Mediterranean Center of Social and Educational Research

Journal of Educational and Social Research

Special Issue
Vol. 2, No. 4, January 2012

Rome, Italy 2012

 
 

Journal of Educational and Social Research

Editor in Chief
Prof. Francesco Randazzo

Guest Editors

Austin N. Nosike
S.E. Onuebunwa
Nkasiobi S. Oguzor
Oby C. Okonkwor
Jacinta A. Opara

Executive Director Mcser Scientific Coordinator

Prof. Antonello Biagini Prof.ssa Giovanna Motta

Editorial Assistant Graphic Design

Dr. Dorina Orzac Dr. Roberto Scierrone

Editorial Managing Editing

Dr. Daniel Pommier Vincelli Dr. Dario Testi

Copyright  2012 Mediterranean Center of Social and Educational Research

ISSN: 2239-978X (Print) ISSN: 2240-0524 (Online)

Vol. 2, No. 4, January 2012

Publisher

 MCSER – Mediterranean Center of Social and Educational Research

Piazza S. Giovanni in Laterano, 18/B
Cap. 00183, Rome, Italy
Tel/Fax: 039/0692913868
E-mail: mjss@mcser.org
Web: http://www.mcser.org

This issue is printed with the technology “print on demand”

by Gruppo Atena.net Srl
Via del Lavoro, 22,
36040, Grisignano VI, Italy
Tel: 0039/0444613696
Web: http://www.atena.net

 
  

Journal of Educational and Social Research

Special Issue

Vol. 2, No. 4, January 2012

Issn: 2239-978X (print) Issn: 2240-0524 (online)

About the Journal

The "Journal of Educational and Social Research", published by MCSER, is a
professional, double-blind, peer-reviewed, open-access journal publishing high-quality
scientific articles. The journal has a distinguished editorial board with extensive
academic qualifications, ensuring that the journal will maintain high scientific
standards and have a broad international coverage. Articles related to all branches of
education are published The editorial board intends to publish papers which cover
applied and theoretical approaches to the study of education and its related
disciplines. The purpose of the journal is to serve as a forum for researchers around
the world to present and discuss common concerns in local, national, global,
international and transnational issues in social studies education. The journal is an
invaluable resource for teachers, counselors, supervisors, administrators, curriculum
planners, and educational researchers as they consider the structure of tomorrow's
curricula. Special issues examine major education issues in depth. Topics of recent
themes include methodology, motivation, and literacy. The Journal of Educational
and Social Research publishes original empirical and theoretical studies and analyses
in education that constitute significant contributions to the understanding and/or
improvement of educational processes and outcomes. The Journal focuses on
significant political, cultural, social, economic, and organizational issues in education,
and explores the processes and outcomes of teaching, learning, and human
development at all educational levels and in both formal and informal setting.
Although the JESR does not publish validation studies, the editors welcome many
varieties of research--experiments, evaluations, ethnographies, narrative research,
replications, and so forth. JESR publish research that representing a wide range of
academic disciplines and using a wide range of research methods.

Editor in Chief, Prof. Francesco Randazzo

University of Perugia

 
  

Indexing/Abstracting/Library

Journal of Educational and Social research is included on the following

index/abstracting/library

 EBSCO - Electronic Journal Service  Georgetown University Library

 EBSCOhost  Scirus Index
 EBSCO Publishing  Open J. Gate Index
 Index Copernicus International  Ohio Library and Information Network
 Cabell’s Publishing – Directories of – OhioLINK
Academic Journals  Academic Journals Database
 Ulrichsweb – Global Serials Directory  Indiana University Libraries
 Socol@r Index  California State Monterey Bay Library –
 E-Journals.org CSUMB
 World Wide Web Virtual Library  University of Saskatchwean Library
 Genamics JournalSeek  San José State University – Electronic
 Kaohsiung Medical University Journal Index
Library  WZB Library
 Univesrity of Ottawa Library  Colorado States University Libraries
 Birmingham Public Library  Berlin State Library
 Exlibris Index, The Bridge of  University of Washington Libraries
Knowledge  University Library of Regensburg
 Shenzen University Library  Digital Library of Wroclaw University

 
  

Journal of Educational and Social Research

Editor in chief Francesco Randazzo
University of Perugia, Italy

Guest Editors

Austin N. Nosike
S.E. Onuebunwa
Nkasiobi S. Oguzor
Oby C. Okonkwor
Jacinta A. Opara

International Editorial Board

Timm Albers Alba Dumi

University of Education Karlsruhe, Germany University of Vlore, Albania
Peter M. Miller Nkasiobi S.Oguzor
University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA Federal College of Education(Technical),
Nerissa Albon Omoku- Nigeria
Monash University, Australia Waqar Un Nisa Faizi
Pigga Keskitalo Jinnah Univerity for Women, Karachi,
Saami University College Kautokeino, Norway Pakistan
Paul Joseph Pace Maria Nogues
University of Malta, Msida, Malta / Centre Sapienza University of Rome, Italy
for Environmental Education and Research Rusul Alrubail
Sandro Caruana Seneca College, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
University of Malta, Malta Pilar Robles G.
William J. Hunter Sapienza University of Rome, Italy
University of Ontario Institute of Technology, Merja Paksuniemi
Canada Saari School, Rovaniemi, Finland
Peter Mayo Rajakumar Chelladurai
University of Malta, Malta V.S.B.Engineering College,
Anthonia U. Ejifugha Karur, Tamilnadu,India
Alvan Ikoku Federal College of Education, Shobana Nelasco
Owerri-Nigeria Fatima College, Madurai-India

 
  

Jacinta A. Opara Kinikanwo A. Anele

Universidad Azteca, Mexico University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria
Fernando A. Ferreira Peter Ugochukwu Akanwa
Polytechnic Institute of Santarem, Portugal Imo State University, Owerri-Nigeria
Alice Kagoda Addison Mark Wokocha
Makerere University, Kampala-Uganda Teachers Registration Council, Abuja-Nigeria
B.V. Toshev Benedicta Egbo
University of Sofia, Bulgaria University of Windsor, Ontario-Canada
Sodienye A. Abere Hassan Danial Aslam
Rivers State University of Science and Human Resource Management Research
Technology, Port Harcourt, Nigeria Society, Pakistan
Eddie Blass M.O.N. Obagah
Swinburne University of Technology, Rivers State University of Education, Nigeria
Australia Ali Simek
Hanna David Anadolu University, Turkey
Tel Aviv University, Jerusalem-Israel Austin N. Nosike
Adriana Piga The Granada Management Institute, Spain
Sapienza University of Rome Gerhard Berchtold
Oby Cordelia Okonkwor Universidad Azteca, Mexico
Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka-Nigeria Samir Mohamed Alredaisy
Asoluka C. Njoku University of Khartoum, Sudan
Alvan Ikoku Federal College of Education, Lawrence Ogbo Ugwuanyi
Owerri-Nigeria University of Abuja, Abuja-Nigeria
Azubuike Cypril Nwokocha John Agreen Idumange
Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Niger Delta University Wilberforce Island,
Umuahia-Nigeria Nigeria

 
  

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Editorial 9
Jacinta A. Opara

Emerging Myths and Realities in Teaching and Learning 11

Gerhard Berchtold
Repositioning Administrative and Supervisory Functions in Vocational Technical
Education for Functionality: The E-activity Approach 43
Onyeukwu, F.O.N; Ukoha Oyidiya N and Hogan S. Usoro
Education In Islam:Contemporary Issues and Challenges 49
Mohsen Tousi
Laboratories and Sustainable Teaching and Learning About Senior Secondary
School (SSS) Geography in Nigeria 55
Kofo. A. Aderogba
Sports as a Means of Enhancing Self Reliance and Nation Building 65
Agburuga Obi, Ordua Victor and Ohia Blessing Akumjuri
Distance Education in Nepal 69
Leela Pradhan
Legislator’s Jumbo Pay, Cost of Governance and the State of Education in Nigeria:
Issues and Contradictions 73
John Kalama; Charity E. Etebu; Charles A. Martha; Sophia M. John
Phychological Contract and Job Outcomes: Mediating Role of Affective Commitment 79
Farooq Ahmad Jam , Inam Ul Haq , and Tasneem Fatima
Teacher Capacity Building and Classroom Assessment for Sustainable
Student Learning 91
Matthew B.W. Gimba
An Approach to the Implementation of an Integrated Computerized Medical
System in Nigeria 99
Arthur Ume and Apkar Salatian
Deforestation and Sustainable Development in the Tropics:Causes and Effects 105
Sodienye A. Abere and Jacinta A. Opara

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Learning and Teaching Methodology 111

Fidelia I. Vin-Mbah
Myths and Realities: A Study of Elechi Amadi’s The Concubine 119
Isaac, Messiah
Globalization and Factor Mobility 125
Timothy A.Falade– Obalade
Challenges and Prospects of Using Internet Facilities in Federal College of
Education (Technical) Library Omoku, Rivers State 139
R. F. Quadri

8   
  

Editorial

In this Special Edition of the Journal of Educational and Social Research published by the
Mediterranean Center of Social and Educational Research, a collection of selected papers provided a
fascinating picture of some issues on education and development analysis through culture and time.
The volume is written by contributors who represent a cross-section of the field.

The entire of staff of International Association for Teaching and Learning; International Society for the
Scientific Research and Mediterranean Center of Social and Educational Research provided the skills
and energies for the production of the journal.We are grateful to all and sundry who contributed to
making the TEEC2011 and ICTL2012 conferences successful.

No doubt we have succeded to produce a publication that is essentially a reference material to the
contemporary debate on teaching, learning and change for the social scientist, educator and general
reader.

Dr. Jacinta A. Opara

Visiting Associate Professor ,Universidad Azteca, Mexico

and
President,African Association for Teaching and Learning

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Emerging Myths and Realities in Teaching and Learning

Gerhard Berchtold
Universidad Azteca, Chalco- Mexico

Introduction

The new emerging myth in higher education is Quality Assurance QA, having brought about numerous
accreditation agencies applying their own standards and procedures, ranging from institutional accreditation
to programme accreditation. The latest trends are to streamline the various approaches into an international
standard, e.g. ISO IEC 19796-1, comparable to ISO 9001:2008, for the Quality Management System QMS of
a higher education provider.
Saavedra Hidalgo and Berchtold1 report that in many areas of society - in industry, government and
service sectors - we have witnessed in recent years an increasing interest and emphasis on quality; many
efforts have been taken to establish systems and procedures for quality management and quality assurance
in the education sector. The authors quote Wirth2 who identified 34 quality assurance agencies in 23
countries. Increasing accreditation has been dramatic - while only six European countries had some form of
accreditation in 1998, it grew within five years). According to Wirth more than 140 quality criteria are
associated with the International Network for Quality Assurance Agencies in Higher Education (INQAAHE),
and most of these bodies take their own approaches.
Berchtold3 identified and compared various accreditation agencies engaged in supranational or
international accreditation of providers and programmes of higher education and the manifold standards and
procedures involved in order to serve as selection and decision making tool for universities and business
schools. The question of accreditation and quality improvement is central to TNE. International accreditation
is a valid option for a university, as well as quality auditing and certification.4
CHEA is an association of 3,000 degree-granting colleges and universities and recognizes 60 institutional
and programmatic accrediting organizations.5 The Recognized Accrediting Organizations (as of May 2011)
chart lists regional, national faith-related, national career-related and programmatic accreditors that are or
have been recognized by the Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA) or the U.S. Department of
Education (USDE) or both.6 This list contains 56 US Accreditation Agencies recognised by CHEA, and 58
Accreditation Agencies recognised by USDE, out of a total number of 87 listed US Accreditation Agencies.
The International Network for Quality Assurance Agencies in Higher Education (INQAAHE) was
established in 1991 with only 8 members. Today the total membership exceeds 200 members. Higher
education has dramatically changed over the last two decades. Distance education as well as vocational
                                                            
1 Saavedra Hidalgo, R.R., Berchtold G. (2011) México y la Unión Europea una nueva interacción educativa: Criterios europeos para

Evaluar la Calidad en E-learning y la transferencia de créditos ECTS. Área temática: Iniciativas multilaterales y gubernamentales para la
innov@ción en educación y formación. Universidad Azteca.
2 Wirth, M. A. (2005): Quality Management in E-Learning: Different Paths, Similar Pursuits. Paper to the 2nd International SCIL Congress.

http://www.scil.ch/congress-2005/programme-10-11/docs/workshop-1-wirth-text.pdf (Retrieved 21.2.2005)

3 Berchtold, G.. (2007) Synopsis of standards and procedures of recognised accreditation agencies awarding international accreditation

to universities and business schools. Universidad Azteca

4 Berchtold, G., (2008) Transnational Higher Education. Development and Management. Universidad Azteca.
5 CHEA Council for Higher Education Accreditation (2011) 2010-2011 Directory of CHEA-Recognized Organizations

http://www.chea.org/pdf/2010_2011_Directory_of_CHEA_Recognized_Organizations.pdf
6 CHEA (2011a) http://www.chea.org/pdf/CHEA_USDE_AllAccred.pdf

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education have become increasingly more important as is the need for recognition of prior learning. Higher
education has become more global than ever before. Professional accreditation has become more important
as more higher education institutions, delivering programmes in different modes, enter the market . All these
have thrust the quality assurance agencies into ever expanding roles.7 The International Network for Quality
Assurance Agencies in Higher Education (INQAAHE) is a world-wide association of some 200 organisations
active in the theory and practice of quality assurance in higher education. The great majority of its members
are quality assurance agencies that operate in many different ways, although the Network also welcomes (as
associate or institution members) other organisations that have an interest in QA in HE.
The core statement of a research project of the European Quality Observatory postulates: Quality is
considered highly relevant but rarely implemented in reality.8 Jan Pawlowski9 investigates “quality
development in professional and continuous education – reference models and the integration of working and
learning”, with the primary focus on quality development for education providers. Another focus is quality
development by integration of work-, learning- and knowledge-processes as well as the design of integrated
inter-operative systems based on standards of learning-technology. The research design is practice-related,
based on results of multi-year research findings, namely in four application-related projects (virtual education
and training, European Quality Observatory, TRIANGLE, and Quality Initiative e-learning in Germany).
Despite several research papers address knowledge management and e-learning, publications about the
application of quality-management and quality-assurance are rare. While improvement of quality is mainly an
implicit objective, the Pawlowski research addresses for the first time central issues and methods of
Business-IT for application and implementation of explicit conceptions and methods of quality management.
According to Bittner 10 QA Quality Assurance for international competitiveness puts emphasis on the
development of a comprehensive concept of developing and ensuring quality in the education system,
considering the relationship between autonomy and evaluation.
Two driving forces, technology and globalisation, have changed the environment for universities
worldwide. Technology means information technology development, the internet, e-learning, virtual
classrooms, altogether new challenges for traditional classroom-based higher education settings. In principle,
open and distance higher education in virtual classrooms can serve an unlimited number of students. The
question of accreditation and quality improvement is central to transnational higher education TNHE.
International accreditation is a valid option for a university, as well as quality auditing and certification.11
Higher education has given ample proof of its viability over the centuries and of its ability to change and
to induce change and progress in society. Owing to the scope and pace of change, society has become
increasingly knowledge-based so that higher learning and research now act as essential components of
cultural, socio-economic and environmentally sustainable development of individuals, communities and
nations. Higher education itself is confronted therefore with formidable challenges and must proceed to the
most radical change and renewal it has ever been required to undertake, so that our society, which is
currently undergoing a profound crisis of values, can transcend mere economic considerations and
incorporate deeper dimensions of morality and spirituality. It is with the aim of providing solutions to these
challenges and of setting in motion a process of in-depth reform in higher education worldwide that UNESCO

                                                            
7 INQAAHE (2011) http://www.inqaahe.org/main/about-inqaahe
8 Cedefop Panorama series; 110. 2005. Qualität im E-Learning. Nutzung und Verbreitung von Qualitätsansätzen im europäischen E-
Learning. Eine Studie des European Quality Observatory. Ulf-Daniel Ehlers, Lutz Goertz, Barbara Hildebrandt, Jan M. Pawlowski,
Luxemburg: Amt für amtliche Veröffentlichungen der Europäischen Gemeinschaften, ISBN 92-896-0409-3. ISSN 1562-6180.
9 Pawlowski Jan M. (2007) Zusammenfassung der kumulativen Habilitation im Fach „Wirtschaftsinformatik“ Qualitätsentwicklung in der

Aus- und Weiterbildung – Referenzmodelle und die Integration von Arbeiten und Lernen. Universität Duisburg-Essen
10 UNESCO 2001: Creative and Inclusive Strategies for Lifelong Learning: Lifelong learning: implementing a generally accepted

principle. Elisabeth Bittner, p. 11ff

11 Berchtold (2008) Transnational Higher Education. Development and Management. Universidad Azteca.

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has convened a World Conference on Higher Education in the Twenty-First Century: Vision and Action. 12
As announced during the ministerial meeting in Prague, the conference to focus on the
internationalisation of quality assurance as part of the Bologna process was organised in Amsterdam, March
2002. The aim of the conference was to present various developments in quality assurance of higher
education and its internationalisation in Europe, also in perspective of developments beyond the European
higher education area. At the conference various actors gave an overview of a variety of activities at various
levels. 13
According to Jung 14 quality culture can be defined as an institutional culture that promotes the
introduction of an internal QA system, values the capacity building for implementing QA arrangements,
stresses the link between the internal QA system and accountability to the public at the national and
international levels, and focuses on learning rather than teaching. The survey results show that a quality
culture has been emerging, if not fully integrated, in the mega universities investigated. All the mega
universities have developed and implemented QA standards and procedures in key areas of distance
education activities and at least four mega universities surveyed have institutionalised a central QA unit and
thus sought the development of a more systematic and coherent quality culture. Another indicator for the
emergence of a quality culture is capacity building efforts made by the institutions. At least half of the mega
universities have provided continuous staff development opportunities to their academic and administrative
staff in pursuit of quality improvement. It is found that international organisations such as UNESCO, COL,
OECD and World Bank have provided useful QA guidelines and resources for distance educators. Moreover,
most of the institutions have shown an aspiration of obtaining national recognition as a high quality DE
provider. Some have gone beyond national level accreditation and recognition and pursued international
recognition such as ISO certification for their services.
The survey also shows that there exists a variety of QA systems of distance education even though the
globalisation and competitiveness of higher education and the development of technology have brought
distance teaching universities closer together in terms of developing a common quality culture. The level of
QA policy integration in an overall university policy framework varies across the mega universities. Some
mega universities apply a set of standards and criteria that are predetermined by the institution or by the
national quality assurance agency to evaluate and monitor key areas of distance education, whereas other
institutions provide only general guidelines for QA and leave room for the internal and external review teams
or individual units to make QA judgments. Some mechanisms for assuring quality of distance education
adopt rigorous internal QA measures, whereas in systems where the accountability concern does not
dominate, the QA system is less centralised and the primary objective is self-improvement of institutions.
Even though core areas – such as course and programme development and delivery − for QA are similar in
most mega universities, some QA areas draw more attention than others. In some institutions, assessment of
staff performance and tutoring services is emphasised, whereas in other institutions, learner assessment or
monitoring of e-learning courses gets more attention.
The World Declaration on Higher Education 15 suggests moving from vision to action through qualitative
evaluation: Quality in higher education is a multidimensional concept, which should embrace all its functions,
and activities: teaching and academic programmes, research and scholarship, staffing, students, buildings,
facilities, equipment, services to the community and the academic environment. Internal self-evaluation and
external review, conducted openly by independent specialists, if possible with international expertise, are vital
                                                            
12 World Conference on Higher Education Higher Education in the Twenty-First Century: Vision and Action. 9 October 1998: World

Declaration on Higher Education for the Twenty-first Century: Vision and Action
13 (Westerheijden and Leegwater, 2003, 11)
14 UNESCO/COL 2005: QUALITY ASSURANCE SURVEY OF MEGA UNIVERSITIES. Insung Jung, p. 91f
15 World Conference on Higher Education Higher Education in the Twenty-First Century: Vision and Action. 9 October 1998: World

Declaration on Higher Education for the Twenty-first Century: Vision and Action, Article 11

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for enhancing quality. Independent national bodies should be established and comparative standards of
quality, recognized at international level, should be defined. Due attention should be paid to specific
institutional, national and regional contexts in order to take into account diversity and to avoid uniformity.
Stakeholders should be an integral part of the institutional evaluation process. Quality also requires that
higher education should be characterized by its international dimension: exchange of knowledge, interactive
networking, mobility of teachers and students, and international research projects, while taking into account
the national cultural values and circumstances. To attain and sustain national, regional or international
quality, certain components are particularly relevant, notably careful selection of staff and continuous staff
development, in particular through the promotion of appropriate programmes for academic staff development,
including teaching/learning methodology and mobility between countries, between higher education
institutions, and between higher education institutions and the world of work, as well as student mobility
within and between countries. The new information technologies are an important tool in this process, owing
to their impact on the acquisition of knowledge and know-how.
The Guidelines for Quality Provision in Cross-border Higher Education 16 aim to support and encourage
international cooperation and enhance the understanding of the importance of quality provision in cross-
border higher education. The purposes of the Guidelines are to protect students and other stakeholders from
low-quality provision and disreputable providers as well as to encourage the development of quality cross-
border higher education that meets human, social, economic and cultural needs. The quality of a country’s
higher education sector and its assessment and monitoring is not only key to its social and economic well-
being, it is also a determining factor affecting the status of that higher education system at the international
level. The Guidelines aim to provide an international framework for quality provision in cross-border higher
education that responds to the challenges. The Guidelines are based on the principle of mutual trust and
respect among countries and on the recognition of the importance of international collaboration in higher
education. Cross-border higher education encompasses a wide range of modalities from face-to-face (taking
various forms such as students travelling abroad and campuses abroad) to distance learning (using a range
of technologies and including e-learning). In implementing the Guidelines, consideration should be given to
the variety of provision and its different demands for quality assurance. 17
The UNESCO Guidelines for Higher Education Stakeholders 18 in particular for higher education
institutions/ providers require that commitment to quality by all higher education institutions/providers is
essential. To this end, the active and constructive contributions of academic staff are indispensable. Higher
education institutions are responsible for the quality as well as the social, cultural and linguistic relevance of
education and the standards of qualifi cations provided in their name, no matter where or how it is delivered.
In this context, it is recommended that higher education institutions/providers delivering cross-border higher
education: (a) Ensure that the programmes they deliver across borders and in their home country are of
comparable quality (…); (b) Recognize that quality teaching and research is made possible by the quality of
faculty and the quality of their working conditions that foster independent and critical enquiry. (…) (c)
Develop, maintain or review current internal quality management systems so that they make full use of. (…)
(d) Consult competent quality assurance and accreditation bodies and respect the quality assurance and
accreditation systems of the receiving country when delivering higher education across borders, including
distance education; (e) Share good practices by participating in sector organizations and inter-institutional
networks at national and international levels; (f) Develop and maintain networks and partnerships to facilitate
the process of recognition by acknowledging each other’s qualifications as equivalent or comparable; (g)
Where relevant, use codes of good practice (…) (h) Provide accurate, reliable and easily accessible
information on the criteria and procedures of external and Guidelines for Higher Education Stakeholders. (…)
                                                            
16 UNESCO 2005a: Guidelines for Quality Provision in Cross-border Higher Education. p. 4
17 UNESCO 2005a: Guidelines for Quality Provision in Cross-border Higher Education. p. 7-11
18 UNESCO 2005a: Guidelines for Quality Provision in Cross-border Higher Education. p. 15-17

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(i) Ensure the transparency of the financial status of the institution and/or educational programme offered.
In establishing priorities in their programmes and structures, higher education institutions should: (a) take
into account the need to abide by the rules of ethics and scientific and intellectual rigour, and the
multidisciplinary and transdisciplinary approach; (b) be primarily concerned to establish systems of access for
the benefit of all persons who have the necessary abilities and motivations; (c) use their autonomy and high
academic standards to contribute to the sustainable development of society and to the resolution of the
issues facing the society of the future. They should develop their capacity to give forewarning through the
analysis of emerging social, cultural, economic and political trends, approached in a multidisciplinary and
transdisciplinary manner, giving particular attention to: - high quality, a clear sense of the social pertinence of
studies and their anticipatory function, based on scientific grounds; - knowledge of fundamental social
questions, in particular related to the elimination of poverty, to sustainable development, to intercultural
dialogue and to the shaping of a culture of peace; - the need for close connection with effective research
organizations or institutions that perform well in the sphere of research; - the development of the whole
education system in the perspective of the recommendations and the new goals for education as set out in
the 1996 report to UNESCO of the International Commission on Education for the Twenty-first Century; -
fundamentals of human ethics, applied to each profession and to all areas of human endeavour; (d) ensure,
especially in universities and as far as possible, that faculty members participate in teaching, research,
tutoring students and steering institutional affairs; (e) take all necessary measures to reinforce their service to
the community, especially their activities aimed at eliminating poverty, intolerance, violence, illiteracy, hunger
and disease, through an interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary approach in the analysis of challenges,
problems and different subjects; (f) set their relations with the world of work on a new basis involving effective
partnerships with all social actors concerned, starting from a reciprocal harmonization of action and the
search for solutions to pressing problems of humanity, all this within a framework of responsible autonomy
and academic freedoms; (g) ensure high quality of international standing, consider accountability and both
internal and external evaluation, with due respect for autonomy and academic freedom, as being normal and
inherent in their functioning, and institutionalize transparent systems, structures or mechanisms specific
thereto; (h) as lifelong education requires academic staff to update and improve their teaching skills and
learning methods, even more than in the present systems mainly based on short periods of higher teaching,
establish appropriate academic staff development structures and/or mechanisms and programmes; (i)
promote and develop research, which is a necessary feature of all higher education systems, in all
disciplines, including the human and social sciences and arts, given their relevance for development. Also,
research on higher education itself should be strengthened through mechanisms such as the UNESCO/UNU
Forum on Higher Education and the UNESCO Chairs in Higher Education. Objective, timely studies are
needed to ensure continued progress towards such key national objectives as access, equity, quality,
relevance and diversification; (j) remove gender inequalities and biases in curricula and research, and take all
appropriate measures to ensure balanced representation of both men and women among students and
teachers, at all levels of management; (k) provide, where appropriate, guidance and counselling, remedial
courses, training in how to study and other forms of student support, including measures to improve student
living conditions.
While the need for closer links between higher education and the world of work is important worldwide, it
is particularly vital for the developing countries and especially the least developed countries, given their low
level of economic development. The use of new technologies should be generalized to the greatest extent
possible to help higher education institutions, to reinforce academic development, to widen access, to attain
universal scope and to extend knowledge, as well as to facilitate education throughout life. Governments,
educational institutions and the private sector should ensure that informatics and communication network
infrastructures, computer facilities and human resources training are adequately provided.
Institutions of higher education should be open to adult learners: (a) by developing coherent mechanisms
to recognize the outcomes of learning undertaken in different contexts, and to ensure that credit is

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transferable within and between institutions, sectors and states; (b) by establishing joint higher
education/community research and training partnerships, and by bringing the services of higher education
institutions to outside groups; (c) by carrying out interdisciplinary research in all aspects of adult education
and learning with the participation of adult learners themselves; (d) by creating opportunities for adult learning
in flexible, open and creative ways.19

Development and Management of Open and Distance TNE

Human action is one of the agencies bringing about change. It is an element of cosmic activity and becoming.
Therefore it is a legitimate object of scientific investigation. As—at least under present conditions—it cannot
be traced back to its causes, it must be considered as an ultimate given and must be studied as such. 20
“Choosing determines all human decisions. In making his choice man chooses not only between various
material things and services. All human values are offered for option. The modern theory of value widens the
scientific horizon and enlarges the field of economic studies.” 21 There is also a convincing argument for
systems thinking and systemic management approaches: “the notion of emergence in strategy finds
increasing support in chaos theory, the new science of complex adaptive systems. There is no need for
leaders, order emerges naturally from myriads of small adaptive adjustments.” 22 In this sense a firms
resources include tacit skills, patterns of co-operation, and intangible assets that take time and learning to
evolve. These resources cannot be traded, changed or imitated with ease. The origin of a firm´s competitive
advantage, therefore, lies in what is unique and embedded in its resources – these constitute its core,
distinctive competences. 23
According to Kotler 24 todays economic landscape is shaped by the two powerful forces of technology and
globalisation. The globalisation and e-learning trends challenge the existing quality assurance (QA)
frameworks of distance education DE, which have focused more on widening access than on assuring
quality, and often do not address for-profit and cross-border education. Especially in the context of growing
globalisation in distance education, there has been an urgent need for international initiatives to review
quality assurance mechanisms of DE for higher education at the national and institutional level, discuss new
challenges of a changing DE environment, and build a capacity for QA to enhance the quality provision in a
globalised higher education market. 25
Hiam and Schewe 26 suggest organising for New-Product Development:
 Generating ideas
 Screening ideas
 Developing and testing the concept
 Business Analysis
 Product Development
 Test Marketing
 Commercialization

                                                            
19 World Conference on Higher Education Higher Education in the Twenty-First Century: Vision and Action. 9 October 1998: World

Declaration on Higher Education for the Twenty-first Century: Vision and Action
20 Ludwig von Mises, Human Action, p. 18
21 Mises, 1949, 1996, p. 3
22 Mazzucato 2002, p.44
23 Mazzucato 2002, p.45 (Grant 1998)
24 Kotler Philip, 1999, p. 3
25 UNESCO/COL 2005: QUALITY ASSURANCE SURVEY OF MEGA UNIVERSITIES. Insung Jung, p. 80f
26 Hiam and Schewe (1992) The Portable MBA in Marketing, p. 244ff

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Strategy is about organizational change. An action is strategic, when it allows a firm to become better than its
competitors, and when the competitive advantage can be sustained. Strategy is about both: choosing new
games to play and playing existing games better. Some strategy researchers describe strategy as a rational
and deliberate process (the Design school), while others describe it as an evolutionary process which
emerges from experimentation and trial and error (the Evolutionary and Processual schools); others describe
a dynamic picture of competition, where firms not only are influenced by the environment, but also actively
seek to change it (e.g. the Schumpeterian approach). 27 The point is that human interaction and how it takes
place is central to knowledge creation and transfer. It is also formative in shaping organisational routines
within which useful knowledge can be exploited as an organisational rather than an individual resource. 28
The category means and ends presupposes the category cause and effect. In a world without causality
and regularity of phenomena there would be no field for human reasoning and human action. 29 Human
action is necessarily always rational.30 When applied to the means chosen for the attainment of ends, the
terms rational and irrational imply a judgment about the expediency and adequacy of the procedure
employed. The critic approves or disapproves of the method from the point of view of whether or not it is best
suited to attain the end in question. 31 The only standard which praxeology applies is whether or not the
means chosen are fit for the attainment of the ends aimed at. If Eudaemonism says happiness, if
Utilitarianism and economics say utility, we must interpret these terms in a subjectivistic way as that which
acting man aims at because it is desirable in his eyes. 32 According to Mazzucato 33 the logic of managerial
capitalism with the business enterprise (and its management) as the central actor: since business enterprises
play the leading role in industrial development, industrial firms accordingly need to be in a process of
constant organizational renewal. While new technologies provided opportunities, it was the business
enterprises and their managers that determined whether those opportunities would be converted into
sustainable advantages. It was the development of effective professional management and organizational
systems to support the development of vertically integrated business enterprises.
The Plan-Do-Check-Act Management cycle requires the careful utilisation of resources. Strategic
management is the vision of the future state of the enterprise. In terms of higher education the products are
the educational programmes offered, the degrees awarded, the academic, technical and administrational
support for students. Products are mainly services and hence the hybrid phenomenon of “service-goods”34
applies. There are two basic approaches for finding new business opportunities available to production-
capacity-focused businesses. The direct approach is by entering new markets; the indirect approach involves
making improvements in process technologies that will lower prices, increase quality, or decrease time-to-
market, thereby enabling businesses to enter new market segments. In addition to finding opportunities,
businesses can use their imagination to create opportunities that align to their present capabilities.
Businesses with focused strategies are a step ahead of their competitors. 35 As with all service provisions
the client is the recipient of the quality delivered. The approach is, therefore, client-centric, that is student-
centric. There are several approaches to designing in prevention of downstreaming problems through
improvements. The first is to maintain a system and process view of the work. 36
Courses entail both, own course-books and materials, and third party content, such as Open-Course-
                                                            
27 Mazzucato 2002, p.1
28 Mazzucato 2002, p.309
29 Ludwig von Mises, Human Action, p. 22
30 Ludwig von Mises, Human Action, p. 19
31 Ludwig von Mises, Human Action, p. 20
32 Ludwig von Mises, Human Action, p. 21
33 Mazzucato 2002, p.275
34 Berchtold, 2006
35 Perry et.al. p. 131f
36 Eric Verzuh (ed.) The Portable MBA in Project Management, p. 236

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Ware, standard coursebooks, literature on the internet, or courses purchased from third party education
providers, including transfer-credits. The front-store of the university is the website, the student entry point is
the platform of the university. The platform offers Moodle-standard opportunities to login, enrol into courses,
download instructions and course-materials, communicate with others and the tutor(s), pass online
examinations. In order to operate a course with examination, it is required to upload a coursebook for self
study (or require the student to acquire it), assignments for correspondence with tutor (optional), and one or
more multiple choice tests to be taken online on the platform. Such provision is standard of most universities /
or ODL and online-programmes. It enables a high degree of standardisation and automation of services
rendered and maintains a high level of e-learning quality. 37 The output of global R&D should be global
products and services, global marketing and selling strive for the appropriate balance of global uniformity and
local adaption in all elements of the marketing mix, but with a probable bias in favour of uniformity, unless a
good case can be made for local exceptions. 38
The transboundary aspects of TNHE require multilingual and multicultural approaches to international
management39. One way to achieve this outcome is the international format of standard programmes, e.g. in
Environmental Studies, Business Administration, Coaching, to name but a few, delivered in English, German
and/or in Spanish. Kotler 40 draws a distinction between customized marketing and mass customized
marketing. Customized marketing takes place when the seller prepares a new product from scratch for the
buyer. Mass customization takes place when the company has established basic modules that can be
combined in different ways for each customer. Another applied approach is collaboration with local, regional,
or national providers in certain countries, with the focus on validation of programmes and award of degrees.
Validation partnerships increase the outreach and the language capacities for the given university.
Mazzucato 41 explores the implication of recent changes (information technology revolution; globalisation –
global nature of competition) in the world economy for strategic behaviour; emphasizing how information
technology has increased the role of positive feedback as well as how the rise of information technology has
increased the importance of inter-firm networks in allowing firms to generate new knowledge and process
information.
Partnership and alliances 42: Partnership and alliances amongst stakeholders - national and institutional
policy-makers, teaching and related staff, researchers and students, and administrative and technical
personnel in institutions of higher education, the world of work, community groups - is a powerful force in
managing change. Also, non-governmental organizations are key actors in this process. Henceforth,
partnership, based on common interest, mutual respect and credibility, should be a prime matrix for renewal
in higher education.
A very simple definition of quality is “a predictable degree of uniformity and dependability, at low cost and
suited to the needs of the market. 43 Quality of design focuses on determining the quality characteristics of
products that are suited to the needs of a market, at a given cost; that is, quality of design develops products
from a customer orientation. 44 In order to increase the standing and reputation of programmes the institution
may pursue an additional accreditation provided by an international accreditation agency recognised in the
USA or in the EU, or it may pursue a branch campus with accreditation by the host-country. For auto-
evaluation, the an institution may apply the ODLQC Open & Distance Learning Quality Council standards, an
                                                            
37 Berchtold, 2006
38 Mazzucato 2002, p. 364f
39 Berchtold, 2008
40 Kotler Philip, 1999, p. 29f
41 Mazzucato 2002, p.321
42 World Conference on Higher Education Higher Education in the Twenty-First Century: Vision and Action. 9 October 1998: World

Declaration on Higher Education for the Twenty-first Century: Vision and Action, Article 17
43 Gitlow, Oppenheim & Oppenheim, p. 3
44 Gitlow, Oppenheim & Oppenheim, p. 5

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accreditation recognised e.g. by DETC as quality assurance system.

Strengthening higher education management and financing 45: The management and financing of higher
education require the development of appropriate planning and policy-analysis capacities and strategies,
institutions should adopt forwardlooking management practices that respond to the needs of their
environments. The ultimate goal of management should be to enhance the institutional mission by ensuring
high-quality teaching, training and research, and services to the community. This objective requires
governance that combines social vision, including understanding of global issues, with efficient managerial
skills. Leadership in higher education is thus a major social responsibility and can be significantly
strengthened through dialogue with all stakeholders, especially teachers and students, in higher education.
Financing of higher education as a public service: The funding of higher education requires both public and
private resources. The role of the state remains essential in this regard.
The cost structures in open and distance learning are quite different from cost structures in conventional
types of education. Capital investments usually substitute for high recurrent costs, making economies of
scale a decisive factor. Large distance learning programmes may produce graduates at considerably lower
costs than conventional institutions. This depends, however, also on a number of other factors. The costs of
open and distance learning vary a great deal according to the use of learning materials, media and
technologies, and types and organization of student support services. In order to evaluate costs it is also
necessary to consider the rate of completion of studies. 46 Simple cost efficiency studies do not take into
account broader qualitative and social aspects. Funding of open and distance learning institutions is often
different from that of conventional institutions. Open and distance learning should be taken to remedy any
unjustified economic discrimination between students in open and distance learning and other students. 47
With regard to strategic thinking and knowledge management, Mazzucato 48 postulates that knowledge is
central to wealth creation and organised competitive performance. Knowledge Management requires the
pursuit of different types of objectives and the development of different types of resource strengths, process
capabilities and organisational structures. The development of organisational advantages requires a focus
upon internal organisational dynamics. Firms exist to facilitate the acquisition, creation, exploitation and
transfer of useful knowledge. The acquisition of new knowledge is an essential ingredient in the success of
strategies; knowledge is a critical resource, organisations require practical know-how in a wide range of
areas and an ability to exploit these disparate contributions effectively. 49

Kotler 50 suggests the following winning marketing practices:

- Win through higher quality
- Win through better service
- Win through lower prices
- Win through higher market share
- Win through adaption and customization
- Win through continuous product improvement
- Win through product innovation
- Win through entering high-growth markets
- Win through exceeding customer expectations
                                                            
45 World Conference on Higher Education Higher Education in the Twenty-First Century: Vision and Action. 9 October 1998: World
Declaration on Higher Education for the Twenty-first Century: Vision and Action, Article 13
46 UNESCO 1997. OPEN AND DISTANCE LEARNING. Executive Summary, Chapter XIX, p. 4
47 UNESCO 1997. OPEN AND DISTANCE LEARNING. Executive Summary, Chapters XX, XXI, p. 4f
48 Mazzucato 2002, p.303f
49 Mazzucato 2002, p. 305ff
50 Kotler Philip, 1999, p. 5ff

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One of the core messages of Kotler 51 is using marketing to understand, create, communicate, and deliver
value. Kotler 52 suggests adapting to the new age of electronic marketing, requiring from marketers to rethink
fundamentally the processes by which they identify, communicate, and deliver customer value. The concept
of unit of competitive advantage (UCA) helps to explain why some organizations either emphasize the wrong
capabilities or deemphasize the right capabilities. The UCA includes the critical processes that create
distinctiveness within an established strategic direction. 53 A common challenge associated with strategic
improvising is the development of world-class core capabilities. Core capabilities are of primary importance
because they provide the most leverage to strategic thrusts. 54 The program management organization
infrastructure is the glue that holds the practice and discipline of project management together in
organizations. 55 Regarding the integration of information support with business needs, Piasecki et.al 56
postulate, because solutions integrate business processes with technology support, additional education
contributes to a better understanding of relevant issues and applicable options. Work teams grow more
empowered as they increase ownership of their processes. 57 The real meaning of leading with vision is
transforming all the various images, hopes, fears, expectations, and desires to contribute toward a way of
talking about the organization and its affairs that the majority can commit to. 58 Despite its mystical aura,
vision is a critical aspect of leadership, and it very much reflects the new world of competition. By its nature,
vision implies looking ahead and often with a paradoxical twist – seeing with a degree of clarity what may not
be apparent to others. 59

Accreditation

Accreditation gives international credibility to programmes and an overview of the position against
international standards. 60 Accreditation61 focuses on the quality of education. Standards set demanding but
realistic thresholds, challenge educators to pursue continuous improvement, and guide improvement in
educational programs. It is important to note that accreditation does not create quality learning experiences.
Academic quality is created by the educational standards implemented by individual faculty members in
interactions with students. A high quality degree program is created when students interact with a cadre of
faculty in a systematic program supported by an institution. Accreditation observes, recognizes, and
sometimes motivates educational quality created within the institution. Accreditation: The process of external
quality review used in higher education to scrutinize colleges, universities, and higher education programs for
quality assurance and quality improvement. Success results in an accredited institution and/or program. In
some countries, it conveys institutional authority to offer specific programs. 62
The work of CHEA 63 is designed to strengthen communication across national boundaries through
demonstrating similarities and differences in key quality assurance and accreditation terminology used in
different parts of the world. Acknowledging that this language involves considerable ambiguity of meaning,
CHEA, working with international colleagues, seeks to enhance our shared understanding of terms regularly
                                                            
51 Kotler Philip, 1999, p. 17
52 Kotler Philip, 1999, p. 205ff
53 Perry et.al. p. 75
54 Perry et.al. p. 88f
55 Eric Verzuh (ed.) The Portable MBA in Project Management, p. 371
56 Piasecki et.al. (1999), p. 189
57 Wellins et.al. (1991): Empowered Teams, p. 28
58 Cohen (1993) The Portable MBA in Management, p. 30
59 Collins et.al. (1994) The New Portable MBA, p. 397
60 http://www.mbaworld.com/page/about/index.html
61 http://www.aacsb.edu/accreditation/ Eligibility Procedures and Accreditation Standards for Business Accreditation
62 CHEA (2006) – International Quality Review: Glossary of Key Terms in Quality Assurance and Accreditation
63 CHEA (2006) – International Quality Review: Glossary of Key Terms in Quality Assurance and Accreditation

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employed in quality review. Accreditation in the United States is a collegial process of self-study and external
peer review for quality assurance, accountability, and quality improvement of an academic institution or
program designed to determine whether or not it has met or exceeded the published standards of its
accrediting association and is achieving its mission and stated purpose; whereas in Western Europe is is
perceived as an evaluation and assessment of an institution or its programs in relation to its aims and
objectives, its recognized standards, and its own goals. The assessors are looking primarily at the success of
the institution in achieving its goals. Also refers to formal government authorization given to institutions to
grant degrees. In Germany, normally refers to evaluation and assessment of the accreditation agencies that
accredit only those programs leading to a B.A. or M.A. In the United Kingdom the QAA Code of Practice on
collaborative provision—a process by which an institution without its own degree-awarding powers is given
wide authority by a university or other awarding institution to exercise powers and responsibility for academic
provision. The awarding institution is ultimately responsible for the quality and standard of the award
(qualification). 64
CHEA 65 provides the following definitions related to accreditation and quality of higher education
provision:
Assessment: A diagnostic form of quality review and evaluation of teaching, learning, and programs based on
a detailed examination of curricula, structure, and effectiveness of the institution, its internal review, and
quality control mechanisms.
Audit: A process of review of an institution or program to determine if its curriculum, staff, and infrastructure
meet its stated aims and objectives. An audit focuses on accountability of institutions and programs. (In the
U.K., an audit is an institutional process. The term "audit" is scheduled to be replaced in 2002 by "institutional
review" as part of a new academic review process.)
Audit Report: (U.K.) The document prepared following a quality assessment peer review team site visit. The
report generally focuses on institutional quality, academic standards, learning infrastructure, and staffing. In
Europe, the document is more likely to be called an "evaluation report" or "assessment report."
Criteria: Standards for accreditation or certification of an institution or program. These involve expectations
about quality, effectiveness, financial viability, compliance with national (U.S.: state and federal) rules and
regulations, outcomes, and sustainability. In the U.K., "criteria" refers to standards for degree-awarding
powers and the title "university."
Quality: Refers to "fitness for purpose"—meeting or conforming to generally accepted standards as defined
by an accrediting or quality assurance body.
Quality Assessment: A diagnostic review and evaluation of teaching, learning, and outcomes based on a
detailed examination of curricula, structure, and effectiveness of the institution or program. Designed to
determine if the institution or program meets generally accepted standards of excellence.
Quality Assurance: Planned and systematic review process of an institution or program to determine that
acceptable standards of education, scholarship, and infrastructure are being maintained and enhanced.
Usually includes expectations that mechanisms of quality control are in place and effective. Also (U.K.), the
means through which an institution confirms that the conditions are in place for students to achieve the
standards set by the institution or other awarding body.
Quality Audit: A test of an institution's quality assurance and control system through a self-evaluation and
external review of its programs, staff, and infrastructure. Designed to provide an assessment of an
institution's system of accountability, internal review mechanisms, and effectiveness with an external body
confirming that the institution's quality assurance process complies with accepted standards.
Quality Improvement: The expectation that an institution will have in place a plan to monitor and improve the

                                                            
64 CHEA (2006) – International Quality Review: Glossary of Key Terms in Quality Assurance and Accreditation
65 CHEA (2006) – International Quality Review: Glossary of Key Terms in Quality Assurance and Accreditation

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quality of its programs. In most cases, quality assurance and accrediting agencies require that established
procedures ensure that this is an ongoing process.
Self-study: The review and evaluation of the quality and effectiveness of an institution's own academic
programs, staffing, and structure, based on standards set by an outside quality assurance body, carried out
by the institution itself. Self-studies usually are undertaken in preparation for a quality assurance site visit by
an outside team of specialists. Results in a self-study report.
Subject Benchmark: (U.K.) Provides a reference point against which outcomes can be measured. Subject
benchmark statements provide a means for the academic community to describe the nature and
characteristics of programs in a specific subject. They also represent general expectations about the
standards for the award of qualifications at a given level and articulate the attributes and capabilities that
those possessing such qualifications should be able to demonstrate.
In 2004, the Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada (AUCC), the American Council on
Education (ACE), the Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA), and the International Association of
Universities (IAU) issued a statement, Sharing Quality Higher Education Across Borders: A Statement on
Behalf of Higher Education Institutions Worldwide, outlining a set of principles that should guide the provision
of cross-border education. 66

Principles for Cross-Border Higher Education

Cross-border higher education should strive to contribute to the broader economic, social, and cultural well-
being of communities. While cross-border education can flow in many different directions in a variety of
contexts, it should strengthen developing countries’ higher education capacity in order to promote global
equity. In addition to providing disciplinary and professional expertise, crossborder higher education should
strive to instill in learners the critical thinking that underpins responsible citizenship at the local, national, and
global levels. Cross-border higher education should be accessible not only to students who can afford to pay,
but also to qualified students with financial need. Cross-border higher education should meet the same high
standards of academic and organizational quality no matter where it is delivered. Cross-border higher
education should be accountable to the public, students, and governments. Cross-border higher education
should expand the opportunities for international mobility of faculty, researchers, and students. Higher
education institutions and other providers of cross-border education should provide clear and full information
to students and external stakeholders about the education they provide.

Quality 67

Does the institution have in place a process of ongoing quality review, feedback, and improvement that relies
on faculty expertise and incorporates the views of students? Has the institution taken steps to promote the
application of this process to its educational initiatives abroad? Does the institution apply the same quality
assurance principles, policies, and practices—and standards of academic and organizational quality—no
matter where its programs are delivered? Does the institution employ the same standards and procedures in
appointing and evaluating faculty members, wherever the instruction is offered? When instruction is provided
primarily or entirely over the internet or by other electronic means to students in the host country, does the
institution also provide appropriate technical support for students and faculty, access to library resources,
advising, and other student services? Does the institution provide advising and orientation support for
students, wherever they are enrolled? Does the institution provide adequate administrative support for its
                                                            
66 ACE et.al. www.unesco.org/iau/p_statements/index.html Sharing Quality Higher Education Across Borders: A Statement on Behalf of

Higher Education Institutions Worldwide.

67 ACE et.al. Sharing Quality Higher Education Across Borders: A Statement on Behalf of Higher Education Institutions Worldwide.

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programs and activities, wherever they are offered?

Institutions are urged to consider in the self-assessment process what evidence they can identify to
substantiate their answers with regard to the following aspects: 68 Contribution to Broader Public Good;
Capacity Building; Relevance; Accessibility; Quality; Accountability; Transparency; Commitment to High-
Quality Higher Education Across Borders.
CHEA has passed principles 69 for US Accreditors working internationally for the accreditation of non-
US Institutions working globally in order to advise Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA)
accrediting organizations and to provide a framework for U.S. accreditors undertaking reviews of non-United
States (U.S.) institutions and programs operating in countries outside the U.S. They are intended to
strengthen the working relationship among U.S. accreditors and international quality assurance agencies and
encourage and enhance ongoing cooperation and communication:
Principle 1. Considerations and Actions for U.S. Accreditors When Determining to Undertake Accreditation of
Non-U.S. Institutions and Programs in Another Country
Principle 2. Expectations for Conduct of U.S. Accreditation Reviews of Non-U.S. Institutions and Programs in
Another Country
Principle 3. Accreditor Expectations of Providers of U.S. Online and Web-based Instruction and Programs
Exporting to Another Country
Principle 4. Responsibilities of U.S. Accreditors Working with Non-U.S. Institutions and Programs to Students
and Colleagues in Another Country
Hayward 70 provides a survey of Multi-lateral Agreements That Address International Quality Assurance:

Bologna Agreement

Declaration of 19 June 1999 by European Ministers of Education convened in Bologna. Agreed to construct a
"European Higher Education Area" based on fundamental principles of university independence and
autonomy to ensure that higher education and research in Europe adapt to the changing needs of society
and advances in scientific knowledge. Work to increase international competitiveness of European system of
higher education. Agree to work together to adopt a system of comparable degrees to promote European
citizens and adopt a system of two main cycles—undergraduate and graduate with the second leading to the
masters or doctorate. Also agreed to establish a system of academic credits (such as the European Credit
Transfer System) that would be easily transferable to promote widespread student mobility, improve access
for students and training opportunities, recognize staff work in Europe, promote European cooperation in
quality assurance working toward compatibility, and promote European dimensions of higher education. This
is an agreement moving Europe toward comparable degrees and cooperation in quality assurance.

Lisbon Convention

An agreement about recognition of qualifications (degrees and diplomas) for higher education in Europe
adopted in Lisbon in April 1997. Supersedes the former strict logic of "equivalence" of diplomas and degrees
with the concept of recognition. The convention assumes trust between participating countries about the
effectiveness of quality assurance and accreditation in each country. Includes a "diploma supplement" issued
to students obtaining a degree. Developed by the European Commission, the Council of Europe and
UNESCO/CEPES, it describes the type, level, context and the status of diplomas or degrees in a
                                                            
68 ACE et.al. www.unesco.org/iau/p_statements/index.html Sharing Quality Higher Education Across Borders: A Statement on Behalf of
Higher Education Institutions Worldwide.
69 CHEA (2001) CHEA Principles (Approved by CHEA Board of Directors September 25, 2001)
70 Hayward – CHEA: Multi-lateral Agreements That Address International Quality Assurance

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standardized way. It is an information tool to enhance portability and transparency of European diplomas and
degrees. The Convention is designed as de facto recognition of degrees in Europe by the other signators.

Mercosur

Created by the Treaty of Asuncion signed by Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay on March 26, 1991.
Chile joined in 1996 as an associate member as did Bolivia in 1997. Focused on free transit of goods and
service between member states, elimination of customs rights and nontariff restrictions, fixing a common
external tariff, and educational integration. Agreements are being established over the whole education
sector. To date, agreements have been made about mutual recognition of primary and junior high degrees
(other than technical studies), with accreditation given to all such nontechnical courses in another member
state. To work out accreditation in other areas in member states, a Regional Technical Commission will be
created. It will also serve as a forum to resolve differences between member states about these issues and
establish equivalencies of degrees and certificates between educational systems. The Commission will be
made up of officials from respective Ministries of Education.

Sorbonne Declaration

Declaration of 25 May 1998 stressing universities central role in developing European culture. Adopted by
United Kingdom, France, Germany, and Italy. It urged the creation of the European area of higher education
as key to citizen mobility and employability as well as the continent's development. Other European countries
were invited to join in this effort. It set the stage for broad participation and consultation that was to result in
the Bologna Declaration in June 1999. While not directly focused on quality assurance, it paved the way for
the Bologna agreement and European cooperation in higher education generally.

Washington Accord

Agreement set out on 28 October 1997 and consented to by engineering accrediting organization from
Australia, Canada, Ireland, New Zealand, United Kingdom, United States, South Africa, and Hong Kong. Sets
criteria, policies and procedures for accrediting engineering academic programs. Agreed that the signators
accept accreditation decisions by each other and will publish statements to that effect. Recognizes the
"substantial equivalence" of each other's programs in satisfying the academic requirements for the practice of
engineering. Will carry out information exchange and mutual monitoring, observe each other's accreditation
visits, and work to encourage best practices. Provides for admission of new members and a biennial general
meeting.

The European Dimension – Recognition and Accreditation in Europe

Recognition in Europe could serve students from the countries participating in the Bologna-Process to gain
professional or academic recognition of their previous studies. Professional recognition of academic degrees
and professional titles earned abroad the Bologna-area is mostly subject to professional associations,
commercial authorities and in particular to individual employers. Academic recognition, on the other hand,
relates to equivalence of academic degrees with a degree awarded in a particular country and its
comparability with the national higher education system and degrees awarded in that accepting country.
Academic recognition is mostly applied in order to continue studies at universities or research-institutions, at
graduate or postgraduate level. Academic recognition, however, is sometimes required for so-called
regulated professions, like lawyers, medical doctors, engineers, and alike.
Conscious of the fact that education is a human right, and that higher education, which is instrumental in

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the pursuit and advancement of knowledge, constitutes an exceptionally rich cultural and scientific asset,
considering that knowledge is universal, being part of the common heritage of humankind and that means of
making knowledge and learning more accessible to each individual must be sought, aware that the great
diversity of the cultures and higher education systems existing in the world constitutes an exceptional
resource that must be preserved, promoted and fostered, considering that higher education increasingly has
an international dimension, owing to the rapid expansion and internationalization of knowledge and to the
links and solidarity established within the scientific and university community, and that wider access to
educational resources worldwide through greater mobility for students , researchers , teachers and
specialists is essential to this international dimension, UNESCO Member States adopted the
Recommendation regarding Recognition of Studies and Qualifications in Higher Education. According to the
Recommendation 'recognition' of a foreign qualification in higher education means its acceptance by the
competent authorities of the State concerned (whether they be governmental or non-governmental) as
entitling its holder to be considered under the same conditions as those holding a comparable qualification
awarded in that State and deemed comparable, for the purposes of access to or further pursuit of higher
education studies, participation in research , the practice of a profession if this does not require the passing
of examinations or further special preparation, or all the foregoing, according to the scope of the recognition.
Member States should take all feasible steps within the framework of their national systems and in
conformity with their constitutional, legal and regulatory provisions to encourage the competent authorities
concerned to give recognition to certificates of secondary education and other diplomas necessary for access
to higher education, and to give recognition to qualifications in higher education that are awarded in the other
Member States, with a view to enabling their holders to pursue further studies, training or training for
research in their institutions of higher education, subject to all academic admission requirements obtaining for
nationals of that State; including recognition of partial studies carried out in higher education institutions as
well as to facilitate recognition of preparation at the higher education level for the practice of a profession in
order to favour optimum use of human resources available and the full integration into society of all of its
members . The competent authorities and institutions concerned should take into account the wide diversity
of institutions, types of study, programme content and teaching methods, including distance teaching and
other non- traditional forms of higher education. In evaluating the comparability of a foreign qualification,
authorities should also take into account the rights that would have been enjoyed by its holder in the country
in which it was obtained. 71
The Lisbon Convention 72 considering that the great diversity of education systems in the European
region reflects its cultural, social, political, philosophical, religious and economic diversity, an exceptional
asset which should be fully respected; desiring to enable all people of the region to benefit fully from this rich
asset of diversity by facilitating access by the inhabitants of each State and by the students of each Party’s
educational institutions to the educational resources of the other Parties, more specifically by facilitating their
efforts to continue their education or to complete a period of studies in higher education institutions in those
other Parties; considering that the recognition of studies, certificates, diplomas and degrees obtained in
another country of the European region represents an important measure for promoting academic mobility
between the Parties; attaching great importance to the principle of institutional autonomy, and conscious of
the need to uphold and protect this principle; convinced that a fair recognition of qualifications is a key
element of the right to education and a responsibility of society; conscious of the wide ranging changes in
higher education in the European region since previous Conventions were adopted, resulting in considerably
                                                            
71 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization adopted by the General Conference at its twenty-seventh session in

Paris, 13 November 1993 the Recommendation on the Recognition of Studies and Qualifications in Higher Education
72 Convention on the recognition of qualifications concerning higher education in the European region (The European Treaty Series,

n°165, Council of Europe - UNESCO joint Convention) Lisbon, 11 April 1997 http://www.bologna-
berlin2003.de/pdf/Lisbon_convention.pdf

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increased diversification within and between national higher education systems, and of the need to adapt the
legal instruments and practice to reflect these developments; conscious of the need to find common solutions
to practical recognition problems in the European region; conscious of the need to improve current
recognition practice and to make it more transparent and better adapted to the current situation of higher
education in the European region; the signatories have agreed on the recognition of qualifications concerning
higher education in the European region providing a framework for the further development of recognition
practices in the European region.
Nothing in the Lisbon Convention shall be deemed to derogate from any more favourable provisions
concerning the recognition of qualifications issued in one of the Parties contained in or stemming from an
existing or a future treaty to which a Party to this Convention may be or may become a party. 73 Basic
principles related to the assessment of qualificiations 74 are that holders of qualifications issued in one of the
Parties shall have adequate access, upon request to the appropriate body, to an assessment of these
qualifications; no discrimination shall be made in this respect on any ground; and each Party shall ensure that
the procedures and criteria used in the assessment and recognition of qualifications are transparent,
coherent and reliable. Decisions on recognition shall be made on the basis of appropriate information on the
qualifications for which recognition is sought. Each Party shall ensure, in order to facilitate the recognition of
qualifications, that adequate and clear information on its education system is provided. Decisions on
recognition shall be made within a reasonable time limit specified beforehand by the competent recognition
authority and calculated from the time all necessary information in the case has been provided. If recognition
is withheld, the reasons for the refusal to grant recognition shall be stated, and information shall be given
concerning possible measures the applicant may take in order to obtain recognition at a later stage. If
recognition is withheld, or if no decision is taken, the applicant shall be able to make an appeal within a
reasonable time limit. Regarding the recognition of qualifications giving access to higher education 75
according to the Lisbon Convention each Party shall recognize the qualifications issued by other Parties
meeting the general requirements for access to higher education in those Parties for the purpose of access to
programmes belonging to its higher education system, unless a substantial difference can be shown between
the general requirements for access in the Party in which the qualification was obtained and in the Party in
which recognition of the qualification is sought. In the Parties in which access to higher education may be
obtained on the basis of non-traditional qualifications, similar qualifications obtained in other Parties shall be
assessed in a similar manner as non-traditional qualifications earned in the Party in which recognition is
sought. For the purpose of admission to programmes of higher education, each Party may make the
recognition of qualifications issued by foreign educational institutions operating in its territory contingent upon
specific requirements of national legislation or specific agreements concluded with the Party of origin of such
institutions. Regarding the recognition of periods of study 76 each Party shall recognize periods of study
completed within the framework of a higher education programme in another Party. This recognition shall
comprise such periods of study towards the completion of a higher education programme in the Party in
which recognition is sought, unless substantial differences can be shown between the periods of study
completed in another Party and the part of the higher education programme which they would replace in the

                                                            
73 Convention on the recognition of qualifications concerning higher education in the european region (The European Treaty Series,
n°165, Council of Europe - UNESCO joint Convention) Lisbon, 11 April 1997, Art II.3
74 Convention on the recognition of qualifications concerning higher education in the european region (The European Treaty Series,
n°165, Council of Europe - UNESCO joint Convention) Lisbon, 11 April 1997, Article III
75 Convention on the recognition of qualifications concerning higher education in the european region (The European Treaty Series,
n°165, Council of Europe - UNESCO joint Convention) Lisbon, 11 April 1997, Section IV
76 Convention on the recognition of qualifications concerning higher education in the european region (The European Treaty Series,
n°165, Council of Europe - UNESCO joint Convention) Lisbon, 11 April 1997, Section V

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Party in which recognition is sought. With regard to the recognition of higher education qualifications 77 a
recognition decision is based on the knowledge and skills certified by the higher education qualification, each
Party shall recognize the higher education qualifications conferred in another Party, unless a substantial
difference can be shown between the qualification for which recognition is sought and the corresponding
qualification in the Party in which recognition is sought. In order to facilitate the recognition of qualifications
concerning higher education, the Parties undertake to establish transparent systems for the complete
description of the qualifications obtained. 78

The European Dimension of International Accreditation

EADL European Association for Distance Learning sets Minimum Standards or Quality for EADL
Members79:
Pre-enrolment practices: At all times information given to potential students, either written or orally, shall be
truthful and accurate. It must be clearly stated if face-to face teaching (when it takes place) is an integral part
of the correspondence course, or additional to it. The minimum content of the prospectus must provide:
 the course name
 the course content (syllabus)
 the course level
 the length of the course
 the course objectives
 the studyload required by the student- i.e. the study time (e.g. hours or weeks)
 qualifications (if any) that can be obtained
 internal and external examinations (if any) prepared for
 the number of examinations or assignments in the course
 the target group the course is aimed at
 the starting level required (i.e. what, if any previous qualifications are needed)
 a clear explanation of any special conditions pertinent to the institute or the country it operates in
concerning the course, or the contract
 information as to whether the course material supplied is all-inclusive or if additional materials have
to be purchased
The contract with the student must state in writing:
 the course name and the name of the institution
 the fees for the course
 the tuition and services included in the fee
 the terms of payment
 how payment is to be made
 the duration of the contract
 the conditions (if any) for cancelling the course
 terms and conditions for any refund of fees
 details of any guarantees
 a cooling-off period of at least 7 days
                                                            
77 Convention on the recognition of qualifications concerning higher education in the european region (The European Treaty Series,

n°165, Council of Europe - UNESCO joint Convention) Lisbon, 11 April 1997, Section VI
78 Convention on the recognition of qualifications concerning higher education in the european region (The European Treaty Series,

n°165, Council of Europe - UNESCO joint Convention) Lisbon, 11 April 1997, Section IX
79 MINIMUM STANDARDS OF QUALITY FOR EADL MEMBERS

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 who owns the copyright

 who owns the course material (the student or the institute)
Language used in the contract shall be clear and unambiguous.
The EADL Code of Conduct 80 postulates that it is essential for the success of EADL that the way
members conduct business should stand up to the test of public criticism. In this context, the EADL Code of
Conduct can be regarded as a means of introducing EADL to the public as an association of quality
providers. It can help EADL members to gain a competitive advantage over non-members. But this will work
only if members make a real commitment to meet the requirements of the Code of Conduct and display
towards their students the attitude expressed by its rules. Mere technical compliance is not enough. The aim
is to provide the kind of quality service students have a right to expect from EADL members. To help its
members derive the full benefit from the quality of the service they offer, EADL gives students a guarantee
that they will receive from members the kind of quality service that the rules of this Code of Conduct define.
To be able to give that guarantee, EADL needs an honest commitment from all its members to comply
with the rules and regulations of the Code, and will set up a procedure to deal with any complaints that may
be received from students. Applicants for membership will be asked to confirm compliance with the Code by
signing it. Existing members will also be asked to sign the Code, or to give an indication as to the period of
time they need to implement the Code. They will be given a maximum of two one-year periods for full
implementation. Members will be asked to renew their commitment every three years.
The Code is based on five principles:
 the principle of proper care
 the principle of legal security
 the principle of reasonableness
 the principle of reliability
 the principle of due publicity

EQUAL

EQUAL 81 comprises seven national and three regional associations in Europe, representing over 750
business schools which in turn provide business and management education to over 1 million students. All
members of EQUAL are fully committed to the continuous improvement of the quality of this provision and
this is achieved in a variety of ways including the development of national quality standards, quality audits
and for example EQUIS, the international accreditation scheme. The European Quality Link (EQUAL) 82is the
international association of quality assessment and accreditation agencies in the field of European
management education. It has as its main objective the continued improvement of quality in business
schools. As part of this activity, EQUAL aims to agree common standards for programmes, where
appropriate, and to establish benchmarks. Master degrees exist in many European countries but there are
currently variable interpretations of their nature. This position paper is intended to encourage business
schools to consider a common approach, and to inform participants and employers as the “Bologna” process
and the creation of the European Higher Education Space evolve. The main aim is to provide clear
information to the international market regarding the nature of the programmes on offer. To the extent that in
each national system there is an attempt to communicate internationally in English, there is a need to have
some minimum consensus on the use of the different labels. As an international association representing the
management education profession in Europe, EQUAL is seeking to make a positive contribution to the
                                                            
80 EADL Code of Conduct for Members.
81 EQUAL: A responsible Approach to league tables
82 Equal Position Paper on the Designation of Master´s Degree Titles in Management Education in Europe

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establishment of a European market in higher education.

Definition of the Master’s level in Europe: A level achieved after 4 or 5 years of higher education. It is
usually preceded by a first university qualification, which can be considered a Bachelor’s level, although
sometimes this level is only marked by an intermediate stage in a long 5-year continuous
programme, sometimes after 2 years, more often after 3 years. Segmentation of Master’s degrees in Europe
by programme type: The segmentation does not imply that these types are sequential. There is no hierarchy,
no assumption that a student must graduate from one level before entering another higher level.
According to the paper “European Quality Link (EQUAL)” the European Quality Link (EQUAL) 83 has
as its main objective the continued improvement of quality in business schools. As part of this activity,
EQUAL aims to agree common standards for programmes, where appropriate, and to establish benchmarks.
The Master of Business Administration (MBA) is the first widely accepted international degree, but there
are variable interpretations of the nature of this degree. (…) It should be stressed that these are merely
guidelines and have no formal basis in law. However, the supporting national associations’ aim is that they
become widely used across Europe over time as a minimum standard. It is anticipated that schools and
countries, which do not yet meet these guidelines, will evolve towards them, or superior, thus resulting in a
common European understanding of the MBA.

EFMD European Foundation for Management Development.

EFMD is an international not-for-profit association in Brussels - EQUIS

The key constituents in the EQUIS process are as follows84: The EFMD Board; The EQUIS Team at
EFMD; The EQUIS Committee; The EQUIS Awarding Body; THE EFMD BOARD. The EFMD Board
establishes by formal vote EQUIS policy, standards and procedures based on the proposals submitted by the
EQUIS Committee. It appoints the members of the Awarding Body and the Committee. The EQUIS
Committee, composed of academic and corporate representatives, defines and monitors the EQUIS process
from the eligibility of candidate schools to the proposal submitted to the Awarding Body. Its members support
and advise the EQUIS director in the execution of his mandate. All major decisions concerning policy,
standards and procedures are submitted to the EFMD Board for approval. Its roles and responsibilities
include:
 Definition and review of the accreditation criteria
 Definition and review of eligibility criteria
 Definition and review of accreditation procedures
 Decisions on the eligibility of institutions
 Recommendations on the pricing structure for EQUIS
 Development of a business and marketing plan
The EQUIS Committee meets at least four times a year at the request of the EQUIS director, who chairs the
meetings. The EQUIS Awarding Body is composed of representatives of high profile organisations that are
stakeholders in the quality improvement of management. It evaluates the reviewers’ reports on institutions
that are applying for EQUIS accreditation and, based on their recommendations, makes the final decision to
confer a European Quality Label upon those management institutions that have demonstrated excellence at
an international level. Its roles and responsibilities include:
 The evaluation of the peer review reports on the candidate institutions
 The final decision on accreditation
The Awarding Body meets at least three times a year at the request of the EQUIS director.
                                                            
83 EQUAL: European Quality Link (EQUAL)
84 EQUIS Peer Review Guide,page 11

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EQUIS 85 is the leading international system of Quality Assessment, Quality Improvement and
Accreditation of Higher Education Institutions in management and business administration. The EQUIS
Scheme has been designed with special focus on all the activities of business schools that aim to meet
international standards of quality. The fundamental objective of EQUIS is to raise the quality of management
education worldwide. EQUIS is European in its inspiration and global in its scope. Its approach to the
assessment of quality is rooted in respect for the diversity of institutional and cultural contexts. EQUIS
promotes no “one best model” for a business school and it does not look for standardisation of degree
programmes, course content or delivery modes. EQUIS facilitates standard setting, benchmarking, mutual
learning and the dissemination of good practice across borders. The principle of continuous improvement is
at least as important as the high level of quality. EQUIS evaluates whole institutions such as business
schools and university faculties of business and management. It assesses not just degree programmes but
all the activities and sub-units of the institution, including research, e-learning units, executive education
provision and community outreach. EQUIS looks for a balance between high academic quality and the
professional relevance provided by close interaction with the corporate world. A strong interface with the
world of business is, therefore, as much a requirement as a strong research potential. Institutions must
demonstrate not only high general quality in all dimensions of their activities, but also a high degree of
internationalisation. As an international accrediting body, EQUIS seeks to identify institutions that are
distinguished by an added international dimension. With companies recruiting worldwide, with students
choosing to get their education outside their home countries, and with schools building alliances across
borders and continents, it is important to be able to identify those institutions in other countries that deliver
high quality education in international management.
Description of the EQUIS scheme 86: EQUIS is an international system of strategic audit and accreditation
designed by Europeans for the assessment of institutions in widely different national contexts. Although it is
inspired by the special needs imposed by extreme cultural diversity in Europe, the EQUIS standards are
those of effective education for international management and apply to schools in any cultural environment in
any region. (…) The EQUAL dynamic model that lies at the heart of the EQUIS scheme was specially
designed to provide a framework for handling this diversity. A truly international accreditation or quality
assessment scheme has to combine the need for commonly agreed high standards with the need to respect
the diversity of national systems. It has to consider the educational and cultural environment in which the
institution operates and relate it to the wider European and international context. This effectively rules out
classical, single-context compliance schemes and necessitates a concerted and more flexible approach
involving all the principal actors in management development in Europe. Most important, there is no
emphasis placed on a particular model for business schools. (…) EQUIS is, however, much more than an
accreditation scheme. It was conceived, as its name indicates, as a quality improvement system, providing
an unusual combination of accreditation as a recognition of high international quality and a full strategic audit
as a guide to an institution’s future progress. The scheme is designed to approach quality as an ongoing
process in which schools benchmark each other’s performance and open their doors to evaluation by peers
and customers.
According to the EQUIS Peer Review Guide 87 the EQUAL Quality Model used in the EQUIS framework
lies at the heart of EQUIS processes and consists of eleven chapters setting out the criteria or standards for
key domains of quality. The principal features of the EQUIS process and standards can be summarised as
follows:
 EQUIS offers an international and intercultural approach to quality assessment.

                                                            
85 The EFMD accreditation for international business schools
86 Source: EQUIS Peer Review Guide
87 Source: EQUIS Peer Review Guide

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 EQUIS places a great emphasis on corporate concerns, both in the standards themselves and in
the assessment processes.
 EQUIS looks at the performance of the institution taken as a whole, including all of its programmes
and not just the MBA programme, and uses outcome-based perspectives and criteria.
 Special attention is paid to executive education with a separate chapter devoted to this area.
 EQUIS stresses the personal development of managers and support of their entrepreneurial and
managerial skills.
 EQUIS is conceived as a learning process involving an international forum for defining the relevant
quality criteria. EQUIS is dynamic and forward looking with a concern for new trends.
Full details of the EQUIS criteria are contained in the document ‘Guidance Notes on the EQUIS Quality
Criteria’ EQUIS Peer Review Guide
EQUIS applies the following quality and accreditation standards, which are summarised88: Context,
Governance and Strategy. Programmes. Students. Faculty. Research and Development. Executive
Education. Contribution to the Community. Resources and Administration. Internationalisation. Corporate
Connections.
Applicants may use the EQUIS Standards & Criteria 89 for preparation of an application. This document
sets out the full range of the EQUIS quality standards and the criteria against which achievement of these
standards will be measured. The standards and the associated criteria are grouped into ten chapters
covering the different areas that will be reviewed. The purpose of this document is twofold: on the one hand,
to provide a comprehensive description of the standards and criteria and on the other to give guidance to
Schools in preparing their Self-Assessment report.
From the outset it must also be remembered that the scope of EQUIS accreditation is institutional, the
institution being defined as the organisational unit providing business and management education. This unit
may in some cases be a free-standing business school; in others the unit is part of a wider institution, usually
a university of which it is a faculty, school or department, depending on the organisation of the parent
institution.
According to EQUIS – Quality Profile 90 the Peers provide a report, indicating whether the institution
satisfies the EQUIS standard in this area as defined in the Criteria Framework; or the School demonstrates
outstanding quality, well above the level required to satisfy the EQUIS standard in this area, where it can be
considered as a model of excellence; or whether the institution is judged to be below the threshold of the
EQUIS standard in this area.
The EQUIS accreditation process is composed of several distinct stages. The different stages are91:
0. Preliminary Inquiry
1. Formal Application
2. Eligibility
3. Self-Assessment
4. International Peer Review
5. Awarding Body Decision
6. Guided Development (optional)
The EQUIS Guide to Self-Assessment 92 describes the accreditation process as the EQUIS Director and
his staff will provide information about the scheme and preliminary advice to Institutions that are considering
application. Full documentation will be sent upon request in the Standard EQUIS Introductory Package.
                                                            
88 The EFMD accreditation for international business schools
89 EQUIS STANDARDS & CRITERIA
90 Source: EQUIS – Quality Profile
91 EQUIS International Accreditation Procedures
92 EQUIS Guide to Self-Assessment, March 2007,

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Stage 1 Formal Application: Schools wishing to enter the scheme are invited to address a formal letter of
application to the EQUIS Director and to complete the Data Sheet setting out basic factual information about
the Institution. This document is available upon the website http://www.efmd.org and is part of the “Standard
EQUIS Introductory Package.”
Stage 2 Eligibility: Upon receipt of the completed application to enter the scheme, the Institution, will go
through a preliminary Eligibility screening to determine whether there are major obstacles to eventual
accreditation and whether accreditation is probable within a reasonable period, typically within 2 years of the
eligibility decision. This phase is also designed to make sure that Institutions enter the EQUIS scheme with a
full understanding of both the criteria and the process.
An important part of this Eligibility phase is the initial on-site briefing visit that takes place after the application
and Data Sheet have been received.
The EQUIS Committee, which meets four times a year, is responsible for examining all applications and
for taking decisions on eligibility to enter the accreditation process.
This screening process is designed to ensure that an Institution
1. Falls within the institutional scope of the EQUIS scheme
2. Is recognised as an Institution of good standing in its home market
3. Has a reasonable prospect of satisfying EQUIS criteria within 2 years
Stage 3 Self-Assessment
Stage 4 International Peer Review
Stage 5 Awarding Body Decision
The Evaluation Form is intended to be a working document for Peer Reviewers to help them build up their
assessment of the School during the on-site visit. It will also serve as a basis for the drafting of the Peer
Review report following the visit. 93

The EFMD Programme Accreditation System (EPAS) provides94:

 international programme accreditation to make the global market for programmes more transparent
to the benefit of prospective students, employers and national higher education regulation agencies
 an instrument for continuous quality improvement of programmes
 a service to EFMD members as a complement to the existing quality improvement system for
whole institutions (EQUIS)
 another credible system designed and operated by EFMD which is recognised globally as having
the status and experience for delivering quality improvement and assessment schemes

Scope of EPAS:

EPAS is open to any member institution of EFMD, with the exception of those that are EQUIS accredited or
that are in the process of applying for EQUIS accreditation. Programmes must be in the business and/or
management (or related) areas and be internationally oriented. EPAS may be applied to any degree
programme or set of closely related programmes such as:
A. Bachelors degrees (3 or 4 years)
B. Masters degrees (1 or 2 years, often based on the Bologna model)
a. Generalist (eg MSc in Management)
b. Specialist (eg MSc in Marketing or in Finance)
C. Masters degrees pre-Bologna (5 or more years) or equivalent
                                                            
93 EQUIS International Accreditation Procedures, p. 16f
94 EPAS – EFMD Programme Accreditation System, p. 3-7

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D. Master of Business Administration – MBA (post-experience)

E. Doctorates (eg PhD or DBA)
Benefits and Target Market
The benefits of EPAS include both international market recognition and advice on programme definition,
quality improvement and the opportunity of benchmarking. The target institutions are those that offer
programmes designed to recruit international students in the spirit of the European Bologna Accord, for which
international mobility and internationalisation is an embedded philosophy.

EPAS Standards
These standards relate to the Programme Value Chain Model and are more fully explained with associated
criteria in the document:
EPAS Standards and Criteria.
I. The Institution in its National and International Context
II. Programme Design
III. Programme Delivery & Operations
IV. Programme Outcomes
V. Quality Assurance Processes

The institution is requested to make a formal application to EFMD expressing its wish to enter the EPAS
accreditation process and explaining its strategic objectives in doing so. This letter of application should be
accompanied by an Application Datasheet, which presents basic factual information on the institutional
context of the programme(s), the programme objectives and the support infrastructure. The eligibility decision
to be made by EPAS Committee depends entirely on the data provided on the Application Datasheet.
Once accredited, programmes accredited for 5 years are required to submit a Mid-Term Progress Report and
those accredited for 3 years are required to submit Annual Progress Reports. Consultancy advice will be
offered by EFMD for programmes not achieving accreditation.
EFMD CEL - Programme accreditation for teChnology-Enhanced Learning 95
The Executive Office for EFMD CEL is located at the – Swiss Centre for Innovations in Learning (SCIL):
University of St. Gallen. Switzerland. The quality of both the products and programs in the field of ICT-based
learning vary widely and there is still lacking a concept of quality improvement which is theoretically sound
and at the same time meeting the expectations of practice. The fundamental objective of the EFMD CEL
programme is to raise the standard of technology-enhanced learning programmes worldwide. EFMD CEL
aims to facilitate standard setting, benchmarking, mutual learning, and the dissemination of good practice. It
allows for different approaches and diversity in designing and implementing such programmes. EFMD CEL is
directed towards educational management programmes incorporating ICT-based learning.

Validation

Another option for achieving accreditation of programmes for non-accredited providers or additional
European region accreditation for overseas programmes is the UK system of validation.
Validation: Independent review of a self-assessment process by an outside quality assurance structure.
Validation usually applies at the program level. (U.K.) The process by which an institution with degree-
awarding powers judges that a program developed and delivered by another institution or organization is of
an appropriate quality and standard to offer its program. 96

                                                            
95 http://www.efmd.org/html/Accreditations/cont_detail.asp?id=040929dygl&aid=041027wszf&tid=1&ref=ind
96 CHEA – International Quality Review: Glossary of Key Terms in Quality Assurance and Accreditation

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One of the most often applied validation services is provided by the University of Wales, UK 97: The
University aims to provide an international validation service across all subject boundaries by drawing on the
University’s pool of academic expertise and excellence. Wales University also seeks to maximise the
University’s status as a national award-granting University in an international context and to facilitate the
development of mutually productive partnerships between the University and appropriate providers of
education at centres in the UK and overseas. All University of Wales validated schemes operate under the
auspices of the University’s Validation Board and its administrative section, the Validation Unit.

Quality Standards

ISO/IEC 19796-1 is specifically designed for learning, education, and training. It helps to extend generic
standards like ISO 900x for educational organizations. Other national and international standards (like PAS
1032-1 and CEN/ISSS CWA 14644) have served as a base for international harmonization.98

Excerpts from the standard:99

                                                            
97wales.ac.uk
98ISO (2011) http://www.iso.org/jtc1/sc36 ISO/IEC JTC1 SC36 WG5: Quality Assurance and Descriptive Frameworks. SC36 WG5 Guide
"How to Use ISO/IEC 19796-1"
99 ISO (2005) ISO/IEC 19796-1 First edition 2005-11-01 Information technology — Learning, education and training — Quality

management, assurance and metrics — Part 1: General approach.

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The new standard ISO/IEC 19796-1 provides a “reference framework for the description of quality
approaches” (RFDQ). A reference framework gives an orientation which aspects should be covered and how
solutions for these aspects can found. The standard is an instrument to develop quality in the field of E-
Learning. It consists of mainly two parts:
 A description scheme for quality approaches
 A process model as a reference classification
It supports the development quality profiles for organizations (such as objectives, methods, relations, people
involved). Quality profiles means that the standard is adapted to the needs and requirements of an
organization. It does not provide specific requirements or rules – it is a framework to guide actors through the
process of quality development in the field of LET, specifically E-Learning.
The Description Model is just a scheme to interoperably describe quality approaches (such as guidelines,
design guides, requirements). It documents all quality concepts in a transparent way. Each process can be
described by this scheme:

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Table 1: Description Model for Quality Approaches of ISO/IEC 19796-1100

Attribute Description Example

ID Unique Identifier ID1234
Category Main Process Course Development
Process Name Process name Method selection
Description Description of the process “Within this process the didactic concept and
methods are evaluated and selected”
Relations Relation to other processes “Before the method selection a target group
analysis must be performed”; [Process 1.6]
Sub-processes / Sub-processes / sub-aspects / tasks Method identification
sub-aspects Method alternatives
Method priorization
Objective Objective of a Process Adequate selection of one or more didactic
concepts according to learner preferences and
learning styles
Method Methodology for this process Method selection shall be based on the target group
taking into account their competencies and learning
styles. Methods are selected based on the
teachers’ experience.
Result Expected result of a process Method specification
Documents
Actors Responsible / participating actors Team Didactical Design, Project leader
Metrics / Criteria Evaluation and Metrics for this Criteria catalogue 3.2.2-3.2.6
process
Standards Standards used DIN EN ISO 9241, LOM
See Method Guidelines Handbook
Annotation / Further Information, Examples of
Example usage

This model serves only as a base to provide a harmonized scheme to describe quality approaches.

The Process Model is a guide through the different processes when developing learning scenarios. The
process model includes the relevant processes within the life-cycle of information and communication
systems for learning, education, and training. The process model is divided in seven parts. Sub-processes
are included referencing to a classification of processes.
Table 2: Process Model of ISO/IEC 19796-1101

                                                            
100 ISO (2011) http://www.iso.org/jtc1/sc36 ISO/IEC JTC1 SC36 WG5: Quality Assurance and Descriptive Frameworks. SC36 WG5
Guide "How to Use ISO/IEC 19796-1"
101 ISO (2011) http://www.iso.org/jtc1/sc36 ISO/IEC JTC1 SC36 WG5: Quality Assurance and Descriptive Frameworks. SC36 WG5

Guide "How to Use ISO/IEC 19796-1"

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Description/
ID Category
Sub-Processes

Identification and description of requirements, demands, and

constraints of an educational project
NA Needs Analysis NA.1 Initiation
NA.2 Stakeholder Identification
NA.3 Definition of objectives
NA.4 Demand analysis
Identification of the framework and the context of an educational
process
FA.1 Analysis of the external context
Framework FA.2 Analysis of staff resources
FA
Analysis FA.3 Analysis of target groups
FA.4 Analysis of the institutional and organizational context
FA.5 Time and budget planning
FA.6 Environment analysis

Conception and Design of an educational process

CD.1 Learning objectives

CD.2 Concept for contents
CD.3 Didactical concept / methods
Conception / CD.4 Roles and activities
CD CD.5 Organizational concept
Design
CD.6 Technical concept
CD.7 Concept for media and interaction design
CD.8 Media concept
CD.9 Communication concept
CD.10 Concept for tests and evaluation
CD.11 Concept for maintenance

Realization of concepts

Development / DP.1 Content realization

DP DP.2 Design realization
Production
DP.3 Media realization
DP.4 Technical realization
DP.5 Maintenance
Description of the implementation of technological components
IM.1 Testing of learning resources
IM Implementation IM.2 Adaptation of learning resources
IM.3 Activation of learning resources
IM.4 Organization of use
IM.5 Technical infrastructure

Realization and use of the learning process

Learning
LP LP.1 Administration
Process
LP.2 Activities
LP.3 Review of competency levels

Description of the evaluation methods, principles, and procedures

Evaluation / EO.1 Planning
EO
Optimization EO.2 Realization
EO.3 Analysis
EO.4 Optimization / Improvement
 

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Excerpt from the standard:102

Quality Accreditation – ODLQC Standards

Open & Distance Learning Quality Council provides reputable accreditation of quality of open and distance
education, however is not equivalent with recognition by the competent authorities of a programme or
provider. ODL QC is the UK guardian of quality in open and distance learning. Set up originally by
government in 1968, ODL QC is now independent. For the provider: Accreditation is open to all providers of
home study, distance learning, online or e-learning and other open learning or flexible learning courses. To
achieve accreditation, providers must be able to show that you meet ODL QC standards For the learner:
Learners working with an ODL QC-accredited provider are sure of good service. 103
Assessment involves taking snapshots of a provision from a variety of angles, and building them into a
coherent picture. This is then presented to Council, who normally meet towards the end of each quarter.
This guide explains the various stages.
In any assessment, the main components are 104:
♦ Questionnaires to learners and tutors
♦ References from third parties
♦ Course assessment by specialists
♦ Overall assessment of the provision, based on a self-assessment undertaken by the provider
♦ Samples of materials (advertising and administrative)
                                                            
102 ISO (2005) ISO/IEC 19796-1 First edition 2005-11-01 Information technology — Learning, education and training — Quality
management, assurance and metrics — Part 1: General approach.
103 http://www.odlqc.org.uk/
104 D1: Brief Guide to Assessment. © ODL QC

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♦ Visit by the reporting assessor

♦ Review by the Council

Standards I : Outcomes

A. Each course includes a clear statement of what the learner can hope to achieve on successful
completion.
B. The methods, materials and support offered by the course are sufficient to achieve the intended
outcomes.
C. Each course starts from a clearly stated level of ability and facilitates learner progress to a greater level
of ability.
D. Statements that the level of ability inherent in the outcome can be matched to a nationally-agreed level
of qualification are supported by appropriate evidence. When courses lead to degrees then those degrees
are properly validated.
E. Where time limits for course completion are imposed by the provider, they are clearly stated, along with
any possible extensions to this and related cost implications.
F. Any assessments set by the provider during or on completion of a course are appropriate and adequate
to ensure a proper assessment of the learner’s ability and achievements to date, and the results
communicated to learners.
G. Documentary confirmation of outcomes is available where appropriate to all learners on course
completion.
H. Where the outcome of a course is the declared competence to sit examinations offered, or be
otherwise assessed, by another external organisation, the learner is informed of this, and of the respective
responsibilities of provider and applicant, prior to enrolment.
I. The course and its objectives are placed in a wider educational, vocational & professional context.

Standards Ii : Resources

A. All resources supplied are appropriate to the needs, knowledge and experience of a stated group of
learners.
B. The provider takes all reasonable steps to ensure that course materials are effective and do not contain
significant errors of fact, misleading or out-of-date information, concepts or approaches.
C. Course materials are designed for a specific and clearly stated level of learner support, and suitable
opportunities for such support, where intended, are built into the material.
D. Course materials are structured to facilitate individual study & the development of study skills.

Standards Iii : Support

A. The provider maintains and demonstrates a clear commitment to helping learners achieve their
educational goals.
B. The learner has overall responsibility for his or her own learning, and is informed that the provider’s role
is supportive.
C. Support offered is sufficient to meet the reasonable needs of learners, encourage the learning process
and facilitate successful completion of the course.
D. Support is offered on a prompt, timely and wherever possible personal basis.
E. Support offered is appropriate to the level of the course.
F. The provider has adequate procedures to handle any difficulties between the learner and the provider,
and learners are made fully aware of all the avenues open to them to resolve those difficulties.

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G. Learners are encouraged to complete their courses. Progress is monitored, and learners are provided
with prompt and helpful comments on their progress in relation to learning expectations and goals.

Standards Iv : Selling

A. The provider, its staff, representatives and agents, conduct all promotional activity in a fair and ethical
manner, follow commonly accepted best practices, and comply with all relevant legislation.
B. All advertising or promotional material gives a clear, accurate and balanced view of the provider, its
personnel, its provision, the objectives and outcomes of that provision or the ease with which they can be
obtained. All information included is real, current, and verifiable.
C. All enquiries from potential applicants are handled promptly, appropriately and sympathetically. In
particular, staff engaged in promotion do not offer educational advice unless competent to do so.
D. Providers selling through home visits take particular care to avoid the possibility of mis-selling.
E. The applicant is made aware of his or her responsibility to assess the suitability of the course, and in
particular in relation to their own needs, qualifications, capabilities and aspirations, before enrolment.
F. Providers offer sufficient information to enable each learner fully to assess the suitability of a course,
including an opportunity to discuss it with the provider prior to enrolment.
G. Prior to enrolment on a particular course, the prospective learner is made properly aware of all terms
and conditions relevant to that course, either in the prospectus or similar material, by correspondence, or in
discussion with the provider.
H. Access requirements imposed by the provider for any course are appropriate, kept to the necessary
minimum and published.
I. Enrolment when completed is confirmed to the learner, who then has a pre-defined period within which
to withdraw from the course.

Standards V : Providers

A. The provider maintains and demonstrates a strong commitment to educational values.

B. The provider is financially responsible and can meet its obligations to learners.
C. The provider adopts widely accepted norms of good ethical business and employment practice.
D. Where the provision occurs in another country, the provider ensures adherence to all relevant legal
requirements.
E. All staff and tutors are suitable for their positions, and possess appropriate qualifications and
experience.
F. All tutor support is of high quality. Where a provider employs more than one tutor, steps are taken to
ensure that tutor support is consistent throughout the provision.
G. Learner records are sufficient, accurately maintained and up to date. Learners’ concerns about the
confidentiality of their records are respected.
H. Sufficient resources are available to ensure that every learner receives an adequate individual service
I. The provider adheres to all ODL QC Standards in Open and Distance Learning, and complies with all
reasonable requests made by the Council.
J. The provider is committed to continuous improvement.

Standards Vi : Collaborative Provision

A. Any provision delivered by two or more organisations is covered by a written agreement which clearly
specifies the respective rights and division of responsibilities between the partners.
B. One organisation (the “principal provider”) has legal responsibility for delivery of the provision, and the

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learner is made aware of this.

C. The principal provider has in place procedures which ensure that all aspects of a provision meet ODL
QC standards.
D. ODL QC Accreditation is specific to a particular service and a particular named aspect of a provision.
Providers must avoid statements which imply that their accreditation extends to services not explicitly
covered.
E. Providers should not promote courses as their own if they are not.

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Repositioning Administrative and Supervisory Functions in Vocational Technical

Education for Functionality: The E-Activity Approach

Onyeukwu, F.O.N

Department of Electrical/Electronics Federal College of Education(Technical),Omoku,Nigeria

Ukoha Oyidiya N
Government Technical College, Ohafia – Abia State, Nigeria

Hogan S. Usoro

Department of Vocational Education, University of Uyo, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria

Abstract The world all over is of the opinion that quality and functional education are pre-requisite for the attainment of a
country’s development economically and technologically. Monumental studies and achieve- ments in various spheres of life by
developed and developing Nations of the world are often attributed to products of high standards of education. The efficacy and
efficiency of educational system lies in its ability to deliver quality education in cost-effective ways. For such educational system
to stand tall in attaining these goals, re-invigorated or repositioned administrative and supervisory functions in all our educational
systems in general and vocational technical education in particular must be put in place. e-activity with all of its components
have the potentials of bringing these experiences to bare in vocational technical education. This paper therefore reflects on e-
activity and its ability to reposition administrative and supervisory functions. It conceptually looks at administration; supervision
and functionality of vocational technical education and the potentials of e-activity, its impact on education, challenges and
limitations.

Introduction

Education has long been identified as one of the most crucial allies of development. This view is supported
by FRN (2004) where it stated that “no nation can rise above the quality of its education system”. Education
in human societies has come a long way, from its dependency on environment through its labour and craft
orientation, its stage of serving as a personal embellishment and then today, from serving as a means of
fostering socio-economic development to have become synonymous with growth and economic
development.
Vocational Technical Education (VTE) which is seen by many as an essential educational system going
by its great and intimidating qualities and potentials should be properly and adequately administered and
supervised if its goals and objectives are to be attained. Also, for VTE to be functional, all processes that are
involved must be strengthened, adequately and properly packaged, efficiently and effectively delivered. In
order to achieve the foregoing, a purposeful and focus, based Administration and Supervision is imperative.
VTE with the following potentials, namely:
- Acquisition of skills of work;
- Development of work attitudes;
- Acquisition of knowledge relating to occupations of economic and social values; and
- Development of work behaviour din its four domains, cognitive, affective psycho and
perceptual
(Usoro and Edu, 2003)

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E-Activity Concepts

For the purpose of this paper, e-activity is viewed as having three (3) mutually inclusive components namely:
Information Communication Technology (ICT), Computer Assisted Instruction and e-learning.
ICT is a computer based tools used by people to work on information and communication processing
needs of an organization. Basically, it encompasses the computer hardware and software, the network and
several other devices (video, audio, photography, camera etc) that convert information (text) images, sounds,
motion into digital forms. It is an application of the combination of computing, communication,
telecommunication and satellite technology. ICT when appropriately applied has the potential tools for
enriching traditional means of teaching, learning and conducting research. According to Lopez (2003) ICT
have provided innovative opportunities for teaching and learning experiences. ICT can be used to improve
the quality of teaching and learning in any academic environment. Supporting this view, Yusuf (2005), it is
widely accepted that ICT can be used to improve the quality of teaching and learning in any tertiary
institution. Furthermore, he stated that ICT can make the school more effective and productive, thereby
engendering a variety of tools to enhance and facilitate teachers professional activities. From the foregoing,
ICT can be viewed as a tool that can enhance teaching and learning through it’s dynamic, interactive and
engaging content and can provide real opportunities for individualized instruction and has the potential to
accelerate, enrich and deepen skills, motivate and engaging students in learning; relate school activities to
work practice, help to create economic viability for tomorrows workers; contributes to radical changes in
schools, strengthens teaching and provides opportunities for connection between the school and the world,.
On the other hand, Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI) is a programme of instructional materials
presented by means of a computer or computer systems. Batey (1985) in his research stated that CAI is the
use of computer in educational settings and most often refers to drill and practice tutorials, or simulate
activities offered either by themselves or as a supplement to traditional, teacher directed instruction. He also
stated that as a supplement to traditional teacher-directed instruction produces achievement effects superior
to those obtained with traditional instruction alone.
Furthermore, Batey (1986), Kulik and Kulik (1987) and Rupel (1986) came out with the fact that CAI
enhances learning rate. Student’s learning rate is faster with CAI that with the conventional instruction and
that this learning rate is accompanied with high retention.
Thus, the potential use of computer based technology in the classroom is immense and shows the range
of computer use as a tool for learning and as tool employed by teachers. The use of CAI in education
provides student with both skills of using the available CAI, and provides another medium by which they
might make sense of the information with which they are presented.
E-learning is the facilitation of human learning through the web (internet and intranet) with the use of
digital technologies by creating on-line and off-line experiences. It provides the framework of its applications
in the education settings synchronously and asynchronously. According to Abimbade (2005), e-learning
occurs through internet or intranet using some instructional delivery systems. The system will use a platform
web browser such as: Microsoft internet explorer or Netscape navigator.
To access the viability of e-learning, consider management support, cost-effectiveness, target audience,
acceptability of a web-based programme. Again, one can ask the following questions: Will e-learning provide
a method of instruction that is easier, faster, cheaper, safer, or more engaging than other delivery systems?
Answers to these questions will lead to the advantages/potentials of e-learning as enumerated by Abimbade
(2005) as follows:

- Flexibility, accessibility, convenience to the learner;

- Learning at once space and own place;
- Access the content at any time;
- Cross-platform – sourcing from other platform

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- Web-browser software and internet connections are widely available

- In-expensive global delivery and distribution of e-learning material which is accessible from any part of
the world;
- Updating is easy, courses can be delivered from anywhere of the global; and
- Promotes ICT’s in education and training.

Reflections on the foregoing, shows that e-activity has the capability and potentials to reposition any aspect
of our educational system for greater productivity including administration and supervision.

Administration of VTE Concepts

Generally, Administration is the co-ordination of human and material towards the attainment of predetermined
goals and objectives Akpan (2001) saw administration as the of persons and material resources for effective
and functional teaching and learning. According to her, Vocational Technical Education Administration is a
service through which the fundamental objectives of VTE system can be more fully and efficiently realized.
VTE Administration involves: planning, organizing, directing, co-ordinating and controlling human and
material resources to attain it’s goals and objectives.
In the light of the above; the following, outlined the tasks of a VTE Administrator:
The VTE Administrator:
- Adopts a management style,
- Develops an organizational structure,
- Plans and executes an overall strategy for the content and delivery of instruction,
- Plans for and controls the fiscal resources necessary to pay for the VTE programme,
- Plans for and controls the personal resources necessary to staff the various VTE programmes
- Plans for and controls the auxiliary services necessary to operate the VTE programme
- Develops and executes a system for attending to student services
- Plans, constructs and maintains the buildings necessary to conduct the VTE programmes,
- Maintains liaison with public, private groups and individuals to whom the VTE is accountable.
- Provides for the evaluation of both the administrative structure and most crucial, the VTE
programme through research.
- Participates in cooperation with the governing body, in overall policy formulation,
- Develops a system of internal and external communication. (Akpan, 1994).

Repositioning VTE for functionality connotes strengthening these tasks and their effective application for
attainment of VTE objectives

Supervision of VTE Concepts

VTE supervision is that phase of school administration which focuses primarily on the achievement of
appropriate instructional expectations of the school system (Akpan, 2001). This definition when critically
examined has three (3) major components, namely;
- That supervision is a phase of administration.
- That supervision is concerned with the appropriateness of instruction expectations
- That supervision is that phase of administration which has pertinence for the expectations
(products) of educational system.
Supporting the above,Usoro and Edu(2006) saw supervision as one of the basic requirement in
administration that focuses on the tactics of efficient and proper management. Thus, it can be said that
supervision is the “nerves system” of an organization. Also, Akpan, Usoro. and Usoro (2010) supporting the

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above view perceived supervision as very important to management practices in the daily operations of
industrial organizations through routine direction and control of employees activities. The measure of
effectiveness and efficiency of an organization is determined by how effectively and efficiently the supervisors
perform the basic role of motivating the employees to increase their productivity.
In Vocational Technical Education (VTE), creating an environment for optimal productivity requires that
the right skills, equipment, materials, appropriate and adequate instruction and effective teaching methods for
delivery to students. The task of achieving these lies with the supervisors.
To achieve the above tasks, the need for better supervisory style(s) comes into play.
Akpan, Usoro and Usoro (2010) enumerate many supervisory leadership style theories most conducive to
promoting effective work group; as
 Initiative structure theory
 Life-cycle theory
 Contingency theory of leadership
 Paths-goal theory
 Situational leadership theory
 The development approach theory
 Positive management theory,; and
 Quality approach theory
Due to space, these theories could not be discussed or explain individually, but suffice to state here that
generally, they are conceptual propositions which could predict, explain, and guide effective supervisory
behaviour and hence effective supervision in VTE.

Functionality Concepts

Hornby (2000) noted that in architecture, functional architecture is said to be designed to serve practical
purpose, beauty of appearance beings secondary. According to him, if a building is aesthetically designed but
uninhabitable, it is not a functional building. In line with this, Uzuagulu (2004) explained that functionality has
to do with effectiveness, efficiency and workability of something or organization. According to him, a
functional education system must be effective in achieving its set goals. It follows from the above
explanations, that if a system to achieve its set goals or purpose, then it is not effective and cannot be
referred to also a functional system, Onyeukwu, Abassah, Hart (2010). Again, as observed by Asogwa
(2004), functionality of a system is the practicability and usefulness of that system being very suitable for the
purpose it was set to achieve from the foregoing and looking at the goals and objectives of VTE as stated in
section 15 by FRN (2004), can we say that VTE is functional in Nigeria?

Dividends of E-Activity

With adequate and effective administration and supervision which can come through e-activities when
properly applied, Vocational Technical Education (VTE) will be functional and hence its visible results and
goals shall be felt and its impact on the economy shall be seen and measured.
Dividends of e-activities as outlined by Prasad (1997) has the potentials of reposition administrative and
supervisory functions/tasks for functional VTE. These dividends includes:

- More educational, information and technology access;

- Learning from other;
- Partnership from enrichment
- Competitive environment
- Globalization of materials and resources

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Impact of E-Activity on Education

The phenomenon of globalization is considered as the most widespread trends in many countries. It has
brought about the worldwide integrations of economic and financial sectors. In the context of changing world,
the central role played by education to favour social and professional integration appears to be largely
reinforced. Thus the aspirations objective of UNESCO and the world body of United Nations Organization are
being propelled by the globalization on education.

Challenges of E-Activity in Nigeria

Web-technology based programmes like e-learning was developed by the developed economy whose
infrastructures and facilities are adequate for effective and efficient accessing these programmes from the
web. A developing economy like Nigeria whose infrastructure and facilities are in a dilapidated state due to
bad government have challenges in accessing the web-technological –based programmes for e-activities.
The following serve as challenges for e-learning in Nigeria:
- Infrastructural Deficiencies: Many developing countries like Nigeria do not have adequate
infrastructures and facilities for e-learning etc. They do not manufacture hardware and software needed for
information technology services. In some countries there is still problem of steady power supply.
- Global Educational Vision versus Market Vision: For globalization to promote even development,
there must be a balance view of educational vision and market forecast. This is concern with the exploiting
the market demand of developing countries by developed economies for profit making. This profit making
drive of collaborative arrangements may distort the priorities of education and would not promote effective
partnership arrangement.
- E-activity versus Localization of learning: Developing relevant curriculum for international context is
a difficult task. More difficult getting the educational materials develop in a particular context to suit different
cultural millien.

Limitations of E-Activity

Despite the laudable potentials and advantages, e-activities have some limitations.

Bandwidth Limitations

Limited bandwidth means slower performance for sound, video and intensive graphics, causing long waits for
downloads that can affect the ease of learning process.

- Static e-activities must be replaced by dynamic programmes, which takes more time and
money to develop.
- Not all courses are delivered well by e-activity based instructional programmes.
- Most of our teachers are ICTs illiterate.

Not withstanding the above limitations, e-activity has come to stay. What Nigeria needs to do as developing
country is to key into mass infrastructural and facility development. Our educational system from primary to
tertiary should ICTs compliance. Development of both teaching and non-teaching should be a continuous e-
activity so as to benefit fully in e-activity based programmes. Vocational technical education should be on first
live because of its potentials to national development.

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Conclusion

E-activity has come to stay and it would continue to affect structure and content of the education system. As
the world march towards globalization so will the application of ICTs and hence e-activity continue to affect
education delivery at all levels. Administrative and supervisory functions in VTE shall witness a boost when
properly packaged CAI materials are effectively and efficiently delivered. This will in turn rob on the
functionality of VTE system and hence position Nigeria as an emerging economic power house in sub-
Sahara Africa.

References

Abimbade, A. (2005). E-learning: Issues and Practice. Journal of e-learning.

Akpan, V.C.J. (1994). Relationship between Principals Leadership Style and Organizational Climate of Secondary Commercial Schools
in Akwa Ibom State, Ph.D Dissertations submitted to the Vocational Teacher Education Department, University of Nigeria,
Nsukka.
Akpan, V.C.J. (2001). Administration and Supervision in Vocational Education. Uyo. Dorand Publishers.
Asogwa, G.E. (2004). Functionality of University Education in Uzodinma, C.U. (ed) Functionality of Education in Nigeria: Issues,
Problems and Concerns. Enugu. Bob Billion Publishers.
Baley, A. (1986). Building a case for Computers in Elementary Classrooms: A Summary of what the Researchers and the Practitioners
are saying. Computer Education Seminar, Seattle, W.A.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National Policy on Education (Revised Edition). Lagos. NERDC Press.
Godwin, A. Akpan, Usoro, H.S. & Usoro, E.B. (2010). Theoretical Bases for Supervisory Practices in Vocational Education. Readings in
Vocational Education Administration and Supervision in Usoro, H.S. and Ubor, E.B. (ed.)
Hornby, A.S. (2000). Oxford Advanced Dictionary. New York. Oxford University Press.
Kulik, J.A. & Kulik, C.C. (1987). Computer-Based Instruction: “What 200 Evaluators says”. A Paper presented at the Annual Convention
of the Association of Educational Communications and Technology. Atlanta Canada. \
Lopez, A.C. (2003). Leading e-learning, U.S.A; Colorado; American Society and Training and Development. http://www.astd.org and
http://www.elearning gusu.com.
Onyeukwu, F.O.N; Abassah, M. & Hart, J.T.A. (2010). Functional Technical Education Programme: A Tool for Youth Empowerment and
Sustainable National Development in Rivers State. Journal of Technical Technology and Vocational Educators (JOTTAVE) 1(1).
Rupel, V.S. (1986). A Study of Computer-Assisted Instruction: Its Uses, Effects, Advantages and Limitations. South Bend. Indiana
University Press.
Usoro, H.S. & Edu, D.O. (2003). Spectrum Analysis of Technical Education. Journal of Education and Technology 1(1).
Uzuagulu, A.E. (2004). Functionality of University of Education in Nigeria: Issues and Problems JONATT 4(2).

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Education in Islam:Contemporary Issues and Challenges

Mohsen Tousi
Pishrayan Privet Research Institute.
North Sohrevardi Boulevard, West Shahid Mirza Zainali Street, Tehran

Abstract In the words of god in Qur'an, he calls human as his best creation. He orders angels to prostrate in front of first human
creation. This shows the dignity and human's place among other creatures. This dignity is first because of the god spirit that is
given to human specially and secondly because of wisdom that only human have. In Islamic belief human is full of potential
talents and abilities that should be actualized by education and training. The main purpose of Islamic education is seeking the
truth and achieving salvation, this can be achieved by education and intellection alongside with refinements. In Islamic point of
view rational growth can take place parallel to ethical growth and these two cannot be parted.as ethics without science is idiotic,
science without ethics is stupidity. Always in our moral and religious books, science and ethics are together and religion that
shows his most interest and attention to acquisition of knowledge, says that the goal of his messenger is to show the best
morality and ethics to the world. Islamic education is a perfect comprehensive system, which looks in to all human dimensions.
In the process of Islamic education development of mind and body, worldly life and hereafter, society and individual have the
same level of important and none of them should be ignored. Intelligent and wisdom have a special place in Islamic teaching.
This importance has been said in 300 verses in Qur'an.

Key words: Qur'an, human, Islamic education, Islam, Islamic teaching.

Introduction

The word Education means, learning and teaching, the first meaning that comes to mind is induction of a
subject by the master to the minds of students, so the pupils could imitate it from the teacher and learn to
repeat it. But the true meaning of teaching is much deeper and significant, and if we look at it with more
accuracy we find that teaching is to make changes in student, teaching and transforming the mode of
ignorance to make them independent thinkers and give them intellectual growth.
The issue of education in Islam it is so important that in the first verses that God says to Prophet Mohammad
(peace be up on him): " ...‫َأ ﺑﺎﺳﻢ‬ ‫"ا‬
‫ِﻗﺮ‬

Read in the name of your Lord Who created. He created man from a clot. Read and your Lord is most
Honorable. Who taught (to write) with the pen. Taught man what he knew not. (alagh 1- 5)

And in another verse he says: "… Are those who know and those who do not know alike? Only the men of
understanding are mindful..." (Zomar / 9) and " Is he who was dead then We raised him to life and made for
him a light by which he walks among the people, like him whose likeness is that of one in utter darkness
whence he cannot come forth? Thus what they did was made fair seeming to the unbelievers. " (anam / 122)
" Have they not travelled in the land so that they should have hearts with which to understand, or ears with
which to hear? For surely it is not the eyes that are blind, but blind are the hearts which are in the chest."
(Hajj / 46) and Ali ebne abitaleb (peace be up on him) says: knowledge is resuscitator of soul, and Clarifies
the mind, and is fatal for ignorance and asininity. (Ghorarol Hakam, p. 54 and 68)
Upbringing means to raise, to nurture, develop and teach ethics to someone. The general meaning of
upbringing is to develop everything in good shape, and this meaning includes, plants, animals and humans
and is also used in the cultivation of body and soul.
In Islam upbringing means training the ability to convey the actuality and make balance and
coordination between them and use them in order to achieve perfection.

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In Islamic aspects first we have to understand human talents and ability and then train and educate because
the profound truth of human dimensions existence is complicated, it is difficult for humans to understand, and
on the other hand diagnosis and reason of human is surrounded by a curtain of instincts and material so he
himself is not able to complete the planning, preparing and supplying a complete law for themselves,
therefore, God Almighty has set the law and His Messengers has to train it to humans.

As Quran says:

" َ
‫ّﻴﻬﺎ و ﻗﺪ ﺧﺎب‬ ‫َﻦ زآ‬ ‫ّﻳﻬﺎ ﻓﺎﳍﻤﻬﺎ ﻓﺠﻮرهﺎ و ﺗﻘﻮﻳﻬﺎ ﻗﺪ اﻓﻠﺢ ﻣ‬
‫َ ﻧﻔﺲ و ﻣﺎ ﺳﻮ‬
‫و‬
‫ّﻬﺎ‬‫("ﻣﻦ دﺳ‬Shams 7 / 10)

And the soul and Him Who made it perfect, Then He inspired it to understand what is right and wrong for it,
He will indeed be successful who purifies it, and he will indeed fail who corrupts it.

And elsewhere says:"ً ‫ " و ﻻ ﲤﺪن ﻋﻴﻨﻴﻚ اﱄ ﻣﺎ ﻣﺘﻌﻨﺎﺑﻪ ازواﺟﺎ‬And do not stretch your
eyes after that with which We have provided different classes of them, (of) the splendor of this world's life,
that We may thereby try them; and the sustenance (given) by your Lord is better and more abiding.. "

Prophet (peace be upon him): " ‫ﻣﻦ ﱂ ﻳﺘﺄدب ﺑﺎداب اﷲ ﺗﻘﻄﻌﺖ ﻧﻔﺴﻪ ﻋﻠﻲ اﻟﺪﻧﻴﺎ‬
‫( "ﺣﺴﺮات‬Bihar Alanvar, Beirut, Institute Alvfa’, c. 11, p. 348.) who does not grown and educated with the
divine education, will die with sorrow and regret of the world and the universe. "

God in the Quran considers all human knowledge and awareness beyond the human mind and intellectuality,
because Quran speaks of knowledge and sciences that people already know them.
This knowledge is not the internal findings and spontaneous knowledge, but they are education, awareness
and knowledge that come from outside of the human mind and the perception.

(‫َﺎ‬
‫ﱠﻬ‬
‫ُﻠ‬‫َ ﮐ‬
‫َﺎء‬
‫ْﻤ‬
‫َ اﻷﺳ‬
‫َم‬‫َ ﺁد‬
‫ﱠﻢ‬‫َﻠ‬
‫َﻋ‬‫و‬...)( Baqara / 31)

"And He taught Adam all the names, then presented them to the angels; then He said: Tell me the names of
those if you are right."

(ْ
‫َﻢ‬‫ْﻠ‬
‫َﻌ‬‫ْ ﻳ‬
‫َﻢ‬
‫َﺎ ﻟ‬
‫َ ﻣ‬
‫َﺎن‬
‫ْﺴ‬
‫َ اﻹﻧ‬
‫ﱠﻢ‬ ‫( )ﻋ‬alagh / 5)
‫َﻠ‬

"Taught man what he did not knew."

(َ
‫َﺎن‬
‫َﻴ‬‫ْﺒ‬
‫ُ اﻟ‬
‫َﻪ‬
‫ﱠﻤ‬‫َﻠ‬
‫َ*ﻋ‬
‫َﺎن‬
‫ْﺴ‬‫َ اﻹﻧ‬
‫َﻖ‬
‫َﻠ‬‫( )ﺧ‬Rahman / 3-4)

"Created man and taught him to speak."

Other categories of knowledge are the one that later in the life will be achieved. Clearly they are also
adventitious and should be received from outside;

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( َ
‫َﺎر‬‫ْﺼ‬
‫َاﻷﺑ‬‫َ و‬‫ْﻊ‬
‫ﱠﻤ‬ ‫ُ اﻟﺴ‬ ‫ُﻢ‬
‫َﮑ‬
‫َ ﻟ‬
‫َﻞ‬
‫َﻌ‬
‫َﺟ‬
‫ًﺎ و‬
‫ْﺌ‬
‫َﻴ‬
‫َ ﺷ‬
‫ُﻮن‬
‫َﻤ‬
‫ْﻠ‬
‫َﻌ‬‫ْ ﻻ ﺗ‬
‫ُﻢ‬
‫ِﮑ‬‫َﺎﺗ‬
‫ﱠﻬ‬
‫ُﻣ‬‫ِ أ‬
‫ُﻮن‬
‫ُﻄ‬
‫ْ ﺑ‬
‫ِﻦ‬‫ْ ﻣ‬
‫ُﻢ‬
‫َﮑ‬‫َﺟ‬
‫ْﺮ‬‫َﺧ‬
‫ُ أ‬
‫ﱠﻪ‬‫َاﻟﻠ‬
‫و‬
‫َﻩ‬
َ ‫ِﺪ‬
‫ْﺌ‬
‫َاﻷﻓ‬‫( )و‬Nahl / 78)

"And Allah has brought you forth from the wombs of your mothers-- you did not know anything-- and He gave
you hearing and sight and hearts that you may give thanks."
In this verse, he speaks of all sciences and knowledge that people gain in life (acquired knowledge). He
noted that these knowledge and the tools and equipment from outside for studying it, is also created by him.
As awareness of the Prophet David, which symbolizes knowledge Armory and is a sample of empirical and
acquired knowledge, is educated by God;

(ْ
‫ُﻢ‬‫ِﮑ‬
‫ْﺳ‬‫َﺄ‬
‫ْ ﺑ‬
‫ِﻦ‬‫ْ ﻣ‬
‫ُﻢ‬
‫َﮑ‬‫ِﻨ‬
‫ْﺼ‬‫ُﺤ‬
‫ِﺘ‬‫ْ ﻟ‬
‫ُﻢ‬
‫َﮑ‬ ‫ُﻮس‬
‫ٍ ﻟ‬ ‫َﺒ‬
‫َ ﻟ‬
‫َﻪ‬‫ْﻌ‬
‫َﻨ‬‫ُ ﺻ‬
‫َﺎﻩ‬
‫ْﻨ‬
‫ﱠﻤ‬‫َﻠ‬
‫َﻋ‬‫( )و‬anbiya / 80)

"And we taught him to make armor for you, that they might protect you in your wars; will you then be
grateful?"
Some other knowledge is knowledge that are Inducted to minds and hearts of prophets of God.
There are many verses that shows teaching that knowledge to Prophet David, Joseph, Jesus and
Muhammad (peace be upon them) that some of them are:

(ُ
‫َﺎء‬
‫َﺸ‬‫ﱠﺎ ﻳ‬
‫ِﻤ‬
‫ُ ﻣ‬
‫َﻪ‬
‫ﱠﻤ‬‫َﻠ‬
‫َﻋ‬‫َ و‬
‫َﻪ‬‫ْﻤ‬
‫ِﮑ‬‫ْﺤ‬
‫َاﻟ‬
‫َ و‬
‫ْﮏ‬‫ُﻠ‬
‫ْﻤ‬‫ُ اﻟ‬
‫ﱠﻪ‬
‫ُ اﻟﻠ‬
‫َﺎﻩ‬
‫َﺁﺗ‬
‫َ و‬
‫ُﻮت‬
‫َﺎﻟ‬
‫ُ ﺟ‬
‫ُد‬‫َاو‬
‫َ د‬
‫َﻞ‬‫َﺘ‬
‫َﻗ‬‫و‬...)( Baqara /
251)

" And David killed Jalut, and Allah gave him kingdom and wisdom, and taught him of what He pleased."

(‫ِ اﻷﺣﺎدﻳﺚ‬
‫ِﻳﻞ‬
‫ْو‬‫َﺄ‬
‫ْ ﺗ‬
‫ِﻦ‬‫َ ﻣ‬
‫ُﮏ‬
‫ّﻤ‬‫َﻠ‬
ِ‫ُﻌ‬‫َﻳ‬
‫َ و‬
‫ﱡﮏ‬‫َﺑ‬
‫َ ر‬
‫ِﻴﮏ‬
‫َﺒ‬‫ْﺘ‬
‫َﺠ‬‫َ ﻳ‬
‫ِﮏ‬
‫َﻟ‬‫َﺬ‬
‫َﮐ‬‫و‬...)( Joseph / 6)

"And thus will your Lord choose you and teach you the interpretation of dreams."

(َ
‫ِﻴﻞ‬
‫ْﺠ‬‫َاﻹﻧ‬
‫َ و‬
‫َاﻩ‬
‫ْر‬‫ﱠﻮ‬
‫َاﻟﺘ‬
‫َ و‬
‫َﻪ‬
‫ْﻤ‬‫ِﮑ‬
‫ْﺤ‬‫َاﻟ‬
‫َ و‬
‫َﺎب‬
‫ِﺘ‬
‫ْﮑ‬‫َ اﻟ‬
‫ُﮏ‬‫ْﺘ‬
‫ﱠﻤ‬‫َﻠ‬
‫ْ ﻋ‬
‫ِذ‬ ‫و‬...)( Maedeh / 110)
‫َإ‬

"And when I taught you the Book and the wisdom and the Torah and the Gospel…"

(ُ
‫َﻢ‬‫ْﻠ‬
‫َﻌ‬‫ْ ﺗ‬
‫ُﻦ‬
‫َﮑ‬‫ْ ﺗ‬
‫َﻢ‬
‫َﺎ ﻟ‬
‫َ ﻣ‬
‫َﮏ‬
‫ﱠﻤ‬‫َﻠ‬
‫َﻋ‬‫َ و‬
‫َﻪ‬
‫ْﻤ‬‫ِﮑ‬
‫ْﺤ‬‫َاﻟ‬
‫َ و‬
‫َﺎب‬
‫ِﺘ‬
‫ْﮑ‬‫َ اﻟ‬
‫ْﮏ‬‫َﻴ‬
‫َﻠ‬‫ُ ﻋ‬
‫ﱠﻪ‬
‫َ اﻟﻠ‬
‫َل‬‫ْﺰ‬
‫َﻧ‬ ‫و‬...)( Nesa / 113)
‫َأ‬

"And Allah has revealed to you the Book and the wisdom, and He has taught you what you did not know,"

The relation between learning and knowledge and science it is so clear that even ignorant pagan Arabs knew
that the prophet Mohammad (peace be upon him) has to have learned what he was saying, but there
problem was from whom he was learning it. They said he was learning it from jen or another person and not
all mighty God.

(ٌ
‫َﺮ‬‫َﺸ‬
‫ُ ﺑ‬
‫ُﻪ‬‫ّﻤ‬
‫َﻠ‬
ِ ‫ُﻌ‬
‫َﺎ ﻳ‬
‫ﱠﻤ‬
‫ِﻧ‬‫َ إ‬
‫ُﻮن‬
‫ُﻮﻟ‬
‫َﻘ‬
‫ْ ﻳ‬
‫ُﻢ‬‫ﱠﻬ‬
‫َﻧ‬‫ُ أ‬
‫َﻢ‬‫ْﻠ‬
‫َﻌ‬
‫ْ ﻧ‬
‫َﺪ‬‫َﻘ‬
‫َﻟ‬‫و‬...)( Nahl / 103)

"And certainly we know that they say: Only a mortal teaches him."

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And God answers the pagans, by saying that what the prophet know has been thought to him by god, that
way he accepted that the prophet had learned what he was saying but he also says that he was learning it
from God.

(‫َى‬
‫ُﻮ‬
‫ْﻘ‬‫ُ اﻟ‬
‫ِﻳﺪ‬
‫َﺪ‬‫ُ ﺷ‬
‫َﻪ‬
‫ﱠﻤ‬‫َﻠ‬
‫َﻰ*ﻋ‬
‫ُﻮﺣ‬
‫ٌ ﻳ‬
‫ْﯽ‬
‫َﺣ‬‫ِﻻ و‬
‫َ إ‬
‫ُﻮ‬‫ْ ه‬‫( )إ‬star / 4-5)
‫ِن‬

"What he says, is nothing but a revelation that was revealed to him. It is one of the great powers that have
taught him. "

Some knowledge that are accessible to man are harmful to human therefore they are faulty and are not
recommended to be learned by humans. This shows that destructive and harmful knowledge is adventitious
and should be learned.

( َ
‫ِﻞ‬‫َﺎﺑ‬
‫ِﺒ‬
‫ﻦ ﺑ‬ِْ
‫َﻴ‬
‫َﮑ‬
‫َﻠ‬‫ْﻤ‬
‫َﻰ اﻟ‬ ‫َﻠ‬
‫َ ﻋ‬‫ِل‬
‫ْﺰ‬
‫ُﻧ‬‫َﺎ أ‬
‫َﻣ‬
‫ﺮ و‬َْ
‫ّﺤ‬
‫َ اﻟﺴ‬
ِ ‫ﱠﺎس‬ ‫َ اﻟﻨ‬‫ُﻮن‬ ‫ّﻤ‬
‫َﻠ‬
ِ‫ُﻌ‬‫ُوا ﻳ‬
‫َﺮ‬
‫َﻔ‬
‫َ ﮐ‬
‫ِﻴﻦ‬
‫َﺎﻃ‬
‫ﱠﻴ‬‫ﱠ اﻟﺸ‬
‫ِﻦ‬
‫َﮑ‬
‫َﻟ‬
‫و‬
‫ﱠﻰ‬
‫َﺘ‬‫ٍ ﺣ‬
‫َﺪ‬
‫َﺣ‬‫ْ أ‬
‫ِﻦ‬
‫ِ ﻣ‬‫َﺎن‬
‫ّﻤ‬‫َﻠ‬
ِ‫ُﻌ‬‫َﺎ ﻳ‬‫َﻣ‬
‫َ و‬‫ُوت‬
‫َﺎر‬
‫َﻣ‬‫َ و‬
‫ُوت‬ ‫ه‬...)( Baqara / 102)
‫َﺎر‬

"And they followed what the Shaitans chanted of sorcery in the reign of Suleiman, and Suleiman was not an
unbeliever, but the Shaitans disbelieved, they taught men sorcery and that was sent down to the two angels
at Babel, Harut and Marut, yet these two taught no man until they had said, "Surely we are only a trial,
therefore do not be a disbeliever." Even then men learned from these two, magic by which they might cause
a separation between a man and his wife; and they cannot hurt with it anyone except with Allah's permission,
and they learned what harmed them and did not profit them, and certainly they know that he who bought it
should have no share of good in the hereafter and evil was the price for which they sold their souls, had they
but known this."
The result of what we have just said is that the knowledge of all creatures that have the ability to learn
have external source to teach them or learn from it. That external source can be God, Satan, Angel, or other
sources for learning.
However, refinement is more the achievement of the will, intent, motive and internal efforts for Self-
restraint from abominations and obscenity. As it is said in some verses in Quran:

(‫َﺎ‬
‫ﱠﺎه‬
‫َﮐ‬
‫ْ ز‬
‫َﻦ‬‫َ ﻣ‬
‫َﺢ‬
‫ْﻠ‬‫َﻓ‬
‫ْ أ‬
‫َﺪ‬‫( )ﻗ‬Shams / 9)

"He will indeed be successful who purifies it"

(‫ﱠﻰ‬
‫َﮐ‬
‫َﺰ‬‫ْ ﺗ‬
‫َﻦ‬
‫َ ﻣ‬
‫َﺢ‬‫ْﻠ‬
‫َﻓ‬‫ْ أ‬‫( )ﻗ‬aala / 14)
‫َﺪ‬

"He indeed shall be successful who purifies himself"

(ِ
‫ِﻪ‬‫ْﺴ‬
‫َﻔ‬‫ِﻨ‬
‫ﱠﻰ ﻟ‬
‫َﮐ‬
‫َﺰ‬‫َﺘ‬
‫َﺎ ﻳ‬
‫ﱠﻤ‬
‫ِﻧ‬‫َﺈ‬
‫ﱠﻰ ﻓ‬
‫َﮐ‬
‫َﺰ‬‫ْ ﺗ‬
‫َﻦ‬
‫َﻣ‬‫( )و‬Fater / 18)

"And whoever purifies himself, he purifies himself only for (the good of) his own soul"

The goal of Islamic education and training is to build a Perfectionist human, society and civilization. Ideal
humanity is to conceive the rationality and grow Intellectual trends and spirit. So that’s why in Quran

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education and Upbringing are used together. Sometimes it is emphasizes on education and sometimes it is
emphasizes on Upbringing.

( َ
‫َﻪ‬
‫ْﻤ‬‫ِﮑ‬‫ْﺤ‬
‫َاﻟ‬ ‫َ و‬‫َﺎب‬
‫ِﺘ‬‫ْﮑ‬ ‫ُ اﻟ‬ ‫ُﻢ‬
‫ُﻬ‬
‫ّﻤ‬
‫َﻠ‬
ِ‫ُﻌ‬
‫َﻳ‬
‫َ و‬
‫ِﮏ‬
‫َﺎﺗ‬
‫ْ ﺁﻳ‬
‫ِﻢ‬
‫ْﻬ‬
‫َﻴ‬
‫َﻠ‬
‫ُﻮ ﻋ‬
‫ْﻠ‬
‫َﺘ‬
‫ْ ﻳ‬
‫ُﻢ‬
‫ْﻬ‬
‫ِﻨ‬
‫ُﻮﻻ ﻣ‬
‫َﺳ‬
‫ْ ر‬
‫ِﻢ‬
‫ِﻴﻬ‬
‫ْ ﻓ‬
‫َﺚ‬
‫ْﻌ‬‫َاﺑ‬
‫َﺎ و‬
‫ﱠﻨ‬
‫َﺑ‬
‫ر‬
‫ِﻢ‬
ْ‫ّﻴﻬ‬‫َﮐ‬
ِ ‫ُﺰ‬
‫َﻳ‬‫( )و‬Baqara / 129)

"Lord! And raise up in them an Apostle from among them who shall recite to them Thy communications and
teach them the Book and the wisdom, and purify them; surely Thou art the Mighty, the Wise. "

And elsewhere says ( ‫ﻪ‬ِِ

‫َﺎﺗ‬‫ْ ﺁﻳ‬‫ِﻢ‬
‫ْﻬ‬
‫َﻴ‬‫َﻠ‬
‫ُﻮ ﻋ‬ ‫ْﻠ‬
‫َﺘ‬‫ْ ﻳ‬‫ُﻢ‬
‫ْﻬ‬‫ِﻨ‬‫ُﻮﻻ ﻣ‬ ‫َ ر‬
‫َﺳ‬ ‫ّﻴﻦ‬
‫ّﻴ‬
ِ‫ِﯽ اﻷﻣ‬
ِ ‫َ ﻓ‬
‫َﺚ‬‫َﻌ‬
‫ِی ﺑ‬
‫ﱠﺬ‬‫َ اﻟ‬
‫ُﻮ‬
‫ه‬
‫َﻪ‬
َ‫ْﻤ‬‫ِﮑ‬
‫ْﺤ‬‫َاﻟ‬
‫َ و‬
‫َﺎب‬‫ِﺘ‬‫ْﮑ‬
‫ُ اﻟ‬ ‫ُﻢ‬
‫ُﻬ‬
‫ّﻤ‬‫َﻠ‬
ِ‫ُﻌ‬‫َﻳ‬
‫ْ و‬
‫ِﻢ‬‫ّﻴﻬ‬
‫َﮐ‬
ِ ‫ُﺰ‬‫( )و‬jomaeh / 2).
‫َﻳ‬

" He it is Who raised among the inhabitants of Mecca an Apostle from among themselves, who recites to
them His communications and purifies them, and teaches them the Book and the Wisdom, although they
were before certainly in clear error"

Allameh tabatabaii explains the two above verse:

"In jomeh verse Upbringing has come prior than education, because it is talking about upbringing and
educating the people by prophet that means wisdom is more important than knowledge. But in ebrahim verse
he is asking god to give knowledge and wisdom to his generation and race. In verse jomeh it is showing the
order of learning that is first to learn wisdom then you will reach the knowledge."(Tabatabaii, 19/265)
Whatever is the secret of which one of them is first or second is not important, what is very important is that
in Islam for having one of them you need to have the other as well. You cannot achieve knowledge and forget
wisdom or other way around. This kind of person in Islam is not a perfect human.
It is on such an approach that science and knowledge is not the basic and preface of training and
upbringing, they are requirements and demands of each other.
From this perspective, the objective scientific approach to encourage people to find ways to teach and
to learn can be achieved.
So all divine religions are based on education and training and have been initiated by education. With
all that we said in Islam the importance of reading and teaching is showed more than any other religion. With
all the value that Islam have for "‫ "ﺑﺴﻢ اﷲ‬the name of Allah, but god started his first words with the prophet
with the order to read "‫" اﻗﺮأ‬. God did not command his messenger to: Say, listen, repeat, see, sense, or
..., but said: read. Then he speaks of training, creation, and humans.

( ‫ِی‬‫ﱠﺬ‬
‫ُ* اﻟ‬‫َم‬
‫ْﺮ‬‫َ اﻷﮐ‬‫ﱡﮏ‬
‫َﺑ‬
‫َر‬‫ْ و‬
‫َأ‬‫ْﺮ‬
‫ٍ* اﻗ‬‫َﻖ‬‫َﻠ‬
‫ْ ﻋ‬‫ِﻦ‬
‫َ ﻣ‬ ‫َﺎن‬‫ْﺴ‬‫َ اﻹﻧ‬ ‫َﻖ‬
‫َﻠ‬ ‫َ*ﺧ‬
‫َﻖ‬
‫َﻠ‬‫ِی ﺧ‬
‫ﱠﺬ‬
‫َ اﻟ‬
‫ّﮏ‬‫َﺑ‬
ِ‫ِ ر‬
‫ْﻢ‬
‫ِﺎﺳ‬
‫ْ ﺑ‬
‫َأ‬
‫ْﺮ‬‫اﻗ‬
‫َﻢ‬
ْ‫ْﻠ‬‫َﻌ‬
‫ْ ﻳ‬‫َﻢ‬
‫َﺎ ﻟ‬
‫َ ﻣ‬‫َﺎن‬
‫ْﺴ‬‫َ اﻹﻧ‬‫ﱠﻢ‬
‫َﻠ‬‫ِ* ﻋ‬
‫َﻢ‬‫َﻠ‬
‫ْﻘ‬‫ِﺎﻟ‬
‫َ ﺑ‬‫ﱠﻢ‬
‫َﻠ‬‫( )ﻋ‬aLagh / 1-5)

"Read in the name of your Lord Who created. He created man from a clot. Read and your Lord is Most
Honorable. Who taught (to write) with the pen. Taught man what he knew not. "
Because of the beginning like this reading has become the first duty. And there was no excuses left for not
learning and teaching, for learning new science and knowledge all boundaries should be removed.as the
prophet says" learn and achieve science and knowledge even if it is presented in the far part of the world."
And to remind man that no matter how much he studies and learns he still have not learned more than a drop
from the sea of knowledge.

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(‫ِﻴﻼ‬
‫َﻠ‬‫ِﻻ ﻗ‬ ‫ِ إ‬‫ْﻢ‬
‫ِﻠ‬
‫ْﻌ‬‫َ اﻟ‬‫ِﻦ‬
‫ْ ﻣ‬‫ُﻢ‬‫ِﻴﺘ‬‫ُوﺗ‬‫َﺎ أ‬ ‫َﻣ‬‫( )و‬Asra’ / 85) "And they ask you about the soul. Say: The soul is
one of the commands of my Lord, and you are not given aught of knowledge but a little. "

(ٌ
‫ِﻴﻢ‬
‫َﻠ‬‫ٍ ﻋ‬‫ْﻢ‬‫ِﻠ‬
‫ِی ﻋ‬‫ّ ذ‬
‫ُﻞ‬
ِ ‫َ ﮐ‬
‫ْق‬
‫َﻮ‬ ‫( )و‬Joseph / 76)" and above every one possessed of knowledge is the All-
‫َﻓ‬
knowing one. "

Although prophet mohammad (peace be upon him) had achived the highest knowledge form the god, but still
he was addressed to pray for more knowledge.

(‫ْﻤﺎ‬
‫ِﻠ‬‫ْﻧﯽ ﻋ‬
‫ِد‬
‫ﱢ ز‬
‫َب‬‫ْ ر‬
‫ُﻞ‬ ‫( )و‬Taha / 114)" O my Lord! Increase my knowledge. ".
‫َ ﻗ‬

And if it was other than this, he could have not become an ideal man for all mankind.

(ٍ
‫ِﻴﻢ‬‫َﻘ‬‫ْﺘ‬‫ُﺴ‬‫ٍ ﻣ‬ ‫َاط‬ ‫ِﺮ‬
‫َﻰ ﺻ‬ ‫َﻠ‬ ‫َ* ﻋ‬
‫ِﻴﻦ‬
‫َﻠ‬‫ْﺳ‬
‫ُﺮ‬‫ْﻤ‬
‫َ اﻟ‬
‫ِﻦ‬‫َﻤ‬
‫َ ﻟ‬
‫ﱠﮏ‬
‫ِﻧ‬‫( )إ‬Yasin / 3-4)" Most surely you are one of the
apostles, on a right way."

The main factor that human community and evolved Muslims society can reach and receive the perfect
knowledge and science is based on freedom.
Freedom means releasing from all attachments that prevent us from thinking, making decisions and held us
from doing the work that we have aimed, intended and decided to do.

(ِ
‫ُون‬
‫ُﺪ‬‫ْﺒ‬‫َﻌ‬
‫ِﻴ‬
‫ِﻻ ﻟ‬ ‫َ إ‬‫ْﺲ‬‫َاﻹﻧ‬‫ﱠ و‬ ‫ِﻦ‬‫ْﺠ‬
‫ُ اﻟ‬ ‫ْﺖ‬‫َﻘ‬
‫َﻠ‬‫َﺎ ﺧ‬‫( )و‬zariyat / 56)" And I have not created the jinn and the
‫َﻣ‬
men except that they should serve Me."

( ‫ِﯽ‬ ‫ْ ﻓ‬ ‫ُﻢ‬ ‫َه‬

‫ْﺪ‬‫ِﻨ‬‫ًﺎ ﻋ‬ ‫ُﻮﺑ‬‫ْﺘ‬
‫َﮑ‬‫ُ ﻣ‬ ‫َﻪ‬
‫ُوﻧ‬ ‫ِﺪ‬
‫َﺠ‬‫ِی ﻳ‬ ‫ﱠﺬ‬‫ﱠ اﻟ‬ ‫ّﯽ‬‫ﱠ اﻷﻣ‬
ِ ‫ِﯽ‬‫ﱠﺒ‬‫َ اﻟﻨ‬ ‫ُﻮل‬‫ﱠﺳ‬
‫َ اﻟﺮ‬ ‫ُﻮن‬‫ِﻌ‬
‫ﱠﺒ‬
‫َﺘ‬‫َ ﻳ‬‫ِﻳﻦ‬‫ﱠﺬ‬‫اﻟ‬
ِ‫َﺎ‬
‫ت‬ ‫ّﺒ‬
‫ﱠﻴ‬
ِ ‫ُ اﻟﻄ‬ ‫ُﻢ‬‫َﻬ‬
‫ﱡ ﻟ‬‫ِﻞ‬‫ُﺤ‬‫َﻳ‬
‫ِ و‬‫َﺮ‬‫ْﮑ‬
‫ُﻨ‬‫ْﻤ‬
‫ِ اﻟ‬ ‫َﻦ‬
‫ْ ﻋ‬ ‫ُﻢ‬
‫َﺎه‬ ‫ْﻬ‬‫َﻨ‬‫َﻳ‬
‫ِ و‬‫ُوف‬ ‫ْﺮ‬‫َﻌ‬‫ْﻤ‬‫ِﺎﻟ‬‫ْ ﺑ‬ ‫ُﻢ‬‫ُه‬
‫ُﺮ‬‫ْﻣ‬
‫َﺄ‬‫ِ ﻳ‬‫ِﻴﻞ‬ ‫ْﺠ‬‫َاﻹﻧ‬‫ِ و‬‫َاﻩ‬
‫ْر‬‫ﱠﻮ‬
‫اﻟﺘ‬
‫ِﻳﻦ‬
َ ‫ﱠﺬ‬
‫َﺎﻟ‬ ‫ْ ﻓ‬ ‫ِﻢ‬‫ْﻬ‬‫َﻴ‬
‫َﻠ‬‫ْ ﻋ‬‫َﺖ‬‫َﺎﻧ‬‫ِﯽ ﮐ‬ ‫ﱠﺘ‬
‫َ اﻟ‬ ‫ْﻼل‬‫َاﻷﻏ‬ ‫ْ و‬ ‫ُﻢ‬‫َه‬
‫ْﺮ‬‫ِﺻ‬
‫ْ إ‬ ‫ُﻢ‬ ‫ْﻬ‬
‫َﻨ‬‫ُ ﻋ‬ ‫َﻊ‬‫َﻀ‬
‫َﻳ‬‫َ و‬‫ِﺚ‬‫َﺎﺋ‬‫َﺒ‬
‫ْﺨ‬ ‫ُ اﻟ‬ ‫ِﻢ‬‫ْﻬ‬
‫َﻴ‬
‫َﻠ‬‫ُ ﻋ‬
‫ّم‬‫َﺮ‬
ِ‫ُﺤ‬‫َﻳ‬‫و‬
‫ُﻢ‬
ُ ‫َ ه‬ ‫ِﮏ‬‫َﺌ‬
‫ُوﻟ‬ ‫ُ أ‬ ‫َﻪ‬
‫َﻌ‬‫َ ﻣ‬ ‫ِل‬‫ْﺰ‬
‫ُﻧ‬‫ِی أ‬ ‫ﱠﺬ‬
‫َ اﻟ‬ ‫ﱡﻮر‬‫ُﻮا اﻟﻨ‬ ‫َﻌ‬ ‫ﱠﺒ‬‫َاﺗ‬‫ُ و‬ ‫ُوﻩ‬ ‫َﺮ‬
‫َﺼ‬‫َﻧ‬
‫ُ و‬ ‫ُوﻩ‬ ‫ﱠر‬‫َﺰ‬
‫َﻋ‬‫ِ و‬‫ِﻪ‬‫ُﻮا ﺑ‬ ‫َﻨ‬‫ﺁﻣ‬
‫ُﻮن‬
َ ‫ِﺤ‬
‫ْﻠ‬‫ُﻔ‬‫ْﻤ‬‫( )اﻟ‬Aeraf / 157) " Those who follow the Apostle-Prophet, the Ummi, whom they find written down
with them in the Taurat and the Injeel (who) enjoins them good and forbids them evil, and makes lawful to
them the good things and makes unlawful to them impure things, and removes from them their burden and
the shackles which were upon them; so (as for) those who believe in him and honor him and help him, and
follow the light which has been sent down with him, these it is that are the successful. "
Based on the pattern of behavior that is provided by these verse, educational and intellectual men and
society, will only obey and submission himself to God, He will not go after his ancestors and will not imitate
from them, he would free himself from the strings of Imitation, social and national illusions and Superstition
and sensual and erotic chains and threats.

References

Quran
Tabatabaii, Seyed Mohammad, Tfsir Al-mizan, volume 19, published in Tehran, 2005.

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Laboratories and Sustainable Teaching and Learning About Senior Secondary

School (SSS) Geography in Nigeria

Kofo. A. Aderogba

Faculty of Social and Management Sciences,

Tai Solarin University of Education, Ijebu-Ode, Nigeria

Abstract The relevance of Geography cannot be over emphasised; but teaching and learning about the subject have not been
sustainable. The objective of this paper is to examine the adequacy or otherwise of Geography Laboratories and Gardens for
effective teaching and learning in Nigeria using Ogun State as case study. Twenty schools and colleges were randomly selected
across the state. Conditions of the Gardens and Laboratories were examined. 100 sstudents, 20 teachers and 5 principals of
schools were interviewed and so also 100 Geography graduates of Schools and colleges. Human and physical environments of
the schools were studied. Over 85% of the schools have neither Geographical Garden nor Meteorological Garden or Laboratory.
No school has any classroom dedicated to Geography. There must be radical departure from the observed. Well equipped
Laboratories, Meteorological and Geographical Gardens should become integral part of the facilities and amenities. It is
imperative that a room is adorned with maps, charts, figures, models, samples and others; and designated as Geography
Classroom where lessons on geographyy topics must be held. Teachers of Geography should perceive the physical
environment, natural and cultural, as Geography Laboratory. Philanthropies should be implored and encouraged to come to the
aid of schools.
Keywords: Geography, laboratories, sustanability, teaching, learning

Introduction

The objectives of teaching Geography at this level of education are spelt out by West African Examination
Council (WAEC) (2004) and National Examination Council (NECO) (2004). The WAEC has been reviewing
its syllabi over the years to reflect contemporary issues, respond to public concerns and adjust to realities of
time, (Akande, 1982 and Aderogba and Ogunnowo, 2010). The NECO also fashioned its syllabus closely to
the WAEC’s; Appendix A. The Appendix shows details of geography syllabus as provided by the two national
examination bodies and implemented by schools and colleges. This is broken into six parts that are taught
over a period of nine terms of an average of thirteen weeks each, that is, three sessions. The relevance of
the subject cannot be over emphasised. Boehim, (1996) in his ''Careers in Geography'' gave a
comprehensive list of where geographers have and can be employed profitably and with job satisfactions,
Appendix B.
Locally in Nigeria, many have documented the relevance of Geography to the society: Ologe (1978)
and Akande (1982) discuss very succinctly the roles of Geographers in the present day socio-economic
dispensations. Similarly, Areola (1978), and Aderogba (1990, 2001, 2010 and 2011) identify the professions
and different areas of human endeavours that Geographers can be relevant. Aderogba (2010) particularly
produced a list of disciplines and school subjects that combine with Geography to pursue a profession. The
relevance and application of Geography concepts, information and tools are growing by the day.
Also, scholars have worked consistently on the problems associated with the teaching and learning
about Geography, the most difficult aspects of Geography, why Students fail Geography, Dearth of Materials
for Geography studies and others, (Adetuberu 1983, Ajaegbu 1971, Akande 1982 and Aderogba 2001 and
2010). Specifically, Akande (1982) like Ajaegbu (1971) dwelt on the ''Pull'' and ''Push'' factors in the study of
Geography among students generally. Similarly, Adetuberu (1983) in his study of ''Odds against the Teaching
of Map Work'' gave a critical analysis of the challenges in the teaching and learning of Map Work (among
male and female students) in Ondo State Secondary Schools. Recently, Aderogba (2010 and 2011) worked
on “Registrations, Participation and Performances of Female Students in SSS” and “Global warming and
implications for SSS Geography in Nigerian schools and colleges” respectively. No work has ever been done

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to examine the available Laboratory resources, animate and inanimate for effective teaching and learning
about Geography at the SSS level in Nigeria. The earlier work of Aderogba (1990) on resources for teaching
and learning about Geography is superficial and inconclusive: In particular, the aspects of adequacy or
otherwise of Laboratories and Geographical Gardens have not been investigated. Therefore, the objective of
this paper is to examine the adequacy or otherwise of the resources for effective teaching and learning about
Geography in Nigerian schools and colleges of Nigeria using Ogun State as a case study. Emphases are on
Geography Laboratories and Meteorological Garden.

Materials and Methods

Twenty schools, five public and ten private, of Ogun State were randomly selected for study. The schools’
facilities and amenities for effective teaching and learning, particularly about Geography, were examined and
studied. Geography Classrooms, Laboratories, gardens and meteorological Gardens were visited and the
content examined. The classrooms, laboratories and gardens were compared with the corresponding
facilities and amenities for teaching and learning about other related subjects – Physics, Biology, Chemistry,
Fine Art and others. “Classes” of Field Work, Physical, Regional and Human, Practical and Map Work were
observed in session. Materials used for the Lessons were perused. Fifty teachers of Geography, twenty
Principals and ten proprietors of schools and colleges were interviewed on the available resources, the
dearth or otherwise of them and what needs to be done to make teaching and learning about Geography
sustainable. Similarly, one hundred graduates of Geography were randomly selected and interviewed on their
perception of the relevance of Geography Laboratory and Gardens for effective teaching and learning about
the subject at the SSS level of education. They also provided modest list of items that must be in the
Geographical Garden, Meteorological Garden, the Laboratory and classroom per school. Immediate
environment of the schools and colleges visited were examined to ascertain what is available where for
adoption for teaching and learning purposes. Three Zonal Inspectors of Education were randomly selected
for the same purposes. They were all quick to enumerate what materials will be very crucial for effective and
sustainable teach and learning about various aspects of the subject as required by WAEC, NECO and Joint
Admission and Matriculation Board. The work is devoid of any statistical analysis but Tables and Figures
only. Geographical and Meteorological Gardens, Laboratories and Classrooms are referred to as part of
facilities and amenities of schools and colleges in this work.

Results

All the twenty schools teach Geography up to Senior Secondary Class III and certain proportion of their
students offer Geography in their final WAEC, NECO; and Joint

Table I: Schools’ Geographical and Meteorological Gardens; Laboratories and Rooms

S/No Schools & Colleges Geog. Meteor. Geog. Geog.

Garden Garden Lab. Room

1 Abeokuta Grammar School * - - -

2 Egbado College * - - -
3 Ijebu-Ode Grammar School - - - -
4 Ade Ola Odutola College Ijebu-Ode - - - -
5 Mac Job Grammar School Abeokuta - - - -
6 St Augustine Grammar School Ijebu-Mushin - - - -
7 Our Lady of Apostle Grammar School I-Ode - - - -
8 Premier Grammar School Abeokuta - - - -

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9 Greenland Hall Agbado * - * *

10 Molusi College Ijebu-Igbo * - - -
11 Ammec College - - - -
12 The Bells * * - -
13 Alpha High School - - - -
14 Luba Comprehensive High School - - - -
15 Ansar-Ud-Deen Grammar School Abeokuta - * - -

16 Odogbolu Grammar School - - - -

17 Iganmode Grammar School - * - -

18 Comprehensive High School Aiyetoro * - - -

19 Remo Secondary School * - - -

20 Abusi Edumare Comprehensive High School - - - -

TOTAL 7 3 1 1

Note: * = Available regardless of conditions; - = Nothing is available

Source: Aderogba, K. A. (2011) Field Work

Admission and Matriculation Board Examinations. There are also university graduates in all the schools as
Class Teachers. There is none of the schools that is less than ten years old. They are all Government
approved schools and colleges and they are being inspected for purpose of quality check, at least once in a
session by their respective Zonal Education Offices (Inspection Section). More than 50% of them were
located within urban settings; about 35% are located in the rural urban fringe and the rest are in rural areas.
There were ample opportunities therefore to make use of the localities for Field
Work/Experience/Study/Trip/Escursion/Exercises in their respective local domains as stipulated by the
WASEC, NECO and JAMB syllabuses. Table I shows the status of the Geographical Classrooms,
Laboratories, Gardens and Meteorological gardens in the schools and colleges visited. Only 35 % of the
schools have Geographical Garden; 15% have Meteorological Garden; and 5% each has Geographical
Laboratory and Classroom. Except two schools, Greenland Hall and The Bell, there is none of the schools
that have two categories of the facilities. None of the schools has the four – Geographical Garden,
Meteorological Garden, Geography Laboratory and Geography Classroom. It is only Greenland Hall again
that has a separate Classroom designated as Geography Classroom. Even in the schools that have
Geographical Garden, the so called gardens are overgrown with weeds and there is scarcely any thing to
show that it is for purpose of teaching and learning about Geography. No school has any Survey Instrument.
The observed best equipped Meteorological Garden has one dilapidated Rain Gauge and a dysfunctional
Wind Vane. The Stevenson’s Screen contains nothing. Others are glorified Meteorological and Geograpical
Gardens. As for the Geography Laboratory and Classrooms, there is no significant difference between
schools and colleges; and between private and public schools. But, in terms of the Gardens, the public
schools care least but the privates are making some attempts. Where there are any Meteorological and
Geographical Gardens at all, they are combined on the same plot and whatever is located inside are
clustered therein. Unexpectedly, 85% of the schools and colleges teach the so called difficult concepts, ideas
and names and make the student learn about Geography without any of these salient facilities and amenities.

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Discussion

Geography is a living subject, but it is not treated as such and neither is it particularly recognised as a
science subjects such as Biology, Physics, Chemistry and others. Laboratories, Gardens (Geographical and
Meteorological) are not common. The physical and cultural environments are underutilized too. AS common
as it is suppose to be, Atlas Maps are not available for over 90% of the students in over 85% of the schools
and colleges. The subject is taught with high level of abstractions in spite of the numerous “concepts,” “ideas”
and “names” that students have to contend with. This condition might account for poor interests at
registrations, participation in the classes and performances of students in external examinations: WAEC,
NECO and JAMB. Suffice it to say that there is this common statement that Geography is a wide subject; and
that it is a difficult subject. This may explain why there are decreasing number of students that register for the
subject over the years (Akande 1982 and Aderogba 2001 and 2006). The onus is therefore on schools and
colleges, proprietors and governments to ensure adequate equipment, facilities and amenities for teaching
and learning about the subject if geography will still find its relevance among school subjects; and for
professionals.

For Sustainable SSS Geography

Tables II and III; and Figures 1 and 2 provide lists of modest materials for use in the schools and colleges.
There may not be any need to have more than four each of Wet and Dry Bulb Thermometers and Chart of
Weather Symbols; two each of Barometers and Rain Gauge for ease of demonstration, teaching and
learning. Other items may be one each; see Table II. The Garden must be set up at such locations that will
not have any interruption that will affect

Table II: Essential Components of a Meteorological Garden for schools

S/No Instruments No
1 Stephenson Screen 1
2 Fortin (Mercury) Barometer 2
3 Aneroid Barometer 2
4 Six’s Maximum and Minimum Thermometer 2
5 Barograph 1
6 Wet and Dry Bulb Thermometer 4
7 Cup Anemometer (10 m above ground level & clear of roof top) 1
8 Tube anemometer 1
9 Wind vane (tube anemometer built into the end of wind vane) 1
10 Sunshine Recorder 1
11 Rain gauge 2
12 Chart of Weather Symbols 4

Source: Aderogba, K. A. 2011. Field Work

Table III: Essential Surveying Instruments for a Class of 35 Students.

S/No Required Amount

Instrument
1 Gunter’s Chain 2
2 Dumpy Level 2
3 Prismatic Compass 6
4 Hand Level 6
5 Theodolites 2
6 Alidade 4

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7 Measuring Tape 3
8 Pegs 8
9 Iron Arrow 12
10 Ranging Pole 12
11 HB Pencils 36
12 Booking Sheet 36
12 Plane Tables and Stands (Tripods) 3
13 Sop-With-Staff 3
14 Plum Bulb 3
15 Scientific Calculator 7

Source: Aderogba, K. A. 2011. Field Work

the performances and readings of these equipments: reasonable distances away from roof tops and tall trees
is desirable and recommended. Similarly, Table III shows essential equipments for teaching and learning
about Simple Land Surveying: Out of the 12 items Theodolite and Dumpy Level could be the most expensive.
Ranging Poles and Pencils, Iron Arrow, Booking Sheets are not. Recommended for use in Geographical
Laboratories/Classrooms are about forty items ranging from maps, charts, figures, tables, pictures,
photographs, paper cuttings, film clips, video clips, and others. See Figure 2. Private and Corporative
philantopies could be supported and or encouraged to assist schools and colleges. The physical and cultural
environments around the schools and their immediate environments can provide varieties of samples and
examples: People, sex, age tribes, occupations and professionsals; transport and lines of communication;
observeable daily.

Figure 1: Selected Materials that should be in a Geographical Garden.

Impermeable Rock Basic glaciated land forms

Permeable Rock Vegetation - Swamp
Karsts - High Rain Forest
Loess - Derived Savannah
Outcrop - Savannah
Pervious Rocks/Porous Rocks - Grass land
Rejuvenated River/Stream - Semi Desert
Rift Valley (Graben) - Desert
Block mountain/Horst - Mountain Vegetation
Plateau - Xerophytes
Folds (Fold Mountain System) Islands
Knoll (Isolated Hill) Lakes
Escarpment Oasis
Faults Bridges across Rivers
River Valleys Settlement Patterns
Drainage Patterns Mountain Ranges
Confluence Transport Routes
Sediments Dams across Rivers
Sand Dunes and seif dunes Others

Source: Aderogba, K. A. 2011. Field Work

weather conditions – thick clouds, bright days, dew, torrential rains, dews, hammatan haze, hot and cold
days; vegetation covers, erosion and erosion passages; coexisting businesses and trades, natural and
cultural landscapes and others could be observed as they exist in situ for teaching and learning purposes as
the needs arise. Most of the required items could be improvised without jeopardizing the purported aims and
objectives of the topics to be taught if appropriately harnessed and applied. Apart from the teachers that must

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be certified and qualified, it is imperative that the Gardens and Laboratories are manned by qualified
personnel.

Figure 2: Selected Materials that should be in Geography Laboratory/Classroom

Climate Chart Station Model

Weather Chart Atlas Maps
Temperature Chart Temperature Maps
Rainfall Chart Rainfall Maps
Relative Humidity Chart Relative Humidity Maps
Charts of Weather Symbols Weather symbols
Pie Charts Romer and Grid References
Flow Charts Maps showing National Grids
Proportional Circle Soil Profiles
Density Maps Ordinance Survey Maps
Isopleths Maps Topographical Maps
Dot Maps Thematic Maps
Bar Graphs Gradients Examples and formula
Line Graphs Conventional Signs and symbols
Climate Maps Common Abbreviations and Meanings
Weather Maps Catalogue of reference Materials
Rock Samples Soil Samples
Film/Video Clips Pictures
Paper cuttings Tape/Video Recorder/players
Photographs Appropriate Furniture *

* There are special purpose Tables for use in Geography Laboratories.

Source: Aderogba, K. A. 2011. Field Work

Conclusion

It is one thing for these items to be available; it is another for them to be applied. They should not become
artefact for decorations. When the learners fiddle with the materials during each of the lessons and at their
spare times, they will be more familiar with them. Their levels of abstractions of the concepts and ideas will
drastically reduce if not completely eliminated. Harnessing resources from the physical and cultural
environment may be the beginning of tapping National Local Content as prescribed by the nation for Nigerian
Content in all facet of Human endeavour if the Nation must grow and develop. It should not be forgotten too
that the Classroom theories and the materials in the gardens, Laboratories and classrooms will be
complementing each other; and all must be supplemented by contemporary text books, reference materials
and Teachers’ Guides. Atlas Books, one each for every student must be compulsory. Teachers, Laboratory
Attendants and Gardeners must be made to attend, at regular intervals, relevant workshops, seminars,
conferences and shorts courses that will update and upgrade their knowledge and experiences from time to
time.

References

Abegunde, M. A. A. (1988) ''The Promotion of Career Opportunities through the Senior Secondary School Geography.'' Paper presented
at the NGTA Workshop. Bendel State University, Abraka Campus (February); pp. 5-14.
Aderogba, K. 2010. “Towards Improving, Registration, Participation and Performance of Female Students in Geography in Ifo Local
Government Area of Ogun State, Nigeria”. Paper presented at the 51st Annual Conference of Association of Nigerian
Geographers, Department of Geography and Urban Planning Kogi State University, Ayingba, Kogi State, Nigeria (11th – 15th
October).

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Aderogba, K. 2011. “Global Warming and Implications for SSS Geography Syllabuses in Nigeria.” Paper presented at the 52nd Annual
Conference of Association of Nigerian Geographers, Department of Geography and Urban Planning, Uthman Dan Fodu
University, Sokoto State, Nigeria (February).
Aderogba, K. A. (1990) ''Towards a Maximum Use of Local Environment (Resources) for Effective Teaching and Learning About
Geography in Nigerian Senior Secondary Schools''. In Teaching Geography for Optimal Learning Outcome in Senior Secondary
Schools. Ijebu-Ode: Department of Geography, Tai Solarin College of Education and NGTA (SW Zone); pp. 149-170.
Aderogba, K. A. 2005. “Dearth of maps for effective teaching and learning about geography in Nigerian schools and colleges: A case
study of Ogun State”. International Journal of Research in Education Vol. 3 No 2 pp 217 – 224
Adetuberu, J. O. (1983) ''The Odds Against the Teaching of Map Work: A Critical Analysis of Geography in Ondo State Secondary
Schools.'' Paper Presented at the 26th Annual Conference of ANG at the University of Ilorin (February 16th – 20th).
Ajaegbu, H. I. (1971) ''The Challenges to Geographers and Geography Teachers in Nigeria Today.'' Majasan, J. A. (Eds.) New
Dimension in Nigeria High School Geography. Ibadan: University Press, pp. 12-26.
Akande, M. A. (1982) ''Withdrawal from the Geography Class: A Case Study of the 'Pull' and 'Push' Factors.'' Nigerian Geographical
Association Journal. Vol. 26 Nos. 1 & 2; pp. 105-118.
Alao, N.O. (1978) ''Spatial Dynamics and the Dynamics of Geography'' in Abegunde, M. A. (Ed.). Perspectives on Senior Secondary
School Geography. Lagos: The High School Geography Committee. Nigerian Geographical Association. pp. 1-20.
Areola, O. O. 1978. “The Roles of geography in nation building.” Paper delivered to Geography Students Association to mark Geography
Week. Department of Geography, University of Ibadan, Ibadan.
Bednary, R. S. and Bednary, S. W. 1992. “School Geography in United State: Lesson learned and Relearned” in International
Perspectives on Geography Education. Illinois: Rand McNally and Company.
Boehim, R. G. 1996. Careers in Geography. Washington DC: National Geography Society.
Curineione, J. M. and Farrell, R. T 1988. “The State of Geography Teacher in Middle/Junior and Secondary High Schools” in Strengthen
Geography in the Social Studies Curriculum Bulletin No. 81 Ed. S. T. Natoll. Washington, D. C: National Council for Social
Studies.
Dow, K. and Downing, T. E. 2007. The Atlas of climate change: Mapping the world’s greatest challenge. Brighton: Earthscan, pp. 19-26.
Fellman, J. D., Getis, A. and Getis J. 2005. Human Geography: Landscape of Human Activities. New York: McGraw-Hill Education
(Eighth Edition), pp 484 – 506.
National Examination Council (2004) Regulations and Syllabuses for Senior Secondary Certificate Examination (SSCE) for Candidates
in Nigeria. Minna: NECO pp. 142-146.
Ologe, K. O. 1978. Career outlets for geography graduates from Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria Proceedings of the 21st Annual
Conference of the NGA, University of Jos (April).
Sada, P. O. (1976) Reviewing the Geography Curriculum in Nigerian High Schools. Ibadan: Department of Geography, University of
Ibadan.
Stone, E. 1994. Quality teaching: A sample of case. New York: Dominion University
The west African Examination Council 2004. Regulation and syllabuses for West Africa Senior School Certificate Examination
(WASSCE) Lagos: WAEC pp 248 – 255.
Thomas, P. F. 1990. On the demise of School Geography: A Post-mortem Report.” The Operational Geography (September) Vol. 8 No 3
pp 18 – 21.

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APPENDIX A

The West African Examination Council (2004) Regulations and Syllabuses.

CONTENTS NOTES
ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL AND Map reading and interpretation based on a continuous survey map of part of
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY West Africa: scale, measurement, distances, direction and bearing, map
Map Work reduction and enlargement, identification of physical features such as spurs,
valleys etc and cultural features such as city, walls, settlements,
communication routes etc, measurement of gradients, drawing of cross
Elementary Survey profiles, inter-visibility, description and explanation of drainage patterns of
communication settlement and land use.
Statistical Maps and Diagrams Chain and Prismatic compass, open and closed traverse avoiding obstacles in
the field.
Elements of Physical Geography
Graphical representation of statistical data: Bar graphs, Line graphs, flow
(i) Rocks charts, pie charts, dot maps, proportional circles, density maps, isopleths
(ii) Major Landforms maps.
The earth as a planet in relation to the sun. Latitude, longitude and time.
Structure of the earth (internal and external).
Types, characteristics, formation and uses.
Mountains, plateaus, plains, karst and coastal landforms.
(iii) Oceans Agencies modify landforms such as weathering, running water, underground
(iv) Weather and climate water, wind and waves.
(v) Elements of climate Fieldwork covering local landforms such as coastal features, drainage
features, gullies, etc.

Ocean basins, salinity, ocean currents (causes, types and effects on the
(vi) Soils climates of coastlands), water as an environmental resource.
Simple weather study based on local observation description of the
(vii) Vegetation Stevenson’s screen and uses of basic weather instruments e.g. rain gauge,
(viii) Aspects of Environmental thermometer, barometer and wind vane etc.
Interaction Temperature, pressure, wind and precipitation and the factors affecting them
(ix) Environmental hazards e.g. altitude, latitude, ocean currents, land-and-sea breezes, continentality,
aspect. Interpretation of climatic charts and data. Classification of climate
(Greek and Koppen’s). Major types of climate (Hot climate – equatorial,
tropical and desert, temperate climate – warm and cool). The atmosphere as
an environmental resource.
HUMAN GEOGRAPHY Definition, local types and characteristics. Factors and processes of soil
(i) World Population formation and soil profile. Tropical soil types. Importance to man and the
effects of human activities on soil.
(ii) Settlement Major types (tropical rainforest, cool temperate, woodland, tropical grassland
(iii) and temperate grassland); characteristics, distribution, factors affecting their
(iv) Transportation distribution, plant communities. Vegetation as an environmental resource.
(v) Manufacturing Industry Land ecosystem, environmental balance and intervention within the natural
environment.
(vi) World Trade Soil erosion, drought, desert encroachment, deforestation and pollution,
causes, effects and prevention of each.

REGIONAL GEOGRAPHY OF NIGERIA Factors and patterns of growth, distribution and movement; growth rate
problems (e.g. Amazon asin, N.E. of USA, India, Japan, West coast of South
Africa)
Types (rural and urban); patterns and factors affecting location; growth and
size; functions of rural and urban settlements (e.g. Western Europe, the Middle
East and West Africa).
Types (roads, railways, water, air). Transportation and economic development
(movement of people and commodities, national and international trade,

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diffusion of ideas and technology, national integration); problems of

transportation.
FIELDWORK Types (heavy and light industry); Factors of industrial location; contributions to
Gross National Product (GNP) and problems.
Factors, major commodities (agricultural, manufactured goods and mineral
products, trade routes, with special emphasis on trade between candidate’s
home country and the outside world.
Nigeria on broad outlines (location, position, political divisions, physical setting,
population distribution of mineral and power resources, industry and
commerce, transportation).
Geographic Regions of Nigeria (Eastern Highlands, Eastern Scarplands,
North-central Highlands, Sokoto Plains, Chad Basin, Niger Trough, Cross
GEOGRAPHY OF AFRICA River Basin and Southern Coast.
Each of these geographical regions should be under the following sub-
headings:-
SELECTED TOPICS (i) Physical settings;
(ii) Peoples and population;
(iii) Resources and economic activities;
(iv) Transportation;
(v) Problems of development.
Field work on any one of the following should be based on local geography of
candidate’s home town. (This aspect of the syllabus should be examined in
schools as part of the continuous assessment and should account for 25% of
the total mark of continuous assessment):
(i) Land use (rural or urban):
Rural – crop farming (e.g. rice, cocoa etc), mining (e.g. coal, tin, petroleum
etc), fishing.
Urban – commercial activities, ports, factories, recreational etc.
(ii) Market survey – rural or urban
(iii) Traffic flow – rural or urban
(iv) Patterns of journey to work – rural or urban
(v) Rate of erosion in the locality etc
Africa on broad outlines – location, size, position, political divisions and
associated islands, physical setting (relief, drainage, climate and vegetation);
distribution of major minerals.

(a) Lumbering in equatorial Africa (with particular reference to Cote d’Ivoire

and Zaire).
(b) Irrigation agriculture in the Nile Basin and the Niger Basin.
(c) Plantation agriculture in West and East Africa.
(d) Fruit farming in the Mediterranean Regions of Africa.
(e) Gold mining in South Africa.
(f) Copper mining in Zaire and Zambia.
(g) Oil production in Nigeria, Algeria and Libya.
(h) Population distribution in West Africa.
(i) International Economic Co-operation in West Africa (e.g. ECOWAS).

Source: West African Examination Council (2004) Regulations and Syllabuses for Senior School Certificate
Examination (SSCE) for Candidates in Nigeria. Lagos: WAEC pp 248 – 255.

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APPENDIX B

Major Geographic Fields and Employment Opportunities

Major Fields of concentration Employment Opportunities

Cartography and Geographic Information — Cartographer for Federal Government (agencies such as Defence Mapping Agency,
System US Geographical Survey or Environmental Protection Agency or Private Sector (e.g.
Environmental System Research Institute, Integral or Bentley); Map Liberian, GIS
specialist for Planners, land developers, estate agencies, local government, remote
sensing analyst, Surveyor.
Physical Geography —Weather forecaster; outdoor guide; coastal zone manager; hydrologist; soil
conservation/agricultural extension agent.
Environmental Studies — Environmental manager; forestry technician; park ranger; hazardous waste planner.
Cultural Geography — Community developer; Peace corps volunteers; health care analyst.
— Site selection analyst for business and industry; market researchers; traffic/route
Economic Geography delivery manager; real estate agent/broker/appraisers; economic development
researcher
Urban and Regional Geography — Urban and Community Planner; transportation planner; housing, park and recreational
planner; infrastructure and services planner.
Regional Geography — Area specialist for Federal and State Government; International business
representative; travel agent; travel writer.
Geographic Education or General — Elementary/Secondary School teacher; College Professor, Overseas teacher.
Geography

Source: Career in Geography ''By Richard G. Boehim. Washington DC: National Geographic Society, 199

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Sports As a Means of Enhancing Self Reliance and Nation Building

Agburuga Obi, Ordua Victor

Ohia Blessing Akumjuri

Federal College of Education (Technical),

P. M. B. 11 Omoku, Rivers State,Nigeria

Abstract This study examined sports as a means of enhancing self reliance, the writer see sports as an employment avenue for
athletes, coaches, managers and sports writers in Nigeria, creating socio-economic development for the country. This paper
also identified some values of sports as an instrument that enhance national unity irrespective of ethnic and religious diversity.
The writers recommended that people should be encouraged to participate in sporting activities in order to achieve the needed
values.

Introduction

Sport is a social agent that brings different people of different ages and religious background together, either
as a sport producers or consumers, so that both can make good use of their leisure time. The players are
usually referred to as primary producers who engage in sporting activities in order to entertain the spectators,
while secondary consumers watch them perform (Babalola and Oyeniyi 2003).
According to Olajide (2003) sports is an institutionalized physical activity which operate by rules fixed
externally. He described sports as activities with clear standard of performance involving physical exertion
through competition, governed by norms, definitions and role relationships, typically performed by member of
organized group, with the goal of achieving some rewards through defeat of others competitors.
Sports today, is global in scope and sporting events are followed with great interest by the people of
many countries. Sports in an international tool for politics and nationalism. As such, it has a means of
obtaining recognition and giving attention in the desire of the people (Omoruan, 1992):
It is now important for the federal, state and local government to provide adequate facilities for the
schools. It is also important to employ qualified personnel in the tertiary institutions to teach physical
education. Precisely, if facilities like soccer field, handball court, hockey pitch, gymnasium, volleyball court,
basketball court, tennis court, to mention a few are available, plus adequate personnel, the rate of
participation will be high. It will later produce skilled sports men and women as well as good physical
educator or teachers (Abubakar, 2006).
Intercollegiate sport refers to the competition where top athletes of higher institutions compete within
themselves. It is primarily meant for elite sport men and women of higher institutions like University,
Polytechnics, colleges of education etc (Olajike, 1992).
According to Bucher (2001) inter collegiate sport represents an integral parts of total physical education
programme which mostly involved from the intramural programmes. It is designed for students that are
highly skilled in sports. Intercollegiate sports serve the following purposes.
 It provides students with opportunity for fun, recreation and fellowship through participation in sport.
 It serves as an extension of the instruction programme by giving students the opportunity to practicalized
what they have learnt in the classroom, e.g moral and theories of games.
 It provides students with opportunities that will be conductive to their health and physical fitness.
 It motivates students participation in sports skills at their own level.
 It provides students with opportunities for the release of tension and aggression and provides a feeling of
achievement through sports participation all of which are conducive to mental and emotional health.
 It provides forums or avenues to share common interests.

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 It encourage the process of psychological wearing of self-confidence, so important to the adolescents.

 It develops the give and take attitude, essential to good sportsmanship.
 It plays a vital role in the development of sports in the country, especially in the field of manpower
development and provision of expertise and experience, which are very important to sport promotion.
 It promotes social interaction and cultural heritage, in spite of the diverse cultural differences among
ethnic groups in the country.
 There is no doubt that the purposes or objectives of intercollegiate sport are quite lofty and desirable. It
is unfortunate however, that there are lost constraints to the achievement for the goals stated above. The
purpose of this paper, therefore, is to examine sports as a means of enhancing self reliance.

Importance of Sports to the National Development

Augustine (2003) listed the followings as the importance of national development.

1. Sports create employment for several people aside the athletes themselves. This includes job for
coaches, managers, agents, medical professional, dietician, journalists and body guards. All these
people demand goods and services in an economy, which leads to growth and development of the
economy and the society in which they live.
2. Sports also provide tremendous business opportunity in merchandising and in the healthcare sector in
many economics. Whole lots of manufacturing industries have emerged producing sports attires. Sports
equipment sports souvenirs, health products and services for sportsmen, women and fans, such
industries are contributing immensely to socio-economic development of the country.
3. Media organization earn lots of income from providing local, national or global satellite coverage of major
tournaments such as; European champions leagues and world cup.
4. The hosting of major international sport events and festivals drives growth and development to the host
countries or cities. Such development includes construction of hostels, stadium, roads, games villages,
provisions of information technology, security, media and hospitality services etc.
5. African countries with reference to Nigeria have become majors exporters of talented soccer stars to
Europe and most of these players earn huge income. Many of these repatriate significant amounts of
money, home to improve the economic situation of their families as well as contribute to the development
of their communities and country at large.
6. Sports do promote and contribute to the development of societies and nations. First and foremost, a
sporting culture just for the fun or if, produces healthy and more productive citizens. No wonder the
ancient Romans used to say “mensa ana incorpore sano” meaning a sound mind lives in a sound body.

A physically fit person is not only mentally alart, but also more productive, when it comes to the use of motors
and psychomotor skills in the work environment.
Peter (2003) in his contribution stated that as a result of competition, there is evidence of a decline in
youth crime and youngsters were given a sense of self esteem and local pride.

Values of Sports

Values are social shared ideas about what is good, right and desirable. These could be enjoyed through
participating in sports. These values includes:
1. Physiological values
2. Psychological values
3. Sociological values

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Physiological Value: It was observed that when a person is active in sport, it strengthens the heart,
increases its efficiency and reduces resting heart rate. It also decreases the risk of coronary heart disease,
prevents obesity and excessive. It prevent any disease that include varicose vein and decreases systolic and
diastolic blood pressures, develops collateral circulation, quickly clears fat from the blood stream increases
the amount of hemoglobin and coronary blood supply, reduces the clothing ability of the blood, improves
cardio-respiratory functional capacity and physical working ability as a result of health status and quality of
life. It increases flexibility and retards the physical and physiological changes that result from aging
(Akinsami 1995)
Psychological Values: Persons who do not learn how to play at least in one sport aren’t fully educated.
Also, persons who can’t or won’t participate regularly in one sporting activity or the other many be
accumulating tensions and frustration as well obesity accompanying with circulatory problems. However,
Ajeigbe (2004) asserted that bodily events affects mental events and mental events in turn affects bodily
events. Therefore, if sports is properly planned and harnessed it will help to train oneself to be disciplined,
tolerant to pains, danger, discomfort and ability to adapt to the challenges of life, whether on the field of play
or within one’s society.
In addition, Biddle and Fox (1991) enumerated the psychological benefits of when they mentioned that
sports and exercises aid the release of muscular tension, anxiety and enhance morales. All these are often
accompanied by a post exercise reduction in blood pressure improve blood sugar and lipid profile.
Omolawon (1999) opined that the maintenance of a reasonable amount of fitness and activity throughout
the life span helps delay the aging process, adding life to years as well as years to life.
Sociological values: The social values of sports include leadership and ability to follow and co-operate.
Self confidence and a sense of belonging, appreciation of other skills and performance, respect for the right
of others and good sportsmanship skills. Participants, are provided the opportunity to work together as a
team. New friends are made among the participants, while olds ones are solidified. Sports equally teaches
the youths how to cooperate and cooperate and coordinate with other people as a group. Sports also helps
individuals to reduce tension and frustration, self acceptance and development of positive emotional and
intellectual behaviour are enhanced. In addition, participation in sports can stimulate higher level of
educational aspiration. Sports will also promote socialization process through interaction between coaches
and players participants, spectators and fans etc.
Onifade (2001) opined that individuals, especially those from the multi-national countries could be
merged through sports since it serves as a cohesive agent to bring about unity and national awareness.
Sports is equally used as am avenue for appreciation of the ethical values in a country. Success in sport has
some national impact such as prestige status and respectability.

Sports As a Means of Social Functions

Abubakar (2006) opined that sports is an important institution that is directly affecting the lives of the majority
of the population, who are either participants or spectators of various sports. He said, like all other
institutions, sports serve various social function e.g.
 It provides organized leisure activities in the society for the purpose of relaxation, enjoyment and
entertainments.
 It offers opportunities for physical exercises that are useful for the development of physical fitness i.e
strength, endurance, cardio respiratory endurance, flexibility and other related component of motor
ability.
 It provides through its famous athletes role models those success, skills and determination are held up
for emulation.
 It is good for the release of piled up feeling.
 It provides avenue for the release of emotion, resulting in good mental health.

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 It serves to reinforce many of the basic values of the society. Certain value like hard work, discipline,
success etc all of which are expressed in sports.

Conclusion

In the light of the preceding discussion, it is believed that sport have contributed to national developments,
stressing out its importance to the participants, coaches, managers, agents, medical professional, dieticians,
journalists, manufacturing, industries of sports equipment and supplies.
Sports can also promote development of good infrastructures, tolerance, unity, endurance, discipline and
diplomacy. Values of sports for the participant ranging from human growth and development improve cardio
respiratory functional capacity and physical working ability, as a result of health status and equality of life.
Finally, sports was also examined as a means of social functions.

Recommendation

In view of the importance of sport as a mean of enhancing self reliance, the following recommendations are
proffered.
(i) People should be encourage to participate in sporting activities, in order to achieve the
inherent values.
(ii) Sports should be used as basis of fostering unity among the diverse ethnics and socio-
economic group of the country.
(iii) Adequate facilities and equipment should be made available to enhance sports performance in
all institutions.

References

Abubakar N. M. (2007) Appraisal of available sport facilities for the teaching of Physical Education in Secondary School Journal of
Education Research and Development Vol. 1 No 2 pg. 102.
Ajiegbe Y. I (2004) Relevance of Sports as a weapon of Tourism national development. Multi-Disciplinary Approach to human kinetics
and Health Education.
Akinsanmi, T. (1995). The Role of exercise in promoting health as perceived by health related professionals. Journal of Research in
Behavioural Sciences 1 (2).
Augustine, Y. D. (2003), Sports for peace and development. A paper presented at the second PT Africa conference on peace through
Tourism. Dares Salaam. Tanzania.
Babalola, J. F. and Oyeniyi, P. O. (2003), curbing sport hooliganism during collegiate sport in Nigeria. West African Journal of Physical
and Health Education. Vol. 7 pg. 58.
Biddle, S. J. H and Fox, K. R. (1991). Exercise and Health Psychology emergency relationships. British Journal of medical psychology.
62,205-216.
Bucher, C. A. (2001). Management of Physical Education and Sports (12th ed.) Saint Louis: the C. V. mosby company.
Olajide, O. A. (1992). Sports in cultural perspective of a Nation Unpublished manuscript.
Olajide, A. O. (2000). Ensuring hitch free intercollegiate sport in Nigeria: A critical Analysis. West Africa Journal of Physical and Health
Education. Vol. 7.95-103.
Omolawon, K. O. (1990). Physiological values of school sports. An unpublished paper delivered to school coaches at Oyo State Sports
council, Ibadan.
Onifade, A. (2001). “Sports and Society” issues in human Kinetics Health promotion and Education Udo C. O. (ed) Ibadan Chris-Rose
ventures.
Peter C. (2003). Sports Tourism: The case for a Local approach in Africa.

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Distance Education in Nepal

Leela Pradhan

Professor, Central Department of Education

Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Nepal

Abstract Distance education is a method of imparting education in which there is no face-to-face interactions. Now face-to face
interaction is becoming popular in this mode of education. Distance education delivery methods assist the modes of delivery of
the courses depending on the nature and demands of the subjects. The tutor is a facilitator of face-to-face interaction and tutor
counselor is the locally available resource person for providing continuing support to the students.Distance education in Nepal
was started in Nepal when College of Education in 1957 launched Radio Education Program for teacher training and promoting
adult education. This program was mainly to upgrade the quality of SLC teachers serving in primary schools. Radio Nepal, FM
radios, TV are playing major role in providing distance education. This mode of education is intended to all kinds of people for
many purposes of any country developed or developing. The 10 month in-service training course for primary teachers is a kind of
distance education.
Keywords:Tutor, Tutor-counsellor, Face to Face Interaction, Resource center

Introduction

Nepal is a country of multiple dimensions in terms of race/caste, ethnicity, language, religion, society and
culture. These diversities have helped Nepal to recognize distinctly a plural society and as a country of
cultures of more than one hundred three distinct ethnic and caste groups. Such diversities demand pluralistic
approaches and calls for a multi-paradigm approach in developing education plan, strategies, policies and
programs. On the part of distance learning difficult landscape, remoteness, under development and poverty
are some of the hindrances that limit all people to have equal access to education in Nepal. Modern
technology has developed many soft ware and hard ware equipments tools for distance mode of education
and they are very helpful. Distance education must have developed on the concept of ‘Reading hand written
letters from abroad by relatives or friends’

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In earlier days, distance education was a method of imparting education in which there was no face to face
contact between the learner and the teacher. The face to face interaction was not envisaged between the
learner and teacher but also among the learners. The students to study at home at their own pace. The
students were given access to learning materials but there was no face to face communication. Now face to
face interaction is becoming popular even in distance mode. In distance mode there is physical separation of
the learners from the institution which is responsible for teaching .However some contact sessions can be
made with the use of technology. Different kinds of activities are organized by the provider to support
students to learn under distance learning. The development of different technologies has contributed further
development of distance education. The development of postal system and the printed materials allowed the
students to get the learning materials in the mail and return the assignments in mail again. This system has
become popular even in rich and developed countries like UK,India,Japan,Australia,USA, Canada, Korea etc.

Objectives

The objectives of distance education are:

 To provide quality higher education
 To provide learning opportunities for private students who are deprived of higher education under
the regular programs.
 To serve the mass through the distance mode.
 To utilize modern technology in education.
 To provide education to women who cannot leave home for further education.
 To provide education to people wishing for life long education.
 To provide foundation for establishing the Open University in Nepal

Modes and Methods of Distance Education

Distance learning delivery methods assist the modes of delivery of the courses depending on the nature and
demand of the subjects. The different methods are:
 Study materials in print, electronic, videos, audio cassette.
 TV programmes
 Contact sessions
 Part-time tutorial sessions
 Telephone tutoring: enquiry reception, support and counseling
 Assignment marking: special attention is given to the evaluation of assignment responses. During
assignment marking, comments are made, questions are asked and answers required with their
justifications.
 Special seminars on a certain subject in a course with special focus on more difficult subjects.
 Study centers with the facility of libraries and laboratories

The Resource Center Tutor and Tutor Counselor

The resource center teacher (tutor) is a facilitator of face-to face interaction with the students. The resource
centre tutor requires two things: the ability on the part of the contact session tutor to convey through his
contents advice for further study and the ability to perceive his student’s present state of knowledge and
conceptual framework and also providing regular advice to the learners through the use of electronic media,
email or web page services.

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Tutor-counselor is seen as the locally available resources for providing continuing support to the
students. They are physically present at the study center to do the predefined task. The tutor-counsellor is an
academic person who is assisted by the chief administrative staff of the center. This type of academic
counsellor is managed at every contact centre for necessary tutorial and counseling services.

Medium of Instruction

Medium of instruction is bi-lingual or Nepali or English. Gradually, other local languages such as Newari,
Maithili is used as a medium of instruction depending upon the need and demand of the learners

Distance Education in Nepal

Distance education in Nepal was started in Nepal when College of Education in 1957 launched Radio
Education Program for teacher training and promoting adult education. The implementation of New Education
System Plan 1971(NESP) made training mandatory for teachers to have a permanent tenure. College of
Education was not able to train all the teachers. It was after National Education System Plan (NESP) it was
realized that the conventional approach to teacher training through face to face alone would not be enough to
cater for the needs for trained teachers in the country. So the government had to look for an alternative
means to train more teachers. For that the then Institute of Education (IOE) initiated a new program called
Teacher Training through distance learning in 1976/77.This program was mainly to upgrade the qualifications
of under SLC teachers serving in primary schools and in-service training for primary school teachers of
remote areas.The then Institute of Education created Extension Division and developed a set of self learning
materials based on the curriculum. This scheme had two contact sessions in order to help the teachers
overcome their difficulties in understanding the materials. These contact sessions were organized during the
vacations in their teaching jobs. During the contact sessions, the tutors assess students ‘progress as a part of
formative evaluation’. The tutors provide feedback to the learners with guidance for their remaining works to
be completed within the stipulated time of academic session. This program was supported by UNICEF.The
program discontinued after Radio Teacher Training (RETT) program was implemented by by the Government
of Nepal with the help of USAID in 1978. Tribhuvan University, Faculty of Education has been running B.Ed
program through distance mode. Nine centres in TU constituent campuses were established for this purpose.
The students followed the same curriculum and examinations as the regular students of TU.The
percentage of pass rate of these students has been better than the average results of the regular students of
TU. In order to promote distance media education in Nepal, Radio Nepal, FM radios, Nepal Television and
other TV channels are playing major role. Private radio station and TV channels are recently established and
other media companies also have become active role in providing distance education.
The ten-month in-service training course for primary teachers constitutes four packages of 2.5 months
each. The second and third packages of the training are delivered in a distance mode through radio
broadcasting by the distance education centre and the first and the fourth packages in a face to face by
National Centre for Educational Development (NCED), through its nine Primary Teacher training Centres
(PTTCs).Besides, the trainees are supplied with self-learning materials in order to support the radio lessons.
The training is also followed by contact sessions every weekend, which are organized at the Resource
Centre for providing the trainees an opportunity an opportunity to interact with the resource persons to avoid
confusions encountered on the radio broadcasting and the self learning materials. Thus, the DEC and NCED
are two institutes under MOES responsible for in-service training to primary school teachers jointly.

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Conclusion

Distance education bridges the formal and non-formal sector. It is one of the most feasible modes of
instruction in recent years. The open school system is an alternative route to formal school schooling with
provision of school curriculum, external examination system and varying in learning materials in the form of
print, audio-visual cassettes, broadcast telecast, audio-visual conferencing etc.through resource materials,
face to face interactions and distance tutor. This mode of education is intended for all kinds of people for
many purpose like young and adults, literacy, vocational, technical and scientific. This mode is most potential
and dynamic for any country developed or developing nature. Due to advancement of technology, more
effective equipments and learning materials are coming up which will enhance the quality and efficiency of
distance learning.

References

Government of Nepal, Ministry of Education and Sports, Sano Thimi, Bhaktapur, Distance Education, 2065 B.S.
Government of Nepal, Ministry of Education and Sports,Sano Thimi,Kathmandu,Nepal, Education In Nepal 2003
Khaniya, Tirtha Raj, New Horizon in Education in Nepal, 2007
CERID, Teacher training and its implications in classroom practices’ comparative study of public and private primary schools, Cerid,
1998

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Legislator’s Jumbo Pay, Cost of Governance and the State of Education in Nigeria:
Issues and Contradictions

John Kalama

Department of Political Science,Bayelsa State College of Education,

Brass Island, Bayelsa State, Nigeria.

Charity E. Etebu

Department of Business Management,Bayelsa State College of Education,

Brass Island, Bayelsa State, Nigeria.

Charles A. Martha

Department of Geography,Bayelsa State College of Education,

Brass Island, Bayelsa State, Nigeria.

Sophia M. John

Department of Economics,Bayelsa State College of Education,

Brass Island, Bayelsa State, Nigeria.

Abstract The revelations made by Mallam Sanusi Lamido Sanusi, Governor of the Central Bank of Nigeria, concerning the
wages and allowances of federal legislators in Nigeria and the controversy it generated prompted this academic research. The
findings in this study however show that the salaries and allowances currently being enjoyed by federal legislators in Nigeria is a
breach of Section 70 of the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria which makes it clear that a member of the Senate
and House of Representative shall receive such salary and other allowances as the Revenue Mobilization Allocation and Fiscal
Commission may determine. Further investigations also reveal that spending 25 percent of Nigeria’s federal budget overhead
cost on the National Assembly alone has created income inequality which has widened the gape between the income of civil
servants and political office holders in the country. Further findings also show that excessive spending on recurrent expenditure
such as the huge legislators jumbo pay and servicing of domestic debts spent on over heads have contributed to the neglect of
the education sector and other critical sectors of the economy which has equally affected the cost of governance in Nigeria. The
systems political theory was applied while analyzing and explaining the subject-matter. In terms of methodology and scope,
descriptive analyses and secondary sources of data (textbooks, published articles and journals) were relied upon. Nevertheless,
to ensure equity and fairness in income allocation and distribution in Nigeria, we recommend that the federal government
through the Revenue, Mobilization, Allocation and Fiscal Commission (RMAFC) should moderate, harmonize and fix salaries in
line with due process and existing laws. In order to reduce the cost of governance in the country, budgetary allocations to the
education sector should also be increased in order to meet the manpower needs and infrastructural challenges facing the sector.

Keywords:Federal legislators, Education sector, Income, salaries and Allowances.

Introduction

The salaries and allowances of legislators at the federal level in Nigeria no doubt led to wide spread
condemnation, reactions and counter-reactions throughout the country. While some believe that the huge
allowances and salaries (Jumbo pay) is a disservice to the nation, majority of Nigerians argue that the jumbo
pay being enjoyed by federal legislators in Nigeria is having negative effect on the education sector and other
critical sectors of the economy. Thus, public reactions showing the consequences of unregulated salaries
and allowances on the economy forms the major thrust of this paper.

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Methodology and Scope

This section of the paper provides a description of the sources of data used and the applicable methodology.
Most of the data used for this study were curled from published scholarly works (textbooks, journals,
published reports and articles) and descriptive analysis. Emphasis was placed on the consequences of
federal legislator’s jumbo pay on the cost of governance, the education sector and the economy as a whole.

Theoretcal Framework

The systems political theory was applied in order to explain the impact of legislative actions on other critical
sectors of the economy (education, health, social welfare, etc). The theory deals with inter-relationship and
inter-dependence among institutions, groups and sub-systems operating within a particular system or
environment. Thus, the Nigerian State epitomizes what system scholars describe as input, output, feedback
and conversion box which is the regulatory mechanism. Input here refer to contributions and demands made
by groups, individuals and institutions (formal and informal). It is important to note that political actions and
policies usually attract actions and reactions which could be positive or negative depending on prevailing
circumstances and variables. It therefore imply that the controversy generated by the jumbo play enjoyed by
federal legislators in Nigeria, if not checked or regulated, could spark-off crisis in other sectors hence,
creating instability within Nigeria’s political system. It will be recalled that increase demands for better wages
and salaries by the Nigeria Union of Teachers (NUT), Academic Staff Union of Universities (ASUU) and other
unions in Nigeria is a fall out of the jumbo pay saga. Thus, affirming the fact that the systems theory involves
a dynamic process which produces negative or positive results depending on the input and output process.
Advocates of the systems theory further argue that with good government policies and programmes in
place through an effective input and output mechanism, instability and conflict within any system will be
checked, controlled and minimized. This theory is ideal and appropriate in this context because the
legislature is an important arm of government in Nigeria. Consequently any unchecked conflict arising from
the legislator’s jumbo pay could constitute a threat to other arms of government and other sectors of the
economy as well. Notable system scholars include David Easton, John Locke, Almond and Verba.

Public Perecption of Nigerian Legislator’s Jumbo Pay (Salaries And Allowances) Showingthe Issues
and Contradictions

In a newspaper report captioned “National Assembly Epitomizes Backwardness”-Sagay, published in The

Punch Newspaper of Monday, 20th December 2010, Prof. Itse Sagay noted that it cost about Two Hundred
and Ninety Million Naira (N290,000.00) annually to maintain each member of the National Assembly and
regretted that this is happening in a country where virtually every amenity does not work and where average
earning of 80 percent of the populace is below three hundred naira (N300.00) per day. Whereas the earning
of a Nigerian Senator per day is more than the yearly income of a doctor; it is more than the salary of 42
Army Generals or 48 Professors or 70 Commissioners of Police or more than twice the pay of the United
States President Barak Obama or nine times the salary of US Congressional Representative. Reacting
further, he expressed regret that while man in Africa has remained mentally, emotionally and intellectually
stunted at all levels, man in other parts of the world has been liberated from the animal feeding frenzy. The
outcome of the later is the development of science, technology, creation of resources and the match forward
of civilization. According to him “That is why others produce and Africans everywhere consume. The man in
Nigeria is the typical African man who has remained at the animal level, absolutely refusing to grow or
develop. This is what the national Assembly is daily epitomizing as all their legislation is geared towards more
feeding for themselves either in terms of money, power or influence. Not a thought is spared for any legacy.

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The idea of adding value to the society into which they were born never occurs to them”, he concluded.
The Civil Liberty organization (CLO) through its Executive Director, Ibuchukwu Ezike, in a report published in
The Punch Newspaper of 12th December, 2010, stated “Law making process in Nigeria and indeed in most
countries of the world should be on part time basis. This will reduce unnecessary cost and discourage
parasitic dependence, corruption and waste of public funds, especially as our law makers have failed to use
their oversight roles to curb corruption and executive lawlessness”, he noted. In a related development, the
President-General, Trade Union Congress of Nigeria (TUC), Mr. Peter Esele, in a report captioned
“Legislators’ pay should reflect salaries, allowance of Nigerian workers”-Esele published in The Punch
Newspaper of Wednesday the 12th January, 2011, noted that the jumbo pay for legislators and other political
office holders in Nigeria is very regrettable, especially when you compare their pay with the state of the
Nigerian economy, living standards of those they represent, life expectancy in Nigeria, the perceptual income
and the salaries paid to Nigerian workers, Nigerian professors etc. He added that it is more unfortunate when
compared with the United State President, Barak Obama’s salary of $400,000 per annum. According to him,
Nigerian Senator collects forty million naira (40,000.000.00) per quarter while each member of the House of
Representative receives about $1.2 million dollars per annum”. Similarly, former members of the National
Assembly and prominent civil rights activists in the country have described the jumbo pay of Nigerian law
makers as a conspiracy between the federal executive and the legislature. In a report captioned “jumbo pay:
executive, legislature taking Nigerians for a ride-Ex-Senators, others” published in Saturday Punch of 25th
December 2010, former members of the Senate Dr. Femi Okurounmu, and Chief Olabiyi Durojaiye
contended that the take-home pay of the federal law makers had become an impediment to the growth of the
nation. Okurounmu, a senator between 1999 and 2003 under the Umbrella of the Alliance for Democracy
(AD), described the remunerations of the federal legislators as not only sacrilegious, but also outrageous
while Durojaiye also described the “extra-ordinarily high pay of the law makers as portraying the nation in bad
light. According to them, a senator earns about fifteen million naira every month while a member of the
House of Representatives earns about ten million naira a month.

Analysis Showing the Impact of Federal Legislators Salaries and Allowances on the Economy

This section of the paper relied on the views and positions of eminent Nigerians and scholars as expressed in
newspapers, journals and other government bulletins/publications. While commenting on the legality and
constitutionality of the federal legislators salaries and allowances, renown Lagos lawyer and activist stated
unequivocally that the jumbo pay currently being enjoyed by federal legislators in Nigeria is a breach of
Section 70 of the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria which allows the Revenue Mobilization,
Allocation and Fiscal Commission to fix and determine the salaries and allowances of public servants
including political office holders in Nigeria. In a newspaper report captioned “law makers activities are
informed by selfish interest”, Falana, published in The Punch Newspaper of Thursday, 30th December, 2010,
Femi Falana stated, “I have challenged the law maker’s Jumbo pay in court. I want the court to declare that
the National Assembly has no powers to fix salaries while all excesses collected by the law makers so far,
should be forfeited to the state, he noted. In his contribution, Mallam Sanusi Lamido Sanusi state clearly that
Nigeria as a country cannot continue to spend its revenue on re-current expenditure especially when the
nation is experiencing debt crisis. According to him increasing overheads leads to pressure on inflation and
we at the CBN have a challenge of stabilizing the system, especially the interest rates, he added. Reacting
further in a news report captioned “legislators’ jumbo pay: Sanusi refuses to back down. Tells House of
Representatives, my figure is right, published in The Punch Newspaper of 8th December, 2010, the dynamic
and fearless C.B.N governor maintained his earlier position when he said “I believe it is extremely important
for the central Bank of Nigeria to express its opinion which should not be taken as a insult or attack. I was
speaking about the growth prospect of the Nigeria economy. I spoke about the structure of government
finance. More and more of our revenue is being spent on overheads which also lead to pressure on inflation,”

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he concluded. Specifically, the central bank governor recalled that in 2009, about 20 percent of the national
revenue was used to service domestic debts spent on overheads, in 2010, he disclosed that the percentage
jumped to 26 percent, an indication that it would rise again in 2011, he warned. It will also be recalled that
the details of the federal legislators salaries and allowance was first made public by former president
Olusegun Obasanjo and Mallam Sanusi Lamido Sanusi, governor, Central Bank of Nigeria.
From the foregoing analysis, it is obvious that the federal government is spending heavily on re-current
expenditure (salaries and allowances of legislators and political appointees) at the expense of capital projects
and human capital development which actually propels growth and development of the economy. The legal
battle between Mr. Femi Falana and the federal government over the legality of the federal legislator’s
salaries and allowances coupled with the increased demands for salaries by workers in other sectors of the
economy confirms the fact the salaries and allowances of federal legislators in Nigeria is creating negative
effect on the economy especially as it concerns the morale of workers in the education sector. Also affirming
this fact, Senator Olabiyi Durojaiye, a member of the National Assembly from 1999 to 2003, stated that
teachers are neglected and the police are not well paid whereas, these two sectors are crucial in the
development of any country. In a newspaper report captioned “Jumbo Pay: Legislators Should not Earn More
than Teachers, Police, published in The Punch Newspaper of Monday, 21st of February, 2011, the former
senator categorically stated “I believe that if we want to have a very stable society, these two sectors
(education and security) must be catered for. The legislator should not be paid more than these people. The
future of the next generation rests on the teachers, and they are unhappy. They are ill-equipped and ill-
educated. The condition of service is not conducive for them. Our teachers prepared us, coupled with the
home training we received. The police are ill-treated and do not have more than two uniforms. For them,
there is no money to buy boots. With these, how will they be able to nip in the bud the issue of kidnapping in
Nigeria? If we can organize a national conference, we will achieve a lot,” he concluded.

Conclusion

Available records show that industrial unrest arising from income inequality among workers and political
office holders within particular political system could spark-off internal uprising which could destabilize the
entire political system including the economy. Thus, there is need for the federal government and its
agencies to ensure fairness, equity and justice in the process of fixing and allocating salaries at all levels in
order to ensure total and equal development in all the sectors including education. The moderation and
regulation of salaries and allowances of all categories of officials and workers in the country will go a long
way in checking compliance in the management and control of public finances (resources).

Recommendations

Cases of unregulated salaries, budget deficits and industrial unrest which are fast becoming common feature
of Nigeria’s political system can be addressed if the following recommendations are strictly adhered to:
1. Compulsory training and re-training programmes for leaders and intending leaders in Nigeria through
periodic seminars and workshops will go a long way in changing the beliefs and attitude of Nigerians.
According to His Lordship Rt. Rev. Prof. Emmanuel Iheagwam, Bishop of Egbu (Anglican Communion) in an
interview, published in The Source Magazine of 3rd December, 2007, stated that many Nigerians that hold
political leadership positions have not had any leadership training and are neither patient nor ready to learn
or serve under more experienced leaders for a while. While expressing the importance of training and
experience as pre-requisites for good governance he noted with regret that “once one is conferred with a
quack honorary doctoral degree from any of the refuse dumps in and around Owerri Town or even abroad,
one automatically feels qualified to become a leader. Political leadership in Nigeria has not only become an
all-comers business but also a cash and carry affair,” he lamented.

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2. Regulatory agencies and authorities in Nigeria should ensure that all salaries and allowances of civil
servants, public servants including political office holders conform to due process, constitutional provisions
and existing financial rules and regulations. This will no doubt reduce friction and instability within the entire
system.
3. The judiciary and anti-corruption agencies in Nigeria should ensure that people including federal legislators
who earn unapproved salaries and allowances are investigated and prosecuted without further delay.
4. Efforts should also be made to ensure fiscal discipline through effective public policy formulation and
implementation aimed at reducing re-current expenditure and budget deficits.

References

Adamolekun, L. (1983) Public Administration: A Nigerian and Comparative Perspective London: Longmans Group LTD.
Collins, S.P. (1980) Administration for Development in Nigeria London: African Educational Press.
Habibu, A.S. (1994) Public Policy Analysis: Theoretical and Applied Approaches Okene: Desmond Tutu Publishers, Kogi State.
Kalama, T.J. (2008) Public Policy Formulation and Implementation in Nigeria: Problems and Prospects Port-Harcourt: Pearl Publishers.
“Jumbo pay: Executive, Legislature Taking Nigerians for a ride-Ex Senators, others”, in The Punch Newspaper Volume 683, No.1513 of
Saturday, 25th December, 2010.
“Law makers activities are informed by selfish interest-Falana”, in The Punch Newspaper Volume 17, No. 20,786 of Thursday, 30th
December, 2010.
“Productive workers should earn more, not indolent law makers”, in The Punch Newspapers Volume 17, No.789 of 4th January, 2011.
“National Assembly epitomizes backwardness-Sagay” in The Punch Newspaper Volume 17, No. 26,778 of-Monday, 20th December,
2010.
“Jumbo pay: Legislators should not earn more than teachers, police”, in the Punch Newspapers Volume 17, No. 20, 823 of Monday, 21st
February, 2011.

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Phychological Contract and Job Outcomes: Mediating Role of Affective Commitment

Farooq Ahmad Jam

Inam Ul Haq

Faculty of Management Studies, University of Central Punjab Lahore, Pakistan

Tasneem Fatima

Faculty of Business Administration, Air University Islamabad Pakistan

Abstract In this cross sectional field survey we examined the relationship between psychological contracts, affective
commitment and job outcomes. The data was collected fro m 302 employees of several organizations in a large city of Pakistan.
The results revealed that affective commitment fully mediated between relational contracts and job satisfaction and affective
commitment mediated the relationship between relational contracts and turnover intention
Keywords: Psychological Contracts, Affective Commitment, Job Outcomes

Introduction

Researchers have carried out ample research on two important constructs in organizational behavior
literature psychological contracts and affective commitment (Allen & Meyer, 1996; Raja, Johns & Ntalianis,
2004, Robinson & Rousseau, 1994). We investigated the linkage of 02 hot topics of current OB research with
specific focus on establishment of key links through which the psychological contracts and outcome
relationship exists. As it is evident from research that processes through which job behaviors are determined
are much more important than job outcomes itself (Colquitt, Greenberg, & Zapata-Phelan, 2005). Firstly, this
study is aimed to investigate the relationship between psycho logical contracts and job outcomes (job
satisfaction & intension to quit).Secondly, exploration of the mediating process of affective commitment in
relationship between psychological contract and outcomes.
“Psychological contract is an exchange relationship between employee and employer “(Schein, 1978). It
is about the individual’s beliefs, potential opportunities and mutual commitment in exchange relationships
(Rousseau, 1989). “Psychological contract are of two types, relational contract and transactional contract
(Morrison & Robinson 1997; Rousseau, 1995).” “ Relational contracts are associated with emotional
interactional dimensions, with non- financial, socio emotional, intrinsic focus between employees and
employers (Rousseau, 1995).”
“Transactional contract explain the economic exchange relations with extrinsic, financial and narrow
focus. The construct of psychological contract derived form social exchange theory (Blau, 1964; Organ,
1988).”
Social exchange relationships involve economic as well as exchange of socio-emotional benefits
(Cropanzano, Rupp, & Byrne 2003). Affective commitment can be defined as emotional binding and
employees’ desire to be identified and affiliated with organization. It comprises of magnified emotions of
attachment, belongingness and constancy (Meyer & Allen 1993). As both of these constructs are related to
cognitive and emotional attachment of employees with the organization due to some extrinsic and intrinsic
factors. All those positive factors which are the basis for formation of psychological contract (economic and
socio emotional) are considered the antecedents for higher levels of affective commitment. Exchange of
economic as well as socio emotional benefits from employer to employee causes the increased level of
affective commitment, which works as a mechanism through which individuals with certain types of contracts

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are linked to job outcomes. Social exchange theory provides strong logical support in establishment of this
mediation mechanism o f affective commitment in this study.

Psychological Contracts and Job Outcomes

“Psychological contract is defined as a person’s perception and expectations about the shared obligation in
an employment exchange relationship (Rousseau, 1989)”. Psychological contract is some thing that is
beyond or more than expectation. It is an implicit unwritten and non verbal expectation of employees and
employers (Schein, 1978). “Psycho logical contract is a relationship of the mutual obligation between
employee and employer (Rousseau, 1989)”. “Each individual hold his / her different perception of mutual
obligation under the contract (Robinson, Kraatz & Rousseau 1994)”.
“Psychological contract is belief or perception and promise that rules and regulations accepted by
employees and employer (Robinson & Rousseau 1994)”. MacNeil’s (1985) explained two major types of
contracts; Transactional contract and the relational contract.
“Transactional contracts are economically based and short-term oriented (Morrison & Robinson, 1997;
Raja at al., 2004; Rousseau, 1990).” Rousseau (1990) defined those having their contract as transactional
characterized as have “high competitive wage rates and absence of organizational commitment” (p. 391)
generally organizations temporarily hire individuals for specific purpose in order to meet current
requirements.
The relational contract includes long term and extensive obligations, based on exchange of socio -
emotional components such as loyalty, commitment and trust (Raja et al., 2004; Robinson, Kraatz &
Rousseau 1994; Rousseau, 1990; Rousseau & McLean Parks, 1993).
“Generally, in relational contract firm hire individuals and train them in order to meet future needs (Miles &
Snow, 1980)”. “Rousseau (1990) argues that in relational psycho logical contract employees want to make a
long-term relationship with their employers or organization.
” The employees’ relation with the firm changes with the phases of time. Job satisfaction can be defined
as “a positive or negative evaluative judgment of one’s job or job situation” “(Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996, p.
2). Job satisfaction is said to be a function of the perceived relationship between what one wants from one’s
job and what one perceives it as offering (Locke, 1969). Following this logic, a discrepancy between
promised and received inducements is likely to lead to feelings of dissatisfaction.”
Hoppock’s (1935) found a strong correlation between workers’ emotional adjustment and their levels of
job satisfaction. “Lock (1976) found that individuals react affectively when they get outcomes inconsistent
with their expectations. These affective reactions can be positive when outcomes encountered are valued
and pleasant. Consistent with this argument it is likely that job satisfaction will be more positive when it is felt
that received outcomes are consistent with an individual’s expectation”. Relational contract based on
exchange of socio - emotional components such as loyalty, commitment and trust, therefore employees in
relational contract are generally more satisfied (Raja et al., 2004; Robinson, Kraatz & Rousseau 1994;
Rousseau, 1990; Rousseau & McLean Parks, 1993). Relational contract was positively related to job
satisfaction and transactional contract was negatively related to job satisfaction (Millward & Hopkin 1998;
Raja et al., 2004). Keeping in view this litrary support, we propose the following hypothesis.

Hypothesis 1a: Relational contract will be positively related to Job satisfaction.

Hypothesis 1b: Transactional contract will be negatively related to job satisfaction.

Employee may leave the organization voluntarily or involuntarily due to certain reasons.
Turnover intention is define as employee’s decision to leave the organization (Mobley 1977).Voluntarily
turnover may be due to unfavorable work environment, better career objectives and attractive financial
sources. Organization may want to terminate the employee due to incompatibilities, or retire the person due

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to old age or death is also included in involuntary turnover (Mobley, 1977). The relational contract includes
long term obligations, based on socio-emotional components such as loyalty, commitment and trust
(Robinson, Kraatz & Rousseau 1994). Literature support that when employees exhibit relational contract,
they have less or no turnover intention, on the other hand the transactional nature of contract are in which
employees exhibit high turnover intention (Morrison & Robinson, 1997; Raja at al., 2004; Rousseau, 1990).
Keeping of above support in view this research purposed that

Hypothesis 2a: Relational contract will be negatively related to intention to leave.

Hypothesis 2b: Transactional contract will be positively related to intention to leave.

Affective Commitment and Job Outcomes

The major acceleration in affective commitment literature was the contribution of Allen and Mayer (1990) they
defined affective commitment as Individuals’ emotional connection, feeling of ownership and inner desire to
be identified with organization. There are four facets of affective commitment: individuals’ personal attributes,
structural factors, job related features and tenure (Mowday, Porters & Steers 1982). Personal characteristics
include demographic variables such as age, sex, education and tenure are linked to commitment (Angle &
Perry, 1981). Meta analysis by Meyer, Stanley, Herscovitch, and Topolnytsky (2002) proves that affective
commitment is negatively correlated with turnover and job satisfaction.
Allen and Meyer (1996) reported several studies with strong positive correlation between affective
commitment and job satisfaction. The correlation values ranged from (r = 0.50 to r = 0.64, p > 0.05) for
reported fro m eight different studies (p, 262). The strong positive relationship has been found in several
studies between affective commitment and job satisfaction (Jenkins, 1993; Konovsky & Cropanzano, 1991;
Lee, 1992; Lynn, 1992; Morrison, 1994, Withey, 1988).
Literature provides considerable empirical evidence on the association between affective commitment
and turnover intention (Huselid & Day 1991; Lverson & Buttigieg, 1999; Mowday et al., 1982). The Meta
analysis by Griffeth, Hom & Gaertner, (2000) and Mayer et al., (2002) proves that affective commitment is
negatively correlated with employees turn over intention. Employees with affective commitment are more to
have intentions to remain with the organization (Meyer, et al., 1993). Affective commitment has developed
strong research background with turnover intention (Mowday, Porters & Steers, 1982; Griffeth et al., 2000).
Therefore current study purpose that

Hypothesis 3a: Affective commitment will be positively related to job satisfaction.

Hypothesis 3b: Affective commitment will be negatively related to turnover intention.

Psychological Contract and Affective Commitment

“Affective commitment related to emotional attachment with the organization (Allen & Mayer, 1990).” Mayer
and Allen (1991) suggest that an influenced by the extent to which the individuals’ expectations about the
organization are coordinated by their actual experiences. “This clearly links with the perceived reciprocal
obligations of the psychological contract (Robinson et al., 1994). Previous literature has established the
relationship between psychological contracts and organizational commitment ( Millward & Hopkins, 1998;
Raja et al., 2004; Rousseau, 1990).”
Relational contract based on socio emotional components like commitment and trust (Robinson et
al.,1994). Relational contract has positive significant association with organizational commitment (Millward &
Hopkin 1998; Raja et al., 2004).
“Transactional contracts are economically based and short-term oriented (Morrison & Robinson, 1997).
Transactional contract are monetary in nature with short term time orientation (Raja et al., 2004; Rousseau,

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1990)”. “Rousseau (1990) argues that those with transactional psychological contracts are likely to have high
competitive compensation with low organizational commitment”. So transactional contract is negatively
related to the organizational commitment (Millward & Hopkin, 1998; Raja et al., 2004). On the basis of this
literature support, we propose the following hypothesis.

Hypothesis 4a: Relational contract will be positively related to Affective Commitment.

Hypothesis 4b: Transactional contract will be negatively related to Affective Commitment.

Affective Commitment as Mediator

“Social exchange theory suggests that one’s relationship with an employer provides a proximal cause for
work attitude and turnover intentions (Cropanzano et al., 2003).” Psychological contracts and affective
commitment both are related to cognitive and emotional attachment of employees with the organization.
According to social exchange theory (economic and socio emotional) exchanges form so me psychological
link of employees with organization. On the other hand these exchanges are considered to be the
antecedents for higher levels of affective commitment.
Exchange of economic as well as socio emotional benefits from employer to employee causes the
increased level o f commitment for relational contract employee and decreased level of affective commitment
for transactional employee. This phenomena based on social exchange theory provides strong logical
support in establishment of this mediation mechanism of affective commitment in this study.
The Attitude- Behavior Theory (Fishbein & Ajzen's, 1975) also supports this notion of affective
commitment mediation mechanism between psycho logical contract and outcomes. This theory suggests that
job attitude originated from individuals' beliefs about the different aspects of the environment. Affective
commitment can be considered as an attitudinal reaction which resulted from employment experiences and
beliefs about the work environment (Rousseau, 1995). A belief that in case o f relational contract should
positively affect the attitude (commitment) towards the organization and for transactional contract should
negatively affect commitment towards the organization. Thus we propose that affective commitment is the
mechanism through which individuals outcomes are leading towards individuals’ psychological contracts.
We therefore suggest hypothesis about the mediation of affective commitment between psychological
contracts and outcomes.

Hypothesis 5a: Affective commitment mediate the relationship between relational contract and job
satisfaction.
Hypothesis 5b: Affective commitment mediate the relationship between transactional contract and
job satisfaction.
Hypothesis 6a: Affective commitment mediate the relationship between relational contracts and
turnover intention.
Hypothesis 6a: Affective commitment mediate the relationship between transactional contracts and
turnover intention.

Research Methodology
Sample and Procedures

“Our survey consists of employees of 8 different organizations from private and public sector of Pakistan.
Two of the organizations were top telecom companies and five were well-established universities. One of the
organizations is well known multinational company.”
In a brief cover letter we explained the research objective and scope of the study along with guarantee of
rigid confidentiality. In total 400 questionnaires were circulated in the above mentioned organizations.

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Overall, 331 filled questionnaires were returned. After discarding unusable questionnaires, we left with 302
useable responses resulting in effective response rate of 76 %.Respondents include the individuals working
in all management levels. The qualification of respondents ranged from high school to post graduate and 82
% of the sample consisted of graduate employees.
The mean age of the respondents is 31.71 years with (S.D = 8.26) and 69 % of the respondents
were male, which indicates positive growth of female participation in different organizations of Pakistan as
compared to reported 6% female participation by (Raja et al., 2004).

Measures

All measures were collected through self reported instrument in which participants responded on 5 or 7 point
likert scales. Reported values above the mean considered as higher level of constructs in the
questionnaire. As English is the medium of instruction in Pakistani education institutions. Few other studies
are conducted in English in Pakistani context like (Butt, Choi & Jaeger, 2005; Raja et al., 2004). This
raised our confidence in not using translated scales, to avoid translation and back translation issues.

Job Satisfaction

Job satisfactions were measured using hoppock’s (1935) 04 items scale.. A sample item is: “how much of
the time you feel satisfied with your job”. Cronbach’s alpha of this scale is (.86).

Affective Commitment

“Affective commitment was measured using Meyer and Allen's (1990) eight-item scale. Responses were
made on a five-point scale ranging from 1= ‘strongly disagree’ to 5 = ‘strongly agree’. A sample item is” “I
would be very happy to spend the rest of my career in this organization”. The Cornbach’s alpha of this scale
in current data found (.85).

Psychological Contract

“20 items Psychological Contract Inventory (PCI) by Rousseau (2000) was used to measure psychological
contracts.” Relational and Transactional contracts were measured using 10 items for each contract type.
Responses were made on 5–point likert sacle ranging form 1= ‘strongly disagree’ to 5= ‘strongly agree’. The
sample item for relational contract was, “Is responsive to employee concerns and well-being “and for
transactional contract it was, “pay me only specific duties I perform”. The alpha reliabilities for relational
contract found (.89) and for transactional contract it was found (.89).

Turnover Intention

Turnover intention was measured using 03 items scale by Cammann, fichman, Jenkins and klesh (1982).
Responses were made on 5–point likert scale and the sample item included was, “I often think about leaving
the organization”. Cornbach alpha for this measure was found (.86).

Control Variable.

The results of One-way ANOVA showed significant differences in dependent and mediator variables with
three demographic factors; Organization type, designation and field of specialization. All other demographic
factors like age, gender and tenure revealed highly insignificant impact on mediator and job outcomes.

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Therefore, only three variables; organization type, designation and field of specialization were entered into
the equation as control variable, when we performed Multiple Regression in this study.

Results

Descriptive Statistics and Correlations

In the table 1 of this study mean and correlations with Alpha reliabilities are reported in bold parenthesis in
front of each variable. The descriptive analysis results revealed mean value for affective commitment 2.99
(S.D = 1.11) and the mean value for outcomes were 4.47 (S.D = 1.25) for job satisfaction and 3.17 (S.D =
0.77) for intention to leave.
Affective commitment of the employees and the level of job satisfaction demonstrated strong positive
relationship (r = 0.71, p< .001) consistent with (r = 0.67, p < .01) reported by Raja et al. (2004). The
association of commitment and intention to quit was (r = - 0.73 p < .001) which is consistent with the
reported correlation values (r = - 0.66, p < .001) by Raja et al. (2004). The mean of the relational contract
found 3.12 (S.D = 0.75) and for transactional contract 3.15 (S.D = 0.83). The correlation value between
psychological contracts and turnover intention found (r = - 0.56, p < .001) for relational and (r = 0.61, p <
.001) for transactional contract. We found strong significant support for all main effect hypothesis from
correlation matrix analysis reported in table 1.

Table 1 Mean, Standard Deviation, Correlation and Reliabilities

Variables Mean S.D 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1.Age 31.72 8.27

2.OrgName 4.37 2.58 .17
.55 - -
3.Designation 2.68 .57 .04
2.49
4.Education 3.56 .36 .07 -.50

5.Specialization 3.02 .79 .31 .40 -.15 .26

6.Transactional - - -
Contract 3.15 .83 .15 .12 .22 -.1 .07 (.89)
7.Relational - -
Contract 3.12 .75 .05 .09 -.09 0 .08 -.49 (.89)
8. Affective -
Commitment 2.99 1.11 .12 0 -.19 .08 .08 -.61 .57 (.85)
9. Turnover - - - -
Intention 3.17 .77 .14 .08 .18 .07 .08 .61 -.56 -.73 (.86)
10.Job
Satisfaction 4.47 1.25 .20 .05 -.24 .11 .04 -.62 .48 .71 -.74 (.86)

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Regression Analysis

Table 2 show results of hierarchical regression analysis. In first step of regression analysis we entered
organization types, specialization, and designation as control variables in the equation. In the second step we
regressed satisfaction of employees and intent to quit on psycho logical contract types.

Psychological Contract and Job Outcomes

Hypothesis 1(a) predicts that relational contract will be positively related to job satisfaction and hypothesis
1(b) proposes the negative relationship between transactional contract and job satisfaction. We regressed
job satisfaction on both of these contract types and results revealed that job satisfaction (ß = .47, p <
.001) was positively related to relational contract and negatively related (ß = -.60, p < .001) to transactional
contract.
These strongly significant empirical support confirmed our first main effect hypothesis which was found
consistent with previous literature on psychological contract and job satisfaction.
Hypothesis 2(a) proposed negative relationship between relational contract and turnover intention. The
results provided strong empirical support of our hypothesis. Turnover intention (ß = -.56, p < .001) found
negatively related to relational contract and (ß = .59, p < .001) was related positively with transactional
contract.

Affective Commitment and Job Outcomes

Hypotheses 3(a) predict positive relationship between affective commitment and job satisfaction and
3(b) predicts negative relationship between affective commitment and intent to quit. To test these
relationships both of the outcomes were regressed on affective commitment. Regression results significantly
supported our hypotheses, affective commitment found (ß = .69, p < .001) positively related to job
satisfaction and (ß = -.73, p < .001) negatively related to intention to quit. These highly significant
results provided strong support of our hypotheses 3(a) and 3(b).

Psychological Contracts and Affective Commitment

Hypothesis 4(a) proposed the positive relationship between relational contract and affective commitment and
hypothesis 4(b) proposed the negative relationship between transactional contract and affective commitment.
To test these predicted relationships affective commitment was regressed on both of psychological contract
types. The results provided strong empirical evidence in support of our hypotheses 4(a) and 4(b).
For mediation analysis, in step 1, we entered control variables. In second step, the mediator affective
commitment was entered. In the third step, psychological contract was entered in equation and was
regressed on job satisfaction and turnover intention.

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Table 2
Affective Job Intention
Commitment Satisfaction To Quit
Predictors β R² ∆R² β R² ∆R² β R² ∆R²
Model 1:
Main effects
Contract
Types
Step 1
Control
Variables .05 .06 .04
Step 2
Transactional
Contract -.6*** .39 .34*** -.6*** .40 .34*** .59*** .37 .33***
Relational -
Contract .55*** .35 .30*** .47*** .27 .21*** .56*** .34 .3***
Model 2:

Affective
Commitment
Step 1
Control
variables .06 .04
Step 2
Affective -
commitment .69*** .52 .46*** .73*** .55 .51***

“N= 302 Organizational Types, Specialization and Designation was used as control Variable
***p< .001, **p< .001, *p< .05”

Mediation Analysis

“We predicted that affective commitment mediates the relationship between contract types and outcomes (job
satisfaction and turnover intention). According to Baron and Kenny (1986) mediation can be established with
three regression tests”. First contract types (independent variable) should be related to affective commitment
(mediator). Second, contract types and mediator (affective commitment) should be related to both outcomes.
Third when both contract type (independent variables) and affective commitment (mediator) are concurrently
incorporated in regression equation, then the relationship between contract types (independent variables)
and the outcomes should be considerably weaker than the main effects of predictor and criterion variables.
For mediation analysis, in step 1, we entered control variables. In second step, the mediator affective
commitment was entered. In the third step, psychological contract was entered in equation and was
regressed on satisfaction with intention to quit.
We regressed job satisfaction, affective commitment and relational contract together as per conditions
prescribed by Barron and Kenny (1986). As shown in table 3, results of multiple regression revealed
significant reduction in variances (from ß =.47*** to .05 n.s and ∆R² = .21, to ∆R² = .05). These result

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confirmed full mediation condition prescribed by Barron and Kenny (1986) providing support of our
hypothesis 5(a).
We regressed job satisfaction, affective commitment and transactional contract together as per conditions
prescribed by Barron and Kenny (1986). As shown in table 3, results of multiple regression revealed no
significant reduction in variances (from ß =-.60*** to -.55**).These result unable to fulfill mediation condition
prescribed by Barron and Kenny (1986) providing no support and reject our hypothesis 5 (b).
Hypothesis 6 (a) states that affective commitment mediate the relationship between relational
contract and turnover intention. To test the mediating effect of affective commitment, we regressed turnover
intention, affective commitment, and relation contract together. Results in table 3 shows significant drop
in variances (from ß =-.56*** to -.17 n.s and ∆R² = .33, to ∆R² = .05). These result confirmed full mediation
condition prescribed by Barron and Kenny (1986) providing support of our hypothesis 6 (a).
Hypothesis 6 (b) states that affective commitment mediate the relationship between transactional
contract and turnover intention. To test the mediating effect of affective commitment, we regressed turnover
intention, affective commitment, and transactional contract together. Results in table 3 shows no significant
drop in variances (from ß =-.59*** to .57***). These result unable to fulfill mediation condition prescribed by
Barron and Kenny (1986) providing no support and reject the hypothesis 6 (b)

TABLE 3
  Job Satisfaction Intention To Quit
Predictors β R² ∆R² β R² ∆R²
Model 1
Main Effects
Step 1
Control
Variables .05 .04
Step 2
Transactional
Contract -.6*** .4 .34*** .59*** .37 0.33***
Relational
Contract .47*** .35 .21*** -.56*** .34 0.33***
Model 2
Mediation of
Affective
Commitment
Step 1
Control
Variables .6 .04
Step 2
Affective
Commitment .51 .46 -.55 .52
Step 3
Transaction
Contract -.55** .26 .25** .57*** .33 .22***
Relational
Contract .05 .57 .05 -.17 .61 .05

N= 302 Organizational Types, Specialization and Designation was used as control Variable
***p< .001, **p< .001, *p< .05

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Discussion

The purpose of this research was to investigate the motivational and emotion antecedents of job satisfaction
and turnover intention. In doing this, we endeavor to relate the various construct of organizational behavior
such as psychological contract, affective commitment satisfaction on the job and intention to quit.
Overall, our finding/results give strong support for all hypotheses. We found that psychological contract
(relational and transactional) significantly related to job outcomes (Hypotheses 1,1a,2,2a).Psychological
contract is related to job outcome such as job satisfaction and turnover intention. A Meta analysis Zhao et al.,
(2007) supports the relationship of psychological contract with job outcomes such as job satisfaction turnover
intention and citizenship behavior. We also found that psychological contract (relational and transactional
contract) is significant linked with commitment (Hypothesis 4,4a) and affective commitment is significantly
related to job satisfaction and turnover intention(Hypothesis 3,3b).The contribution of this research is that
affective commitment mediates the relationship between psychological relational contract and job
outcomes(Hypothesis 5a, 6a). These finding demonstrate that when promise build, the employees in
workplace feel emotional attachment with the organizations which increase job satisfaction and decrease
their turnover intention.

Limitation of Study

This research has several limitations. First, this research in cross sectional in nature, we believe that
longitudinal study would better explain these relationships. Second, all findings were based on self reported,
while previous studies also used self reported measure (1996; Morrison & Robinson, 1997; Robinson &
Morrison, 2000) so there is a possibility common method error.

Practical Implementation & Future Research

The results of our study have practical implication for managers and employees, our finding suggest that
mangers should focus on employee’s satisfaction, and it would be possible if employees feel emotional
attachment with the organization, further, managers and employees should build and fulfill psychological
contracts that’s leads to affective commitment which increase employees satisfaction and reduce turnover
intention.
Our research based on contract- commitment aftermath. This model should be tested with other
outcomes such as organizational citizenship behavior, job performance, creative performance and workplace
deviance. Furthermore possible moderating variable regarding contracts-commitment and commitment-
outcome should be studied in future research. Cross sectional and longitudinal research design with more
outcomes should empirically tested in different cultures.

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Teacher Capacity Building and Classroom Assessment for Sustainable Student Learning

Matthew B.W. Gimba

School of Business Education,

Federal College of Education (Technical),Omoku, Rivers State, Nigeria

Abstract Education is a social institution and is subject to change in response to social dynamics. Because the teacher can
provide the much needed quality control devices through student assessment, he/she can be seen as the manager, motivator or
at best, the managing director and chief executive officer of the educational system. However, the Nigerian teacher is
incapacitated in many areas due to the nature of environment he/she operates. The most meaningful information for improving
instruction and providing clear and useful feedback to learners is collected daily in the classroom through classroom assessment
of the learners. There is a direct relationship between appropriate classroom assessment techniques and higher student
achievement, to the extent that when practiced effectively, can improved student learning. The academic imperative is for
teachers to renovate their professional competence and capacity to be able to respond to the dynamics of classroom
assessment. This paper therefore, discussed the status of Nigerian teacher and learning today, areas of capacity building for
teachers to be able to respond to challenges of classroom assessment, the relationship between classroom assessment and
improved student learning. It recommended among others, the training and retraining of teachers on newer methods/techniques
of classroom assessment and teachers sharing ideas with peers through teacher moderation (collective assessment of student
work).

Introduction

Education, whether at the basic, secondary or tertiary level, as a social institution is subject to change in
response to social dynamics. Curricular changes demand for changes in approaches and methods of
teaching as well as the techniques of student assessment. The Federal Government of Nigeria (FGN)
(2004:8) posits, “Any fundamental change in the intellectual and social outlook of any society has to be
preceded by an educational revolution”. Education exhibits “permanent as well as constant changing
attributes that try to adapt to new demands and circumstances (Okeke, 2004:3). One of these new demands
is building of teacher capacity in classroom assessment.
In Nigeria today, we hear many remarks about the teacher and the teaching profession. We read and
people inform us that:
 The standard of education among our learners at all levels of education in Nigeria has fallen;
 Graduates of tertiary institutions are of low quality;
 Those who can, do; those who cannot, teach; those who cannot teach, teach;
 Examination processes have been bastardized;
 Teachers do not objectively assess students;
 Very fascinating question still: Do parents and guardians know who is teaching their children, what
they teach, how they teach and how the children are assessed?
The implications of all these statements are critical to the development of Nigeria as a nation. They point to
the fact that Nigeria has a defective educational system and the sector worse hit is the basic education level.
FGN (2004), emphasizing on the primacy of basic education states that the rest of education system is built
upon it and it is the key to the success or failure of the whole system. It proceeds to give the goals of primary
education as follows:
a) To inculcate permanent literacy and numeracy, and ability to communicate effectively;
b) Lay sound basis for scientific and reflective thinking;
c) Give citizenship education as a basis for effective participation in and contribution to the life of the
society;

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d) Mould the character and develop sound attitudes and morals in the child;
e) Develop in the child the ability to adapt to his changing environment;
f) Give the child the opportunities for developing manipulative skills that will enable him to function
effectively in the society within the limits of his capacity; and
g) Provide the child with basic tools for future educational advancement, including preparation for trades
and crafts of the locality.
These goals will form the basis of basic education in all the states of the federation. It further states that basic
education shall be tuition free, universal and compulsory and gives its curriculum as:
1. Language:
a) Languages of the environment.
b) English.
c) French.
2. Mathematics.
3. Science.
4. Physical and Health Education.
5. Religious Knowledge.
6. Agriculture/Home Economics.
7. Social Studies and Citizenship Education.
8. Cultural and Creative Arts (Drawing, Handicraft, Music and Cultural Activities).

It goes further to prescribe educational services to be provided to include:

i. School Library.
ii. Basic Health Scheme.
iii. Counseling.
iv. Educational Resource Centre.
v. Specialist Teachers of Particular subjects such as Mathematics, Science, Physical Education,
Language Arts (in relation to English and Nigerian Languages), Music, Fine Arts and Home Economics.
The instrument through which this curriculum is to be executed or implemented is the teacher. The Nigerian
teacher plays significant responsibilities and roles in the development of a functional and relevant educational
system. The quality of the teacher and his inputs into the development of the instructional system will
influence the learners and graduates produced at all levels of our educational system. The teacher can
provide the much needed quality control devices in our educational system at all levels and therefore, he/she
can best be described as a manager, a motivator, the captain/pilot, interactive agent, as a manager, and
above all the chief executive officer and managing director of the Nigerian educational system (Ibe-Bassey,
2001).
Education change is likely to accompany, not only change in curriculum (learning) in terms of subjects
taught, syallabi, approved textbooks, etc, school conditions such as environment, class size, infrastructure,
but also the quality of classroom assessment. For teachers to meet these multiple contemporary challenges
for basic education, certain capabilities for effective response must be built in today’s Nigerian teacher.

The Nigerian Teacher and Learning Today

A teacher is a professional who earns his/her professional status. He/She is just not conferred with this
status. The teacher can teach and he/she knows what he/she wants to teach and how he/she will teach.
He/She has the knowledge about teaching as an art and he/she is skillful. The teacher can actualize the
potentiality for knowledge already in the learner and can accurately assess or evaluate the level of
achievements of the learner without any biasness. The teacher can translate knowledge, skills, attitudes and
values with certain professional principles. Unfortunately, today, what we find in some of our public and

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private schools are cheaters, because they cannot teach in such schools with the basic and fundamental
professional principles within any instructional process which classroom assessment is a critical part.
Most of the teachers at the basic education level lack the qualities of a professional teacher. The
professional teacher according to Ibe-Bassey (2000), is a:
 Mediator of learning
 Manager of instruction
 Planner of instruction
 Disciplinarian/Controller of student behaviour
 Confidant of student
 Parent substitute
 Judge of achievement
 Scholar/Research specialist
 Curriculum implementer, etc.
Teaching and learning complement each other. For a teacher to teach there must be a leaner or student. A
learner or student acquires knowledge, skills and inspiration from the teacher who teaches. The Longman
Active Dictionary defines learn as to get knowledge of subject or skill by studying or doing it. The Advanced
Learner’s Dictionary defines it as to gain knowledge or skill by study, experience or being taught (Hornby,
1995). By way of summary, “learning is a change in human disposition or capability, which persists over a
period of time, and which is not simply ascribable to process of growth… it exhibits itself as a change in
behaviour, its interference is made by comparing what behaviour was possible before the individual was
placed in a ‘learning situation’ and what behaviour can be exhibited after such a treatment’ (Gagne, 1977:3).
Simply put, learning is said to have taken place when a person gains knowledge or skill by studying, doing or
being taught. Classroom in its ordinary meaning is a room that holds a class of pupils (learners) to be taught
by a teacher.
Translating is a systematic, rational and organized process of translating knowledge, skills, attitudes and
values in accordance with acceptable professional principles and practices. Classroom assessment is very
critical in teaching and learning, since teaching is simply a process of making things known to people and
which has a leaner/student-centered dimension.
A professional and effective teacher is continuously involved in systematic instructional planning if
learning must be achieved effectively and efficiently. In instruction, the teacher arranges, orders, and
organizes all human, material, temporal and spatial resources to facilitate the learning of his students and
learners. Since the teacher is involved in the systematic instructional planning, an effective classroom
assessment will help him integrate into the instructional situation the following:
* Learner’s characteristic
* Instructional objectives
* Instructional strategies
* Instructional responses and
* Evaluation techniques

The Need for Building Teacher Capacity in Classroom Assessment

The most meaningful information for informing instruction and providing clear and useful feedback to
students/learners is collected daily in the classroom (Asp, 2000). This overall process carried out by the
teacher is refereed to as classroom assessment. Generally, student given account of students and
determine whether the intention or goal of the teaching has been realized. This is a vital indicator of student’s
capability and a justification for parents’ /guardians’ expenditure of scarce resources.
FGN (2004) recommends the use of continuous assessment evaluation method in schools. Continuous
assessment is a “method of ascertaining what a student gains from development, taking account of all his/her

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performance in tests, assignments, projects and his/her general attitudes and interest in the school
performance” (Igwe, 2005:206). The main characteristics, he explained, are its coverage in terms of special
knowledge, attitude, and interest and skill development of the students. This task for the teacher requires
hard work, mental energy, thoroughness and diligence considering large class size and diversity that
characterized Nigerian schools today.
There is no doubt that no educational system can rise above the quality of its teachers (FGN, 2004). This
means to achieve a functional educational system, the teachers must be able to respond to educational
changes meant to achieve such objective. Fear of change is very fundamental to human nature.
Consequently, in most cases, teachers have the tendency to resist change and insist on old practices. To
allay fears of teachers, their capacity to dear with the new challenges must be built for improved
performance.
Capacity is “the ability to understand or do something” and building is “an increase in the amount of
something over a period of time” (Hornnby, 1995: 219). Building capacity of teacher in education process
therefore, is the conscious attempt at upgrading, renovating, and acquiring skills, abilities and strategies that
must increase consistently over time and enable teachers react appropriately to academic dynamics
including professional training, lesson delivery, effective use of instructional materials, teachers
communication skills, provision of effective role model, effective discipline and students’ control, improved
conditions of service and most importantly, quality of classroom assessment to determine the needs of
his/her learners in the learning process.
Appropriate classroom assessment techniques and tools can help teachers at the basic education level
plan or modify instruction, communicate important learning goals to pupils, and result in corrective feedback
about how to improve. High quality classroom assessment techniques have also been linked to higher
student achievement. For example, Black and William (1998) summarized a number of studies showing that
the introduction of formative assessment techniques helped low achievers more than other students and
thus, can raise achievement overall by reducing the gap. They further found that there is considerable
evidence that assessment when practiced effectively, can improve student learning.
One of the most powerful research- based strategies for linking assessment to improved instructional
practice is teacher moderation. This process involves teachers in a collaborative discussion of student work,
based on predetermined assessment criteria. Teachers who engaged consistently in the moderation process
of student assessment are likely to:
● assess student performance more consistently, effectively, confidently and fairly:
● build common knowledge about curriculum expectations and levels of achievement:
● identify strengths and areas for growth based on evidence of student learning:
● adjust and acquire new learning by comparing one’s thinking to that of another student teacher; and
● Share effective practices to meet the needs of all students, monitor progress, and celebrate growth.
The most powerful aspect of teacher moderation as a strategy for effective classroom assessment is the
collective sharing of effective strategies in planning next steps for instruction.
Crooks (1998:445) in a review of the impact of classroom evaluation practices on students, noted that
“the choice of evaluation approaches seems to be particularly potent in its effect” and suggested that “there is
something approaching a law of learning behaviour for students namely, that the quickest way to change
student learning is to change the assessment system”
Stiggins (1999), has popularized the use of term “assessment literacy “as a way of defining the particular
kinds of assessment skills teachers need. He noted that many teachers did not have course work in their pre-
service programs to develop these skills. Shepard (2000) defined the need for new classroom assessment
skills based on emerging research and discipline-based standards. She suggested that teachers need to
make the following changes in their assessment practices:
● change the nature of conversations with students so that students develop greater knowledge of and
responsibility for learning goals;

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● assess students’ prior knowledge and use that information in planning better instruction to meet student
needs and match student interests;
● give students feedback in ways that go beyond grades such that they are helped to understand what
quality work or thinking looks like; and
● get clear about the explicit criteria for open-ended/performance tasks and involve students in self
assessing.
In addition to the improvements listed above, others have found that the typical assignments and
assessments given to students received low-level, less than challenging work assignments (Karweit, Price,
Riocciuti, Thompson, and Vaden-Kiernan, 1997). To complicate matters, studies show that teachers think
they are providing challenging learning opportunities to a greater extent than they actually are. Even in our
college, polytechnic and university classrooms, those who have studied assessment practices have found
that teachers tend to think they are teaching to higher-order thinking goals tend to weakly represented
(Angelo & cross, 1993).
Where does the responsibility for building teacher classroom assessment capacity lie? Recently, several
reports have suggested that improvement efforts, in general, have focused exclusively at the school level for
too long. Elmore & Burney (1998), Spillan (2000) suggest that more models of how Ministry of Education
develops strategies for influencing changes at the classroom level are needed. As a first step, Ministry of
Education and the school must have a clear sense of what good classroom practice looks like.

Teacher Capacity-Building for Effective Response to Challenges of Classroom Assessment

Actualizing assessment reform at the classroom level is a long-term endeavour that will not happen as a
result of a single workshop or conference. Such reform involves learning about and then implementing more
effective assessment methods and strategies in the classroom with their pupils/students. To achieve these,
the following initiatives are vital in building teacher capacity in classroom assessment to improve student
learning:

1. Creating Effective Classroom Assessments: this can be achieved by:

● Teachers being trained on how to develop high quality classroom assessment through workshops and use
of models;
● Government preparing and providing explicit guidelines describing good classroom assessment practices;
● Teachers creating assessments and asking for “expert” feedback on their quality; and
● Mandating teachers to participate in professional development at all times.

2. Examining Grading and Reporting Practices: To effectively practice this:

● Guidelines that articulate principles of good classroom assessment must be developed and revise with
much teacher input;
● The idea of distinguishing between the formative and summarative purposes of particular assignments
such that not all student work has to be graded will make more sense to teachers;
 Teacher capacity should be developed here to understand how to use assessment to improve the quality
of student learning and not just to grade;
 Teachers capacity need to be developed in the areas of understanding the importance of (i) focusing on
the more recent assessment evidence (ii) viewing grading as more than number crunching (i.e. reporting
achievement on targets or standards) and (iii) reporting achievement separately from behaviour.

3. Implementation of Classroom Assessment: The capacity of teachers needs to be built here because:
 Teacher must regularly examine the quality of student work and the quality of work they assign students
(i.e. cognitive challenge, purpose);

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 Leadership support and time are critical for teachers to be able to work together on improving
assessment;
 For sustained results, there must be balance between pressure and support (i.e. teachers must be
expected to improve the quality of instruction and should be supported in doing so by all the means at the
disposal of the school.
There are many ways teachers at the basic education level can work together to improve their assessment
practices if their capacity is built in the above three areas. For example, the teacher may:
1. Have to understand the standards set and clarify instructional goals as a first step toward better
assessment;
2. Work together on integrating more performance assessments into their assessment methods;
3. Work together to find and use assessments as windows into students’ thinking in an effort to become
better at diagnosing student needs;
4. Design institutional interventions based on assessment information;
5. Look together at the quality of student work;
6. Design grading and reporting system (McColskey & McMunn, 2000);
7. Examine the quality of their assignment (Matsumura, 2003);
8. Formulate vertical and horizontal curriculum linkages (Kinght, 2002).
Through these activities, schools can develop into communities of practice that continuously revisit and
restructure the learning environment for the benefit of the student through student assessments.

Conclusion

The need for teachers to possess skills in classroom assessment methods through improved capacity
building has been highlighted in this paper. Only through classroom assessments can teachers gain a holistic
picture of what students know and are able to do. Classroom assessments allow teachers especially at this
basic level of our educational system to diagnose problems of student achievement, provide formative
feedback to students, and make reliable and valid evaluations of student performance using multiple
methods. Using classroom assessment as a formative process can help bridge the gap between the
classroom and high stakes testing achievement.

Recommendations

The paper recommends among others the followings:

 Teachers should be trained and retrained to update their professional status in order to effectively
respond to the changing needs of new methods of classroom assessments;
 Teachers must be developing and trying out new assessment methods that give them better
information about how to help students improve;
 Teachers should appreciate and learn to talk to their peers about ideas that enhance effectiveness
of classroom assessment;
 Increased funding of library services by government where teachers are encouraged to collect,
review and read relevant researches as well as searching for high quality instructional materials;
 Teachers should endeavor to attend seminars, symposia, workshops and conferences regularly to
update their professional competence in classroom assessments.
 Special allowance called “Continuous Assessment Allowance” should be provided for teachers at
the basic education level to help them provide (where inadequate) the requisite inputs for pupil
assessment; and

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 Teacher moderation through collaborative assessment of student work is highly encouraged to

achieve/enhance consistency and reliability, collaborative planning, fairness and equity and
alignment of instruction.

References

Angelo, T & Cross, P. (1993). Classroom assessment techniques: A handbook for College Teachers. Sam Farancisco: Jossey Bass.
ASP, E. (2000). Assessment in Education: where have we been? Where are we heading? In R. Brandt (Ed.), Education in a New Era
(pp. 123-152). Alexandria, VA. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Black, P. & William, D. (1998). Inside the blach box. Phi Delta Kappan, 80(2), 139-148.
Crooks, T.J. (1998). The impact of classroom evaluation practices on students. Review of Educational Research, 58(4), 438-481.
Elmore, R.F. & Burney, D. (1998). Continuous improvement in community education: New York: Plenum Press.
Federal Government of Nigeria (2004). National Policy on Education. Lagos: NERDC Press.
Gagne, R.M. (1977). The Conditions of Learning. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Hornby, A.S. (1995). Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English (5th Edition), J. Crowther (Ed.), Oxford University Press.
Ibe-Bassey, G.S. (2000). Principles & Practice of instructional communications. Uyo: Dorand Publishers.
Igwe, L.E.B. (2005). Introduction to educational administration. Port Harcourt. Global Link Communication International.
Knight, P. (2005). A System Approach to Professional Development: Learning as Practice. Teaching and Teacher Education, 18 (3),
185-192.
Matsumura, L.C. (2003). Teachers’ assessments and student work: opening a window on classroom practice (CSE) Technical Report
602). Los Angeles, CA: University of California.
Okeke, B.S. (2004). Teaching in Nigeria: the bureaucracy and professionalism. Port Harcourt: Mercury International Publishing Nigeria.
Puma, M. Karweit, N. Price, C. Ricciut, A. Thompson, W. &
Vadenkiernan, M. (1997). Prospects: Final Report on Student Outcomes. Washington, D.C: US Department of Education, Planning and
Evaluation Services.
Shepard, L.A. (2000). The Role of assessment in a learning culture. Educational Research, 29(7), 4-14.
Spillan, S.W. (2000). Quality assurance in teachers’ assessment. London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd.
Stiggins, R. (1999). Assessment, student confidence and school success. Phi Delta Kappan, 81(3), 191-198.

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An Approach to the Implementation of an Integrated Computerized Medical

System in Nigeria

Arthur Ume
Apkar Salatian

School of Information Technology and Communications,

American University of Nigeria,Adamawa State, Nigeria

Abstract Improvements in Information and Communications Technologies have driven innovations in computerized medical
systems world-wide. Developed economies are quickly abandoning the paper-based medical record keeping and management
systems for a more digitized approach. Nigeria and other developing countries, whose bulk populations reside in highly
inaccessible rural areas, would also like to follow this trend. However, there are numerous and persisting obstacles and
challenges that militate against such intentions. In this paper we discuss the issues associated with moving to a computerized
medical system in the highly decentralized Nigerian medical sector and propose a workable three-tier integrated computerized
medical system architecture which can re-integrate the rural health care centers to provide specialized care.

Keywords: computerized medical systems; 3-tier architecture

Introduction

Though there exists a higher prevalence of chronic illnesses among rural dwellers and populations when
compared to city dwellers, it is predominantly the rural populations that enjoy the least access to available
medical health resources in many countries [1]. In Nigeria, rural healthcare is typically provided by the local
health centers and dispensaries. One major reason for this is the way in which patient data is managed.
Healthcare is driven by the capturing and storage of Patient Health Information (PHI). PHI can be captured,
tracked and stored using paper and physical files or in a digital format. The oldest form of managing patient
information and data is on paper. Developing countries are gradually moving away from paper and towards
digital formats which allow for an integrated computerized medical system. However, since a large number
of Nigerians live in rural areas, there are numerous additional challenges that need to be overcome to realize
an integrated computerized medical system.
In this paper we look at the current state of the Nigerian healthcare system and the various issues
associated with the management of computerized patient data to achieve an integrated computerized
medical system. To overcome these issues we propose a 3-teir architecture to realize an integrated
computerized medical system for the Nigerian healthcare system. Our proposal will allow rural health care
centers to be integrated with urban health care providers to provide specialized care to rural populations.
The structure of this paper is organized as follows: in section 2 we discuss the background to deploying
an integrated computerized medical system; in section 3 we then discuss the key issues militating against an
extensive introduction of a computerized medical system in Nigeria; section 3 presents our proposed
technical model and solution to overcome the issues presented in section 2; section 4 discusses future work
and final conclusions are given in section 5.

Background

Nigeria’s Health Care Delivery System is systematically and fully decentralized. The country’s health care
delivery system is made up of a network of primary, secondary, and tertiary level facilities. Provision of health
care at these various levels of care is the responsibility of Local Governments, State Governments and the
Federal Government respectively. At the primary health level, care is given at the general hospitals and

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dispensaries. This level is where the bulk of rural Nigerians obtain their medical care. Facilities at this level of
care are not well equipped and attention to patients is usually supported with referral treatments to the
secondary level of health care.
The secondary level of health care usually provides some specialized services to patients who have
been referred from the primary health care level through out-patient services of hospitals for medical,
surgical, pediatric and community health services. At these secondary level facilities, patients receive
supportive health services such as basic laboratory testing, some improved diagnostic services, blood bank
services, rehabilitation and physiotherapy services. Serious cases are referred from the second level facilities
to the tertiary levels of health care which are usually the teaching hospitals attached to medical colleges and
universities.
This tertiary level of care consists of highly specialized services such as orthopedic, eye, psychiatry,
maternity and pediatric cases by consultant medical specialists and personnel. The tertiary medical care
facilities are not evenly distributed across Nigeria. For example the tertiary facility closest to remote rural
areas may be located hundreds of miles away in a Teaching Hospital which, in turn, is located in an urban
center or a state capital.
Apart from government owned primary, secondary and tertiary health facilities, there are a numerous
private hospitals and health facilities distributed around Nigeria but they are still located in the vicinity of the
few urban and semi urban centers. These facilities make up to more than 40% of the whole health care
delivery system in the regions of study. These private care givers also depend on the more specialized
tertiary level facilities at the teaching hospitals for referrals of serious cases.
For millions of Nigerians, accessing urgent or specialized medical care usually means waiting for the
occasional bi-weekly visits by designated specialists from the few specialist hospitals or travelling for two to
three days to reach a specialist in the urban centers which can be haphazard. The ability to quickly link
urgent patient cases in remote areas to specialized care workers still remains one of the biggest challenges
that Nigeria faces because it can take days (even weeks) to wait for the return of paper-based patient data
that was sent out by local health staff in the rural site as a referral to the more specialized hospitals.

Issues

There are several issues that need to be overcome if an e-based solution is to be realized in Nigeria to
address the problems discussed in the previous section – we shall look at each of them.
There is a non-existence of a unified and unique patients’ identifier. A single unique patient identification
number, called the Patient Unique Identifier (PUI), is supposed to be assigned and used to track each
patient’s record. This is supposed to help differentiate between these records over a period of time. However,
throughout Nigeria, the use of a unified PUI is still not possible owing to the non-existence of such identifiers
despite efforts made by the Federal government to centrally initiate an identification scheme in the country.
This situation is hampering the integration of any e-health system that would rather track patients digitally.
There is the non-existence of encompassing healthcare policies. Encompassing health policies are supposed
to provide a cohesive framework and the necessary environment for e-health innovations to thrive. However,
in Nigeria, there is no policy in place or any efforts being made to put such policies in place to guide and
streamline the delivery of innovative health services like the one proposed by the authors. Without such a
policy framework in place, the general distrust and attitude towards the security of patient medical data used
in any innovative e-health endeavor is constrained to remain just at the prototype level.
There exists predominant security and confidentiality concerns regarding medical data. Emanating from a
non-existent encompassing policy is the general concern about the confidentiality of the individual (personal)
health records and data that would be digitally transmitted between different sites. Privacy, security and
proper handling of such records in digitalized formats is of great concern to both the rural patients and their
health care providers. There are apprehensions that the security of these forms of records may be

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compromised unknowingly either internally or while in transit. There are still no strong safeguards around
captured, communicated and transmitted patients’ private health records. This situation constitutes a major
challenge in the pilot rural areas investigated by the authors in Nigeria.
There is a consistent resistance towards e-health innovative solutions by medical personnel. A phobia and
predominant fear exists among local medical staff and personnel towards abandoning their old paper way of
capturing, transferring and storing patients’ medical records. The authors observed their resistance towards
adopting digitalized formats and more modern ways of tracking health records. Indeed we found that there
was an abounding phobia and fear even among the computer literate university-trained medical doctors
which may be emanating from fear of loosing control over patient’s medical records that come under their
management.
There is absence of trained manpower and use of acceptable standards. Another nagging challenge
unraveled by the authors emanate from the non-existence of trained staff who are abreast of established
medical standards that would govern tracking, transfers, transmission and proper management of rural
medical records belonging to the rural patients. There is virtually a zero security awareness and
understanding of existing international medical and health care standards that exist among observed and
interviewed health personnel in selected rural areas of study in Nigeria.
There is an absence of drive, low bandwidth and internet penetration. There is still a low rate of internet
penetration throughout the remote rural areas of Nigeria. Bandwidths where and when available are very low.
The majority of rural areas cannot support an e-based system using internet deployment because of poor
infrastructure and unstable electric power generation. These challenges are attributable to the lack of drive
and lack of enthusiasm that all the three tiers of healthcare in Nigeria have shown and demonstrated towards
e-health innovations and endeavors. Local health centers and dispensaries also lack the funds and financial
backbones needed to centrally put ICT infrastructures in place without the help of donors and their respective
governments.

Figure 1: Proposed Architecture

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Another problem of broadband in rural areas is the lack of telecommunication infrastructure which is mainly
due to the capital cost for such deployment and associated operating or running costs. Consequently,
bandwidth demand can easily outstrip the revenue realizable that is needed to pay for the network
infrastructure investment [2, 3, 4]. As a result, rural areas generally have lower bandwidth than urban areas
which, in turn, makes data transfer slow. Moreover, when operating in a rural multi-service environment such
as a hospital a consequence of restricted bandwidth on access pipes is service contention at the customer
site, even if core bandwidth exists to deliver the services. Contention for bandwidth within a customer site can
arise if there are a number of devices at the site that can request services with aggregate bandwidth greater
than can be delivered over the access connection [2, 3].
To address the challenges of deploying a medical system that uses broadband we also need to
consider Quality of Service issues. In our case, Quality of Service refers to the collection of network
technologies and techniques to guarantee a certain level of performance to the flow of medical data on a
wireless network. The Quality of Service issues that concern successful medical system are delay, jitter, loss
rate, throughput and network resource availability [5, 6]. Delay is the elapsed time for a packet to traverse the
network from the source to the destination – we need to keep delay low. Jitter is defined as the variation in
delay encountered by similar packets following the same route through the network and would affect real-
time streaming applications such as transmitting continuous Intensive Care Unit monitor data - we need to
keep jitter low. Loss Rate refers to the percentage of data lost among all the delivered data in a given
transmission time interval - in order to reduce loss rate we need a decoder with high error resiliency.
Throughput is defined as the rate at which packets are transmitted in a network – we need a system where
throughput is high. Network resource availability is the infrastructure associated with the transmission of data
e.g equipment, power, etc. In rural areas it is absolutely imperative in health networks to have good network
resource availability because the generated traffic may be crucial for the patients’ health and life.

Proposed Architecture

Our proposed architecture for an integrated computerized medical system in Nigeria was designed by the
researchers to provide data linkage capability that will sit well among the three levels of care described in
section 2 and addresses the issues described in section 3. Furthermore, a centralized medical data
management system like ours will help solve the predominant problems that discourage efforts to convert
paper-based medical records transmission into faster electronic data transmission processes. Our system
was designed to manage medical data and information in clinical practice and diagnostics between levels of
medical care giving.
Our architecture is a web-based collaboration/integration system which allows tracking of patient
medical history and prognosis; it allows data sharing for remote specialist consultation. It will be used to
extensively support diagnosis, prognosis and treatment decisions. The system will also make possible some
checks and balances of diagnosis outcomes and treatment regiments between local hospitals and more
equipped / more specialized health facilities; local health care givers and health dispensaries will have the
opportunity to easily consult with specialist doctors and counterparts.
The proposed architecture of our integrated computerized medical system is shown in figure 1. Our 3-
tier architecture is designed and built on wireless thin client architecture with a single very powerful central
application server and web server. To connect to the system, the client health facilities, hospitals, health
dispensaries, specialist hospitals, patients will only need a web browser. They do not need to install any
client application system. We shall look at each of the tiers of our proposed architecture in turn.
Tier 1 is the user interface and is designed as a separate component. The system provides a structured
interface to transfer data and information from and to the client user interface. This provides for extensibility
and increased portability to all remote client machines, laptops, monitors and even mobile hand-held PDAs
down the line. At the onset, the system is designed to use browsers, emails and web forms for transfer and

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transmission of medical data, graphs, images and other patient information among system actors. It will be
enhanced to accommodate scanned paper forms with optical character recognition later on.
Tier 2 is the medical logic layer and acts as the interface between tiers 1 and 3. Tier 2 interprets the
commands entered by staff in tier 1 and formulates commands to execute on tier 3 to access data. Tier 3 will
then return the required data to this tier and formats it for the appropriate user interface (PDA, Laptop etc) to
return to tier 1 to be presented and viewed.
The persistency and data model of our architecture is designed and built on relational tables in order to
accommodate the future multifunctional needs of the system. The persistency is a coded database and is
designed to sit on an open source relational database. The concept of a data dictionary was employed in the
design in order to make sure that validation rules are supported for all sensitive data and information
transmission and transfers remotely by system actors across the regions of study and focus. Our
architecture’s persistency is designed to accommodate data format conversions for easy analysis,
interpretation, archiving and tracking of transmitted medical records and data.
Our architecture addresses each of the issues raised in section 2 – we shall look at each in turn.
Uniquely auto-generated patient identification numbers by the Model will be used to track patients and their
health records in the proposed system architecture. This will enable each patient health record to be uniquely
tracked.
An easily available open source database management system such as MYSQL forms the core/central
component of the Model tier in the architecture. The robust security features of this relational database are
leveraged to provide adequate security and confidentiality for all tracked, stored and transmitted patient
health information and records. An accessibility matrix created for all the system actors is strictly adhered to
and enforced by system components in the architecture.
Our architecture suggests and incorporates low–cost innovative mobile technologies such as Android-based
phones, PDAs and easy-to-use devices for its presentation layer of the View component; these devices are
relatively cheap and no specialized computer training or knowledge is required for medical personnel to know
how to use them. Thus, the proposed architecture will provide a very simple and reliable way for health
workers to key-in, enter and transmit written medical prescriptions, diagnosis and diagnostic imagery for
immediate analysis and communication.
For all electronic transmission and processing of patient health records, the devices and computer
systems within the architecture will be adhering to globally established policy and standards by Healthcare
Level 7 International (HL7) for transmission of e-health information and data
Since users of the system can access the system using their own devices such as PDAs and mobile phones,
there will be less contention on the system’s bandwidth because users can use the bandwidth provided by
their own devices rather than that of the system.
To address the issues of quality of service we propose in Tier 2 that access to data is strictly controlled.
For example, if priority is given to specific users then delay and throughput will increase. We need high
quality of equipment to address jitter, loss rate and network resource availability.

Discussion and Future Work

As a result of the present explosion and penetration of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs),
many developing countries can make the transition from paper to digital medical records using emerging
information and communication technologies such as PDAs, Android-based phones, and laptops with blue
tooth and internet capabilities.
There are various reported benefits of the adoption of an integrated computerized medical system to
individual patients, hospitals, donors and governments. Real-time medical records management systems,
telemedicine and other e-health systems allow system actors to send or receive medical data almost instantly
[7]. These systems can allow underprivileged rural hospitals to share/leverage the equipments and

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specialized human resources in real time with the well equipped bigger hospitals miles away in the urban
centers [8, 9].
The specific benefits of an integrated computerized medical system therefore include the following:
reduction in medical errors; speed in diagnosis; encouragement of the anywhere anytime diagnostic
opportunities; improvement in physician-specialist-patient relationship and ratio; enhanced quality and speed
of care; improved enablement empowerment for local health care centers; cost savings etc. Nonetheless, to
reap these benefits, countries like Nigeria has to battle the militating challenges to a proper introduction of e-
health and e-based systems.

Summary and Conclusions

Developing countries like Nigeria are gradually moving away from paper and towards digital formats that
facilitates an integrated computerized medical system which can have numerous benefits. However, since a
many Nigerians live in rural areas we have seen that there are numerous additional challenges that need to
be overcome to realize an integrated computerized medical system.
To overcome these issues we have proposed a 3-tier architecture to realize an integrated computerized
medical system for the Nigerian healthcare system. Our proposed architecture will make a bidirectional data
transfer possible for the exchange of medical data, diagnosis, prescriptions and emergency alerts between
the local health facilities and the specialized hospitals

References

Ume, A. & Salatian, A. (2011) ‘Managing Medical Data in Clinical Practice and Diagnostics in a Developing Economy’, Proceedings of
INTERCOMP - The 2011 World Congress in Computer Science, Computer Engineering, and Applied Computing, pages 35-40,
ISSN 2221-0148, Vienna, Austria, February 9 -11, 2011.
Stallings, W. (2007) Data and Computer Communication, Pearson Educational Inc. 8th Edition, 2007.
Anttalainen, T. (2003) Introduction to Telecommunications Network Engineering, Artech House Telecommunications Library, 2nd Edition,
2003.
Freeman, R. L. (2005) Fundamentals of Telecommunications, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey, 2nd Edition, 2005.
Salatian, A. & Oborkhale, L. (2010) 'Quality of Service Issues for ICU Tele-Medicine in Rural Sub-Saharan Africa', Proceedings of the 2nd
World Congress on Research and Development, Volume 5, Number 6, pages 155-158, University of Ibadan, Nigeria, 6 – 7
October, 2010
Salatian, A., Adepoju, F., Oborkhale, L. (2011) ‘Using Wavelets to Improve Quality of Service for Telemedicine’, International Journal
of Advanced Science and Technology, Volume 27, pages 27 – 34, ISSN: 2005-4238, February 2011.
Anthony, S. C., et al (2005) “Telemedicine and rural health care applications,” Journal of Postgraduate Medicine, vol, 5, no. 4 –Dec
2005.
Maheu, M. M., et al (2001), E health, Telehealth and Telemedicine: A Guide to start up and success, Jossey-Base, 2001.
Rowland, D., Lyons, B.(1989), “Tripple jeopardy; rural, poor and uninsured”, Health Services Res, vol.23, no6, 1989

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Deforestation and Sustainable Development in the Tropics: Causes and Effects

Sodienye A. Abere

Faculty of Agriculture
Rivers State University of Science and Technology Port Harcourt Nigeria

Jacinta A. Opara

School of Environmental Studies Universidad Azteca Chalco-Mexico

Introduction

The problems of an ecologically degrading world have focused new attention upon naturally existing forest
ecosystems. This is necessitated by the fact that there has to be a check and balance in man’s activities in
order to maintain and sustain his natural environment for his well-being.
In the tropics, forest ecosystems are the key life zones which pose a new range of problems to the
application of modern technology and often constitute a controlling factor in the planning and execution of
large scale projects. This brings about the need for conservation and the fight against deforestation which is
a major threat to the existing, few natural forests. The approach of seeking solution to the problem of
deforestation by studying its causes and effects is thus being employed. This presentation is therefore
focused on the causes and effect of deforestation in Nigeria, with the aim of finding solution to the problem.
Deforestation simply put is the clearing away of forests. It is the process by which an area is deprived of
existing natural forest vegetation and resources. This can be brought about by systematic felling,
indiscriminate logging or total clearing of existing vegetation for arable farm or industrial purposes. It usually
results in destabilization of forest ecosystems and the surrounding environment. To this effect, its causes
could be classified into two groups as stated below.
(a) Man
(b) Natural causes of deforestation

(a) Man

It is through the activities of structural development, logging and agriculture, that deforestation is caused by
man. These activities include building of roads and citing of large projects, oil exploration and solid mineral
exploration.

Building of Roads and Citing of Large Projects

In developing communities social amenities such as roads, hospital, water plants etc. are regularly provided
by the government and or the communities themselves. Most times without proper planning, primary forests
are cleared to site such projects. In Nigeria sites presently occupied by Petrochemicals, Refineries, Fertilizer
Companies and Liquified Natural Gas Plants where sometime, naturally occurring forest ecosystems.

Mineral/Oil Exploration Activities

Mineral/Oil exploration activities in Nigeria are major causes of deforestation, especially in the Niger Delta
region. Since the early 1950s when the Nigerian oil industry was developed, its activities have been

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responsible for crossing the deltas with oil and gas pipe lines thereby removing vegetation cover along their
paths. Facilities such as oil well heads, major pipelines manifolds and flow stations have also been sited in
previously forested area.

Bush Burning

Both farmers and hunters in this part of the world use fire as a tool notwithstanding the fact that it is one of
the most serious agents of forest destruction especially during the dry season. Most fires are caused either
deliberately or by accident and these destroy trees of all sizes including seedlings. Fire hazards are more
where the herbs and fallen leaves on the forest floor become dry. Most often animal rearers burn the old
grasses to encourage growth of succulent grass for pasture. It has also been suggested that grass lands
were sometime forested areas on which man had deliberately set fire to catch game thereby destroying
previously existing forest vegetation. Timber loggers also set fire on forest accidentally while smoking or
while carrying out any fire prone activity. This most times result in ground forest fires, surface fires and
eventually wild crown forest fires.

Logging

The high forests is the main sources of logs in Nigeria. as cited by Kio in 1983; by the years 2000 the
consumption of wood based products will be 19 million cu meters from 3 million cu meters of 1975. In order
to meet this demand, timber dealers encourage unlawful and indiscriminate logging in naturally occurring
forests. Depletion of unreserved forests has also resulted in the concentration of logging activities within
protected forest reserves in Nigeria. for example in 1960 western Nigeria, the areas outside the forest
reserves, amounted to 52 percent of the total timber volume output, but five years later, this had fallen to just
16 percent. For the period of 1971-1975 for the whole country the long output of the unreserved forests was
only 38 percent of the total. It is therefore clear that logging is one of mans activities which cause
deforestation in both protected and unreserved forests in Nigeria.
In the cause of solid mineral exploration large factories such as the Ajaokuta steel mill in Kogi State
have occupied previously forested areas. All these contribute to further depletion of the nations forest estate
which is below the international standard of 20-25 percent of the total reserved high forested areas of the
country (Areola 1987).

Agricultural Activities

Large scale agriculture which requires a large land capital has also consumed a large portion of forested
areas in Nigeria. Mechanized farming in the middle belt was practiced by indigenous farmers, but the system
of shifting cultivation is still employed to improve crop yield. This required shifting of the farm sites to virgin
and uncultivated lands thereby clearing existing natural forests.
Even if the best natural forest management systems available could be implemented in Nigeria, the
forest reserves would not be able to meet the country’s timber needs of 19 million m3 cu in the year 2000.
Yields of the natural high forests are about 10-25 percent of the short-time yields from plantations (Lawtan
1973). The trend is therefore, for the clearance of primary forest for plantation development with both
indigenous and exotic timber species, often to be detriment of the country’s natural forests. According to
Boelke and Croze (1986), the total land area planted increase with an annual average area of 26,000 ha.
This implies that agricultural development is a major factor causing deforestation in Nigeria.

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Natural Causes of Deforestation

Natural hazards which result in deforestation include:

Diseases

It is quite common to find diseased tree stands in forests. Some tropical tree disease, such as mistletoes,
blister rust, blight etc all caused by fungi, and capable of destroying mature trees and subsequently large
stands to cause deforestation. Insects within a forest ecosystem also play roles in causing plant disease as
their day to day feeding habits make forest trees susceptible to disease infection.

Damage to Trees by Other Plants

Forest trees are damaged in various ways by other plants of the community. Whilst the superficial epiphytic
flora causes little direct damage, it may reduce tree photosynthesis by cutting off the supply of light to the
leaves of trees. Climbing plants such as honeysuckle Lonicera Periclymenum, Partly strangle young trees so
that tree stems are distorted and sometimes the sheer weight of climbers may lay flat a young sapling
thereby destroying it completely.

Climatic Factors

Climatic factors, such as wind and temperature are also agents of deforestation. Strong winds are capable of
breaking down trees on their paths in large numbers or in some cases uprooting them completely. High or
very low temperatures are known to have disease causing effects on young trees. In cases of very low
temperature, tree roots are frozen to deprive the shoot system of water thereby causing death. Scotching is
the result of high temperature which creates a ring of burnt plant tissue round the steams of sapling at their
points of contact with the soil. This could also lead to death of young trees.

Damages to Trees by Mammals

Heavy browsing modifies the form of seedlings, and may prevent a shrub layer from development and in an
old forest creates a browse line beneath which no young living tree shoot survives. Selective browsing can
radically alter the proportions of different plant species present and even eradicate some. Tree bark is eaten
by many groups of mammals notably rabbits, squirrels, porcupines, mouse, elk and elephants, and relatively
small beavers is just as capable as the elephant of tree felling (Ovinton 1965).

Death and Decay of Trees

Trees are living things and often die naturally. Death may be premature due to root competition or lack of
sufficient light or nutrients. These deficiencies predispose the plants to attack by insects of fungi which results
into death and subsequent elimination of trees.

Effects of Deforestation

The effects of deforestation are most times not felt instantly by the forest ecosystem or the surrounding
woodland environment. But over time, the absence of vegetation cover in a previously forested area affects
both the living and non living components of that environment in the following ways.

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Soil Erosion

Deforestation exposes forest soils to direct contact with the rains and this enhances the free flow of run off
which causes soil erosion. For communities whose sources of drinking water are influenced by water sheds
soil erosion results in the increase of the mineral content of the surrounding water bodies and also increases
turbidity.
In areas where slops are step or agricultural practice is bad the land may show excessive erosion in the
absence of surrounding forests. Erosion galleys eat back further into agricultural land with each rain storm
and remove valuable top soil. Soils that are exposed to erosion will no doubt have lower fertility potentials as
compared to more stable soils protected by good vegetation cover.

Soil Distabilization

Deforestation in desert prone areas destabilizes soil and enhances the encroachment of sand upon
agricultural lands. This is most times the case in Northern Nigeria where desertification is a major threat to
agriculture as trees that would have been used to stabilize sand dunes are felled to be used as fuel wood.

Migration of Animal Species

Forest areas which had been the natural habitats of some wild life for years are no longer conducive for such
wild animal species to survive when deforestation takes place. Such animals end up migrating to more
conducive environments.
Some times it results in the death of such animals and subsequent extinction, as such animals are not
able to adapt to their new environment. Typical examples are the migration of elephants and hippopotamus
from the Niger Delta as a result of deforestation.

Increase in Reflected Solar Radiation

Wood lands reduce the amount of solar energy reaching the ground, since the upper canopy reflects some
incident radiation. The ratio of reflected to incident radiation is called the abedo and is usually greater in land
areas without vegetation cover. This is because radiant energy is absorbed by the different plant layers in
every vegetation, leaving a very small percentage to be reflected back into the atmosphere. Thus deforested
areas will reflect more radiant energy into the atmosphere, which will in turn enhance global warning.

Economic Implications of Deforestation

Most of the forested lands in Nigeria are located in the rural areas and in these areas the level of
environmental awareness is reduced as compared to the highly enlightened populace in the city centers.
Therefore, the physical affects of deforestation which are mostly environmental are not foreseen by the rural
dwellers.
However the economic effects of deforestation which affects their substance directly can not be over
emphasized. It is thus very common to observe the high cost of forage crops and other forest products as
deforestation results in their scarcity in communities and settlements where they used to be cheap and
available. Examples of such products include tree crops like Daulium quineensis (icheku), Cola nitida (goro),
Treculia African (African broad fruit) Irvingia gabonensis (Ogbono) and animals like snails and grasscutter to
mention but a few.
Subsequently, this effect stretches to the urban areas as the rural still serve as the primary source of
forage crops and forest products.

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Conclusion

Deforestation has continued to reduce the total forested land area of Nigeria. Its effects are quite obvious
now, that environmental awareness is gradually reaching every strata of the society. Also, from the economic
point of view deforestation has created a negative impact on the average Nigerian.
The Government has over the years promulgated laws as regards forest conservation and protection. But
these laws are not enforced to achieve the goals for which they are made. However public enlightenment
about the causes and effects of deforestation would go a long way to solve the problem by bringing the
realities to the grassroot – rural dwellers.

References

Areola O. (1987): The Political Reality of Conservation in Nigeria. In: Conservation in Africa People. Policies and Practice (eds.
Anderson D., and Grove R.) Cambridge University Press.
Africa. Annals of the Missouri Botanic Garden 65 (2): 437-478. Boelcke, C. and Cronze, H. (1986). Tropical Forest Extent Changes
Wood.
Production Exports and Imports. GEMS/PAC UNEP Unpublished Manuscript. Boorman, J and Roche, P. (1957-1961).
The Nigerian Butterflies (six parts) Ibadan University Press, Ibadan.
Burgis, M. J. and Symoens J. J. Ieds (1987). And Shallow Water Bodies / Editions de I’ OSTOM, Collections Travaux et Documents No.
211, Paris.
Kio P. R. O. (1983). Management Potentials of the Tropical High Forest with Species Reference to Nigeria in Tropical Rainforest.
Ecology and Management. Sutton, Wlutmore and Chadorich.
Lawton, R. M. (1978). The Management and regeneration of some Nigeria High Forest Ecosystems. Tropical Forest Ecosystems x (v)
UNESCO / FAO.
Ovington J. D. (1965). Woodlands, English University Press, London.

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Learning and Teaching Methodology

Fidelia I. Vin-Mbah

Department of Office Technology and Management,

Ramat Polytechnic,Maiduguri, Borno State,Nigeria

Abstract Several scholars have admitted that education is one of the most important factors that help in bringing about social
and economic development in any given society. This is as a result of the fact that it is through the mechanism of education that
the various categories of manpower are developed. The development posed new challenges to the pattern employed by the
teacher and the learner in carrying their functions. There is the need for the person studying them, usually the teacher or learner
to endeavour to understand some of the various methods employed in teaching which shows that without listening, it might be
difficult to achieve any development. This paper, therefore, looks into the curriculum of teaching and learning which means the
success or failure of any educational endeavour depends ultimately upon the method adopted by the teacher. It also explains
some criteria or principles necessary for the selection of instructional method a teacher can use in the teaching-learning process.
It also identified their implications while suggestions and recommendations were proffered.

Introduction

Ngada (2004) among the key personnel that assist the executive in the schools/offices to achieve the set
goals and objectives is the teacher. It is practically impossible for any standard layers, professor, engineers
to operate without the knowledge of a teacher. As the nature of education is becoming more and more
complex, as a result of evolution of teaching and learning, so also are the duties of a teacher.
Education is a systematic training and instruction designed to transmit knowledge and develop skills in
individuals. Education is a process of changing the behaviour pattern of individuals in the desired direction.
Education also involves a continuing development relevant knowledge, skills and habits whose broad
understanding and application enable individual to contribute meaningfully towards the growth of their
society.
Bello (1981), the success or failure of any educational endeavour depends ultimately upon the method
adopted by the teacher. Methodology is first a science and then a way of teaching and teaching strategies.

What is Teaching?

Teaching, according to South and Laslett (1993) is an all-purpose profession engaged in human resource
development for individual and economic growth (Oyekan, 1994). Teaching has been defined as an attempt
to help someone acquire or change, some skill, attitude, knowledge, idea or appreciation. In other words, the
teacher’s task is to create or influence desirable changes in behaviour, or in tendencies toward behaviour in
his students.
Dewey maintains that in order to say one has taught, some changes in student behaviour should have
taken place, when he says “a person might as well say he has sold when no one has bought and say he has
taught and no one has learned”. The goal of teaching is to bring about the desired learning in the students.
Therefore, the only valid criterion of success. According to James (2004) in teaching is the degree to which
the teacher has been able to impart knowledge in his students.

Functions of Teaching

1. Informing and explaining: A good teacher is expected to be knowledgeable in his area of

specialisation. He is expected to be able to communicate his knowledge to his students.

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2. Stimulating, directing, guiding and administering: Teaching involve stimulating the pupils/students
to learn. The teacher is equally to be directed and guided in his study. He has the duty of
administering many children in the classroom as a teacher. He maintains order and discipline in
the classroom to create conducive classroom environment for effective learning, free from
disturbance.
3. Identify what to learn: Authorities give out the syllabus to the teacher and it is his responsibility to
interpret and present it to the learner.
4. Identifying learning problems: pupils learning problems are expected to be identified by the teacher
through his interactions with the children; this could be through questions posed to them. It is the
responsibility of the teacher to solve these problems through remedial work.
5. Evaluating, reporting and recording: Teaching includes evaluation of the pupils’ performance which
are usually reported and recorded to show the progress record of the learners.
6. Classroom arrangement: this is part of the teaching activities. The classroom is the stage for
learning. The methods to be used and the likely atmosphere of the class is determined by the
organisation of the classroom. This creates the conducive atmosphere for effecting teaching-
learning.
7. Socialisation: Some functions of teaching are deliberate while some are latent. Among the latent
functions is socialisation. As the pupils learn together, they become intimate.
8. School-community relationship: The school is known to be a macrocosm of the society. Through
teaching, the teacher may foster relationship with the wider community.

Principles Underlying Teaching

1. Clear objectives: Teaching is goal-oriented. To achieve the goal, there should be set objectives.
In preparing to teach, the objectives to be achieved must clearly be stated; this serves as a
guideline in teaching.
2. Pupils’ Readiness: Teacher should ensure that the pupils are intellectually ready for what to be
taught.
3. Previous experienced: Every child had some experiences before going to school. The teacher
should build on this.
4. Individual differences: It is known that learners are different from one another in many ways.
These differences must be realised by the teacher. He should recognise these differences and use
a variety of methods and materials to teach.
5. Teaching should be systematic: It should proceed from the known to unknown, simple to difficult,
concrete to abstract and general to specific.

Characteristics of a Good Teacher

Adeyemo (1977) identified certain qualities that are expected from a good teacher. According to him, such
qualities vary from place to place and situation to situation or environment. Some of his findings include the
following:

The Qualities Expected of a Good Teacher In the classroom:

i) The teacher should be clean in thought, deeds, words and body.

ii) He should be a good disciplinarian, i.e. being firm but not over-bearing on his pupils/students.
iii) He should be hard working, doing his work knowingly and conscientiously

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iv) He remains a student that is reading up-to-date books and journals to get new ideas and helps
that he might grow and progress, accepting suggestions that have been tried and proved by
others.
v) He should be honest and careful in all things, dealings and obligations.
vi) He should be persistent, courageous and preserving in face of discouragements and difficulties.
vii) He should be firm, fair and determined in his action.
viii) He should be punctual in all engagements and keeping promises made.

Methods and Techniques of Teaching

There are many methods and techniques for effective teaching. These different methods and techniques
should be used skilfully in the class by the teachers in order to teach his students effectively. The skilful and
competent teacher uses as many methods and techniques as possible because, there is no single method
which is regarded as the best for every teaching situation. In a single lesson therefore, the teacher can
employ as many methods as possible. The success of every method depends on the calibre of the teacher
ad his professional experience in the field of teaching
Adamu (2008) method can be defined as a procedure by which a goal is reached, a purpose
accomplished or a result achieved. Method can also be defined as a practical application of teaching
principles based on the nature of learner, the nature of the subject and the learning needs of the
pupils/students.

Principles Underlying the Choice of Teaching Methodology

Some criteria or principles are necessary for the selection of instructional method or methods a teacher can
use in the teaching-learning process. These are necessary if the teacher’s aim of imparting knowledge to his
students is to be successful. They include the following:
- The type of subject: For example, in History, story telling method can be used in junior forms while
experiments may be performed in science lessons.
- Type of Lesson: i.e. the lesson patterns will dictate the type of method to be used for example,
information lesson (discussion or lecture methods). Practice lesion (demonstration methods); practical
lessons (practical approach/experiments); appreciation lesson, etc.
According to Oyekan (1994) teaching methodology is concerned with what method techniques or approach,
individuals or group of teachers select and use in actual classroom situation. As teachers, we know that
there are many methods of teaching and whether one method is appropriate or not depends on many factors
such as subject or topic to be taught, the learning characteristics of learners, the socio-cultural environment,
etc.
Teaching methods can generally be classified into two broad categories, namely:
- Child-centred methods
- Teacher-centred methods

Child-centred methods include:

- Activity methods
- Assignment
- Supervised study
- Discussion method
- Field trip
- Project method
- Play and games method etc.

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Of these methods may be applicable to both individual and group approaches to teaching. However, some of
the methods are more amenable to group than to individual approach and vice versa.
The teacher centred methods as the name implies, means that the principal actor in the lesson is the
teacher while the learners are passive listeners. At the end of the lesson, the learner may ask one or two
questions or be required to answer some questions or pass some comments or jot down some points.
Teacher-centred methods are a clear negation of the accepted view that learning is an active rather
than a passive process, that the best and most applicable learning is learning by doing.
Lecture methods, questioning method and demonstration method are some of the teaching methods in
this category.

Lecture Method

This is the oldest and the most common method in use at the tertiary level of our institutions. It is the process
whereby the teacher verbally delivers a pre-planed body of knowledge to his students. The teacher talks
while the students listen and jot down essential points. This method is teacher-centred. The teacher is the
most active.
Lecture method is used to teach a large group of students who are often passive listeners with little or no
opportunity to ask questions. This method is more appropriate for higher level students (Maduewesi et al.
1999).

Advantages of the Lecture Method

1. Wide area of studies can be covered within a short time.

2. Large population of students are taught at once by a single teacher.
3. It saves time and energy of the teacher as he can say one thing to the whole students at the same
time instead of single individual.

Disadvantages of the Lecture Method

1. It is a teacher-centred method of teaching

2. It kills students’ initiatives as it makes passive listeners
3. It does not cater for the individual differences of the students. This is evident in the sense that the
students are taught by the teacher a the same speed as a whole group.
4. It does not provide students with enough opportunities to practice their oral communication skills.
Fafunwa (1974) defined education as the aggregate of all process by which a child or young adult develops
the abilities, attitudes and other form of behaviour which are of positive values to the society in which he
lives. Here, education is regarded as the totality of all forms of brilliant ideas, usable skills and desirable
value orientations that can nurture individuals into responsible competent citizens. Such educated men and
women would use their competence, experience and vision of a good society to create wealth for nation-
building.
Ughamadu (1992) education therefore involves a continuing development of relevant knowledge, skills
and habits whose broad understanding and application enable individuals to contribute meaningfully towards
the growth of their society.

Method

The success or failure of any educational endeavour depends ultimately upon the method adopted by the
teacher. Methodology is first a science and then a way of teaching. As a science methodology is the study

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of teaching methods. The person studying them, usually the teacher or learner to be, endeavours to
understand some of the various methods employed in teaching different subjects, set of students and age
grades. These methods are usually those that have been tried or used by educationists and famous teachers
in different parts of the world, usually with a view to throwing and possibly using them.
The following methods of teaching:
1. Lecture method
2. Learning by doing method
3. Discovery method
4. The play method
5. The Socratic method
6. Co-operative method
7. The project method
8. The problem-solving method
9. The Dalton plan or assignment method
10. The remedial method
11. Play-way method
12. individual method
13. Dramatic method
14. Demonstration method
15. Discussion method
16. Story-telling method

For effective discussion, Maduewesi et al. (1999) sugegst6edthat the following elements and points are worth
considering:
1. The environment must be favourable for such discussion
2. There is need for preparation by all members
3. There should be good planning
4. There should be elements of friendliness, tolerance and good social feelings prevalent in the group.
5. While discussion is on, the teacher should make such that everybody is actively participating.
No person should monopolise the discussion.
6. The teacher must not allow the discussion to digress into less productive and side issues, and as
much as possible limit the scope of the discussion.
7. Inconsistencies, faulty logic and irrelevance should be challenged. The teacher may however
develop a feeling of responsibility for effective conduct of the group.
8. A periodic summary of what has been said is necessary. The teacher or leader of each group may
do this. This will help in evaluating the progress of the discussion as well as keeping everybody up
to date.

Advantages of Discussion Method

a) It creates a forum, to solve some difficult problems or questions which require a variety of ideas and
ways to resolve them among the students.

Disadvantages

a) It is not applicable to all topics is a subject

b) It is not ideal for large group of students

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Play-Way Method

Play has been referred to as any pleasurable activity embarked upon in the classroom by the teacher with his
students to promote learning. According to Farrant (1980), play can be regarded as the experimenting stage
of learning where the child tries out his newly acquired knowledge and skills with the activities of people and
things, hence play encourages the child to:
- stimulate creative imagination;
- provide opportunity for experimentation beyond the real level of development;
- exercise learning competencies;
- engage in independent learning;
- gain experience and express himself freely with confidence.

The Remedial Method

As the name implies, this method is a practice whereby teachers devote some periods specifically for the
removal of common weakness among their pupils. During class teaching or the correction of class written
work and during a host of other activities, careful teachers will observe a variety of weakness, faulty practices
and misunderstanding. Teachers must devote some teaching periods to remove such common errors.

The Problem Solving Method

When confronted with a problem, normal human beings almost always endeavour to discover its solution, so
the problem method is related to the discovery of new facts. This contributes to the growth of knowledge.

Cooperative Method

All educational effort is to enable learners to acquire socially desirable knowledge, attitudes and skill
(dramatic method) etc.

Instructional Objectives
In accordance with what concrete result the teacher expects from the lesson he chooses his method with a
view to accomplishing those results.
Class Age or maturity of students: The teacher must choose a method that would suite the maturity of
the pupils or students. He must not forget that the methods are for the students but the students are not for
the methods.
The individuality of pupils/students: The teacher should not forget that there is a bid difference among
the pupils with regards to their disposition and ability to do school work. A bright student with very little to do
may cultivate habits of indolence and laziness in school, on the other hand, he may hasten to finish his work
in order to cause disorder, therefore, brighter students should be given as much work to do as possible.
Slow learners should be given simple work to do as well in order to motivate them to take more interest
in the lesson at hand.

Learning

According to James (2004) the primary function of the teacher is to facilitate learning by various means. In
other words, the intension of all teaching activities is to bring about learning. Therefore, it is impossible to
understand what teaching is, until we know what learning is. Learning is not only about verbal knowledge
acquired through institution, study and rote memory. Rather, modern and proper use of the term ‘learning’

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embraces work or activities in every aspect of life. To the psychologists, learning is a process which produces
progressive series of changes in behaviour and experience as a result of the sum total of all such changes.
The education considers learning to be a permanent change in behaviour which results from activity,
training or observation. As process, learning may be seen as the acquiring of new knowledge, ideas, skills,
values and experiences which enable the individual to modify or alter his/her action or to realise his/her
action or to realise his/her desired goals.
Learning can also be described as the permanent acquisition and habitual utilisation of the newly
acquired knowledge or experience. Therefore, learning must bring about permanent changes in the person
and the change must be in knowledge to be used, in character be acquired, in skills to be developed or an
attitude to be shaped. It is these changes that confirm learning. Learning is simply the conceptualisation of
meaningful experiences and it implies that whatever is said to have been learnt is:
 clearly perceived
 retained
 built over time
 can be put to work
 enhances being (survival)
 Affects or modifies behaviour
Learning can generally be sub-divided into three broad categories or types. These are:
- Cognitive learning (facts, ideas and knowledge)
- Affective learning (teaching attitudes, values)
- Manipulative learning (physical dexterity)
For any individual to survive or be a useful member of the society, learning in the three areas must take
place. The aim of learning is always some specific achievement such as:
- believing something one did not believe before
- acquiring a habit one did not believe before
- knowing something one did not know before

Objectives of Teachers and Method of Learning

Learning requires effective effort by the learner. Therefore, all objectives must be stated in terms of activities
that would best permit students learning. Specific objectives are the observable behaviour of students which
is expected at the end of the instruction.
Objective is an intention communicated by a statement describing a proposed change in the behaviour of
a learner at the end of instruction. It states what the learner will do or is expected to be able to do at the end
of the lesson as an evidence that learning has taken place.

Findings
 Teaching must be according to the school curriculum. The listener must pay attention to
the teacher.
 There must be cordial relationship among the teacher and learner
 The learner must be submissive
 The teacher must adopt so many methods which can be understandable to his pupils
 The teacher must be observant and know or emulate the characters of his student and
their age limit.

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Summary and Conclusion

Charting a way forward has always been a concern to progressive minds. For any profession to stand the
test of time, both inward and external examinations/assessment are desirable. In this paper, efforts have
been made to chart a part of forwardness for our noble profession. The expectation of both the school and
the world of work in terms of curriculum development was thoroughly looked into. The study concluded that
the school is doing an excellent job by equipping the learners and the teachers with the technical skill of the
world of work.

Recommendations

As a result of the findings above, the presenter hereby suggests the immediate implementation of the
following recommendations:
School curricular should include:
- Providing instruction materials for teaching
- The teachers will teach through the school syllabus
- The lesson plan must be well organised through whatever that is in the course content.
- Teacher and student must be present always
- Attendance must be necessary so that learning can be more effective
- There must be assessment to assess the learning ability.

References

Ngada, A.J. (2004). Principles and Practice of Effective Education

Usman, A. (2008). Handbook General Principles and methods in Education
Maduewesi, B.U. (1999). General Curriculum Methodology. Nigeria: Joy Educational Publishers
Oyekan, S.O. (2000). Fundamentals in Education. In: Osisa, W. (ed) Education for Nigeria Certificate in Education, Ondo: Adeyemi
College of Education Textbook Development Board
Smith, C.J. and Laslett, R. (1993). Effective Classroom Management: A Teachers Guide, New York. Routledge Taylor Francis Group
Ughamadu, K.A. (1992). Curriculum: Concept Development and Implementation. Onitsha: Emba Printing & Publishing Company Ltd
Yoloye, E.A. (1980). Developing and Under-developing in Education. badan: Ibadan University Press

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Myths and Realities: A Study Of Elechi Amadi’s The Concubine

Isaac, Messiah

Department Of General Studies,

Federal College Of Education (Technical), Omoku,Nigeria

Abstract Elechi Amadi is a prolific African writer and a literacy critic. He is of the view that literature is meant for aesthetic and
entertainment value. Any deviation from this position is a prostitution of literature. This paper discusses myths and realities; A
study of Elechi Amadi’s The Concubine. It examines the concepts of myths and realities. The paper gives a detailed account of
the concept of the sea-king as it affects the customs and tradition of the Ikwerre people of Rivers State of Nigeria where the
author hails from, with adequate examples from the text. The paper posits that Elechi Amadi’s The Concubine is a reality and not
a myth. Copious instances were cited to buttress this assertion.

Introduction

Elechi Amadi is the famous author if the trilogy: The Slave, The Great Ponds and The Concubine. In these
three works, the gods featured prominently. According to Elechi Amadi what informs his giving prominence to
the gods in his trilogy is to deviate from the norms of pre and post independence Nigerian writers like
Achebe, Soyinka and so on who featured the white man in their various works. In these three novels no white
man was mentioned but the African cultures and the influence of the gods in our daily activities were well
articulated.
The focus of this paper is to establish whether Elechi Amadi’s The Concubine is a myth or a reality.
Relevant passages would be cited to buttress my view point. The concept of myth and reality would be
enunciated.

The Concepts of Myths and Realites

According to Encyclopaedia Britannica (Vol. 12) (2003):

Myths are specific accounts concerning gods or super human beings and extra ordinary events or
circumstances in a time that is altogether different from that of ordinary human experience. As with all
religions symbolization, there is no attempt to prove that these unusual, transcendent, or divine events are
‘possible’, or otherwise to justify them (793).
Because of this reason, every myth presents itself as authoritative and always as an account of facts,
no matter how completely different they may be from the ordinary world. The original Greek term for myth is
“mythos”, which means “word” in the sense of a decisive, final pronouncement. It differs from “logos”, “the
word” whose validity or truth can be argued and demonstrated. Because myths present extraordinary events
without trying to justify them, people have sometimes assumed that myths are simple un-provable and false
stories and thus have made the world myth a synonym for fable.
Myths are accounts with an absolute authority that is implied rather than stated. They relate events and
states of affairs surpassing the ordinary human world, yet basic to that world; the time in which the related
event take place is altogether different from the ordinary historical time of human experience (and in most
cases is imaginably long ago). The actors in the narrative are usually gods or other extraordinary beings such
as animals, plants, the very first people or specific great men who changed the human condition. Many other
forms of literature share in one or more of the features of this definition of myth without becoming mythical.
In the study of folklore, according to Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia, “a myth is a sacred narrative
explaining how the world and human kind came to be in their present from” (1). The main characters in myths

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are usually gods, supernatural heroes and humans. As sacred stories, myths are often endorsed by rulers
and priest and closely linked to religion. In the society in which it is told, a myth is usually regarded as a true
account of the remote past.
Closely related to myth are legend and folktale. Myths, legends, and folktales are different types of
traditional story. Unlike myths, folktales can take place at any time and any place, and they are not
considered true or sacred by the societies that tell them. Like myth, legends are stories that are traditionally
considered true, but are set in a more recent time, when the world was much as it is today. Legends
generally feature humans as their main character, whereas myths generally focus on super human
characters.
The basic and most important function of myths that strikes the outside observer of any tradition is that
of explanation. Natural, social, cultural, and biological facts are explained by myth. Dynasties and ruling
families in several ancient civilization found justification of their positions in myths, which state that they
originated in the world of the gods or in heaven or from the sun or the moon (as in China, Egypt, Babylon, the
Hittite Empire, Polynesia, the Inca Empire, and India). Even the Ogba people claimed they originated from
Benin. According to Ohia (2004):
In Ogba, myth creation is a story telling event which presents fiction with some historical data to prove their
authenticity. The Ogba myths portray the dynamics of lively and theoretical art form with some characteristics
or features of literature. The mythic story is purportedly real but with a questionable veracity because of the
transience of oral communication (31).
Myths can describe the origin of the world, the end of the world, or a paradisiacal state. Thus a myth is
capable of describing what persons, using reason and observation that can never be scientifically proved.
However, the detailed analysis of myths, types, characteristics and various theories of myths is not the
effect which this paper wants to achieve. Our attention will now be focused on the concept of reality.

The Concept of Reality

“Reality” according to Wikipedia Encyclopedia (2011) “ is the state of things as they actually exist, rather
than as they may appear or might be imagined” (p.1). In a wider definition, reality includes everything that is
and has been, whether or not it is observable or comprehensible. A still more broad definition includes
everything that has existed, exists, or will exist, not just in the mind, or even more broadly also including what
is only in the mind.
Historically, philosophers have sometimes considered reality to include non existent things such as
“gold mountains” in a sense referred to as a subsistence, as well. By contrast existence is often restricted
solely to being compared with nature.
Reality is often contrasted with what is imaginary, delusional, in the mind, dreams, what is abstract,
what is false, or what is fictional. To reify is to make more real, and to abstract is the opposite. The truth
refers to what is real, while falsity refers to what is not. Fictions are not considered real.
According to Encyclopaedia Britannica (2003 vol. 15), “realism connotes any viewpoint that accords to
the objects of man’s knowledge an existence that is independent of whether he is perceiving or thinking
about them” (p. 539).
Having discussed the concept of myths and realities, we shall proceed further to establish whether
Elechi Amadi’s The Concubine is a myth or reality.

Myths and Realities in Elechi Amadi’s The Concubine

In Elechi Amadi’s The Concubine, the heroine, Ihuoma, is the wife of the sea-king. The name Ihuoma
according to Elechi Amadi is “beautiful face” or good luck” (p. 7). In the words of Nnolim (2009):

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What good luck is it, one may ask, which ensures that Ihuoma who is fecund and has several children, would
never know the joys of conjugal love? Her good luck bears in its train the curse of unhappiness, of repeated
in widowhood, of never knowing the joys which come from living for long with the marked men for whom she
unwittingly purveys death as their concubine (p 10).
Ihuoma, is the one clear case of the femme fatale, although she never intends to be one. When her
friend, Nnenda praises her beauty she protests: “I don’t want to look beautiful … Beauty seems to carry
sorrow with it … ugly people do not seem to suffer as much as the beautiful” (p. 35).
Indeed, Ihuoma’s remarkable beauty tinged with sorrow bewitches all beholders, both men and women:
“the tired look on her face gave way to a sweet youth expression, softly alluring, deeply enchanting, which
had a bewitching subtlety that only deep sorrow can give … young men and even the old gazed at her
irresistibly” (p. 36). Ihuoma’s beauty occasions unsolicited comments from friend and foe alike. The author
asserts:
Ihuoma’s complexion was that of the ant – hill. Her features were smoothly rounded and looking at her
no one could doubt that she was “enjoying her husband’s wealth” (p. 10). Her smiles were disarming.
Perhaps the upper row of her white regular teeth did the trick. At that time a gap in the teeth was fashionable.
Any girl who was not favoured with one employed the services of carvers who could create them (p.11).
Ihuoma was an epitome of beauty and good behaviour. Elechi Amadi sees her as a role model for other
women. He remarks:
She was sympathetic, gentle, reserved. It was her husband’s boast that in their six years of marriage
she had never had any serous quarrel with another women. She was not good at invectives and other
women talked faster than she did … In this way her prestige among the women folk grew until even the most
garrulous among them was reluctant to be unpleasant to her . she found herself settling quarrels and offering
advice to older women (pp. 11-12).
Ihuoma’s good nature was so undisputed that the unheard of happened. Potential rivals in love were
willing to yield her pride of place if their husband decided to bring her in as a second wife. Elechi Amadi might
have stretched the point quite far, but Wolu, Madume’s first wife was glad to yield her place as number one
wife in their house hold, if her husband decides to marry Ihuoma. She observes:
She’s just a well-behaved woman who takes good care of herself … she is about the best woman in the
village … I would gladly be the second wife where she is the first; not the reverse … she is .. she is … better
than I (pp. 54-55).
When Ekwueme first told his mother, Adaku, that he was contemplating marrying Ihuoma, she
expressed reservations because Ihuoma was too good for him:
If you are thinking of Ihuoma, forget her she is easily the best woman in the village. She can’t do anything
shameful (p. 92).
With her graceful carriage, Ekwueme came near to worshipping her” and:
The women adored her. Men were awestruck before her. She was becoming something of a phenomenon
(p.153). But Ihuoma was not happy. Elechi Amadi took recourse to the myth of the sea king as the cause of
unhappiness for this perfect model with a curse on her head. When Ekwueme told her that she was beautiful,
she protested: I am not responsible for my beauty … Besides, beauty does not always mean happiness. I
have not been a very happy woman (p. 214).
Events prove her right. Her first husband, Emenike had suddenly died of lock-chest. Big-eyed Madume
who had manhandled her and later contemplated marrying her had committed suicide when a spitting cobra
blinded him. And when Ekwueme became her second husband and she looked forward to being happy
again, her son’s arrow kills Ekwueme.
Nnolim questions, “why all this concatenation of unhappy occurrences? Amadi has recourse to
mythology to prove that these occurrences are not just happen stance” (p. 13).
According to Anyka, the native doctor:

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Ihuoma belongs to the sea. When she was in the spirit world she was a wife of the sea king, the ruling spirit
of the sea. Against the advice of her husband she sought the company of human beings and was incarnated.
The sea – king was very angry but because he loved her best of all his wives he did not destroy her
immediately she was born. He decided to humour her and let her live out her normal earthly span and come
back to him. However because of his great love for her he is terribly jealous and tries to destroy any man who
makes love to her (p. 195).
The diviner also confirms that as soon as Emenike married Ihuoma his life was forfeit and nothing
would have saved him, “ and that “Madume’s real trouble began after he assaulted Ihuoma while she was
harvesting plantains. Added to this was the fact that he had a secret desire to make Ihuoma his lover or
maybe marry her. All this was too much for the sea-king and he himself assumed the form of a serpent and
dealt with his rival” (P. 195).
Nnolim noted that in Nigerian fiction, “Ihuoma is the best realized example of the femme fatale which
enunciates the myth of the ‘castrating female’ or the dangerous woman who is a siren luring men to their
death with her bewitching beauty and song” (p. 13).
Ihuoma’s beauty prompts Ekwueme to a death wish; “if” he says, “marrying a woman like her is a fatal
mistake I am prepared to make it. If I am her husband for a day before my death my soul will go singing
happily to the spirit world” (p. 197). And so it happened. Ekwueme’s death wish has been fulfilled. He has
answered the call of the siren.
Even though Elechi Amadi’s The Concubine has been seen as a mythical novel by notable literary
critics such as professors Charles Nnolim, Chidi Maduka among others, because of the prominence of the
gods in the novel, it can also be examined as a realistic novel. This is because the heroine Ihuoma and other
major characters such as Emenike, Ekwueme and Madume are real names of persons in a real life situation.
The setting of the novel is Omokachi, a fictional town in Ikwerre kingdom of Rivers State Nigeria.
In the novel the cultures of the Ikwerre people such as wrestling, dancing, hunting, farming, marriage
ceremonies and elaborate burial rites were highlighted. These are qualities of a novel that can be classified
as a realistic novel. In their six years of marriage Emenike and Ihuoma lived peacefully and were a perfect
match. This is manifested in Emenike’s appreciation of his wife, Ihuoma dancing steps:
‘Now dance’ he said. She danced less seriously now, her checks dimpled with suppressed laughter. He
husband embraced her in the traditional way and gave her the money. ‘Thank you, my lord; she said and
made for the kitchen (p. 13).
After the sudden death of Emenike, elaborate burial rites were organized for him, just as it is performed
in real life situation in Ikwerre kingdom. According to Elechi Amadi, the author:
The song composed in Emenike’s honour was sung with unavoidable melancholy. The tune was charming
but the words were sad. Even Wakiri’s usually clear voice was tremulous as he sang the first stanza:
Do you know that Emenike is dead?
Eh – Eh – Eh
We fear the big wide world;
Eh – Eh – Eh
Do not plan for the morrow,
Eh – Eh – Eh (p. 28).
Ekwueme is presented as an accomplished hunter in the novel. He killed several animals. When he was
wooing Ihuoma, he presented her with animal as a gift. Amadi writes:
The sun was scarcely overhead when he came back with two prize animals – a porcupine and antelope
–slung behind him … ‘wait and have your share; he said. He cut off a huge chunk. Nkechi fetched a large
cocoyam leaf and wrapped it up. Ihuoma turned to go (p. 204).
Several instances to demonstrate that Amadi’s The Concubine falls in the realm of realism abound in
the novel. There are marriage ceremonies between Ekwueme and Ahurole, Emenike and Ihuoma, Madume
and Wolu among others; farming, the main occupation of the Ikwerre people is also highlighted in the novel.

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Various inter community wrestling matches were organized in the novel. All these instances are examples of
a r ealistic novel.
In an oral interview with the author Elechi Acadi at the post graduate school in University of Port
Harcourt in 2003 organized by professor Chidi Maduka the issue of the novel, The Concubine being
classified as a mythical novel by literary critics was raised. Amadi vehemently refused. He remarked that he
never sat down to write a mythical novel. He noted that the worship of the gods, Amadioha, Ojukwu and the
sea-king are part of the cultures and traditions of the Ikwerre people. Therefore, the novel cannot be
classified as a myth but a realistic novel.
Based on this premise and a detailed examination of the novel, The Concubine one does not require a
soothsayer to divine that the novel is a reality and not a myth.

Conclusion

It is pertinent to note that the concept of the gods as typified by the sea-king abound in our daily lives. There
are instances of women that and barren; some losing their husbands to the cold hands of death early in their
marriages. When oracles are consulted the sad occurrences will be attribute4d to the evil machination of their
spiritual husbands or the sea-king.
In this paper, the concepts of myths and realities were discussed. Copious examples in the novel were
cited to demonstrate whether the novel is a myth or reality. However, it is the position of this paper that Elechi
Amadi’s The Concubine is a reality and not a myth. It is our belief that this paper will contribute immensely
towards further researches on myths and realities in African literature.

References

Amadi, Elechi (1978). The concubine. London: Heinemann Educational books Ltd.
Encyclopaedia Britannica (vol. 12 15th Edition 2003). USA: Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc.
Encyclopaedia Britannica vol. 15 15th Edition (2003) USA: Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc.
“Myth.” Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia (2011). Retrieved 20th August 2011 from www.wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Htm
Nnolim, Charles. (2009). Issues in African literature. Yenagoa: Treasure Resource communication limited.
Ohia, Ben-Fred (2003) “Ogba myths of origin”. Unpublished M.A. Thesis University of Port Harcourt.
“Reality”. Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia (2011). Retrieved 22nd August 2011 from www.wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Htm .

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Globalization and Factor Mobility

Timothy A.Falade– Obalade

School of Management,
New York Institute of Technology, Amman, Jordan

AbstractA large number of works have been done about globalization via factor mobility and its various effects on the global
world economy. This paper aims at discussing the most important aspects of globalization and factor mobility, andits major
impact on the World at large. In the first section of this report, the concepts of globalization and factor mobility are identified,
while in the second section forces causing the accelerated growth of globalization are discussed. Then, the author thoroughly
identified and discussed the advantages and disadvantages of globalization, and the main challenges facing the idea. The
remainder of the report discusses factor mobility in four folds, i.e. forms of factor mobility, why factor of production move, the
effect of their movement in the world, and finally, the relationship between factor mobility and global trade. The report concludes
with the author’s recommendations and suggestions on how to counter the challengesof globalization while maintaining
individual nation’s ability to reap all its magnificent benefits. Upon completion of reading this report, readers are expected to have
a deeper and better understanding of the concept of globalization as related to factor mobility.
Keywords: Globalization, Factor Mobility, Capital, Labour, Raw material, Technology and Trade

Introduction

Globalization: “Globalization has changed us into a company that searches the world, not just to sell or to
source, but to find intellectual capital - the world's best talents and greatest ideas”-Jack Welch
The Term Globalization is so powerful such that it’s difficult to create a compact definition of it. It may be
defined from different perspectives and in several ways. One can say Globalization refers to the combination
of Economics and Societies all over the world. It connects technological, economic, political, and cultural
exchanges made possible by the progress in transportation, infrastructure, and communication. An
alternative definition would be increasing linkages between the world, including the international spread of
cultures as well as diseases and crimes, while natural and artificial barriers between nations fall. Finally, the
most well-known definition is referring to Globalization as the shrinking of the world into a global village, as
borders disappear, distance decreases, and time shorten. Globalization is displayed in the growth of world
trade as a share of output, the percentage of world imports to gross world product GWP increased from 7%
in 1938 to 10% in1970 and to more than 18% in 1996. This is reflected in the surge of foreign direct
investment (FDI): FDI in developing countries rose from $2.2 billion in 1970 to $154 billion in 1997. It has also
accrued in national capital markets becoming integrated.
The source of Globalization lies in the development of technology. The cost of Transportation,
communication, and travel has fallen dramatically in the last period, almost roughly because of the
advancement of technology. Here are some facts: Average revenue per passenger mile fell by more than
80% between 1930 and 1990, from $0.68 to $0.11. In 1947, average tariffs on manufactures imports where
47%, but by 1980 they went down to 6%. A three minute call from the USA to Britain cost $12, whereas today
it costs .48 cents. Globalization refers to the integration of economics and societies all over the world. There
are two kinds of Integration, Negative and Positive. Positive Integration concentrates on standardizing
international economic laws and guidelines. For Example, A country with its own set of Policies on tariffs with
a country which has its own policies on taxation find ways of trading together. With Positive Integration, and
the expansion of globalization, these countries work to have related or even equivalent policies on tariffs.
Negative Integration is the elimination of trade barriers or defensive barriers as quotas and tariffs. The
removal of barriers can benefit a country if such removal is for products that are necessary for the economy.
For Example, by breakingdown barriers, the total cost of imported raw material will decrease as the supply

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goes up, making it cheaper to produce the final product for export (Car parts, clothes etc.). On the other
hand, the total cost of importation will also decrease
Factor Mobility: Factor Mobility can be defined as the movement of factors of production like Natural
resources, Labor, Technology, and capital from their original domain to be put to a productive use inother
locations. There are many effects of Factor Mobility on the Host and Home Countries, Positive as well as
negative. Factor mobility rose as globalization expanded over the years.

Methodology

In this research, the author identified the concept of globalization and its challenges, the advantages and
disadvantages of globalization on societies as a whole and in sub groups. The challenges in achieving global
integration and perfect globalization are also discussed along with solutions to identified obstacles.In this
research, I reviewed several literatures in collecting data, and in subsequent analysis of issues relating to the
concept of globalization, its history and evolution throughout the years. In addition, the opinions of
entrepreneurs, other Scholars and experts in the field of globalization were sought, collected and analysed to
reveal both; the bright and the dark side of the phenomenon of global integration.Consequently; solutions
were suggested and recommendations madeabout how to remove some of the obstacles that could occur in
the process of true Globalization.

The Forces Driving Globalization

Measuring globalization could be a problematic issue, especially,in making historical comparisons. First,
countries interdependencymust be measured indirectly. Second, when national boundaries shift (for example:
the breakup of the former Soviet Union or the reunification of East and West Germany), some hitherto
domestic business transactions can then become international transaction and vice versa. In addition,
various reliable indicators assure that globalization has been increasing in the recent years, at least since the
mid-twentieth century. Currently, about 25% of the world production is sold outside their respective countries
of origin, as opposed to about 7% in 1950. Restrictions on imports have generally been decreasing, and
output from foreign-owned investments as a percentage of world production has been increasing. In almost
every year since World War II, world trade has grown more rapidly than world production. However, in
recessionary periods such as 2008, global trade and investment contract grew even more. However,
globalization is less pervasive than anyone might believe. Most of the world (including rural Africa, Asia, and
Latin America to name a few), lack the resources to establish more than the barest connection with anyone
beyond the outskirts of their isolated domains. Only few countries are able to either sell over half their
products abroad or depend on foreign output for over half their consumption. That means that most of the
world’s goods and services are still sold in their domestic markets and not in international markets. These
measurements address only the economic aspects of global interdependence. Various studies have relied on
different indicators for comparison. One of the most comprehensive is the A.T. Kearney- Foreign Policy
Globalization Index, Which shows not only that some countries are more globalized than others but also that
a given country may be highly globalized on one dimension and not on another. This index ranks 72
countries across four dimensions:
1- Economic - International trade and investment.
2- Technological – Internet connectivity.
3- Personal contact – International travel and tourism, international telephone traffic, and personal
transfers of funds internationally.
4- Political- Participation in international organizations and government monetary transfers.

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In the recent years, the index has ranked Singapore and Hong Kong as the most globalized countries and
India and Iran as the least globalized. The ranking of the United States shows how globalization can differ by
dimension: The United States ranks first on the technological scale but only 71st on the economic scale.

Factors in Increased Globalization

Many Companies go international to be able to increase the value of their business, as well as the value of
their profit. Therefore; it became imperative for companies to build a long term, sustainable business. There
are many factors that companies need to develop to be able to survive in the global market, E.g. The
following are a number of factors that have contributed to the increase in growth globalization in recent
decades:
1- Increase in and expansion of technology.
2- Liberalization of cross-border trade and resource movements.
3- Development of services that support international business.
4- Growing consumer pressures. (both local & international)
5- Increased global competition.
6- Changing political situation and climate.
7- Expanded cross-national cooperation

There are a number of other factors that make rapid international expansion a necessity, rather than an
option to be reviewed when the time is right. Those factors include the following:

Market transparency

In the good old days, 8-10 years ago, software companies could develop a product, market it at home, and
then quietly start to sell their technology in overseas markets, often going after one market at a time. With the
Internet, however, a product or a business concept is there for everyone to see, as a result, competitors in
overseas markets are able to replicate the product or service. There have been many cases of U.S.
companies going to Europe, only to find that their business model, their name and even their Website have
been replicated.

Emerging markets

While the U.S. is still the dominant force in technology development, we today see a lot of innovation from
new markets such as Sweden, Israel, South Africa, India, Singapore and China. Quite often, the levels of
innovation displayed are impressive, this implies that the U.S. companies will be facing new competitors not
from other advancedcountries, but from the emerging ones and targeting the same markets. This will
increase the competition for clients and channels of distribution, all the benefit of the average consumer
World Wide.

Geographic diversity

There are three major trading blocks in the world economy: North America, Europe and Asia-Pacific. These
major trading blocks, don’t move up and down in the same time as they are the most affected ones in the
market, so a company can make itself less vulnerable according to the demand in one region by having a
diverse source of revenues. This emerged after the Internet bubble and the technology of telecom. The
European market, while slowing down, was not hit as hard as the U.S. market, so companies with significant
operations in Europe were able to partially offset the slower sales at home.

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Globalization Advantages

Globalization has had significant impacts on all economies of the world. It affects their production of goods
and services; it also affects the employment of labour and other inputs into the production process.
Globalization also affects investment in all its forms; it affects technology and its transition from developed
countries to developing and under-developed Ones. It has great effects on productivity, efficiency, and
competitiveness in both local and international markets. Globalization has many positive, innovative and
dynamic effects, which have led the world to produce great economies, great income, and good employment
opportunities. Some examples of these good benefits are listed below:
1. Increased Competition:
One of the most positive and visible effects of globalization is the improved quality of goods and services due
to global competition. As domestic companies have to fight out foreign competition, they are forced to raise
their standards and levels of concernabout customer satisfaction issues, in order to survive in the global
market. This on-going fight creates competition in the market and a situation where the best and the fittest
only can survive.
2. Employment:
Employment is one of the positive and negative effects of globalization, depending on the point of view of
each nation. Globalization has given a lot of opportunities to invest in developing, under-developed, and
emerging markets, and also brought out hidden talents and skills which are available globally. On the
negative side, developed countries have lost jobs due to the movement of jobs and investment opportunities
to developing countries, thus it is a pinch felt by developed countries and people of the “first world” too. The
impact of globalization has affected the employment of women as well, as greater trade openness has
increased women’s share of paid employment, as well as multinationals companies having to employ more
and more female workers around the world, especially in Asia and in Africa.
3. Investment and Capital Flows:
One of the most visible effects of globalization is the flow of foreign trade and capital. India has been one of
the most developing countries with more cash and investment flow than other countries. Indian companies
which have been performing well, both in India and offshore, haveattracted a lot of foreign investment, thus
pushing up the reserve of foreign exchange available to India.
Trade flow also increased 12-fold in the past fifty years as a result of the removal of natural and artificial
barriers. Exports are now US $7 trillion a year, with more than a fifth of the world’s goods and services being
traded. Capital flows expanded even faster, with Foreign Direct Investment amounting to US$400 billion in
1997, seven times its real level in the 1970’s and portfolio and other short-term capital flows amounted to US
$2 trillion in gross terms, three times what they were in the ‘80’s. These in turn pave wayfor what has
happened in the foreign exchange markets, where volumes increased over a hundred times between the
mid-70’s and the mid-90’s, with a US $1.5 trillion daily turnover in 1998. At the same time, international bank
lending grew more than sixteen times, from US $265 million in 1973 to US $4.2 trillion in 1994.
4. Foreign Trade:
While trade originated in the times of early kingdoms, it has been developed and institutionalized due to
globalization. People had to involve in wars and destroy other nations in order to get what they want, but
today, it is done in a more human and civilized way through fair trade, Mutual Corporation, trade block
agreements and multilateral organizations. A Nation which practice unfair trade or operate in an uncivilized
way has to face the WTO and other world organizations that have been established to regulate and control
international trade activities, and to draw proper consequences to unfair trade practices among and between
countries and nations.
5. Spread of Technical Know-How
Without globalization, the knowledge of new inventions and technical know-how would remain kept in the
developed and rich countries which invented them, and the rest of the world would not benefit. But due to

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globalization and the essential role of WTO, there is flow of information all over the world. The spread of
technological know-how was also expanded to include political and economic knowledge; which too has
spread far and wide.
6. Cultural Integration:
The world as we know it today is the result of several cultures coming together. Societies have become larger
as they welcomed people from other backgrounds and civilizations to create a whole new culture of their
own. The world has become a small village, and traditions, customs, diets, and different languages have
spread all over the world due to globalization.
7. Spread of Education:
The spread of education is one of the most positive and powerful effects of globalization, especially on
women all over the world. Today, a person living in Saudi Arabia can go to another continent for new
experiences and educational purposes which one might not find in the home country, and return with great
amount of experience and knowledge to spread in their home country. The impact of education on women is
even greater, for it made women around the world to gain opportunities for jobs and have better chances to
secure their rightful share in employment opportunities.
8. Legal and Ethical Effects
Due to globalization, countries and security agencies of the world have developed understanding and
commitment amongst themselves to prevent and fight global terrorism and other cross border crimes. It is no
longer possible for criminals to hide and seek asylum in a foreign country away from their home Countries,
but instead,they will most likely be brought to their home country to face the justice system therein. This is
definitely one of the greatest effects of globalization on societies and global security.
9. Foundation of Organizations for Environmental and Social Concerns
Over the years, humans have done great amount of damage to themselves and to the environment around
them, through the industrial revolution and wars throughout the years. Nations have decided to come
together to find a way to save the world from themselves, by finding organizations monitoring climate change
and global warming, as well as those which look after the welfare of animals and marine life all over the
world. The ability to protect the environment and the world has been one of the most positive effects of
globalization and the overall welfare of the world.
Those were some of the positive and bright side of globalization and its effects on nations and human
beings around the world. Other benefits from globalization include the gains from trade in which both parties
gain in a mutually beneficial exchanges, where the "parties" can be individuals, firms and other organizations,
nations, trading blocs, continents, or other entities. Globalization can also result in increased productivity as a
result of the rationalization of production on a global scale and the spread of technology and competitive
pressures for continual innovation on a worldwide basis.

Globalization Disadvantages & Challenges

“Accordingly, globalization is not only something that will concern and threaten us in the future, but something
that is taking place in the present and to which we must first open our eyes”- Ulrich Beck
What is the harm if the whole world is coming together on one floor? Why do people even discuss if
Globalization is bad for the world? Whereas; the world has benefited from Globalization, there are also
negative aspects of it. The bad side of Globalization (disadvantages) centers around the fact that desires
differs from one country to another, coming to a general agreement that any issue becomes more difficult
when much permission are needed. The difference between the poor and rich countries can be a major
difficulty when it comes to globalization. Even thought the rich countries will try to help the poor nations to
grow, they (the Wealthy Nations) will not give up on their national concerns.

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Disadvantages of Globalization

1. Economic Contagion
When the entire world becomes a global Village, any kind of economic interruption in one nation will have a
huge impact on several other nations, which are closely related to it in terms of trade and commerce. A
disturbance in one Country will result in a chain of multiple disturbances in the other nations.
2. Loss of Cultural Identities
Critics of Globalization say that it will restrict some age-old cultures, which have been religiously practiced all
over the world. There are many countries that won’t even think to adjust when it comes to religion and
culture. The effect of local cultures, habits, and traditions will slowly get compromised, as migration will
become easier. This could lead to loss of Cultural Sovereignty for many Nations. For example, when we look
at the young people of today in any given country, you will find a great similarity in most of them in terms of
the choices of music, appearance and dress codes, Expressions, eating habits and so on. This is as a result
of Globalization; there is nothing local anymore.
3. Unemployment
Some people feel that Globalization is promoting Employment, but the fact is that the opposite is happening.
Certainly in developed countries where people are losing their jobs because if outsourcing (Cheap and skilled
labor overseas). For Example a huge number of companies in Europe and USA have outsourced a lot of their
jobs to developing nations (China, India, Mexico etc.) in order to cut cost, and this often resulted in
unemployment in the home countries.
4. Human Insecurity (Spread of Diseases)
Crimes and diseases are now more rampant than ever, Globalization leads to many cross border crimes
such as: drugs, weapons, woman and children trafficking and also to modern day slavery. The outcome of
this includes the spread of sexually communicable disease like HIV/Aids and other social vices. The free
movement between the boundaries of each country today has come with surge in cross border crimes and
created tension in many hot spots wherein, the population growth are not met with increase in means of
livelihood, Improvements in infrastructures, Security and general economic activities
5. Unbalanced distribution of Benefits!
Between Countries, the benefits are not distributed equally. Wealth of developed countries continues to grow
twice as much as those of the developing world.
Within Countries, Income inequity is rising in developed and developing countries, which lead to
unemployment and low-income security for unskilled labor. For Example, an IT professional in a developed
country may get more value for his work than in a developing country.
6. Contagion of corruption
In addition to other cross border crimes, Globalization also allows Corruption or at least contributes to the
growth of it in the developing Nations. For Example, a lot of multinational corporations have been caught
committing the crime of corruption, which would have attracted severe punitive measures in their home
countries. The Case of Halliburton bribing Government officials to secure Multi Million dollars Contract in the
Energy sector in Nigeria readily comes to mind.
7. Affects Local Industries (in third World Countries)
When foreign goods enter the local market, and local consumers begin to buy them with excessive
preference, it is usually at the expense of the local goods, precisely in loss of sales, and therefore loss of
revenue to the local producers in the developing countries. This in turn affects the growth of local industries in
the developing Countries, and the collateral effects include unemployment and evaporation in purchasing
power and subsequent decline in overall GDP in these Countries

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Challenges of Globalization

Globalization faces four dramatic challenges that will have to be addressed by different governments, civil
societies, and other policy actors.
1. Guarantee that all the benefits of Globalization extend to all countries. This will not happen
automatically without the requisite platform to facilitate it.
2. Deal with the concern that Globalization may lead to instability, which is mainly in the developing
countries.
3. Globalization and all its major problems must not be used as an excuse to eliminate searching for
new ways to cooperation between the world’s countries for their benefits.
4. Face the main fear of Globalisation in the industrial world, i.e. a rise in global competition could lead
to a decrease in wages, labour rights, and a decline in the overall economic environment.

Factor – Mobility Theory

Factor mobility refers to the ability to move factors of production – labor, capital or land - out of one
production domain to another. On one hand factor mobility may involve the movement of factors between
firms within one industry, as when one steel plant closes but sells its production equipment to another steel
firm. Factor mobility may involve the movement of factors across industries within a country, as when a
worker leaves employment at a textile firm and begins work at an automobile factory. On a broader scope,
mobility may involve the movement of factors between countries either within industries or across industries,
as when a farm worker in Bangladesh migrates to Saudi Arabia to work in a factory or when a factory is
located away from its country of origin.
The standard assumptions in the literature are that factors of production are free and costless in
mobility between firms within an industry and between industries within a country, but are immobile between
countries. The rationale for the first assumption, that factors are freely mobile within an industry, is perhaps
closest to reality. The skills acquired by workers and the productivity of capital are likely to be very similar
across firms producing identical or closely substitutable products. Although, there would likely be some
transition costs incurred, such as the cost of location (market) search, transportation and other transactions,
but it still remains reasonable to assume for simplicity that the transfer of factors is costless.
The assumption that factors are easily movable across industries within a country is probably
unrealistic, especially in the short-run. Indeed this assumption has been a standard source of criticism for
traditional trade models. In the Ricardian and Huckster-Ohlin models, factors are assumed to be
homogeneous and freely and costless mobile between industries. When changes occur in the economy
requiring the expansion of one industry and a contraction of another, it just happens. There are no search,
transportation or transaction costs. There is no unemployment of resources. Also, since the factors are
assumed to be homogeneous, once transferred to a completely different industry, they immediately become
just as productive as the factors that had originally been employed in that industry. Clearly, these conditions
cannot be expected to hold in very many realistic situations. For some, this inconsistency is enough to cast
doubt on all of the propositions that result from these theories.
The final issue on Factors mobility involves the mobility of factors of production between countries. In
most international trade models, factors are assumed to be immobile across borders. Traditionally, most
workers remain in their country of national origin due to immigration restrictions while capital controls have in
some periods restricted international movements of capital. When international factor mobility is not possible,
trade models demonstrate how national gains can arise through trading in goods and services.
Of course, international mobility can and does happen to varying degrees. Workers migrate across
borders, sometimes in violation of immigration laws, while capital flows readily across borders in today's
markets. The implications of international factor mobility have been addressed in the context of some trade

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models. A classic result by Mundell (1957) demonstrates that international factor mobility can act as a
substitute for international trade in goods and services.

Why Do Production Factors Move

Capital

Factors mobility concerns the free movement of factors of production, such as labor, capital, raw material and
technology across national borders. While the proportions of factor mobility vary widely among countries,
pressures exist for the most abundant factors to move to countries with greater scarcity, where they can
command a better return on investment.
Companies and private individuals first and foremost transfer capital because of differences in expected
returns. They find information on interest rate differences readily available, and they can transfer capital
immediately at a low cost. While capital is the most internationally mobile factor, short-term capital is the most
mobile of all. Short-term capital is more mobile than long term capital such as direct investment because,
there is more likely to be active markets through which investors can quickly buy foreign holdings and sell
them if they want to transfer capital back home or to another country.
Investors’ perception of risks and where they prefer to invest their capital is mainly affected by various
economic and political conditions. Most companies invest long term abroad to enter new foreign markets that
are competitive e.g. lower operating costs. Yet businesses i.e. MNE’s (Multi National Enterprises) are not the
only source of international capital movements. Government’s agencies and other related authorities give
foreign aid and loans. Also, Non-for-profit organizations such as NGO’s donate funds to nations in need, e.g.
nations suffering from bad economic and social conditions such as wars. And not to forget Also, Individuals
migrant workers who remit funds back to their families and friends in their home Countries. Regardless of the
donor or motive, the result affects factor endowments.

People

People are also internationally mobile, although less that capital. On daily bases, people move from one
country to another for several reasons including, tourism, education and work. People who travel for the first
two reasons i.e. tourism and education do not affect factor endowment of the host nation because they don’t
work in it. While people who move to another nation for the main purpose of work, do affect factor
endowment of the host nation. Unlike capital that is transferred between nations at a low cost, people usually
pay high measurable cost to work in another country. If they move legally, they must get immigration papers
and pay for transportations; in addition, most countries give these documents scarcely. Cost is not the only
obstacle facing people movement; other difficulties may include learning new language, adjusting to new
culture and living away from their main support groups i.e. family and friends. Despite all these obstacles, a
lot of people take the risk and move to foreign countries primarily out necessity.
In fact, migration was the major engine of globalization during the latter part of the nineteenth and
early part of the twentieth centuries, and nowadays; it is important again. About 3% of the words population -
over 200 million people - have immigrated to other countries. This percentage is spread unevenly; therefore
it’s much greater in some countries than in others.
Of the people who move to other nations, some stays permanently i.e. spend the rest of their lives in
the host countries, in other words they become citizens of the host countries, while other move temporarily
i.e. with the intention of going back to their home countries later. For instance, multinational companies often
assign people to work abroad for a given time of period that could be months or years, after which the
employee return to his home country. Plus, some countries allow workers to enter on temporary work permits
usually for short periods. For example, about two-thirds of the populations in the United Arab Emirates are

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temporary workers. In a nutshell, most people leave their countries with the intention of coming back after
saving a certain amount of money in their work abroad expeditions.

Two Key Motives for People Movement:

1- Economic Motives
People, whether professionals or unskilled workers, mostly work in another country for economic reasons.
For example, Indonesian labours work in Malaysia because they can make almost ten times as much per
day, as they could if at home.
2- Political Motives
People also move for political reasons. For example, because of persecution or dangers of war and other
social instability, in which case they are known as refugees and usually become part of the labour pool in
their new homelands i.e. where they find refugee (e.g. people fleeing the wars in Iraq, Libya, Yemen, and
Syria). Sometimes it’s difficult to distinguish between economic and political motives associated with
international labour mobility, because poor economic conditions often accompany repressive and or
uncertain political conditions. For example, in the early twenty-first century, hundreds of thousands of
Colombians left the country, fleeing both a civil war and unemployment.

Technology and Raw Material

Technology and raw materials move across borders due to scarcity. While some countries are rich in raw
materials (i.e. oil in Saudi Arabia) and /or technology (e.g. Japan) other countries suffer from shortages in
one or both of them. Furthermore; with the presence of globalization today, the world is witnessing an
increased relocation of production from the technology rich countries towards low labor cost countries. On
one hand, the technology rich countries have a vast pool of advanced technology. On the other hand, the
developing markets demand for technology –in terms of know how and hardware- is significantly increasing,
these countries rely on exporting the needed production factors (technology and/or raw materials) to cover
their shortages. Needless to say, countries exporting these factors will obtain foreign income in return, which
would be used in funding budgetary provisions and public policy initiatives. Furthermore, both technology and
raw materials are essential in the production process. While technology is a medium or mechanism of
production, raw materials are vital inputs in the production process.

The Effects of Factor Mobility

The factor mobility theory of trade factors focuses on the reasons why production factors move (labour,
capital, technology, and raw materials), and the effects that such movements have on Globalization and
world trade. It is essential to understand why those factors move, how they move, and the effects of their
movement on both the home and the host countries, and also their overall effect on global integration.

Labor

A very controversial issue is the effect of labour migration on both home and host countries. On one hand,
countries lose productive resources when skilled and educated labour force move to an another country,
creating a phenomenon called "Brain Drain"; which means the migration of skilled knowledgeable people to
foreign countries. On the other hand, the home country will receive money from people who work abroad;
which directly contribute to the increase of GDP and GNP; which always mean better quality of life and
greater standards of living. For example, Ecuador lost almost five percent of its population between the years
of 1999 and 2001, including 10,000 teachers and many other people with important skills; however, many of

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those people are now responsible for the livelihood of many other people at home by sending remittances
back to their home country. It is evident that the movement of labour gives great chances to begin new small
businesses in the home country. Additionally, these immigrants learn different languages, Technical
expertise, management skills and other ideas abroad and transfer them to their home countries. This
movement of labour eventually leads to economic growth in both home and host countries, and offers a
solution to the unemployment problem in their home countries. As for the host countries, the advantages as
well as the disadvantages are many. The advantages include having cheap skilled labour (on the short-run);
when labour migrate to a new country, it is rather right to say that they would settle for any salary and any
living circumstances. But after gaining experience and better status at work, they will start asking for higher
salaries and better standards of work environment. Also, population growth due to migration of labour leads
to bigger market size; and great changes in the market demographics to cover all levels of society. No
wonder that all of this can generate prosperity in the economy, and even great growth in all aspects of life.
The disadvantages cannot go unnoticeable. The risk of unemployment among the citizens of the home
countries always remains a great concern; due to the labour influx to these countries with foreign workers
taking jobs from the natives. Also, when population grows, stress on the infra-structure would increase; which
could lead to bigger problems in the future for the government of the host countries. True globalization would
not be possible if, labour did not move from one country to another, taking different languages, cultures, and
traditions from one place to another, and across the world.

Capital

Capital moves because of its importance in the production process, for gaining bigger market share, for
brand globalization, for security of investment, to facilitate free trade among nations, and for the fact that
investors are always looking better and more returns on their investments. Capital movement has its own
effects on both home and host countries, because capital is one of the most important factors of production
that is directly linked to globalization in so many aspects. When capital flies to a foreign country, it creates
better investment opportunities and batter chance to initiate successful FDI. (Foreign Direct Investments)
Additionally, new markets can emerge due to new investments and new product lines for new trends and
different life styles. New Products and services come to the market due newly identified opportunities. The
risk of nationalizing the new investment is always kept on mind; where the government can force individuals
or multinationals to nationalize their investment. Cross-border investment and losing the investment to foreign
hands is also a disadvantage that can occur from capital flight to a foreign nation.
As for the country sending the capital away, there would be advantages as well as disadvantages.
Cross-border economic growth is one of the most considerable advantages; where the out-of –the- country
investment can generate income which is sent back to the home country; which in turn can be translated to
growth in local economy; the ultimate purpose of every nation.
The risk of foreign hands taking over the local's economy is always a fear when sending capital to
initiate investment in a foreign country. On the long run that can appear to be an obstacle facing any country
considering FDI, or any other form of investment.

Technology

Technology transfer has its own effects on countries and contributes to the facilitation of globalization. When
a country exports technology to foreign countries; that often means income earning generated from sales of
technology to foreign countries. More money and income coming to any country contributes directly to the
Balance of Trade and balance of Payment (more exports than imports is always good news). This economic
growth leads to the creation of new jobs in the local market; as solving the unemployment problem is the no.1
priority to any nation. As for the host country receiving the technology, besides the fact that it is needed in the

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production process as an essential production input, it also contributes to the economy of scales; where the
nation becomes slowly industrialized and begins to manufacture goods locally. Local industrial growth is
closely related to improving standards of living, as well as increasing the GDP of the nation. Employment is
also present in the bigger picture; as new jobs are being offered in new industries and factories.
The disadvantages of gaining new technologies are also present; as the pollution and environmental
problems can occur due to growth in industries. Human-skills exploitation and human-rights abuses cannot
go unmentioned; as people work in the expected new factories and plants, they are often exploited because,
they tend to work longer hours for lesser pay than what obtains form the advanced Countries.

Raw Material

When a country exports raw materials, it gains income; which directly contributes to the increase of the GDP
and GNP of the country. Growth of the economy is inevitable in such cases where the nation gains
sustainable income. The disadvantages of such process might include environmental pollution caused by
using those raw materials in plants, as well as environmental exploitation to the process and the methodology
involve in getting these raw materials. Evidently; this is usually at some cost to the environment in one way or
another. Also, the host countries importing raw materials enjoy the good news of. Having the needed raw
materials as inputs of production in the local market as well as in international markets. Finally, economic
growth and social stability arises from this integration of resources, leading to the bigger picture of
Globalization that is happening every day all around the world.

Examples of Labour Movement and its Importance in Facilitating Globalization

The following model illustrates the importance of labour movement. Home and foreign countries are each
represented by a MPL curve. Initially, home labour force is at point C and foreign labour force is at point B. In
the absence of labour mobility, these points would stay the same. However, when you allow labour to move
between countries, assuming the costs of movement are zero, the real wage converges on point A and
workers in Home move to Foreign where they will earn a higher wage.

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The examples of Countries that allow free- labour movement are many; and here are some of them:
Japan: Japan used to have tight immigration laws, but since the early 1990's it has loosen up her strict laws
to allow special entry permits for foreigners of Japanese ancestry to make up the shortage in the labor-force.
According to Japanese immigration center, the number of foreign residents in Japan has been steadily
increasing, and the numbers of foreign residents were more than 2.2 million people in 2008.
Countries in Europe: Some EU member states are currently receiving large-scale immigration of workers:
e.g. Spain, Germany, Italy, The United Kingdom, France and recently Turkey.

The Relationship between Trade and Factor Mobility

Commodity movements and factor movements are substitutes. Therefore, Factor movement is an alternative
to trade that may or may not be a more efficient use of resources. There are two extreme cases between
which the conditions in the real world can be found, there may be perfect factor mobility but no trade, or
factor immobility with unrestricted trade.
The following section discusses how the mixture of factor mobility and free trade always lead to the
highest resources allocation efficiency.

Substitution

When there is a significant variation of factors availability among countries, abundant factors move to
countries with greater scarcity, to command a better return. As a result, in countries where labour is abundant
compared to capital, labourers suffer from unemployed or low wages. If allowed, many of those abundant
workers will move to nations that pay higher wages and enjoy full employment status or at least high
employment rates.
Likewise, capital movement is done in the same manners, i.e. it moves from nations in which it’s
abundant to those in which it’s scarce. A good example on that is movement of labour and capital between
the United States and Mexico, whereas; Mexico gets capital from the United States, the United State gets
workers from Mexico. If the movement of goods and factors of production i.e. capital, labour, technology and
raw materials are permitted around the globe then the comparative cost of transferring these goods and
factors would be the sole determinant of the location of production.
Nevertheless, restrictions exist on trade and factor movement and this limits their global availability. For
example, the U.S. immigration restriction imposed on Mexican workers that limit their ability to move to the
United State and the Mexican ownership restrictions in the petroleum industry that limits U.S. capital
movements to invest in the industry.
Meanwhile, many other jobs that defy mechanization-such as bussing tables at restaurants and
changing beds in hotels- are largely filled by unskilled immigrants in developed countries.

Conclusions & Recommendations

As Globalization describes the process by which regional economies, societies, and cultures have become
integrated through communication, transportation, and trade. It increases the market for demand. Many
critics wrote about its disadvantages and the bad effect of it. Nevertheless, we need globalization for its many
positive effects on nations, but we need to have solutions to its disadvantages as well as to make the most
out of globalization. The whole world can get benefit from globalization by minimizing its disadvantage in one
of the following ways

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The Choices

The main question of globalization: is it worth keeping? And how we can keep it? Actually we have three
choices or alternatives, first alternative is to stay with the present situation, i.e. keep the situation as it is.
Even though globalization increases human insecurity at the same time it opens many opportunities in the
market for nations. This alternative is still under studies as it’s become unacceptable.
Second alternative, is to move backward, to the time where there was no WTO, which become the
symbol of globalization. But it’s very hard to accept this alternative as WTO is powerful and opens many
opportunities for people with endless new systems that have been successfully used.
As result, the only acceptable and logical alternative is to manage globalization in a better way, so in
doing this, it will downside the inequity, instability, and the insecurity and other negatives attributes that are
associated with it so as to minimize the negative effects and maximized it’s benefits. Fortunately, the
negative trends of globalization can be reversed for the benefit of many nations.

Agenda for Action

While solutions may differ from country to country depending on the cultural and historical contexts in which
they take place, The need of certain actual actions at t national level to appropriate economic and social
policies are needed to capture the framework of opportunities in trades, as well as capital flow and migration
to protect people against the vulnerabilities’ that globalization creates. For example, Governments can
manage trades and capital flows more carefully.
Finally, despite the negative aspects of Globalization one cannot deny its much bigger positive aspects.
Simply stated, we cannot live without globalization. But. dealing with globalization and its negative effect
should be studied and understood thoroughly in order to help people worldwide develop their home nations
in the small village that globalization creates.

References

AbhijitNaik, (2010), Disadvantages of Globalization, retrieved from www.Buzzle.com.

Agnew, John A. and Stuart Corbridge, Mastering Space (1995). Hegemony, Territory and International Political Economy, New York,
N.Y.:Routledge.
Archibugi, Daniele and Michie, Jonathan, (1997).Technology, Globalization and Economic Performance, Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Friedrich Heinemann (2006). Factor Mobility and the Decline in Public Investment. Retrieved fromwww.springerlink.com
Friedman, Thomas L., (2000).The Lexus and the Olive Tree: Understanding Globalization, 1st Anchor Books Edition, New York: Anchor
Books.
Hans Verhulst, International Trade in Technology - Licensing of Know-How and Trade Secrets, Retrieved From
http://www.wipo.int/sme/en/documents/trade_technology.htm#author1
John Todd Stewart, (2011). Remarks before the Canadian-American Business Council, Peterson Institute for international economics.
John Williamson, (1998), Keynote address to the Congress of the Sri Lankan Association for the Advancement of Science Colombo, The
World Bank.
John D. Daniels, Lee H. Radebaugh and Daniel P. Sullivan 2011, International Business Environments and Operations, 13th Edition,
Pearson Education, Inc., New Jersey.
John W.Sewell, (1998).Toward a Social Foreign Policy with Asia.
Michael Mussa, (2000).Factors Driving Global Economic Integration.
Robert A. Mundell (1968),International Economics, Macmillan, New York.
RujutaBorkar, (2010).Is Globalization Good or Bad, retrieved from www.Buzzle.com.
SolitaMonsod, Globalization Challenges and Opportunities. Retrieved http://www.capwip.org/resources/womparlconf2000
/downloads/monsod1.pdf
VeethiTelang, (2010).What is Globalization, retrieved from www.buzzle.com.

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Challenges and Prospects of Using Internet Facilities in a Nigerian

Teacher Training Institution

R. F. Quadri

Federal College of Education (Technical),

Omoku, Rivers State,Nigeria

Abstract This study examined the challenges and prospects of using internet facilities in Federal College of Education
(Technical) Omoku, Rivers State. A survey research design was used and a simple random sampling method was used to
determine the 200 samples used for this study. Findings were analysed using descriptive statistics and the results indicated that
the students make use of the internet facilities in the library at the time that is convenient to them morning, afternoon evening.
Majority of the respondents can interact with the internet themselves with some challenges identified as being impediment to
their using the internet facilities in the library. The paper finally make some recommendation in combating the challenges
affecting the students use of internet facilities.

Introduction

Academic libraries generally are established to achieve the tripartite objectives of teaching, research and
community service. The library serves as the primary source of providing information print, non-print and
electronic for their various clientele use. Before the advent of digital, virtual and electronic library the only
major source of information in most developing countries like Nigeria is mostly books found in conventional
libraries. With recent development in information explosion the use of internet has revolotionised the ways
existing and potential library users source and use information.
According to Daly (2000) the internet is estimated to be growing at a rate of 10.15 per month with
numbers rising from about 56 million internet users world wide in 1995 to about 200 million people in 1999.
No wonder most tertiary institution libraries are already hooked to the internet to provide easy access to their
users to get whatever information they wanted with ease and within the shortest possible time.
With the introduction of internet facilities in libraries, the various users can communicate with colleagues
and download information needed and gotten to improve their academic pursuit. This is to say that every
individual or students who wish to excel in his or her academic pursuit may therefore find the internet relevant
to search and get vital information needed for his or her academic pursuit. Therefore, information sourcing
and utilization through the internet in academic libraries is sine qua non if the students are to achieve the
goals for which they are in the Institution.

Federal College of Education (Technical) Omoku

The Federal College of Education (Technical) Omoku, Rivers State, Nigeria, was set up by Decree 4 of 1986
as one of the Federal College of Education in Nigeria. Academic work actually commenced in 1988. On the
other side the College library better known as Hamidu Alkali Library meets the standards as recommended
by the National Commission for Colleges of Education in terms of services rendered. Apart from other
conventional library services rendered, the library also has a virtual library section where the users staff and
students come in to search for information electronically services and Resources Available on Internet.

Previous Studies

According to Ibegwam (2002) the internet has revolutionized communication globally in the last decade. It is
the world’s largest computer network, the network of networks scattered all over the world. The internet is
special because it is the cheapest and fastest means to get information provide information and compile

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information (Leon and Leon, 1999). For Jensen (2001) the internet has grown rapidly in the African continent
over the past few years. Studies on student use of internet as studied by Jagboro (2004) reveals that
38.24% and 22.06% of the university students use it on weekly or daily basis while 11.76% use it monthly
and bi-monthly. Similarly, according to Lumande and Mutshewa (1999) 42.6% of their respondents indicated
that they use the internet very often.
Ibegwam (2004) suggested that students’ use of internet will improve if institutions should put in place
training on the use of Internet, provided free Internet services, use VSAT to improve connectivity and
increase workstations connected to the Internet. On problems associated with the use of internet facilities
Bac (1998) observed that very little training is given to students in the use of internet facilities and where
internet exists in an institution very little time allocation is made for students use of the internet while
Chifewepa (2003) identified lack of guidance, inability of use and inadequate internet facilities were identified
as problems associated with the use of Internet facilities.

Research Questions

The following research questions were asked.

1. When do students use the internet or library facilities to obtain academic information?
2. Do students use the internet more than the library to obtain academic information?
3. How do students access the internet?
4. What are the challenges to the students’ use of internet?
5. What solutions would you recommend to solving the challenges?

Methodology

Research Design

The survey research design was adopted for this study because of the large number of respondents.
According to Fraenke and Wallen (1993) the big advantage of survey research is that it has the potential to
provide us with a lot of information obtained from quite a large sample of individuals’ population of the study.
The population of the study is made up of all library registered students from part 1 to 3 in the 2009/2010
academic session. Record shows that for the period under review 403 users were registered, of this number
200 which represents about 50% of the respondents who were randomly selected as samples for this study.

Data Collection

The data collected for this study was collected between July and December 2010. Data was collected by
giving questionnaires randomly to the students who visit the library between these periods. To ensure that a
student does not complete two questionnaires the students were asked whether they have completed one
before; to confirm this, they are to write their matriculation numbers only on the forms completed.

Analysis of Data

The data collected were analysed using the descriptive statistics to report the findings.

Results and Discussion

Data analysis and findings were based on the research questions of the study.

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Table 1: Distribution of Respondents by Demographic variable

Item Classification Frequency %

Age range 16 – 20 29 14.5
21 – 25 162 81
26 – 30 9 4.5
31 and above - 0
Gender Male 128 64
Female 72 36
Level 100 32 16
200 61 30.5
300 107 53.5
School Education 42 21
Vocation 23 11.5
Technical 24 12
Business 71 35.5
Science 30 15
Use of Internet Yes 161 80.5
No 39 19.5

Table 1 shows the demographic characteristics of the respondents. The results show that majority of the
respondents which represents 162 (81%) of the respondents are in their twenties between age ranges of 21-
25. Similarly 128 (64%) of the respondents are males while 72 (16%) are females. On the level of students
107 (53.5%) are in 300 level or their final year 61or 30.5 in 200 level and 32 (16%) in 100 level. The number
of students from the school of Business forms majority which represents 71 (35.5%) followed by schools of
Vocation respectively. The number of respondents that uses the internet in the library is 161 (80.5%) which
represents majority while 39 (19.5%) did not use the internet facilities at all.

Research Question 1: When do students use the internet or library facilities to obtain academic information?

Table 2a: Frequency of library and internet use

Time of the day Library Freq. % Internet Freq. %

Morning 73 36.5 61 30.5

Afternoon 46 23 35 17.5
Evening 81 40.5 65 32.5
Not Applicable - - 39 19.5
Total 200 100 200 100

Table 2 shows that while 73 (36.5%) of the respondents prefers using the library in the morning for academic
work while only 61 (30.5%) prefer using the internet facilities, similarly while 46 (23) prefers using the library
in the afternoon 35(17.5%) use the internet facility, 81 (40.5%) prefers using the library in the evening while
65 (32.5%) prefers using the internet at the evening and the other 39 (19.5%) did not use the internet
facilities at all.

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Research Question 2: Do students use the internet more than the library to obtain academic information?

Table 2b: Frequency of days spent I library and internet facility per week

Days Library Freq. % Internet Freq. %

0 0 0 39 30.5
1 20 10 11 5.5
2 81 40.5 74 37
3 69 34.5 49 24.5
4 16 8 15 7.5
5 09 4.5 07 3.5
6 05 2.5 05 2.5
Total 200 100 200 100

Table 2b shows the results of the days of the week that the respondents spend in searching the library or the
internet for academic work. The result show that 39 of the respondents did not make use of internet facilities
at all while 20 (10%), 11 (5.5%) use a day, 81 (40.5) and 74 (37%) use 2 days in both the library and internet
facilities in searching for information respectively while 69 (34.5%) and 49 (24.5%) use 3 days, 16 (8%) and
15 (7.5%), 9 (4.5%) and 7 (3.5%) and 5 (2.5%) and 5 (2.5%) uses 4 days, 5 days and 6 days respectively to
search both the library and internet facilities for information for academic work.

Research Question 3: How do students access the internet?

Table 3: Students ways of accessing the internet

Options Frequency %
Personally 112 56
Help from library staff 28 14
Help from friends 21 10.5
No response 39 19.5
Total 200 100

Table 3 reveal that majority of the respondents which represents 112 (56%) of the respondents can access
the internet themselves, 28 (14%) and 21 (10.5%) others opined that they get help from library staff and
friends and the 39 (19.5%) did not try to access the net at all.

Research Question 4: What are the challenges to the students use of the internet?

Table 4: Proportionate response of respondents to challenges on the use of internet

Variables Frequency %
Slow speed of server 98 49
Distance tot eh library 42 21
Power failure 144 72
Attitude of library staff 23 11.5
System breakdown 118 59

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Poor knowledge of usability 40 20

Insufficient work station 101 50.5
Time constraints 55 27.5

Table 4 identified the respondents responses to what they feel are the challenges to their using the library
internet facilities. The challenges according to them reveals slow speed of server 49%, distance to the library
21%, power failure 72%, and attitude of library staff 11.5%, other challenges identified are system breakdown
59%, poor knowledge of usability 20%, insufficient workstations 50.5% and time constrains 27.5%.

Research Question 5: What solutions would you recommend to solving the challenges?

Table 5: Solution to challenges in using internet facility

Variables Frequency %
Upgrading 121 60.5
Organizing internet training 144 72
Installation of generating set 181 90.5
Institutional subscription for some sites 83 41.5
Employing computer engineers 53 26.5
Increasing work stations 177 88.5
Continuous system maintenance 80 40
Installation of library dedicated server 169 84.5

Suggestions recommended by the respondents on solutions to improving the challenges encountered in

making use of the internet facilities in the library reveal that upgrading the speed of the server has (60.5%),
organising internet use training (72%), installation of generating set (90.5%), institutional subscription to
some sites (41.5%), employing computer engineers (26.5%), increasing work station (88.5%), continuous
system maintenance (40%) and installation of a library dedicated server (84.5%).

Discussion of Result

The result of the study indicated that majority of the respondents use internet facilities in the library and that
they also access the facilities themselves. This shows that they are knowledgeable in the use of internet
facilities.
The students prefer using the internet facilities in the morning and evening. This may be at the time when
they have free lectures or completed their lectures for the day. The results further reveal some of the
challenges in the use of internet facilities in the College libraries as slow speed of server, distance to the
library, power failure, attitude of library system, system breakdown, poor knowledge of usability, insufficient
work stations and time constrains while some suggestions were also preferred on how this challenges can be
solved.

Conclusion

The purpose of this study is to investigate the challenges and prospects of using internet facilities in the
library of the Federal College of Education (Technical), Omoku. The study showed that the students makes
use of internet facilities in the College Library and the time of usage differs while some prefer using it in the
morning, some prefers the afternoon while others prefers evening. Some challenges were also identified as

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affecting their making use of the internet facilities in the library. These were identified and some solution
were suggested by the respondents. The finding here will help both the College Management in taking some
vital decisions in improving the internet services in the library and also the respondents to get improved
services in the area of challenges identified.

Recommendations

Based on the findings of this study the following recommendations are therefore suggested that
1. There is need for more work stations to be provided considering the fact that majority of the
respondents makes use of the internet facilities themselves. This will allow more users have
access the use of the facilities and the time allocation can also be increased to users.
2. Use of internet should be added to the course outline of the introduction of library studies
programme. In addition to this a training programme can be organized from time to time to library
users on the use of the internet facilities in libraries.
3. The library should be provided with a big standby generator to be used whenever power is off.
4. The library should have its own dedicated bandwidth as against sharing its resources with other
units of the College.
5. A computer engineer should be employed to help in the maintenance of the internet facilities in the
library.

References

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