Lecture 4 Function of a ship, Principal terms, Layout and profile of ships

Function of a ship

The function of a ship can also be referred to as classification of ships according to how they are
used for the benefit of mankind. Typical examples include ships meant for transport such as crude
oil tankers, bulk carriers, containerships, passenger ships, general cargo ships, liquefied natural
gas (LNG) carriers. Other examples are military ships used in the navy. This type of ships such as
aircraft carrier, submarine, frigate, destroyer, patrol craft, and minesweeper may take various size,
dimensions and functions. Some ships classified as work service vessels are not meant to carry
cargo but to carry out certain service at sea. Examples of work or service vessels include tugs,
supply boats, crew boats, heavy lift, crane ships, fishing boats and rescue boats. Some other boats
such as luxury yacht, cruise ships, and tourists boats are used for recreational purpose.

Principal terms, terminologies and Symbols

The basic terms or terminologies used in naval architecture are unique. It is important to have a
uniform and proper understanding of these terms and symbols. The reason is they will be used not
only in hydrostatics and stability calculations but also in various other naval architecture
calculations such as ship resistance and propulsion, ship structure and ship hydrodynamics. Proper
understanding of these symbols and terms is also important to ensure smooth and efficient
communications. The basic terms, terminologies and symbols are highlighted and considered in
the general aspects of describing the ships reference positions, linear dimensions, size of ships,
form coefficients and centroids. These are briefly discussed in the following:

Reference positions

This describes how distances and relative locations are measured from certain reference positions
on ships. Important examples of these reference positions include:
Design Waterline (DWL): This is the waterline at which the ship is expected to float at its fully
loaded or operational condition. Waterlines are lines of the water surface at which the ship is
expected to float at.
After perpendicular (AP): AP is the line which is perpendicular to the intersection of the after
side of the rudder-post with the DWL. For some ships without rudder-post, the AP is taken as the
centre-line of the rudder stock or the intersection of the DWL with the transom.
Forward perpendicular (FP): A line drawn perpendicular to the intersection of the DWL with
the forward side of the stem.
Amidships or Midships: This is the point midway between the forward and after perpendiculars.
Base line: This is the lowest part of the ship, normally the underside of keel where a horizontal
line is drawn. This becomes a reference line for measurements in the vertical direction.

Linear Dimensions

Important linear dimensions of the ship are shown in Figure 1&2.

Length between perpendiculars (LBP or LPP): The horizontal distance between AP and FP.
This is the most important length measurement during ship design development stages. Most
calculations such as stability, propulsion, manoeuvring use LBP.
Length on the design load water-line (LWL): The length on the water-line of the ship when
floating in still water at DWL. In many cases, this is similar to LBP and also important during
calculations in the design stages.
Length Overall (LOA): The length measured from the extreme point forward to the extreme point
aft. This is an important measure during operational stage of the ship.
Breadth or Beam (B): The maximum breadth or beam of the ship is usually measured at
amidships. Some ships have the largest breadth at amidships.
Depth (D): The vertical height of the uppermost continuous deck measured at the side amidships
from the base line.
Draught or Draft (T): The depth of immersion from baseline to any waterline.
Freeboard: The height of the deck at side above the LWL. It is equal to the difference between
the depth and the load draught.
Trim: This is the difference between the draughts at AP and FP. If the draught forward is greater
than the draught aft it is called trim forward, by the head, or by bow. If the draught aft is greater,
it is called trim aft, by stern. Ships without trim are said to be level keel or even keel. Trim are
sometimes stated as trim angles, θ.
Moulded, Extreme and Displacement Dimensions: Moulded linear dimensions refer to
measurements of inner dimensions of the ship, i.e. the measurements neglect the thickness of
plating. Moulded dimensions are normally used during ship construction process, especially when
lofting is carried out. Subscripts mld are used. For example,0 Moulded breadth (Bmld) is the
breadth measured between the inside plating on the two sides of the ship, moulded depth (Dmld)
and draughts (Tmld) are measured from the top of the keel plate. In hydrostatics and stability
calculations, the outer or extreme dimensions are used. These are given the subscript ext, for
example Text. These dimensions consider the surfaces which are in contact with water. Unless
otherwise stated, all dimensions without subscripts are normally referred to extreme dimensions.

Figure 1: Linear Dimensions

 Figure 2: Linear Dimensions

Size of Ships

The size of a ship is normally stated in terms of displacement, deadweight or Gross Registered
Ton (GRT). As a floating body a ship in equilibrium will displace its own weight of water. Thus,
the volume of the hull below the design load waterline must represent a weight of water equal to
the weight of the ship at its designed load. This displacement, as it is called, can be
defined as:
∆= 𝜌𝑔∇
Where: 𝜌= the density of the water in which the ship is floating
G=the acceleration due to gravity
∇ = the underwater volume

It should be noted that displacement is a force and will be measured in newtons. For flotation,
stability, and hydrodynamic performance generally, it is this displacement, expressed either as a
volume or a force, that is of interest. For rule purposes Lloyd's Register also use a moulded
displacement which is the displacement within the moulded lines of the ship between
perpendiculars. In ship design and operation field, the term “weight” and “mass” are used
interchangeably and units of mass (tonnes/tons/pounds/kilograms) are normally used. Although
this is not strictly correct, the net impact is the same. Hence, there should not be any problem if
consistency is maintained.

Ship's displacement significant y influences its behavior at sea. Displacement is a force and is
expressed in newtons, but the term mass displacement can also be used. Although influencing its
behavior, displacement is not a direct measure of a ship's carrying capacity, that is, its earning
power. To measure capacity deadweight and tonnage are used. The important terminologies used
to describe the size of ships in terms of their carrying capacity or how they can be measured
include: Volume Displacement (∇); Mass Displacement (∆), Lightship, Deadweight, Displacement
tonnage, Gross Registered Ton (GRT), and Net Register Tonnage (NRT). These terminologies are
defined and briefly discussed in the following:

Volume Displacement (𝛁): A floating ship displaces water. The volume of water being displaced
is the amount of water ‘pushed aside’ by the ship. The volume of water is called the volume
displacement of the ship usually expressed in (𝑚^3).

Mass Displacement (∆): When a ship is floating, it is displacing the volume of water whose weight
or mass is equivalent to its own weight or mass. The total weight of the vessel is the same as the
weight of water being displaced. So, the term ‘mass displacement’ is the same as the total weight
or mass of the ship in sea water, normally expressed in units of tonnes or kilogram. This weight of
water equals the volume displacement multiplied by the density of water,
In fresh water = x 1000 kg/m³
In sea water = x 1025 kg/m³
Most of the time, the term ‘displacement’ refers to mass displacement. Mass displacement or
weight of the ship is equal to the sum of lightship weight and deadweight. The operational
displacement of the ship or its total weight will actually vary from time to time. While the lightship
weight is constant, the deadweight and hence the displacement will vary from time to time during
operation depending on the loading conditions of the ship.
Lightship: Lightship weight is the weight of an empty ship, without cargo, crew, water, fuel and
other payload components. It is normally associated with a ship that has just been built and ready
to sail. It is the non-variable component of the mass displacement.

Deadweight: The difference between the mass displacement and the lightship weight is called the
deadweight. This is the variable component of displacement and includes cargo, fuel, crew,
passengers, stores, etc, expressed in tonnes. The sizes of tankers and bulk carriers are often quoted
in terms of the deadweight tonnage, which is the maximum deadweight the ship is designed to
carry. Since the weight of the cargo make up most of the deadweight, the deadweight tonnage is a
good measure of the cargo carrying capacity of the tankers and bulk carriers. The deadweight, or
dead-mass in terms of mass, is the difference between the load displacement up to the minimum
permitted freeboard and the lightweight or light displacement. The lightweight is the weight of the
hull and machinery so the deadweight includes the cargo, fuel, water, crew and effects. The term
cargo deadweight is used for the cargo alone.

Displacement tonnage: The designed total weight of the ship is called ship displacement tonnage,
and this is normally stated in the ship particulars. The sizes of non-cargo carrying ships such as
ships belonging to government agencies are normally stated in terms of displacement tonnage.

Gross Registered Ton (GRT): Although the terms ‘tonnage’ and ‘tons’ are used, GRT is not a
measure of weight. Instead, gross tonnage is the total volume of enclosed spaces in a ship including
the under-deck and the enclosed space in the superstructure of the ships. Due to its history of its
use, although its unit is tons, it is a measure of volume, not weight where 1 ton is equivalent to 100
ft3. The sizes of most commercial vessels are stated in terms of gross tonnage. GRT is the total
volume of enclosed spaces onboard a ship. GRT is determined using the formula:

𝐺𝑅𝑇 = 𝑘_1 𝑉
Where: 𝑘_1=0.2 + 0.02 log_10
𝑉= total volume of all enclosed spaces of the ship in cubic metres
Net Registered Tonnage (NRT): NRT is the net volume after deductions of non-freight earning
spaces such as engine room and crew accommodation. Net tonnage is used when charges are levied
for services provided for the commercial ship, for example for pilotage and port charges. Net
tonnage is the volume of the cargo space plus the volume of passenger spaces multiplied by a coefficient
to bring it generally into line with previous calculations of tonnage and is determined by a formula.

𝑁𝑅𝑇 = 𝑘_2 𝑉_𝑐 (4𝑇/3𝐷)^2 + 𝑘_3 (𝑁_1 + 𝑁_2/10)

Where: 𝑘_2=0.2 + 0.02 log_10 〖𝑉_𝑐 〗
𝑘_3=1.25 (𝐺𝑅𝑇 + 10000)/10000
𝑉_𝑐=total volume of cargo spaces in cubic metres
D = moulded depth amidships in metres
T = moulded draught amidships in metres
𝑁_1 = number of passengers in cabins with not more than eight berths
𝑁_2 = number of other passengers
𝑁_1+ 𝑁_2 = total number of passengers the ship is permitted to carry.

Note that, in using these formulae:

when 𝑁_1+ 𝑁_2 is less 13, 𝑁_1 and 𝑁_2 are to be taken as zero.
The factor (4𝑇/3𝐷)^2is not to be taken as greater than unity and the term 𝑘_2 𝑉_𝑐 (4𝑇/3𝐷)^2is
not to be taken as less than 0.25GRT.
NRT is not to be less than 0.30GRT.
All volumes included in the calculation are measured to the inner side of the shell or structural
boundary platting, whether insulation is fitted, in ships constructed of metal.
GRT and NRT are stated as dimensionless numbers. The word ton is no longer used.

Form coefficients

These are also known as coefficients of form often used as a general term to describe the fullness
or the fineness of the ship hulls. These coefficients are important and are applicable in power,
stability, strength and design calculations. A naval architect can make use of several coefficients
when comparing one ship's form with another. Form Coefficients are stated in terms of ratios
between the actual area or volumes divided the area or volume of the circumscribing box. The
higher the value, the fuller the ship form. However, the values do not exceed 1. Different types of
form coefficient often used include: Block coefficient (𝐶_𝐵), Midship section area coefficient
(𝐶_𝑀), Water-plane area coefficient (𝐶_𝑊𝑃), and Prismatic coefficient (𝐶_𝑃). These coefficients
of form briefly highlighted in the following:

Block Coefficient (𝑪_𝑩): This is a measure of the fullness of the form of the ship and is the ratio
of the volume of displacement to a given water-line, and the volume of the circumscribing box
having the same length, breadth and draught as the ship.

𝐶_𝐵 = 𝑉 ÷ (𝐿 × 𝐵 × 𝑇)

Where: (𝐶𝐵 ), varies between ships. Typically, slimmer, faster ships such as frigates and patrol
crafts have (𝐶𝐵 ) between 0.5-0.65 while slower full form ships such as tankers and bulk carriers
have (𝐶𝐵 ) of around 0.7-0.85.

Midship section area coefficient (𝑪𝑴 ): This is the ratio of the midship section area to the area of
the circumscribing rectangle having a breadth equal to the breadth of the ship and a depth equal to
the draught. This is given by the formula:

𝐶𝑀 = 𝐴𝑀 ÷ (𝐵 × 𝑇)

Water-plane area coefficient (𝑪𝑾𝑷 ): This is the ratio of the area of the water-plane to the area of
the circumscribing rectangle having a length equal to the Length between perpendiculars (LBP or
LPP) and a breadth equal to B.

𝐶𝑊𝑃 = 𝐴𝑊 ÷ (𝐿 × 𝐵)

Prismatic coefficient (𝑪𝑷 ): This is the ratio of the volume of displacement of the ship to the
volume of the circumscribing box having a constant section equal to the immersed midship section
area AM, and a length equal to the Length on the design load water-line (LWL)
 𝐶𝑃 = 𝑉 ÷ (𝐴𝑀 × 𝐿)

The above is the most typical prismatic coefficient, sometimes called longitudinal prismatic
coefficient, because it is a measure of the longitudinal distribution of displacement of the ship. In
certain cases, vertical prismatic coefficient CPV is calculated

𝐶𝑃𝑉 = 𝑉 ÷ (𝐴𝑊𝑃 × 𝐿)

Centroids

The location of centroids of areas, volumes and weights are important in hydrostatics and stability
calculations. To aid our understanding of the concept of centroids consider the following:

Centre of flotation (F): When a ship trims at small angles of trim, the ship is pivoting (i.e. turning
or revolving) about a transverse (i.e. crosswise or sloping) axis passing through the centre of
floatation, F. When viewed from the side, consecutive water-lines are assumed to be passing
through the centre of floatation. The centre of floatation coincides with the centre of the waterplane
area at that draught. The location of F is measured longitudinally from the reference’s axes, either
amidships, AP or FP. This distance is called Longitudinal Centre of Floatation (LCF).

Centre of buoyancy (B): The single buoyancy force representing the summation of all hydrostatic
forces acting on a ship is considered to act upwards through a single point called the centre of
buoyancy (B). This coincides with the centroid of the underwater volume of a ship. Its position is
defined by:
Vertical centre of buoyancy (VCB) which indicates the location in the vertical direction. The
reference line must be stated. In normal practice, the keel line is used as the reference line and in
this case, this height is stated as KB which is the vertical distance above keel.
The longitudinal distance measured either from amidships or AP or FP is called the longitudinal
centre of buoyancy (LCB).
Centre of gravity (G): This is the point through which the total weight of the ship may be assumed
to act. Similar to the centre of buoyancy, the location of centre of gravity also is defined by:
Vertical centre of gravity (VCG) which indicates the location in the vertical direction. In normal
practice, KG is used where the keel line is used as the reference line.
Longitudinal centre of gravity (LCG) which is the longitudinal distance measured either from
amidships or AP or FP.

Ships Layout, profile/Lines Plan

Ships layout refers to either the ship lines plan, design arrangement drawings. The ship hull
drawing is always referred to as Lines Plan Drawing. The reason is that a ship has a complex and
unique hull shape due to its double curvature and non-homogeneous cross sections. The lines of
these cross sections are required to be shown in three different orthogonal views, and more lines
are also needed in order to represents its shape at different cross sections or planes. The importance
of Ship Lines Plan is such that it is used to represent the complex and unique hull shape of the
ship. Lines plan drawing has always regarded by the naval architects as the most important piece
of information about the ship.

This is due to two reasons i.e. the ship performance and ship design process. On the performance
of the ship, the shape of the hull form determines the power required to drive the ship, thus reflect
the ship speed, it also determines the amount of pay load (capacity), comfort, habitability, etc. On
the ship design process, lines plan drawing is the first information that needs to be made available.
Without lines plan drawing, no calculation, design and analysis works can be performed.
Construction process also can only be commenced after the lines plan drawing is completed.

Lines Plan is a line drawing that represent the shape of the ship hull looking from three orthogonal
(perpendicular to each other) views i.e. front, side and top views. The preparation of lines plan
drawing must follow certain standard procedure. The reason is that all these views represent the
same hull, and they are interrelated to each other. The front view is termed as Body Plan, the side
view is the Sheer Plan and the top view is the Half Breadth Plan. Unlike simple object such as
cylinder, box, and cone which can be represented in simple orthographic drawing, ship hull
requires special way of representing its unique and complex shape.

Some samples of the various hull form are shown in Figure

i). Body Plan
Body Plan represents the shape of the ship hull when viewing from the front or rear of the ship at
every ship stations as shown in Figure 10 and 13. Station is a transverse cross-section along the
ship length which normally equally spaced. The body plan concept can be better understood by
referring to Figure 14. A ship is normally divided into 11 or 21 stations from after perpendicular,
AP (Sometimes noted as station 0) until forward perpendicular, FP (or noted as station 10 0r 20).
Half or even quarter station may also be used especially at the region with high curvature. Body
plan is normally placed at the top right hand side of the drawing although it can also be placed at
the middle or on top of the sheer plan drawing depending on the size and type of ship.
Since most ships have symmetrical shape for both port (left side looking from rear) and starboard
(right) sides, only one side is shown in the drawing. Therefore, it is almost a standard practice to
show the stations of the rear region of the ship at the left side of body plan while the right hand
side of the body plan represents the stations at the forward region of the ship. The curve on the
body plan is also call station curve. The centre line of the body plan represents the centre line of
the ship.
Apart from showing the station curves, the body plan also shows the waterlines and the buttock
lines grid. These grid lines are essential not only for reference lines but also used for transferring
and checking data from one plan to another.

II). Half Breadth Plan

The same hull form if it is viewed from top will produce the plan view of the ship. However since
the hull shape is complex and unique, the plan view must be made at several waterline planes.
Thus Half Breadth Plan is a lines drawing that represents the shape of the ship hull looking from
top view at every waterlines of the ship. Waterline is the horizontal plane that cut the ship along
its vertical axis, thus creating the waterlines curves as shown in Figure 15. Waterline is normally
equally spaced, although half waterline may also be used at the lower region of the ship. Since the
hull is symmetry about its centre line, only half of the hull is shown in this plan as shown in Figure
16.
Apart from waterline curves, the deck line curve needs to be drawn on this plan. If the ship has
bulwark, chines or / and knuckles lines, these curves have also to be shown in the drawing. In this
plan, the grid lines shown are the stations and buttock lines of the ship.

III}. Profile / Sheer Plan

Sheer Plan which is usually placed at the top left hand side of the lines plan drawing represent the
shape of the ship hull looking from the side of ship at several buttock lines. Buttock line is the
vertical plane that cuts the ship along its length, creating the buttock line curves as indicated in
Figure 17. The middle buttock line (normally labeled as BL 0) is the plane that cuts the ship along
its centre line which creates the profile curve of the ship. Other buttock lines are drawn outward
(offsets) of ship’s centre line and normally at equally spaced distance. The stations and waterlines
grids are shown in this sheer plan drawing. A typical sheer plan drawing is shown in Figure 18.

IV). Offsets Data

Offsets data is the data that is extracted (measured) from the lines plan drawing and considered the
most important data for the design, calculation, analysis and construction of the ship. As the name
implied, Offset Data is the distance measured from the centre line of the ship to the specific point
on the curves (station or waterline curves). The offset data must be measured at every intersection
points on each stations and waterlines including deck line, chines, knuckles and bulwarks (if any).
Offset data also called as half breadth data, because it represents the half breadth of the ship at
every station and waterlines. A typical example of offsets data is shown in Table 1 and the
measurement of offsets data is illustrated in Figure 19.
In the offsets Table, it is also a standard practice to indicate the data of height above based for
deck, chine, bulwark, and knuckles lines. The height above base of buttock lines may also be
included whenever necessary.
A sample of the complete lines plan drawing containing the body plan, profile, half-breadth plan
and offset are shown in Figure 20.