Ground Improvement Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers

Volume 168 Issue GI2 Ground Improvement 168 May 2015 Issue GI2
Pages 81–95 http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/grim.13.00030
Lime stabilisation for earthworks: a UK Paper 1300030
perspective Received 31/05/2013 Accepted 28/01/2014
Published online 17/04/2014
Beetham, Dijkstra, Dixon et al. Keywords: geotechnical engineering/recycling & reuse of materials/reviews

ICE Publishing: All rights reserved

Lime stabilisation for

earthworks: a UK perspective
j
1 Paul Beetham BSc, MSc, CEng, MICE, FGS j
4 Paul Fleming BEng (Hons), PhD, MCIHT
Research Engineer, Centre for Innovative and Collaborative Senior Lecturer in Geotechnical Engineering, School of Civil and
Construction Engineering, School of Civil and Building Engineering, Building Engineering, Loughborough University, UK
Loughborough University, UK j
5 Robert Hutchison MSc, Eur Ing, FGS, MASCE, CEng, MICE
j
2 Tom Dijkstra PhD Opus International Consultants Ltd, Service Excellence Leader UK,
Engineering Geologist, British Geological Survey, Keyworth, Nottingham, UK
Nottingham, UK j
6 John Bateman
j
3 Neil Dixon BSc, PhD, FGS Director, Independent Stabilisation Company Ltd, Chesterfield, UK
Professor of Geotechnical Engineering, School of Civil and Building
Engineering, Loughborough University, UK

j
1 j
2 j
3 j
4 j
5 j
6

Lime stabilisation is a versatile technique applied during earthworks operations. Modern soil recycling units are much
more efficient at pulverising fill material and intermixing the added binder/water than machinery available 20 years
ago. While supplier innovation adds flexibility to the site working method, specifications have not been sufficiently
updated to permit optimal application. This review paper details the physico-chemical changes instigated through
the lime–clay soil reaction, updating previous reviews. It aims to assist scientific debate, current practitioners and
future specification changes. For example, the application of the minimum 24 h mellowing periods (mandatory to UK
specifications) with high reactivity, quicklime powders is concluded to cause increased air voids in the compacted fill.
Increased air voids are associated with reduced long-term strength and potential volume change from water ingress,
which is of particular concern for sulfate swelling. Shorter mellowing periods and/or use of hydrated lime may lesson
this issue; however, a ‘one size fits all’ approach is discouraged in preference to site-specific methodologies refined
to suit the fill material and project requirements. The discussion also summarises working methods which may lower
the risk of sulfate swell and defines areas requiring further practical research.

1. Introduction of this process. With this understanding, field processes can be

The improvement of engineering properties of clay fills through changed according to the soil’s chemistry and mineralogy to
the addition of a small percentage of lime binder has been a ensure the desired outcome, namely an engineered material with
popular ground improvement technique in the UK since the a suite of appropriate characteristics that meet project require-
1970s (Notman, 2011). Following the introduction of this tech- ments.
nique, industry and academic efforts have been applied to better
understand the mechanisms behind the observed ameliorative As sustainability drivers increase pressures to minimise landfill
effects. This combined effort has advanced the state of know- and reuse materials, research into the potential for incorporating
ledge and practice to identify three fundamental effects caused waste-derived pozzolans is increasing. For example, laboratory
by the reaction of lime with clay minerals, namely moisture work has identified potential in incorporating wastepaper sludge
conditioning, cation exchange and pozzolanic reaction (Sher- ash (Rahmat and Kinuthia, 2011) and red gypsum (Hughes et al.,
wood, 1993). These processes generally realise a favourable 2011) into binder mix designs. These ‘new pozzolans’ add
outcome. However, heterogeneous soil chemistry and mineralogy different types and ranges of chemistry/mineralogy. This imposes
may result in important changes to the nature of reactions further layers of complexity on an already challenging topic and
between lime and soil. Practically, this prevents a ‘one size fits although the results are promising for the specific clay materials
all’ approach to lime stabilisation and highlights the importance tested under laboratory conditions, the implications of soil
of a detailed understanding of the science underlying the lime– heterogeneity relevant to site applications are less well under-
clay soil reactions for those involved in the practical application stood.

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It is timely, therefore, to summarise the state of science and 2. Context of lime stabilisation
practice, focusing on a simple case of lime stabilisation. Compil- Lime is typically applied to clay soils that, in an untreated
ing this information into one point of reference provides substan- condition, provide problems for construction. In particular,
tial benefit for organisations engaged in soil stabilisation projects shrink/swell of the substrate may damage engineering structures.
and also provides a point of comparison for any future work with Clay soils with a liquid limit (WL ) greater than 90% or a
new pozzolans. This paper reviews literature and applies experi- plasticity index (IP ) greater than 65% are thus classified as
ence of site practice to interpret the key aspects relevant to unsuitable for use as an earthworks fill material, unless treated
achieving the desired performance in field applications of lime (e.g. with lime; Highways Agency (2009)).
stabilisation. As this experience is predominantly from UK prac-
tice, comments relating to specification are based upon the Rapid improvements to the soil’s engineering properties are
Highways Agency specifications and guidance notes (Highways commonly referred to as ‘lime improvement’ (separating it from
Agency, 1995, 2007, 2009). However, although specifications ‘lime stabilisation’; Table 1) and have two facets. The first relates
may vary, the reasoning presented is relevant globally. to conditioning of the fill to the optimum moisture content
(OMC) for compaction. The second relates to chemical altera-
The paper is structured to first introduce the context of lime tions at the surface of the clay particles which decreases the
stabilisation and principles underlying lime–clay reactions (Sec- volume change potential of the clay minerals.
tion 2) before factors important in applying these principles at the
field scale are described (Section 3). A discussion of how these With greater additions of lime binder (i.e. in excess of the initial
concepts may promote a strong, durable and volumetrically stable consumption of lime (ICL) value, BSI (1990)) pozzolanic
fill material, including consideration of sulfur swell follows reactions between lime and clay can result in substantial long-
(Section 4). Discrepancies between theory and practice are then term enhancement of engineering properties, including high
summarised and suggestions where enhanced knowledge would strength, durability and frost resistance (Eades and Grim, 1966).
add value to practical applications are made (Section 5). The added benefits from the pozzolanic reactions are experienced

Treatment intent Physico-chemical process Common Indicative lime Typical time

terminology requirements requireda

Lower the moisture content Removal of free moisture by Lime improvement Low, e.g. 0.5–4 1. Immediate
of a wet/low-strength soil reaction with quicklime. (initial moisture content/ 2. Rapid (0–72 h)
towards OMC. Either for Cation exchange/clay mineral clay content dependent)
compaction as a general aggregation effectively increasing
fill, or to enhance the OMC (see Sections 2.4.1 to
trafficability. 2.4.3 for details).
Increasing

Reduced plasticity/potential Cation exchange/clay Lime improvement Rapid (0–72 h)

for volume change. aggregation reduces clay mineral
effective surface area and affinity
for water.
Early pozzolanic reactions restrict
subsequent dispersion of
aggregations (see Section 2.4.3
for detail).

Substantially improved Pozzolanic reaction between Lime stabilisation In excess of the ICL Ongoing
engineering properties, i.e. lime–clay soil system (see Section value, e.g. 2–10% improvement
strength, stiffness and 2.4.4 for detail). (actual binder addition from 72 h
durability. determined by site- continuing for
specific mix design) months/years
a
Indicative times only. Actual time depends upon multiple factors detailed in later text.

Table 1. The treatment intent and the implications for lime

addition and time-dependent reactions

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more slowly than the rapid lime improvement reactions, and can tion does not fit well with achieving efficient development of the
progress over months and even years. Lime may also be used in long-term pozollanic reactions and vice versa. Furthermore, the
combination with additional binders, for example Portland ce- timing of water availability is critical in determining whether
ment, or through combined reaction with pozzolans such as ettringite growth results in soil expansion (Little et al., 2005).
ground granulated blastfurnace slag (ggbs). Such approaches may Therefore, the role of water management within a lime-soil
be sought when greater strengths are required rapidly (e.g. within system receives specific attention in this paper.
7 d). It is important to note that these approaches alter the
reaction product chemistry and locations where strength improve- 2.3 Lime types
ment takes place, when compared with soil treatments involving Lime binder may refer to quicklime (CaO) or hydrated lime
lime only (Wilkinson et al., 2010). (Ca[OH]2 ) and may be provided in various forms, such as pellets,
flakes, powder or as particles suspended within a water slurry.
2.1 Volume stability Each variant of lime binder is produced to different physical/
The volume stability and durability of a lime-treated fill is of chemical criteria (e.g. as categorised in BSI (2006)) and may suit
paramount importance. Although the majority of soil stabilisation a specific soil stabilisation application better than another type/
works result in the desired performance (Petry and Little, 2002), form. Lime type is considered further in Section 3.4. However,
occasionally problems occur. Following high-profile failures in the the sequence of lime–clay reaction must first be discussed before
United Kingdom (M40 motorway, Oxfordshire; Snedker (1996)) implications of lime binder type can be considered.
and United States (Las Vegas; Hunter (1988)), the potentially
deleterious reaction between sulfur and a lime–clay soil system 2.4 Lime–clay soil reactions
has received substantial attention. There is a considerable body of This initial discussion of the underlying reactions assumes the
work supporting the notion that this combination of reactants may added lime is in close contact with the reacting clay component
lead to the precipitation of ettringite and/or thaumasite (Little et and ignores any requirement for the lime constituents to first
al., 2005). The formation of ettringite, in particular, may be migrate into position. The latter complication is added by field
accompanied by substantial expansion with the potential to cause applications of lime stabilisation which process larger clods of
damage to engineering structures (Snedker, 1996). clay and will be considered in Section 3.2. The processes are
discussed in the order in which they are considered to occur in a
The potential to generate problems for construction due to field scenario which aids later correlations to physical effects.
adverse soil chemistry is very much smaller than the potential to
develop problems due to a high air voids percentage of the lime- 2.4.1 Drying
treated soils. A major factor in addressing the latter involves the Substantial drying is only applicable where quicklime is used as
early lime–clay soil reactions in combination with the working the binder, removing excess water from the soil system through
methodologies employed and this paper addresses this in some the action of ‘slaking’ the quicklime (CaO) to calcium hydroxide
detail below. A potential for sulfur swell may be broadly defined (Ca[OH]2 ). This combines 32% of the quicklime’s initial mass
from the association of sulfur species with certain geological with water molecules, causes an increase in volume (potentially
formations (see Figure 7 later). However, as sulfur swell issues providing deleterious expansive stresses if in a confined environ-
from soil stabilisation are relatively rare and material from these ment). The resultant exo-thermic reactions generate substantial
potentially sulfur-bearing formations (see Figure 7 later) have heat. This heat causes evaporation which further reduces the
also been successfully treated, it becomes apparent that the issue moisture content (Greaves, 1996). Therefore, the influence is
is more complex than this general association and Section 4.3 principally one of drying out the material.
expands considerably on this point. Notwithstanding, industry
experience suggests that sulfate swell potential is of specific 2.4.2 Calcium hydroxide dissociation
concern with high sulfur clay soils that are also of high plasticity, Whether added directly, or produced through quicklime slaking,
with the Lias clay formation having notoriety in this regard (Holt calcium hydroxides enter the soil water solution. Calcium
et al., 2000; Snedker, 1996). hydroxide is relatively stable in water, although it can partially
dissociate to provide calcium (Ca2þ ) ions and hydroxyl groups,
2.2 Role of water which may then react with the clay–soil system (Bergado, 1996).
A particular amount of water is required to achieve an OMC that The hydroxyl groups also elevate the pore water pH to a
coincides with the maximum dry density (MDD). In addition, the maximum value of approximately 12.45. Calcium hydroxide
initial moisture content dramatically influences the manner in dissociation is a prerequisite to subsequent changes that deter-
which lime diffuses through and reacts with the clay system. A mine the engineering properties of lime–clay mixes.
greater initial moisture content enhances the efficiency of lime
diffusion (Barker et al., 2007) and provides sufficient water to 2.4.3 Cation exchange and soil structure change
precipitate pozzolanic hydrates in the longer term (Bell, 1988). The modification of the clay structure mainly involves the
This illustrates the importance of understanding the intent of the calcium ions and is regarded as a rapid cation exchange process
lime treatment. A focus on achieving MDD for bulk fill compac- occurring on the surface of clay particles. Clay particles typically

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Beetham, Dijkstra, Dixon et al.

exhibit surface charge imbalances and the negative charges are j reduced plasticity and shrink/swell
balanced by hydrated cations. Accordingly, individual clay parti- j promotion of brittle/friable behaviour
cles are surrounded by adsorbed water in the diffuse double layer j increased permeability.
arrangement (Van Olphen, 1977). The thickness of the diffuse
double layer is controlled by several factors (Reeves et al., 2006) As the described change in soil structure is dependent upon a
although the valence of the charge-balancing cations has primary suppressed diffuse double layer, it might be expected that the
influence. Incoming divalent cations exert a greater attractive effects could be reversed through suspension within water. How-
force towards the clay particle surface than any monovalent ever, this is not evident and the aggregations persist, even when
cations (which are common to natural clay soils, e.g. K þ or reworked during classification tests, such as particle-size distribu-
Naþ ). This balances the clay surface charge with fewer hydrated tion and Atterberg tests. This resilience is caused by the rapid
cations and the thickness of the diffuse double layer shrinks in growth of some pozzolanic reaction products (Diamond and
response (Bohn, 2002). As the diffuse double layers shrink, the Kinter, 1965). These early-formed reaction products localise
electro-static charges on adjacent clay particles interact to a around points of contact (e.g. edge/face) between clay particles
greater extent. Opposing negative charges of parallel aligned within the flocculated structure (Figure 1(c)). This discrete
(face to face) clay particles are repelled and reconfigure to strengthening at point of contact explains how formation of a
promote a flocculated, positive/negative charge (e.g. edge to face) very small quantity of reaction product provides resilience against
arrangement (Figure 1). This causes silt-sized aggregations of dispersion (Diamond and Kinter, 1965).
clay particles to group together (Bell, 1996) and two influences
on the clay soil structure are suggested: an increase in micro- 2.4.4 Pozzolanic reactions
porosity, intra-aggregate to the flocculated particles (Figure 1(c)); Pozzolanic reactions may be broadly summarised as new mineral
and a change to the meso-porosity, inter-aggregate to the growth, facilitated by high pH pore water (i.e. pH . 9) and
flocculated particles (Figure 1(d)). This reduces the effective involving reactants sourced from either the added lime, host clay
surface area of clay minerals in contact with the inter-aggregate soil, or transported in from an external source, namely solutes
pore water accounting for much of the immediate change in within the pore water (Bell, 1996; Boardman et al., 2001;
physical properties of the clay soil associated with lime improve- Diamond and Kinter, 1965; Sherwood, 1993). With the noted
ment (Figure 2; Bell (1988)) exception of early-formed reaction products (Diamond and

Clay particle

Ca2⫹ addition

Indicative diffuse double layer

around clay particle
(a) (b)

Outline of
aggregation

Early pozzolanic reaction

at contact points

Aggregation size is influenced

Intra-aggregate porosity by mineralogy, often referred
may be introduced between to as silt size (⬎ 2 μm;
adjacent particles or within Bell (1998))
individual clay particles Inter-aggregate porosity
(c) (d)

Figure 1. Sequence illustrating influence of early lime–clay (c) aggregation of clay particles as diffuse double-layer ‘buffer’
reactions upon clay particle arrangements and soil structure: reduction results in repulsion of like charges on clay particles;
(a) diffuse double layer is initially deep, causing clay particles to (d) aggregations act as larger particles with adjacent surfaces
align in a disperse arrangement; (b) substitution of Ca2þ cations separated by inter-aggregate pore space
for Naþ /K þ cations reduces diffuse double-layer thickness;

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(a)

10 μm

(a)

(b)

Figure 3. Environmental scanning electron microscope images of

10 μm lime-treated clay (32 d cure) illustrating pore water/C-S-H gel
connecting individual aggregations with little visible air voids:
(a) lime-treated fabric at ‘as cured’ moisture content (reproduced
with permission of the Transportation Research Board; Beetham et
(b) al. (2014)); (b) as part (a) with further magnification

Figure 2. Scanning electron microscope images (from Wilkinson

et al. (2010)) indicating how lime modification alters the fabric of cement form, such as calcium silicate hydrates (C-S-H), calcium
an untreated clay soil (a) to produce silt-sized aggregations closely aluminate hydrates (C-A-H) and calcium aluminate silicate
separated by an inter-aggregate porosity (b): (a) shows untreated hydrates (C-A-S-H). The composition of the reaction products
clay fabric (freeze dried); (b) shows lime-treated clay fabric (freeze formed by the lime–clay soil reaction is necessarily driven by the
dried) timing of reactant availability. The abundant early supply of an
alternative chemistry, for example SO4 2 ions, in lieu of silicate,
may dramatically change the reaction product from an ameliora-
Kinter, 1965), long curing periods (weeks and months) are tive into a potentially deleterious mineralogy. This introduces the
required for the newly formed minerals to provide notable and concept of reactant timing and will receive further attention in
ongoing benefit. The increase in strength with curing is attributed sections on ion migration at the field scale and adverse chemistry
to the new minerals binding adjacent aggregations of clay (Figure (see Sections 3.2 and 4.3).
3; Bell (1996)). Wild et al. (1987) suggested that by infilling the
inter-aggregate pore space, strength increase and permeability
3. Transferring science to practice
reduction would also occur through ‘pore blocking’.
3.1 Clay clods
Clay soils are typically rich in alumino-silicates and reaction Up to this point, much of the discussion involved processes
products similar to those produced through hydration of Portland operating at the microscopic scale and assuming an intimate

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lime–clay mixture. This can make it difficult to relate to site cementation’. It has not been universally accepted that diffuse
processes in which the rotovating/mixing action of site machinery cementation plays a significant role within lime stabilisation.
tends to produce clods of clay soil (which may be up to 50 mm in Some authors have suggested that ion diffusion can only occur
diameter) with lime applied to the periphery of these clods. Lime to a very limited degree (Ingles and Metcalf, 1972; Petry and
stabilisation has some aspects similar to standard earthworks – Wohlgemuth, 1988). This may be due to the experimental
for example, the immediate strength is mostly influenced by dry conditions that led to these conclusions either being sub-optimal
density. However, the inclusion of lime binder in conjunction for efficient ion migration (i.e. unsaturated soil condition), or
with the clod size adds a further strength dynamic. Upon promoting another influence upon strength to occur more rapidly,
immediate contact with lime, the clay clods go through the lime– thus causing diffuse cementation to appear insignificant. With
clay reaction sequence as described above and this alters the fill the former, there are multiple influences on the rate of pozzo-
properties in an ongoing manner. The lime is initially localised lanic reaction to consider and this will be explained in
along the periphery of the clods and for the lime–clay reactions Section 4.1.2).
to extend beyond the surface of a clod, the calcium ions and
hydroxyl groups must transport deep into the clod. 3.3 Compaction
The principles of compaction for a lime-improved or -stabilised
3.2 Lime migration clay are similar to those influencing a standard clay soil improved
Ion transport in clay soils is primarily driven by diffusion along by mechanical compaction. In general, MDD corresponds with
electro-chemical gradients where ions redistribute to regions of the maximum shear strength (attainable immediately). However,
low concentration (Jungnickel et al., 2004). Although the diffusion with the addition of lime, the MDD attainable from a treated fill
process dominates in soils of high plasticity, advection becomes reduces and the OMC typically shifts towards the wet side (Figure
increasingly influential with increased permeability – that is, with 4; Bell (1996)). Lime treatment tends to produce a relatively flat
permeability greater than 1 3 109 m/s (Mitchell and Soga, curve when results of dry density are plotted against moisture
2005). Therefore, where soil plasticity is low or there is a content, which in some situations may flatten completely so that
significant granular component, advection may become the key a lesser or no increase in MDD is associated with an OMC.
ion transport mechanism. Although ion diffusion predominantly
involves the migration of charge-balanced anion/cation pairs 3.3.1 Inter-clod porosity
(Jungnickel et al., 2004), in a lime-treated clay soil, the distribu- The reduction in MDD has been linked with the flocculation of clay
tion of Ca2þ occurs more rapidly and with wider coverage than the particles causing an increase of porosity and a lower density
hydroxyl groups (Davidson et al., 1965). This suggests that lime (Sherwood, 1993). However, as the size of pore space imposed by
does not diffuse as paired Ca[OH]2 as might be anticipated in an clay particle flocculation is considered to be ,0.3 ìm (Bin et al.,
advective system. Rogers and Glendinning (1996) attributed the 2007), it is unlikely that this intra-aggregate porosity could fully
difference in migration distance and rate to the high reactivity of account for the larger reductions in dry density. In a study on
OH  with the surface of alumino-silicates. However, in a saturated compacted clods of untreated clay of high plasticity, Benson (1990)
soil condition, connected pore water enhances thermal conductiv- associated large reductions in dry density and increased permeabil-
ity to stimulate molecular excitement, and this substantially ity with increased void space between clay clods (i.e. an inter-clod
accelerates the rate and extent of OH  diffusion (Barker et al., porosity with pore sizes .100 ìm); influences from changes to
2007). Beetham et al. (2014) reported that when clods of clay
were at a high degree of saturation before lime treatment, the
Maximum dry density (MDD)
elevation of pore water pH to more than 10 throughout 20 mm
Dry density: Mg/m3

clay clods is achievable within several days. They also noted that Lime treatment results in
Optimum moisture content (OMC)

the reduced surface area of clay particles, flocculated by the OMC increase, lower MDD
preceding Ca2þ cation exchange process, would also decrease
OH  interactions, promoting the wider migration of these hydro-
xyl groups.

Following movement of Ca2þ ions and hydroxyl groups into Mellowing may result in
a very ‘flat curve’
place, the subsequent development of pozzolanic reactions
throughout the clods is given the distinction ‘diffuse cementa-
tion’ (Stocker, 1975). As the pozzolanic reaction mechanism
Untreated
relies upon the connectivity of pore water around clay aggrega- Treated
tions, the potential for these reactions to extend over the larger,
Moisture content
air-filled inter-clod porosity is limited. Therefore, while lime
stabilisation has potential to develop substantial diffuse cementa- Figure 4. Interpretative plot indicating the influence lime
tion, unless other binders are added (such as Portland cement or treatment has upon a ‘Proctor’ compaction plot
alkaline-activated ggbs), there is little potential for ‘inter-clod

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micro-porosity (i.e. pore spaces ,1 ìm) were minor. The key reduces inter-clod porosity (Benson, 1990), the lower volume of
influences on this inter-clod porosity are clod ductility, clod size clay over which ion diffusion must progress causes lime–clay
and compaction effort (Benson, 1990). Sweeney et al. (1988) reactions to develop throughout small clods (e.g. 5 mm or smaller)
identified how both increased quicklime content and mellowing at a faster rate than for larger clods (e.g. 20 mm or larger; Beetham
period (from 1 to 24 h) promote the early lime clay reactions that et al., 2014; Bozbey and Garaisayev, 2010; Petry and Wohlgemuth,
reduce the ductility of clay soil. With a shorter mellowing period 1988). The rotovating action of site plant produces a range of clod
and lower amounts of added quicklime the modified Proctor sizes, thus the rate of change in clod ductility/strength will be
(4.5 kg) compaction results showed an increase of the MDD at heterogeneous – fast for the small clods, slow for the larger clods.
OMC, while a flat compaction curve resulted with normal Proctor When the range in clod size is within a reasonable banding before
(2.5 kg) compaction. However, for samples subjected to longer lime coating (i.e. as attained by the initial rotovation only), this
mellowing periods, a much less ductile material resulted and the should not prove a major issue with regard to compaction timing.
higher compaction energy did not realise an increase in MDD. However, the use of quicklime, particularly in combination with
Instead a weak and friable specimen, prone to breaking up, was initially large clods, has high potential to exaggerate this hetero-
produced (Sweeney et al., 1988). Other authors have similarly noted geneity. Beetham et al. (2014) reported on the effects of a sequence
that increased mellowing periods promote a substantial increase in comprising the addition of quicklime followed by a 1 h mellowing
the percentage of air voids (Bell, 1988; Holt et al., 2000). The early period and then remixing before compaction. They observed that
lime–clay reactions introduce a brittle response and moisture this caused fine particles to break away from clods (up to 20 mm
conditioning to the wet of OMC will have only limited effects. size) of a moderately high plastic clay. As these fines originated
Further compactive effort may result in additional voids by fractur- from the clod periphery, these contained a disproportionately high
ing brittle clods and inducing dilatancy. concentration of lime, which is then isolated within the fines and
away from the larger clods. This effect further exaggerates the
3.4 Clod size/strength heterogeneity heterogeneous development of early lime–clay reactions (Figure
The initial clod size of treated clays plays an important role in the 5). It is also logical to suggest that the use of quicklime powder
timing of lime–clay reactions and the potential for inter-clod would worsen this effect. The rapid liberation of heat when
porosity. Whereas compaction of (untreated) smaller clods category 1 quicklime (BSI, 2006) slakes would encourage both a

Clay clod

Limit of ion migration

(dependent upon time,
ion gradient, heat energy
and initial moisture content)
Quicklime coating slakes on contact with clay pore water Pore water is lost through slaking
liberating substantial heat and providing Ca2⫹ and hydroxyl ions and through evaporation. A drying rind
is formed that limits subsequent migration
(a) (b)

The heat energy and high lime concentration accelerates Remixing causes fine particles to separate from the friable rind.
early lime–clay reactions within the rind. This combines The removed fines have a high concentration of lime, whereas
with the drying influence to produce a friable/less ductile rind the residual ‘core’ has a much lower lime concentration
(c) (d)

Figure 5. Sequence illustrating the influence of quicklime slaking (b) mellowing – dehydration influence on ion migration;
upon larger clay clods to produce a heterogeneous distribution of (c) mellowing – physical effects; (d) remixing – fine particle
lime (after Beetham et al. (2014)): (a) upon quicklime addition; removal

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Beetham, Dijkstra, Dixon et al.

localised drying and an acceleration of lime–clay reactions. As complex subject and the present state of science has not achieved
diffusion is optimal with a saturated clay soil, migration to the complete agreement. For this reason, a complete discussion
centre of these clods would then be restricted and a drying, brittle would require a separate review paper and a detailed summary is
rind would rapidly form, leaving a core zone where relatively little not attempted here. Instead, it is noted that of the different
alteration takes place (Figures 5(c) and 5(d)). Therefore, unless the reaction mechanisms suggested in the literature, they may
remixing phase is accompanied with further binder addition, the generally be grouped into those involving the topo-chemical
large remnant cores may receive very little lime. alteration of an alumino-silicate host to form the new phase in
situ (e.g. Stocker (1975)), or via a through-solution process,
3.5 Working method influences namely the dissolution of reactants from an alumino-silicate host,
To limit heterogeneous distribution of lime and moisture, the followed by transportation and then precipitation of the new
mellowing period may be extended to allow the lime improve- phase at an alternative location (e.g. Beetham et al. (2014)).
ment processes to substantially complete throughout clay clods. While the topo-chemical reactions would explain surface changes,
The lime improvement process is usually complete within 24 h, such as Diamond and Kinter’s early pozzolanic alteration (Dia-
but subject to clay mineralogy and content may require up to mond and Kinter, 1965), the ongoing growth of reaction products
72 h (Rogers and Glendinning, 1996). Large clods may require into the inter-aggregate pore space (Wild et al., 1987; Wilkinson
even further time. Encouraging heterogeneity with a prolonged et al., 2010) suggests that a ‘through-solution’ mechanism is
mellowing process would promote the high air voids issue necessary for any further pozzolanic reaction to take place
previously identified, especially when quicklime powder is used. beyond initial contact amelioration. It has already been identified
This suggests that, unless the application of quicklime can realise that the efficient distribution of hydroxyl groups is driven by a
the pulverisation specification within a relatively short mellowing connected pore water and this would be a prerequisite to the
period either high air voids percentage or a heterogeneous mix initiation of both topo-chemical and through-solution processes.
will result. To avoid heterogeneity and minimise air voids where
larger clods persist, the use of hydrated lime powder in lieu of 4.1.1 Through-solution mechanism
quicklime is preferable. This would avoid the complication of a When the pore water alkalinity exceeds a pH of 9 it generates a
drying rind (Figure 5) and permit longer mellowing periods corrosive environment in which the alkaline hydrolysis of
before ductility is lost. A further option involves the use of covalent bonds between Al–O and Si–O releases monomeric
hydrated lime/slurry and to deliberately target a substantially wet silicate and aluminate (e.g. SiO4 4 and Al[OH]4  ) into solution
of OMC condition, perhaps with minimal mellowing. The (Cristelo et al., 2012). Water forms an essential component to
principal issue here is to accept a reduced immediate strength, enable this reaction and further highlights the importance of
and rely on optimising diffuse cementation processes to achieve a connected pore water for the sustained supply of reactants. With
higher strength as curing continues to take place (Figures 6(a) regard to the supply rate of these reactants there are three direct
and 6(b)). This may be most suited to highly plastic clays in influences
which pulverisation is inherently difficult and the clay mineralogy
promotes diffuse cementation in a more expedient manner. j the availability of alumino-silicates
j the strength of the covalent bonds in the alumino-silicate
It becomes apparent that different combinations of moisture j the corrosivity of the pore water.
conditioning, mellowing periods and lime binder type will suit
different clay materials and the key consideration to achieve the Additives comprising bases stronger than Ca(OH)2 have been
optimal approach is the performance requirements of the com- shown to enhance alumino-silicate dissolution (Diamond and
pacted fill. The performance element should consider the medium Kinter, 1965), with NaOH and KOH providing a pH of 13.5 to 14
(31 d) and long-term (more than 6 months), which may not be and substantially accelerating this attack (Duxson et al., 2007;
indicated by immediate or short-term (7 d) testing and would Elert et al., 2008). The availability of alumino-silicates is
instead require an in depth understanding of the principles behind essential to pozzolanic reactions, although the quantity of dis-
durability (Section 4.2) and cured strength gain (Section 4.1.2). It is solved silicate and/or aluminate required to sustain the reaction is
worth repeating here that the OMC for immediate strength does not small and once an initial minimum is met (e.g. plasticity index
necessarily coincide with the moisture content required for maxi- more than 10) the clay content is not limiting (Bell, 1988). The
mum long-term strength and durability. Providing that sufficient rate at which these reactions result in an increase in strength is
strength is gained to permit immediate construction requirements, it linked to a hierarchy of clay minerals in which expansive clay
may be preferable for some applications to target higher moisture. minerals, such as montmorillonite, are recognised as providing
the greatest rate of dissolution, thus enabling maximum efficiency
of pozzolanic reactions. The high reactivity of these expansive
4. Cured strength and durability
clay minerals is determined, among other things, by their very
4.1 Pozzolanic reaction and reactant timing high surface area and the extra silicate layer within 2:1 minerals
With respect to a detailed micro-chemical explanation for the (Table 2; Elert et al. (2008); Ingles and Metcalf (1972)). These
pozzolanic reactions, it is important to acknowledge that this is a cannot be the sole factors, because Ingles and Metcalf (1972)

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Beetham, Dijkstra, Dixon et al.

Clay mineral Layer Surface area: Swelling condition are dependent upon a number of factors that limit
structure m2 /g properties reaction rates and are listed here.

Kaolinite 1:1 10 None j Initial ion diffusion efficiency – such as clay clod volume,
Allophane 1:1 700–900 None degree of saturation, quantity of added lime.
Smectite 2:1 800 Extensive
Illite 2:1 20 None/very little
Vermiculite 2:1 400 Limited Low water content High water content
Chlorite 2:2 10 None short mellowing period no mellowing period
Moderate, slightly
heterogeneous Lower
Table 2. Basic properties of common clay minerals (after Rowell clod strength clod
(1994)) strength

Immediate
consider the reactivity of illite to be less than that of kaolinite. In Clod size: 1 to 25 mm Clod size: 20 to 30 mm
this regard, Bell (1988) suggested that not all the silica in 2:1 Increased inter-clod porosity low inter-clod porosity
clay minerals would be freely available, with illite and chlorite as Limited diffusion, and Efficient ion diffusion and
diffuse cementation diffuse cementation
Long-term cure

examples in which ionic bonding might restrict silica availability. especially in larger clods
Additionally, Al–O covalent bonds are weaker than Si–O bonds
and therefore aluminate supply will initially exceed silicate
supply. However, as clay soils have greater overall silica content,
this supply rate will gradually reverse with ongoing dissolution
(Cristelo et al., 2012). The degree of crystallinity within the Inter-clod porosity persists Low inter-clod porosity provides
as a long-term weakness fewer zones of weakness
alumino-silicate source also has a high influence on bond strength
(a)
and in comparison with well-ordered clay minerals, amorphous
alumino-silicates rapidly dissolve (Duxson et al., 2007). This also
Strength

explains why some industrial processed alumino-silicates, which

have been subject to prior significant heat (e.g. ggbs, meta-
kaolin), have little order and are rapidly activated by calcium
hydroxides (Cristelo et al., 2012).

The newly formed minerals are produced from solutes released

into the pore water. An initial Al/Si complex of high reactivity
and mobility will form and its subsequent evolution is highly
dependent upon the supply of other ions (Cristelo et al., 2012).
Where calcium is available, the rapid formation of C-S-H gel
takes preference, although the composition of the reaction
product will depend upon the concentration of ions and local Low water content
High water content
energetics (Duxson et al., 2007). A connected pore water High water content – slow reaction rate
environment would assist in the promotion of a more homo- High water content – high reaction rate

geneous reaction product. Locally greater concentrations of Time

(b)
aluminate may result in precipitation of poorly crystalline C-A-H
or C-A-S-H phases. This is an inherently meta-stable system Figure 6. Interpretative sketch (a) and plot (b) indicating how the
and phase changes may continue as ion supply alters, although as pre-compaction condition of lime-treated clay clods may influence
the solid component of the gel increases, reorganisation becomes the shear strength over time. When comparing a low water
progressively high energy and a greater resistance to dissociation content system (an optimum moisture content for a maximum dry
develops (Duxson et al., 2007). Furthermore, as the newly formed density) to a high water content system (efficient diffuse
minerals grow within the inter-aggregate pore space, this progres- cementation), the latter will contain a period of time during which
sive reduction in permeability (Beetham et al., 2014; Wild et al., the shear strength is less before it is recovered with curing. The
1987) would limit any new ion supply, further encouraging duration of this period is influenced by the pozzolanic reaction
stability. rate (Section 4.1.2). Inter-clod porosity which persists as a long-
term weakness is increased where clod strength is initially high
4.1.2 Strength gain rate and resists the compaction effort applied. In (a) strength indicated
Although the above sequence is an ideal progression, strength by shading intensity – darker zones indicate greater strength
development and transition to a relatively stable, low permeability

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Beetham, Dijkstra, Dixon et al.

j Alumino-silicate reactivity – this is influenced by clay Ca6 [Al(OH)6 ]2 (SO4 )3  26H2 O (ettringite)
mineral type.
j Other factors – such as curing temperature, pH-reducing
organic matter or high sulfur content (Section 4.3). Thaumasite may form in a similar fashion, or can generate upon
alteration of ettringite (Little et al., 2005; Winter, 2009). A low
temperature of between 4 and 158C and humid conditions are
The time-dependent strength influence of ion diffusion rate and
associated with thaumasite formation (Collett et al., 2004;
alumino-silicate reactivity is indicated in Figure 6.
Winter, 2009). For the formation of thaumasite the following
reactants combine: Ca2þ ; Si4þ , SO4 2 ; CO2 3 and H2 O (Little et
4.2 Stabilised soil durability al., 2005)
Durability of a lime-stabilised soil is judged against the sustained
achievement of the required engineering properties. In view of Ca3 [Si(OH)6 ](CO3 )(SO4 )  12H2 O (thaumasite)
the near-surface environment, changes caused by fluctuations in
water content and temperature (including freeze–thaw cycles) are
foreseeable events with the potential to impart changes upon the Several strategies to prevent deleterious mineral growth, with a
soil strength and volume stability. primary focus on ettringite, are described in the literature. These
are listed below and discussed under appropriate sub-headings.
The ingress of water has the potential to influence the residual
clay mineralogy in a similar manner to a natural clay soil (a) Limiting/preventing access of one or more of the reactants.
although, as previously noted, the low surface area of the resilient (b) Deliberate ettringite nucleation before final compaction.
clay aggregations will lessen this influence. Thereafter, the (c) Amending the chemical balance of a system to instead
stability of the pozzolanic reaction products becomes of interest. precipitate a non-deleterious mineralogy.
When submersed within water of neutral pH and low Ca2þ ,
C-S-H gel will de-constitute into Ca(OH)2 and silicate (Taylor, 4.3.1 Limited reactants
1990). The release of these components will then effectively raise It is apparent that sufficient quantities of calcium, aluminium,
the pH and Ca2þ of the water, and for this attack to be sustained, sulfate and water must be available to provide an environment in
further water must then be supplied. This is supported by which ettringite can be formed. A primary factor is the presence
McAllister and Petry (1992) who identified that where permeabil- of sulfate and a minimum soil sulfate value of 0.2–0.3% is
ity is high, the leaching of Ca2þ from a cured lime–clay system regarded as the level at which substantial growth of this hydrated
is sustained at a high level for an ongoing period. Conversely, for crystal, which may potentially lead to swelling pressures affecting
the low permeability system, initial Ca2þ leaching was much the integrity of engineered structures, becomes a risk (Little et
lower and then stopped after only a short time period (McAllister al., 2005). However, where heave has caused noticeable distress
and Petry, 1992). Therefore, a high-permeability material can to overlying engineering works, a wider range of sulfate (0.3–
potentially lose strength through softening and removal of the 1.4%) has been attributed, which suggests other factors may limit
pozzolanic reaction products (Le Runigo et al., 2009). ettringite development. The (un)availability of aluminium (from
the clay minerals) is one such component that may reduce the
Frost susceptibility is also primarily controlled by permeability, rate of growth (Little et al., 2005). When soils are compacted to
with the accumulation of water within the inter-clod void space achieve a low air voids ratio (i.e. less than 5%) this will
(Figure 6(a)) comprising the main area where these expansive drastically limit the potential for subsequent water ingress (Perry
forces concentrate (Sherwood, 1992). Thus, the persistence of et al., 1996) and it will also limit the leaching of calcium ions
high air voids is directly associated with a reduction in durability from any prior-formed C-S-H or portlandite (McAllister and
and it is recommended that compaction achieves a minimum Petry, 1992). It is interesting to note that widely reported sulfate
value of air voids throughout the fill (Sherwood, 1992) swell failures (e.g. Stewart Avenue, Las Vegas, US reported by
Hunter (1988); and the M40, Oxford, UK reported by Snedker
4.3 Adverse chemistry (1996)) occurred when a quicklime binder was applied. Inter-clod
In addition to the effects of poor compaction, various deleterious porosity may have been a substantial factor in facilitating
effects are associated with adverse chemistry. For example, heave ettringite growth and subsequent swelling. Inter-clod porosity
and strength loss of lime and cement-stabilised soils has been would be of further significance where it provides a pathway for
associated with high sulfur contents in the host soil, leading to ingress of sulfates from an external location.
the formation of the expansive and strength-depleting minerals
ettringite and thaumasite (Hunter, 1988; Snedker, 1996). 4.3.2 Controlled ettringite growth
Ettringite is only expansive if the water is sourced from outside the
The formation of ettringite requires a pH greater than 10 and an immediate system – that is, post compaction (Little et al., 2010).
adequate supply of chemical reactants namely Ca2þ ; SO4 2 ; Furthermore, where all reactants are immediately available, ettrin-
Al2 O3 ; H2 O to form (Little et al., 2005) gite will form and reach a steady state within 150 h (Little et al.,

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2005). However, the heterogeneous distribution of reactants, in areas where groundwater may form a conduit for sulfate trans-
combination with the low solubility of sulfate, will further slow port. A significant challenge is this regard is that sulfur-bearing
ettringite precipitation in a site application. If diffusion of reactants minerals are unlikely to be uniformly distributed through the host
is encouraged through the addition of sufficient water at the mixing clay, and the initial identification of sulfur species may be missed
stage (3–5% greater than the OMC) and it is coupled with an at the site investigation stage. As a consequence, substantial
extended mellowing period (e.g. 3–7 d), this promotes the wide- advice has been published on suitable approaches to site investi-
spread nucleation and some early ettringite growth before final gation for identifying elevated sulfur content (Czerewko et al.,
compaction takes place (Little et al., 2010; Petry and Little, 2002). 2003; Highways Agency, 2007; Longworth, 2004) and UK
This strategy will limit expansion by encouraging initial ettringite formations that are known for their potential to contain elevated
growth before compaction, and then facilitating any subsequent sulfur are well documented (Figure 7). A suggested safe maxi-
expansive ettringite growth (as sulfate solubility allows) over a mum limit with the sulfur avoidance approach is 0.25% TPS,
greater area. The latter would promote the wider distribution of although this may be increased to 1% if soaked California
smaller ettringite crystals, so there is increased potential for this bearing ratio (CBR) tests do not indicate a swell problem (High-
volume change to be accommodated by the inter-clod pore space, ways Agency, 2007). However, it must be noted that the
thus avoiding expansion hotspots (Little et al., 2010). suitability of soaked CBRs to identify sulfate swell has been
questioned (Highways Consultancy Group, 2008).
4.3.3 Chemical balance/timing
Increasing silica activity in a clay soil which has a chemistry that Where TPS levels above these low values are considered, any soil
would normally form ettringite could instead lead to the forma- stabilisation must be considered an increased risk and the control
tion of a volumetrically stable mineral, such as the calcium strategies employed become a means of risk management.
alumino sulfo silicate – prehnite (Little et al., 2005). Thus binder Regarding the previously noted strategies (see Sections 4.3.1 to
mix designs including products with rapidly available silica such 4.3.3), some potentially complicating factors exist and these
as ggbs have been linked with the prevention of sulfate heave
(Higgins, 2005). As an alternative hypothesis of how ggbs
L London Clay
restricts sulfate heave, Wild et al. (1996) suggested that the ggbs
particles, which also contain aluminium, provide an alternative
M W Weald Clay
N
surface for ettringite nucleation. They proposed that ettringite K Kimmeridge Clay
growth extending from the surfaces of ggbs particles was non- O Oxford Clay
expansive, whereas if ettringite growth nucleated from the edge- Li Lias Clay
site of a clay mineral this was associated with expansion (Wild et
M Mercia Mudstone
al., 1996). It may be that the non-expansive nature of ettringite M
growth in this case was a function of the rapid supply of
aluminate (rapidly dissolved from a relatively amorphous ggbs Liverpool
source) to combine with the other immediately available reac- M
M Li
tants, thus permitting the rapid formation of ettringite in the
controlled manner described by Little et al. (2010). Loughborough

K
In terms of reactant timing, the oxidation state of sulfur is also of Li
O
M
interest. Dependent upon the geological depositional environment,
sulfur may be present as sulfate (e.g. gypsum Ca2 SO4 ), or sulfide
(e.g. pyrite FeS2 ). While sulfates may release their SO4 2 ions L
K
relatively rapidly into solution, the reduced sulfur in pyrite is O
London
unavailable for combination until it is oxidised. An oxygen-rich
L
environment, high pH, available water and Ca2þ is encouraged by L
W
the lime stabilisation process and facilitates rapid oxidation of M
Li L
pyrite to calcium sulfate (Casanova et al., 1997; Floyd et al., W

2003). Hence, when assessing the sulfate swell potential of a soil,

in addition to quantifying the immediately available sulfate, it is
important to also determine the quantity of sulfate that may 0 50 100 m
potentially oxidise from sulfide sources and combine these into a
total potential sulfate (TPS) value (Longworth, 2004). Figure 7. Distribution of UK strata that potentially contain sulfates
and sulfides (DigMapGB-625, reproduced with the permission of
4.3.4 Summary of methods to control sulfate swell the British Geological Survey # NERC. Contains Ordnance Survey
To avoid sulfate-related heave in lime stabilisation, the lowest data # Crown Copyright & database rights 2012)
risk approach involves avoidance of high sulfur clay soils and

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Beetham, Dijkstra, Dixon et al.

highlight areas where the direction of future research may assist moisture conditioning close to the OMC may not always be
the lime stabilisation industry. For strategies involving the suitable. If durability and/or long-term performance are to be
deliberate growth of ettringite, the prolonged application of optimised, treatment of some materials (e.g. clay soils of medium
mellowing periods may result in significant clod strength before to high plasticity) may require adaptations to these working
compaction takes place, and a high air voids percentage in the practices. This is of particular relevance to high sulfur material,
final compacted product. This conflicts with strategies seeking to where minimisation of inter-clod air voids must be considered a
improve durability by limiting access to water inflow, especially primary defence against sulfate swell. Notwithstanding this, there
if this water contained further sulfate. The long-term stability of is still considerable research work which must be undertaken to
ettringite is subject to environmental conditions promoting con- identify the optimum working approaches for limiting sulfate
version to thaumasite. In this regard, the increased solubility of swell risk. Fundamentally, future research must work towards
CO2 3 in water of reducing temperature is considered as a addressing true industry need and use laboratory preparations
possible trigger (Collett et al., 2004; Snedker, 1996). Therefore, a which reflect site practice/conditions (Beetham et al., 2012).
strategy pursuing the minimisation of air voids, such as minimal
mellowing and hydrated lime use, to avoid ettringite formation by 5.1 Current understanding and required knowledge
denying reactant combination may seem preferable. However, The following list summarises the key points discussed in this
future changes in environmental conditions, such as further paper and also highlights where limited knowledge may be met
addition of drainage trenches into the stabilised material, may with future research effort.
trigger swell issues, for example by exposing/oxidising pyrite
previously located deep within large clods (Floyd et al., 2003).
The timely incorporation of industrial by-products, ggbs for (a) Other than initial access to very wet sites (which may use
example, into the process may well alleviate some of these coarse lime nodules), current UK practice almost exclusively
problems. For example, where air voids result from long mellow- uses category 1 quicklime powder; the use of hydrated lime
ing periods, along with suppressing ettringite expansion, ggbs powder or lime slurries is rare.
activation may promote the rapid growth of volumetrically stable (b) The use of a small percentage of quicklime is well suited to
reaction products to limit water ingress through the inter-clod some applications, specifically the rapid moisture
porosity. conditioning of clay soils which will denudate to meet
pulverisation specifications (Highways Agency, 2009) with
It can be concluded that, in isolation, all of the discussed minimal mellowing period. This is ideal for a bulk fill
strategies would lessen the risk of deleterious mineral formation compaction slightly wet of the OMC for MDD.
in the field. However, there would still be reasonably foreseeable (c) Irrespective of specifications that require a mandatory
field scenarios with the potential to instigate sulfate-related attack mellowing period of 24–72 h (Highways Agency, 2009), the
and the most challenging scenario would be a highly plastic, high inclusion of mellowing periods is not a straightforward issue.
TPS clay. It may prove that a combination of the strategies into a Mellowing periods of such long duration may permit clod
specific working method may overcome this residual risk. With- strength to increase significantly before final compaction,
out further research work, this method is not clear. A further leading to inter-clod air voids that persist throughout the
challenge is the absence of a satisfactory routine test for assessing compacted material.
the sulfate swell of site materials (Highways Consultancy Group, (d ) Where quicklime (as opposed to hydrated lime powder/
2008). The soaked CBR test and accelerated swell test (BSI, slurry) is used, the heat generated by slaking will further
2004) are indicators of sample resilience to water and may increase the potential for significant inter-clod voids and/or
indicate swell/strength reduction from water uptake by the clay heterogeneous clod strength. This is a particular issue in lime
minerals and, potential ettringite formation from immediately treatment of clay soils of medium to high plasticity.
available sulfate. However, as the potential triggers of sulfate (e) Minimising inter-clod air voids limits access to any soaking
swell, such as the introduction of an oxidising/humid atmosphere water, optimising durability and restricting volume change
(sulfide oxidation; Floyd et al. (2003)) and a reduction in the potential. The use of hydrated lime binders/slurries, minimal
soaking water temperature (e.g. for thaumasite growth; Snedker mellowing periods and a moisture condition significantly wet
(1996)) are absent from these routine swell tests, there is of OMC may minimise air voids, although the immediate
presently no way for practitioners to fully assess sulfate swell strength may be less.
potential during pre-contract testing. Thus, an appropriate swell ( f ) Longer mellowing periods (e.g. .12 h) and quicklime may
test remains a priority for industry (Snedker, 1996). be suited to some applications – for example, where the
mellowing period is followed by a second mix treatment of
5. Summary further binder such as Portland cement. In such a scenario,
This paper has covered the key aspects relevant to the field the early lime–clay reactions improve pulverisation and
practice of lime stabilisation and has demonstrated that much of reduce subsequent water demand from clods, then inter-clod
the subject is well understood and applied. However, some cementation may both strengthen this region and infill some
routine practices such as mellowing periods, quicklime use and of the air voids. If the degree of inter-clod voiding is high

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Volume 168 Issue GI2 perspective
Beetham, Dijkstra, Dixon et al.

(as may occur with prolonged mellowing (Sweeney et al., Institution of Civil Engineers – Ground Improvement 11(2):
1988), the degree of subsequent void infilling may be limited. 87–98.
(g) The current state of the art demonstrates that lime migration Beetham P, Dijkstra TA and Dixon N (2012) Nucleation in lime
may instigate diffuse cementation throughout larger clods of stabilised soils. In Proceedings of the International
clay soil. The rate that strength gain is achieved with diffuse Symposium on Ground Improvement (Denies N and
cementation is influenced by several factors and a high Huybrechts N (eds)). BBRI, Belgium, vol. 2, pp. 269–280.
degree of soil saturation is of substantial significance. Beetham P, Dijkstra TA and Dixon N (2014) Lime diffusion and
(h) The optimal combination of binders and different working implications for lime stabilization practice. Compendium of
methods for every different soil type is not known. This Papers from the Transportation Research Board 93rd Annual
acknowledges the absence of a ‘one size fits all’ approach Meeting, Washington DC. TRB, USA (in press).
and the importance of selecting binder type, mellowing Bell FG (1988) Stabilisation and treatment of clay soils with lime:
periods and moisture conditioning etc. based upon suitability Part 1. Ground Engineering 21(1): 10–15.
to achieve the required engineering performance. Bell FG (1996) Lime stabilization of clay minerals and soils.
(i) Our current specifications may be improved through Engineering Geology 42(4): 223–237.
allowance of a more flexible design/field approach, with Benson CH (1990) Influence of clods on hydraulic conductivity of
facility for the controlled relaxation of some requirements. compacted clay. ASCE Journal of Geotechnical Engineering
Specifically, mellowing periods and pulverisation should 116(8): 1231–1248.
become appropriate to the material/binder type and whether Bergado DT (1996) Soft Ground Improvement. ASCE Press, New
the treatment intent is to promote a diffuse or inter-clod York, USA.
cementation. Pre-start, site-specific mix designs that use a Bin S, Zhibin L, Yi C and Xiaoping Z (2007) Micropore structure
laboratory preparation method closely reflecting the intended of aggregates in treated soils. Journal of Materials in Civil
field approach should play a role in controlling this (see Engineering (Special Issue: Geochemical Aspects of
Beetham et al., 2012 for an example of this preparation). A Stabilized Materials) 19(1): 99–104.
key focus of this approach would apply consideration of Boardman DI, Glendinning S and Rogers CDF (2001)
minimising air voids to maximise durability and mellowing Development of stabilisation and solidification in lime–clay
durations should become an element of design and not mixes. Géotechnique 51(6): 533–543.
specification. Bohn HL (2002) Soil Chemistry. Wiley, New York, USA.
( j) The treatment of clay soils with a high TPS may result in Bozbey I and Garaisayev S (2010) Effects of soil pulverization
sulfate swell. There are working methods which may reduce quality on lime stabilization of an expansive clay.
the risk of sulfate swell; however, the current understanding Environmental Earth Sciences 60(6): 1137–1151.
as to which of these methods, or combination of these BSI (1990) BS 1924-2: Stabilized materials for civil engineering
methods is durable over longer cures and environmental purposes. Part 2: Methods of test for cement-stabilized and
changes is limited. Future research should address this with lime-stabilized materials. BSI, London, UK.
an industry-focused approach, including development of a BSI (2004) BS EN 13286-47: Unbound and hydraulically bound
swell test which explores environmental changes. mixtures. Part 47: Test method for the determination of the
(k) Laboratory studies indicate that waste-derived binders (e.g. California bearing ratio, immediate bearing index and linear
waste paper sludge ash, red gypsum waste) have the potential swelling. BSI, London, UK.
to work as secondary binders within soil stabilisation. BSI (2006) BS EN 14227-11: Hydraulically bound mixtures –
However, it is not clear how these may be incorporated into specifications. Part 11: Soil treated by lime. BSI, London, UK.
field applications. Required knowledge in this regard Casanova I, Aguado A and Agulló L (1997) Aggregate
includes: how these binders influence diffuse or inter-clod expansivity due to sulfide oxidation – II. Physico-chemical
cementation processes; durability implications; and how modeling of sulfate attack. Cement and Concrete Research
specifications may be adapted to include their controlled use. 27(11): 1627–1632.
Collett G, Crammond NJ, Swamy RN and Sharp JH (2004) The
Acknowledgements role of carbon dioxide in the formation of thaumasite.
This work forms part of a research programme undertaken at the Cement and Concrete Research 34(9): 1599–1612.
CICE, Loughborough University, in association with Opus Inter- Cristelo N, Glendinning S, Fernandes L and Pinto AT (2012) Effect
national and the Independent Stabilisation Company, and is of calcium content on soil stabilisation with alkaline activation.
supported by the UK Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Construction and Building Materials 29(4): 167–174.
Council (Grant number EP/G037272/1). T.D. publishes with the Czerewko MA, Cripps JC, Reid JM and Duffell CG (2003) Sulfur
permission of the Executive Director of BGS (NERC). species in geological materials – sources and quantification.
Cement and Concrete Composites 25(7): 657–671.
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