comparison of experimental results with the analytical results for different
configuration of grounding grids. The comparisons of grid parameters such as ground
resistance, ground potential rise, mesh and step voltage in two layer soil structure is
presented. Authors had also developed the scale down model in two layer earth
structure. In third part, detailed study of influence of top layer height, bottom layer
and number of meshes on performance of grounding grid is explained. It is concluded
that the results shows good agreement with Schwartz formula whereas the Laurent’s
formula and IEEE STD 80 formulae reflects the pessimistic results [21].

In equally spaced grounding conductors, the grid becomes over designed in

central region of the grid and under designed at perimeter and corner of the grid; as a
result, it makes surface potential more non uniform. To overcome this difficulty, the
unequal conductor spacing technique was first time proposed by G J Sverak [22].
Author had presented the computer program for optimization of grounding grid with
considering the effect of spacing geometry. The technique is based on the existing
method of grid design documented in IEEE Guide No. 80 for uniform soil model. No
ground rods are used in the program. Further, the procedure for finding grid conductor
spacing is not presented.

Many of the researchers had presented the equations for the computation of
surface potential near and above the buried ground electrode are based on the
assumption that leakage current density is the same for all the grid conductors near the
periphery and conductors in central region of grid. However, this assumption is wrong
and gives pessimistic results. In actual practice, for uniformly distributed grid
conductors, the leakage current density, dissipated by the conductors near the
periphery is much more than the conductors in middle part of the grid due to shielding
effect. The equations for leakage current density along with surface potential for
uniform and non uniform distribution of conductors are presented [23]. The solution

36
to this problem is to calculate the values of leakage currents in segments of the
conductors, and using these leakage current values to compute the voltage at any
desired point on the surface. The method presented here permits the effects of
variation of leakage current density caused due to the proximity effect of parallel
conductors, cross conductors, angled conductors, and end effects. This method can be
used to find the surface potential in the vicinity of grounding grid made up of inter
connected conductors of any shape and size such as square, rectangular, stars,
polygons and conductors oriented at any angle in uniform soil. The program requires
very less memory and speed of calculation is very high. It is necessary to extend the
research for multilayer soil model.

Substation grounding grid design plays an important role in high voltage

substations systems. Usually, a substation ground grid is composed of horizontally
buried parallel conductors at equal distance designed by utilizing standard procedures.
The purpose of grounding grid design is to retain step and touch voltages within the
safety tolerance limits and to keep ground resistance small. Various researchers have
discussed the influence of many factors on grounding resistance R, step and touch
voltages for obtaining the optimum design of equally spaced grounding grid, are the
number of grid conductors, buried depth, conductor diameter, conductor spacing,
ground rods and grounding grid configuration. However, equally spaced grounding
grids have several disadvantages. Because of shielding and fringing effect, more
current emanates from peripheral conductors, of a grid resulting in touch voltages on
corner of the grid much higher than those in center. Unequal spacing technique has
been proposed in published research literature, to overcome the drawbacks of equally
spaced grid. The method of determining the conductor spacing and designing suitable
unequally spaced grid is discussed [24]. All calculations were done by using computer
programming and scaled down model measurements have been conducted on many
grids and field test have been performed on several installed grounding grids.
However, the effect of soil model and number of vertical rods are not considered
while determining the spacing of the grid conductors.

The safety of the grounding system for equally or unequally spaced grounding
conductors, with or without vertical ground rods is presented by numerical analysis
[25]. The effect of number of grounding conductors on grounding resistance, touch
and step voltage is presented. The relationship between ground resistance and touch

37
and step voltage is developed in uniform soil. The effect of conductor spacing on
performance of grounding grid is analyzed. Use of vertical rods decreases the grid
resistance, touch and step voltages. At the same time it also decreases the number of
grid conductors required for the same level of safety. The comparison of touch
voltage for equally and unequally spaced grid is presented graphically. For cost
effective grounding design, unequally spaced grid is recommended.

A new method of optimization of grounding grid keeping safety touch and step
voltage below the maximum permissible limit set by IEEE std 80 is proposed [26].
The proposed methods are based on evolutionary computation (EC) and using genetic
algorithm for rectangular grids. However, according to authors, it can be used for any
shape of grounding grid. The grid conductor spacings obtained with the genetic
algorithm shows little expensive than the optimal spacing of grid conductors using
EC. It is due to fine adjustment of conductors and superiority of evolutionary method.
The work should be extended for the use of ground rods.

Quantitative arrangement of the grid conductors is a hot topic of discussion

even today. Many researchers are working on this issue. Numbers of reviewed
publications are available in the literature. For a given amount the conductors,
optimization can be achieved by arranging the conductors in such fashion that the
maximum touch voltage generated would be minimum. For unequal spacing of
conductors, it is well known that more conductors are concentrated along periphery
than the central region of the grid. An algorithm had been proposed for finding
optimal unequal spacing of grid conductors for square grounding grids for given
values of fault current, cross-section of the cylindrical conductors, burying depth and
resistivity of the soil [27].The outcome of algorithm is based on finding the optimal
compression ratio OCR which results minimum touch voltage. The work is limited to
square grid which should be extend to rectangular grid.

An algorithm had been developed using MATLAB software for the

optimization of grounding grid cost. It is based on charge simulation method. The
predefined data is provided as an input to algorithm. The data like number of
conductors length in X and Y directions, number of meshes per side, conductor
diameter, number of rods with their diameter and length. Algorithms select the input
data one by one and calculate the safety parameters and stops at convergence [28].

38
 Two mathematical techniques; one by using multiple coefficients and other by
power coefficients was suggested to get different grid configurations [29]. Optimal
value of coefficient which gives the minimum value of touch voltage and also
optimizes the length of conductors is presented. Number of grids are analyzed with
different values multiple coefficient and power coefficients with and without ground
rods. The effect of number of conductors on grounding resistance, ground potential
rise, touch and step voltages at different values of power and multiple coefficients are
discussed. The results obtained are validated using ETAP software.

Earth surface potentials and GPR of substation grounding grid in a uniform or

non-uniform soil is presented by using image theory [30]. GPR and surface potential
are evaluated for various values of grid compression ratios. For CR=1, grid
conductors are uniformly distributed. Lesser the value of CR more is the non
uniformity of grounding grid. Higher the value of CR, grid approaches to uniform
spacing of conductors and increases the touch voltage reducing the safety level. At a
certain compression ratio, touch voltage, step voltage and grid resistance becomes
minimum is known as optimal compression ratio. The grounding system earth surface
potential under transient condition has also analyzed. Further, the grounding
impedance is obtained under transient condition of lightening. It is necessary to
further study the effect of lightening transients on touch and step voltage and
percentage of utilisation of grounding grid.

Different methods used by various researches to obtain grid conductor spacings

which can give the optimum number of conductors and reduce the cost are available
in literatures. Optimization of grounding grid in uniform soil is depicted [31].It uses
the rational number of grounding conductors, which can distribute the leakage current
uniformly by minimizing the shielding effect and markedly decreases touch voltage
and step voltage on the grounding grid. The methodology is also applicable to equally
spaced as well as unequally spaced grounding grids. But the methodology does not
use the ground rods.

Determination of earth surface potential for calculation of touch and step

voltage become a topic of interest among the researchers. Two analytical methods are
proposed for finding grid resistance and earth surface potential. The first one is the
charge simulation method (CSM) and the other is the boundary element method

39
(BEM). Both the methods are based on numerical calculations [32]. These methods
are used for the analysis of grounding grid parameters like grid resistance, touch
voltage, step voltage and ground potential rise in uniform soil model. Moreover, the
effect of number and location of vertical ground rods, on grounding parameters is
analysed. It is necessary to extend the work for two layer and multilayer soil model.

The cost optimization of grounding system by keeping safety touch and step
voltage less than the maximum permissible limit in accordance with IEEE std 80-
2000 has become a most important topic all over the world among the researchers.
Many publications are available in reviewed literature on these issues. A new
mathematical model has been proposed for the minimization of cost function. It
calculate number of conductors required, conductor diameter, distance between
parallel conductors, depth of grid burial, number of rods, length of rods, total area of
excavation and installation in a iterative way. A novel hybrid particle swarm genetic
algorithm optimization (HPSGAO) method is proposed for designing optimal
grounding grid of HV substation [33]. Simultaneously, two other techniques based on
genetic algorithm optimization (GAO) and particle swarm one (PSO) have been also
elaborated. The cost optimization problem is achieved by minimizing the cost
function of the grounding grid. Results revels that HPSGAO technique is superior to
GAO and PSO methods as far as cost and time of operation is concern.

A simplified approach to the design of substation grounding grids in non-

uniform soil implemented at Florida Power Corporation is based on interpretation of
the application of the IEEE Standard 80 equations and data obtained from actual field
test is available [34]. According to authors while design the substation grounding grid
; the parameters like ground grid resistance, grid current, overhead ground wire
(OHGW) details, mesh voltage, ground potential rise (GPR), and neutral conductor
influence, etc. are to be consider interdependent on each other. The complete
interpretation of the grounding grid design based on short circuit current, fault current
distribution, fault clearing time, resistivity of rock layer, allowable touch and step
voltages, area available for substation grid , conductor spacing and irregularity factor,
grid resistance and use of ground rods duly taking into account the resistance of
overhead ground wires, neutral connections is presented. Author had selected
multilayer soil model having top and bottom layer resistivity along with their depth
randomly, based on measured resistivity field data and correlated with the IEEE

40
std.80 equations for the analysis of substation grid. However, such analysis /
methodology may be true for one site but could not be generalized unless tested and
verified at several sites.

An extensive parametric study of grounding grid and performance in multilayer

soil structure is discussed first time [35]. Various practical cases has been examined,
and the grounding grid resistances, current distributions, earth surface potentials and
touch potentials have been presented and compared for different soil structures. Effect
of frozen/ partially frozen, soil conditions on the multilayer structure of soil must be
achieved. Effect of soil freezing and thawing is discussed [36] .However, the
multilayer analysis is restricted to vertical layers and not for horizontal layers. In
some practical situation, the soil resistivity changes one vertical layer to another as
well as horizontally.

A method to determine equivalent resistivity of heterogeneous soil to be used in

the available expressions for uniform soil, employed to calculate ground resistance,
mesh and step voltages are discussed [37]. The results obtained with proposed
equivalent resistivity are compared with results obtained from two layer and
multilayer model of the soil and with the results from the computer programming
developed by authors. The proposed method does not required to model the
heterogeneity of the earth as it is based directly on potential measurement made at
site. The effect of frozen and thawing soil are not considered while calculation of
mesh and step voltages.

A detailed analysis of effects of grid configuration on grounding performance

has been presented for uniform and horizontally stratified soils with multiple layers
[38]. The result analysis reveals that the most efficient and cost effective design is
highly dependent on soil structure types and characteristics. In the absence of ground
rods, grounding grids with uniform mesh size are quite efficient if soils having a thin
high resistivity top soil. While grids with small mesh size, at the periphery of the grid
provide optimum performance in uniform soil and soil with low resistivity top soil.
According to authors ground rods were found to be effective only when significant
portion of their length is lying in low resistivity soil. The study is extended to multiple
soil structure considering variation of soil resistivity up to vertical three layers only
and horizontal layer variation is not considered. The comparison between uniformly

41
and non-uniformly spaced grounding grid conductors is not carried out to differentiate
which method of grounding grid design is efficient.

The grounding system analysis involves the determination of Green’s function

generated by a point current source in the multilayer soil. However, when the number
of layers become more than three, the analytical expression of Green’s function
becomes too complicated. Further, it needs to calculate much number of infinite
integrals including Bessel functions. J. Zou et al developed the technique which do
not requires calculation of analytical expressions of Greens function [39]. It provides
sampling technology of Green’s function in an iterative way and computing the
Greens function using the vector matrix pencil technology which enhances the
computing efficiency by large amount. The software developed can be applied to any
grounding system having an arbitrarily layered soil without deriving the analytical
expression of Green’s function. According to authors, the technique can be extended
to resolve a high-frequency grounding problem.

An efficient algorithm for determination of horizontal multilayer soil model by

using the test data of soil resistivity measured by Wenner four probe method is
available [40].It employs the complex image method .It has been very effectively used
to calculate the apparent resistivities of multilayer soil, which had increased the
efficiency and the accuracy of the computation. The partial derivatives of the apparent
resistivities with respect to the soil parameters can be directly calculated from
complex images that had been obtained from complex image method. The method
requires less number of iterations and has very high speed of calculation of multilayer
soil parameters. According to authors, any number of soil layers can be analyzed by
this method. It can also be used to investigate the mineral deposits at different layers.

An adequate grounding grid is a fundamental requirement to maintain reliable

power system operation. The earth surface potential distribution in a substation should
meet the IEEE –Std 80 requirements, for touch and step voltages, by maintaining low
ground resistance. But in the area of high soil resistivity decreasing ground resistance
of a grounding system may constitute a formidable task. Various methods are
proposed by various researchers to decrease the ground resistance. A new method is
proposed [41] to decrease ground resistance. The proposed method requires three
steps a) Drilling deep holes in ground. b) Filling the holes with low resistivity

42
material under pressure and c) Creating cracks in the soil by means of explosions in
the holes. An application of this method to power system grounding is presented
together with measurement results. The major impedance of the grounding system
consists of four parts, the impedance of bonding leads, the impedance of ground
conductor, contact resistance between ground conductor and soil and the distributed
resistance to the remote earth. While calculation of ground resistance, first three parts
contributing to resistance are neglected. Computed resistance values are correspond to
grid and vertical rod only, without considering low resistivity material field cracks.

Simplified equations for mesh and step voltages in an ac substation having

grounding grid of any arbitrary shape are presented. The formulae available in
reviewed published literature and recommend by IEEE Std.80-2000 are only for
square and rectangular shape grids. However, in actual practice, one has to deal with
any arbitrary shape while designing the grounding grid. The shape of grounding grid
depends on area available. Authors have proposed the simplified equations for
finding mesh and step voltages of any shape of grid that include square, rectangular,
triangular, T-shape, L-shape or any practical arbitrary shape. The authors have
developed a software program; RESIS, to determine the ground resistance of a
grounding system has been extended for calculation of mesh and step voltages. The
program was based on finite element method. The proposed method results for touch
and step voltage, shows good agreement with results published in literature. These
equations would be very useful for grounding grid design engineers [42].

The calculation of ground resistance of the feet has paramount importance as it

controls the flow of shock current through the human body. The magnitude of flow of
current that makes ventricular fibrillation is the criterion for calculation of limiting
value of touch and step voltages. The method for determination ground resistance of
human feet in high voltage switchyard is available [43]. It is modified by the
proximity effect to find the mutual resistance between the two feet. The principle of
Thevenin’s theorem was applied to find the feet resistance. The resistance to the flow
of shock current path consists of body resistance, resistance of hand gloves, shoes and
socks and resistance offered by two feet in parallel. The resistance of gloves, shoes
and socks is negligible where as body resistance of 1000 Ω is recommended by IEEE
std 80. The foot is modeled as circular plate or rectangular plate to find the ground
resistance. The proposed method is verified by using analog model study.

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 The various objectives of substation groundings are the personal safety and
reliable operation of substation equipments during flow of high fault current to
substation grounding which may be due to lightning or line to ground fault (L-G). To
assure personal safety, substation grounding should have low grounding resistance,
touch and step voltages within tolerable human limit. According to IEEE std 80, in
substation area there are some points which are considered as a point of special
danger. Various techniques are proposed in various research literatures to control the
touch voltage by the way of metal plate above the grid to equalize the potential
distribution. There are two approaches to control body current . a) Uniform surface
potential which demands closer grounding grid, increasing the cost of substation
grounding . b) use of the high resistivity surface layer material. To make the
substation grounding cost effective, a new technique of design substation grounding
system by adding the plastic sheets above grounding grid, at some hazardous area
such as equipments installations, at lightning arresters etc. and how to increase the
foot grounding resistance [44]. According to authors, new technique uses 10 to 30 %
less grounding grid material for safe and economic design. The proposed computer
program used for design of grounding system modifies automatically the design
parameters such as, space between parallel conductors, number of meshes, length of
conductors, depth of burial grounding grid, thickness of crushed rock, and the depth
of plastic sheets. While use of plastic sheets, shall be subjected to life and mechanical
damage over a period of time, which may impose a serious safety concerns.

Substation grounding grid made of interconnected conductor bars, buried under

earth has to meet safety and system requirements. While simulation of grounding grid
most of the methods proposed in published literatures were based on equal potential
model. That is ignoring the resistance of the conductor. When the radius of the
conductor is very small, the resistance may cause obvious potential difference of the
grid. Hence, it is always required to investigate the proper radius of the conductor of
the grid of certain sizes, buried in the soil of certain value of conductivity. The equal
potential model is not adequate to calculate proper radius of the grid conductor. The
method forming the equation system for simulating substation grounding grid with
unequal potential is presented based on theory of combination of field and circuit
[45]. The equation system with potential at discrete point of the grid had obtained by
the method of node analysis circuit theory and the determination of mutual resistance

44
between conductors located in conducting media concerns with electric field theory.
According to authors, the presented method is capable to calculate the grid with
arbitrary structure of floating electrodes in multiple layer earth models. Comparison
of calculation results of grid of equal and unequal position is presented.

Adequacy and effectiveness of substation grounding is governed by the value of

ground resistance for reliable operation and to provide adequate protection for
personal and apparatus during fault conditions. The maintenance of low value of
ground resistance is essential throughout the year. The soil resistivity is governed by
various factors such as soil type, nature of soil, compactness and dissolved
substances, temperature, moisture content etc. Out of various factors, concentration
and composition of dissolved substances, temperature and moisture content of the soil
will vary from season to season resulting into increasing ground resistance above the
required value leading to series of failures, loss of revenue and imposing serious
threat to personal safety. Hence, maintenance of grounding system resistance is vital
important from time to time. Best approach is automatic monitoring and maintenance
of the grounding system which is proposed [46]. This paper describes the system that
can improve the grounding system reliability and efficiency for a substation based on
computer aided technique. The proposed technique consists of PC, Terminal
Measurement Unit, Data Acquisition Unit, and Relay Board. It measures the ground
resistance and has ability to actuate fluid sprinkler system at substation grounding.
For better maintenance of the resistivity of the soil, the moisture content shall be 20 %
and concentration on dissolved substances. For cost effective maintenance of soil
resistivity, it is necessary to evaluate which parameter has resulted in to increase in
resistivity of soil. It may happen that moisture content may be more than 20 % and
resistivity of soil has increased due to less concentration dissolved substances. The
proposed system may start sprinkler to increase moisture content which will not help
to decrease ground resistance. For automatic maintenance of ground resistance, it is
necessary to decide whether moisture or dissolved substances are required to be
supplemented. The sprinkler system may impose certain safety issues in a H.V. /
E.H.V. switch yard. Hence, to avoid the same, it is necessary to provide a drip type
system.

The grounding system of H.V. installation in general fulfills its function only in
the moment of unbalanced fault, when increased potential appears at the places where

45
normally they do not exist. In order to ensure protection against undesired
consequences, such as loss of human lives, burning of grounding wires and damage to
telecommunication equipments entering the station, it is necessary to evaluate the
values of these potentials as accurately as possible. Therefore, when designing
substation grounding it is of prime importance to evaluate correctly the ground fault
current distribution. To limit the potentials, it is necessary to take measures by which
the ground faults current distribution to be changed a dangerous voltages appearing in
the stations and its vicinity. The solution can be achieved by special custom
constructed the supply furnishing sufficiently low value of reduction factor. However,
if the feeding line is relatively long the solution may prove to be very expensive. The
use of bare copper wire of a certain length in the same trench has the cable feeding
line for changing the ground fault current distribution helps to decrease dangerous
voltages. An analytical procedure for the determination of the part of ground fault
current enaminating the substation grounding grid in the conductor when the
particular measure has been taken to reduce grid current is proposed [47]. According
to authors, the presented method enables a quick and accurate evaluation of copper
wire size providing the maximum possible reduction of substation grid current.

IEEE Std. 80-2000, “A Guide for safety in A.C. substation grounding”, was
developed to provide guidance pertains to safe grounding of AC substations. Three
editions of Std. IEEE -80 are published during 1961, 1976, 1986 to address the
various issues related to AC substation grounding. The revisions in substation
grounding Std. 80 are carried out for substation grounding design and analysis. The
revised IEEE Std. -80 took place in 2000. The major changes with respective 1986
revision which affects the grounding design and analysis presented [48]. Comparisons
are made for portions of the two versions of the guide where the major changes took
place. The proposed changes in 2000 are, calculation of surface layer de rating factor,
application of the decrement factor for the DC offset which affects the permissible
touch and step voltages. Uniform soil model is considered during analysis, however
uniform soil seldom exists. To overcome this drawback, in IEEE Std 80-2000,
Multilayer soil model is added. The grounding practice of substation fence is also
discussed.

The substation grounding system always insure that the Ground Potential Rise
due to ground fault would not lead to destroy power apparatus and the mean time

46
should insure that the step voltage and touch voltage would not harm the operator or
other peoples. When a grounding system is designed, the fundamental method to
ensure the safety of human beings and power apparatus is to control step voltage and
touch voltages in their respective safe region, which are governed by ground
resistance variation. The resistivity of surface layer would be changed, in different
seasons, which would affect the safety of grounding system and grounding resistance.
Hence, the seasonal variation in ground resistance and safety of grounding system
needs to be analyzed visually. Previously, the measured soil resistivity was multiplied
by seasonal factor to consider the influence of winter or dry season on soil. But this
method does not satisfy the actual conditions since the surface soil resistivity is only
affected in different seasons. Hence, analysis of seasonal influences on safety of
substation grounding systems is very much essential. Analysis of seasonal influences
on the safety of grounding system by numerical analysis is presented [49].The authors
have carried out the analysis of influences of rainy seasons and freezing seasons on
the grounding resistance, step and touch voltages, considering the granite layer. While
doing analysis the thickness of affected soil layer during freezing seasons is
considered up to 1.6 meters. The effect of depth of freeze penetration above the grid
and below the grid is discussed. The analyses of seasonal influences are required to
study for multilayer soil model where the resistivity of soil layer changes
insignificantly in vertical directions.

The ground resistance of the substation grounding for a given fault current
determines hazardous voltage exists inside or around the substation or generating
stations. Hence, ground resistance is important parameter which governs the safety of
people and equipments. When the grounding resistance is too high and earth faults
occur, the person may be killed or injured and equipment may be damaged. Hence,
determination of resistance of grounding grid precisely is one of the important
aspects. The method for calculation of resistance of grounding grid using Finite
Element Method is proposed [50]. The proposed method enable the user to calculate
the resistance of grounding grid of any shapes, e.g. square, rectangular, triangular, T
shape, L shape etc. in uniform, two layer and multilayer soil and soil with finite
heterogeneities or horizontally non stratified multilayer soil structure viz. three
consecutive quickly performed tests. The proposed method is tested in practice to
analyze symmetrical and non symmetrical soil model of any shape. It is necessary to

47
extent the work for multilayer soil with equally as well unequally spaced grid
conductors. The effect of freezing and thawing of soil layer is not considered while
calculating grid resistance.

With increase in fault level in today’s interconnected power system; there is

major emphasis on safety. In other words, it is necessary to determine maximum
value of tolerable electric current flowing in the human body, in order to provide
protection against electrical shock. Considering the same, the assessment of substation
grounding design is necessary. A practical case study for the safety assessment of
substation grounding grid design of 169/69 KV indoor and outdoor type substation in
the system of Taiwan Power company is presented [51].Safety assessment of ground
grid design of Indoor and Outdoor type substation in TPC system is carried out by
computation of mesh and step voltages compared to minimum step and touch
voltages, for humans of weight 50 kg and 70 kg are quantified. According to authors
the factor Sf , depth of grounding grid, grid conductors spacing, governs the safety
design of substation grounding. The proposed work had carried out on customer’s
169/69 KV substation to ascertain the adequacy of safety of peoples.

Detailed analysis of influence of ground rods on performance of substation

grounding grid buried in two layer soil model is discussed. To meet safety criterion,
determination of rod length, number and location is evaluated.The study discusses the
inadequacy of uniform soil when actual two layer structure exists. It compares the
ground resistances and touch voltage for uniform soil model and two layer soil
models with different top layer height and different resistivity reflection factors.
When the upper layer height is more than the rod length, then the effect of two layer
soil model vanishes. The resistance of rod becomes equivalent to uniform soil with
top layer resistivity. As soon as top layer height becomes smaller than the rod length,
there will be abrupt increase/ decrease of resistance; depending on resistivity
reflection factor ( k) whether positive or negative. The resistance increases for k > 0
and decreases with k < 0.Thus, ground rods are effective only when its substantial
length penetrates into low resistivity subsoil [52].

The measurement of apparent soil resistivity by driven rod method and by

Wenner’s four probe method is compared and presented [53]. A simple formula for
determination of apparent soil resistivity is derived for driven rod method. It has been

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successfully validated using test results of Wenner’s four probe method. Further, the
limitations of both the methods are discussed. It is concluded that, driven rod method
is more tedious and time consuming while dealing with extensive soil resistivity
measurements.

Calculation of earth resistance for a deep-driven rod in a multi-layer horizontal

earth structure using numerical analysis is presented. The authors had extended their
work for two layer soil model to multilayer horizontal soil model. The analysis is
based on determination of potential in each layer which led to find the equations for
ground resistance in multilayer driven rods. It also presents the influence of various
soil layers on the resistance. The proposed equations of resistance calculation would
aid the grounding grid designer, to calculate optimum length of bore to meet the
targeted ground resistance [54].

The rapid economic development in developing countries imposes an

increasing demand for electric power. The capacity and size of electric power
stations continues to increase to meet the increasing power demand. Nowadays very
advanced and sensitive electronic equipments are installed. Therefore, better
grounding practices are essential to adequately protect substation equipments and
personals. According to authors, a complete grounding analysis consists of four
major steps: measurements of soil resistivity, ground impedance, calculations of
fault current distribution and grounding system performance analysis. When dealing
with extensive grounding systems in large electric power stations, it is necessary to
pay special attention on grounding analysis. A complete grounding analysis of an
extensive grounding system of an large electrical power station is presented
[55].The proposed work addresses , how to construct an adequate soil structure
based on measurement of soil resistivity with short and long probe spacings. How to
measure and interpret the ground impedance of large grounding system. How to
determine if, worst fault occurs inside or outside the station due to presence of local
sources such as converters, synchronous condensers, filter banks and transformers.
How to selects appropriate fault location to cover the worst scenarios in the system
of grounding system performance. The proposed study was carried out for 400 KV
substations and necessary to extend for bigger UHV substations.

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 The estimation of ground resistance of grounding grid is an important step in
determining the size and basic layout of grounding system for an A.C. substation. The
various methods proposed in published research literature uses the following
simplifying hypotheses such as soil is an infinite medium, which is flat, isotropic, and
stratified in layers of uniform thickness, the laws of electromagnetism may be applied
to calculate ground resistance and potential distribution in soil, ground grid rods are
assumed to be linear, interconnected, and buried close to the soil surface, grounding
grid behavior at power frequency (50 Hz) can be determined using electromagnetic
field analysis techniques for stationary fields (propagation time is rejected). A
practical approach for determination of ground resistance of a grounding grid is
proposed [56]. A new method of calculation of grounding grid resistance using FEM
is proposed considering ground resistance is independent of earth fault current. The
results obtained using the proposed method is compared with results measured
experimentally and published by other researcher. The result obtained in proposed
method is used as a basis for formulating and easy to use equations for calculating the
ground resistance of grounding grid in uniform soil. However, in many practical
cases, the soil is non-uniform and the resistivity of the soil during freezing conditions
varies drastically hence it is necessary to extend the proposed work for determination
of grounding resistance for non-uniform soils with unequally spaced grounding grid.

Ideally the earthing system should be designed with “zero impedance” to

provide an effective discharge of fault currents and to avoid the ground potential rise
at an around the substation. In practice, however zero impedance could never be
achieved. In order to obtain adequate grounding system performance, earthing system
should be designed with low resistance, and optimum design of earthing system can
be achieved by considering two parameters – Earth Electrode Geometry /
configuration and soil properties. Investigation on characteristics of low resistivity
material under high – magnitude fast impulses is reported [57]. The characteristics of
Sodium Chloride (NaCl) were investigated under both low and high magnitude
impulse current in order to assess the effect on electrical properties of sand – Salt
mixture wet clay and sand mixed with a controlled amount of NaCl and water content
were used as a test media in the proposed work. It was shown that for lower
conductivity of the test media (high percentage of NaCl and moisture content) the

50
resistance becomes less current dependent. It is necessary to extend the proposed
work for other dissolved substances than NaCl.

The Ground Potential Rise is governed by ground resistance and current during
worst fault condition. The depth of grid layer influences the grounding resistance and
hence the GPR. A substation grounding grid analysis with variation of soil layer,
depth of a grounding grid system of a practical 22 KV substation is discussed [58].
The soil resistivity was interpreted as a two soil layer structure with low resistivity top
layer and high resistivity bottom layer. The study of grounding grid system installed
with constant three meter ground rods, when the ground layer depth of grid increases
it directly affects the decrease in value of GPR. According to author’s higher depth of
high resistivity bottom layer, result more value of GPR. The grid with different
ground rod lengths also give the different results, GPR continuously decreases when
the rod lengthen, even though the bottom layer resistivity is greater than top layer. It
is necessary to study the effect of ground layer depth on GPR for multilayer soil and
non stratified horizontal soil layers.

The same authors extended their work for substation grounding grid analysis
with variation of soil layer depth with required number of ground rods to be
incorporated in the grounding grid. The design and construction of the grounding grid
in the area with top layer resistivity less than bottom layer resistivity can lessen the
number of ground rods used in the grid because the value of GPR is insignificantly
different [59]. According to authors, deeper the grid buried, less the value of GPR.
The study had conducted for different cases such as ground grid with constant ground
rods, increasing length of rods. It is necessary to extend the study for different
geometry / shape of grids in multilayer soil.

The performance of grounding system subject to high impedance; current plays

an important role in safe and reliable operation of the power system. The lightning
protection effects of substation grounding are related to impulse characteristics of
grounding devices, for transmission line towers and grounding grids for the
substations. In order to obtain correct design of an electrical system with respect to
the protection of installations against anomalous events, it is fundamental to predict
the impulse performance of the grounding system. The influence of different
parameters of transient characteristics of grounding grid for substation considering

51
soil ionization subjected to lightning impulse current are analyzed and effect of area
of grounding grid under lightning is discussed [60]. The authors proposed the
effective method, transient performance analysis of the grounding grid with is a
numerical calculation approach based on circuit model of distributed time variable
parameters. It accurately takes into consideration of non linear effects of breakdown
in the soil surrounding the grounding conductors. The soil was assumed to be
homogenous and isotropic. It is necessary to evaluate lightning impulse performance
of grounding grid for non homogenous soil.

Lightning is the external transient phenomenon which results outages of

transmission-lines, damages to equipments, catastrophic- induced over voltages, as
well as electromagnetic-compatibility (EMC) problems. Grounding grid has to
dissipate large amount of current within a very small duration, when lightning strikes
on electric substation. Thus, lightning performance of a grounding system has
paramount importance for reliable operation of power system. This high magnitude of
current may damage the equipments and threaten the safety of the personnel in
substation. The transient nature of the lightning impulse current causes a significant
amount of potential difference between any two points of the grounding grid resulting
in flow of shock current through the human body. It can cause the ventricular
fibrillation; in which death may occur. The lightening performance of grounding grid
had been evaluated using Monte Carlo simulation of the grounding grid response to
the probabilistic distribution of the injected current is reported [61]. The frequency-
domain analysis has been obtained by the use of the fast Fourier transform (FFT) and
inverse FFT techniques. The proposed method used for evaluation of grounding grids
during lightening can be used to determine the worst case condition of human safety.

A method for finding resistance to earth of earthing grids buried in multi-layer

soil using finite element method is proposed. Equations that are proposed for the
resistance of grounding grid buried in homogeneous soil, two layer and three-layer
soils are based upon the examination of a large set of grids and soil structures using
finite element method. Resistance of grounding grid in multilayer soil has been
obtained by making corrections in formula used for uniform soil. Empirical correction
factors are introduced to modify the earth resistance formulae for non uniform soil.
The results obtained are compared with other published methods and shows good
agreements [62].

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 The complete analysis of ground electrode resistance measurements in non
uniform soil is presented [63]. Measurement of ground resistance is usually carried
out by Fall of Potential Methods (FOP). The 61.2 % rule is suitable for the
homogeneous soil only. However, for non homogeneous soil, true grounding grid
resistance is given by zero slope region of fall of potential curve. For two layer soil
model, the location of potential probe (PP) may vary from 0.5 to 0.9 times the
distance between auxiliary current probe and centre of grounding system(DEC),
depending on values of soil resistivity reflection factor K. For negative values of K,
the variation may be from 0.5 to 0.612 and 0.612 to 0.90 for positive values of K. The
location of PP increases as magnitude of K increases. It also depends on upper layer
height of two layer soil model. If the ratio of upper layer height h to DEC is small
enough 0.01 or less it becomes uniform soil model with resistivity of bottom layer
with probe position 0.612 DEC. Conversely, when h/DEC is more than 5, it becomes a
very thick layer. It may be treated as uniform soil model with upper layer resistivity.
Three or four layer soil model may be converted to equivalent two layer model for
location of PP, else as stated earlier, zero slopes (flat portion) of fall of potential curve
can be considered for analysis.

Influence of overhead transmission line on ground impedance measurement of

large scale substation is presented. How to simply and precisely measure the ground
impedance of large substations is the problem of power systems. If the impedance
measurement is carried out with over head ground wires connected to the grounding
grid, the measured grounding impedance would be smaller than the actual impedance
of the grounding system. This is because of parallel connection of impedance of over
head ground wires with substation grid impedance. In other way this can be
interpreted as; the part of the current injected in the grounding system for the
measurement purpose get diverted to ground wires, and hence, reading shown by the
meter for ground impedance would be less than the actual one. Analysis has been
carried out on an actual 500-kV grounding system. Further, it discusses how to
analyze the influence of the overhead ground wire on the measured grounding
impedance and how to obtain the real grounding impedance of the grounding [64].

The effectiveness of grounding systems can be verified by the measurements of

touch and step voltages and ground resistance. However, measurement suffers from
some difficulties like placing of auxiliary current electrode out of influence of

53
grounding system. This location of auxiliary electrode may be about 5-6 times the
extent of the electrode as per IEEE std-81 and that for IEC std. may be four times.
Finding the suitable locations in a particular direction for auxiliary electrode placing
becomes greatly difficult due to growth of buildings adjacent to substation in urban
areas. A simple but conservative testing method based on using one or more current
electrodes at a short distance to verify the efficiency of grounding system in available
[65]. The safety criterion touch and step voltage measurement is also possible with a
reduced distance, as the error is positive, and hence the results are conservative. A
simulation study of actual grounding systems with electrodes at a short distance had
carried out. The outcome of study shows that the conservative touch voltage at short
distance can be obtained by using one auxiliary electrode to test within the boundary
of substation grounding; using more auxiliary electrodes for grounding system
contour zone and optimum placing of current electrodes to reduce error.

Due to increased power demand all over the world and huge capital investment
required for installation of new transmission lines, imposes the utilities to increase
power flow on the existing transmission systems, which results increase in fault level.
Day by day, new generation sources added at the transmission and distribution
network will also increase fault level. It is necessary to make aware of increased fault
level to existing industry customers having their own substation. The high magnitude
of ground fault current affect the personal safety, may damage the equipments,
produces thermal and mechanical stress on grounding grid conductors and connectors.
Moreover, increased ground fault causes increase in soil resistivity due to drying of
soil which further leads to increase in grid resistance, touch voltage, step voltages and
ground potential rise. The complete review of effect of increased fault current on
performance of grounding system is carried out [66]. According to authors, it is
necessary to recalculate the ground resistance, GPR, touch and step voltage.
Periodically, assessment of the integrity of grounding grid and measurement of
ground resistance is must.

Efficient and satisfactory performance of substations is very essential for the

safety of the peoples and reliable operation of substation equipments. Well designed
substation grounding always keeps ground resistance as small as possible and the
touch and step voltages below the tolerable limits. A safe and cost effective grounding
system for HV / EHV substations in a horizontally stratified two layer is presented

54
[67]. Authors have developed software program which optimizes, the number of grid
conductors, their spacings, and depth of burial and hence ultimately the cost of
grounding system. According to authors, the proposed software can analyze various
shapes of grids like square, rectangular, L-shape and T-shape. The grounding system
performance results obtained using proposed software are compared with
commercially used ETAP software and shows good agreement.

Empirical formulae for calculation of ground resistance of simple form of

electrode with ground enhancement material in uniform and two layer soil models is
presented. In a substation site having very high soil resistivity and space constraint, it
becomes difficult to achieve desired ground resistance and to meet the safety criterion
touch and step voltages. The artificial soil treatment as published in IEEE STD 80-
2000 and other publications on soil treatment draws much attention of ground design
engineers. Nowadays, ground enhancing materials like bentonite having constituents
like, calcium chloride, sodium chloride, potassium oxides is easily available in the
market. A formula for vertical rods and horizontal conductors using GEM has been
discussed in uniform as well in two layer soil model. The results of these formulas are
compared with other publications and shows good agreement [68].

Adequacy and integrity of substation grounding grid must be checked

periodically for safety of people working in substation and reliable operation of
equipments. Due to fast urban development and growth of commercial and residential
building adjacent to HV / EHV substation, accessibility for the field test is reduced.
The field tests are required to find the ground resistance, GPR, touch and step voltage.
Safety criterions are discussed to verify the effectiveness of a grounding system with
reduced accessibility [69]. The criterion suggests two conservative tests one for
ground potential rise and other for touch and step voltages to verify the grounding
systems’ effectiveness. Several methods are available for measurement of the GPR of
grounding systems which are well accepted by international standards. The fall of
potential (FOP) method is most widely and popularly used method for almost all
types of grounding systems. It has further two types; according to the way by which
current electrode and potential electrodes are placed. In first method, both current and
potential electrode are placed parallel to each other along the same direction with 0
phase shift where as in second method it is 90 degree phase shift between them to
minimize mutual coupling between two wires used for the measurement. As the
55
accessibility is reduced due to buildings and constructions adjacent to substations,
there must be at least one way direction free from underground communication
network and buried metallic structures which affect the measurements. The coupling
coefficient has been obtained while using 0 degree FOP method by co-relating with
90 degree results. Authors have compared the measurement results of ground
impedance for both the methods and conclude that the error in measurement is less
than 10 % and suggested the first method with coupling coefficient and reduced
accessibility.

The up gradation and expansion of existing grounding systems is needed due to

either aging of old grounding system, corrosion of grid conductors or expansion due
to increase in load demand. The knowledge of status of existing grounding system is
must for safety as well proper design of expansion part. It may be addition of rods,
replacing the corroded part of the grid, or expansion of existing grounding grid or use
of satellite ground grid to be interconnected with existing one is addressed [70]. The
procedures to evaluate the performance of existing grounding systems based on field
measurements, available substation grid conductors drawings, site inspections, and
examination of key grid points is presented. A case study that addresses the up
gradation of an existing grid is discussed. The evaluation of an electrical substation
grounding system consists of determination of soil resistivity in and around the
substation and measurement on of grid resistance with integrity test. In addition to
above calculation of grid current and proper test equipments are very essential. Use of
commercial software programs to determine step and touch voltages along with grid
resistance and ground potential rise to validate the measurement results has at most
importance. The study need to extend on focusing the performance of satellite
grounding.

Safety criterion considered for the grounding system design, are the touch and
step voltages keeping in view the safety of operating persons is addressed in IEEE Std
80-2000. Their maximum permissible limits are also discussed. The limit can be
raised by the use of high resistivity surface layer material like asphalt, crushed rock
which enhances the safety of peoples working in and around the switchyard.
However, the ground potential rise which affects safety of the power system, mainly
the secondary system low voltage cables used for relays and controlling devices must
be considered as a third safety criterions [71]. The GPR affects insulation of cables

56
and controlling devices and damage/ destroy the insulation. Unfortunately, there is no
any industry standard available to set the maximum limit of ground potential rise
during ground faults. The authors had obtained the relationship between the potential
difference on the insulation of substation secondary system and the ground potential
rise (GPR).The power frequency insulation withstand voltage for low tension cables
and devices is generally 2 kV. The GPR is limited 2.5 times the insulation withstand
voltage. The maximum ground potential rise permitted in China is 5 kV, for
substations in the range of 110 kV to 1000 kV.

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