Eur Food Res Technol (2016) 242:1403–1409

DOI 10.1007/s00217-016-2643-y

ORIGINAL PAPER

Chlorogenic acids, caffeine content and antioxidant properties

of green coffee extracts: influence of green coffee bean
preparation
Magdalena Jeszka‑Skowron1 · Aleksandra Sentkowska2 · Krystyna Pyrzyńska2 ·
Maria Paz De Peña3 

Received: 15 October 2015 / Revised: 18 December 2015 / Accepted: 23 January 2016 / Published online: 9 February 2016
© The Author(s) 2016. This article is published with open access at Springerlink.com

Abstract  Chlorogenic acids and caffeine are important Introduction

for flavor formation as well as the health effect of green
coffee brews and its extracts. The content of these com- Coffee is one of the most popular drinks nowadays all over
pounds was determined by HPLC–DAD analysis in twelve the world. It contains more than 700 compounds which are
samples of coffee from Robusta and Arabica types of dif- responsible for its aromatic and unique flavor. Genus Cof-
ferent geographical origin including steamed and decaf- fea arabica and Coffea canephora var. robusta are the most
feinated coffees. Generally, Robusta coffee extracts contain important species of Coffea, and they constitute 60–40 %
twice as much caffeine as Arabica, and its content varies of world production. Arabica usually comes from South
from 3.41 % per dry mass in Arabica type from Laos or America (mainly from Brazil) and upland and mountain
Rwanda to 8.16 % in Robusta coffee from Indonesia. The areas of East Africa while Robusta (mainly from Vietnam)
highest concentration of 5-O-caffeoylquinic acid (5-CQA) from lowland of Central and West Africa and South Asia
was obtained for both coffees from Uganda. Decaffeina- [1].
tion process does not affect the concentration of this main Coffee as a functional food with antioxidant properties
chlorogenic acid, but steaming of the coffee beans with reduces the incidence of cancer, diabetes and liver disease,
hot water produced a significant decrease in the level of protects against Parkinson’s disease and reduces mortality
5-CQA. Antioxidant activity of coffee extracts was meas- risk [2, 3]. Green coffee bean extract shows a hypotensive
ured by CUPRAC and F–C assays, which really measure effect in rats [4] and reduces visceral fat and body weight
the reducing power of the sample components. Extracts [5, 6]. These properties are connected with bioactive com-
of green coffee beans from Vietnam possessed the highest pounds, not only chlorogenic acids and their derivatives,
antioxidant activity in both assays. but also caffeine, theophylline and theobromine, cafestol,
kahweol, tocopherols and trigonelline [7–12].
Keywords  Green coffee · Chlorogenic acids · Caffeine · Green coffee beans contain higher level of
Antioxidant activity · HPLC–DAD 5-O-caffeoylquinic acid (5-CQA), even twofold higher than
in roasted coffee depending on the time of roasting [12].
Caffeine in coffee reduces oxidative stress and protects
antioxidant system: in hypoxia-induced pulmonary epithe-
* Magdalena Jeszka‑Skowron lial cells; it is an inhibitor of hydrogen peroxide-induced
magdalena.jeszka‑skowron@put.poznan.pl lipid peroxidation products in human skin fibroblasts, and
1
Institute of Chemistry and Technical Electrochemistry,
it reduces tissue lipid peroxidation and ROS [13, 14].
Poznan University of Technology, Berdychowo 4, Antioxidant activity of coffee beans depends on char-
60‑965 Poznań, Poland acteristics of phenolic compounds, especially chlorogenic
2
Department of Chemistry, Warsaw University, 1 Pasteur Str., acids which possess in vitro and in vivo antioxidant capac-
02‑093 Warsaw, Poland ity [15], and these phenolics are highly bioavailable in vitro
3
Navarra Institute for Health Research, University of Navarra,
31008 Pamplona, Spain

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1404 Eur Food Res Technol (2016) 242:1403–1409

[16]. Antioxidant activity of green coffee extracts of Ara- Coffea robusta: Vietnam (Gr2), Vietnam (Gr2) decaf-
bica is positively correlated with calcium level [17]. feinated by dichloromethane and Vietnam (Gr2) steamed
It is well known, especially by consumers and experts, (3 bar pressure for 30 min), India (Cherry), Indonesia, Laos
that Arabica coffee has better quality than Robusta. There- (FAQ), Uganda (Sc) and Uganda (Bugishu), were obtained
fore, exists methods for improving the quality of Robusta from a producer (Strauss Café, Poland). The geographical
coffee. Steaming of Robusta coffee is used to create the origin of the samples and their types were confirmed by the
specific acidic taste and flavor unique for Arabica cof- supplier. The moisture content of coffee beans was above
fees. This process also removes specific aromas: “musty” 12 %. 0.5 g of milled beans was extracted by 20 mL of
and “earthy” found in Robusta. Steaming coffee beans, distilled water (94 °C) for 10 min. Then, the solution was
especially Robusta coffee beans, also eliminates stomach- cooled to room temperature, centrifuged (5 min, 4500 rpm)
unfriendly substances such as chlorogenic acids, free dit- and decanted. The extracts were lyophilized (Lyophilizator
erpenes: cafestol, kahweol, dehydrokahweol and dehy- Alpha 1-2 LD plus; Martin Christ, Germany). Before anal-
drocafestol. These compounds can be reduced depending ysis, extracts were dissolved in 1 mL of Millipore water
on the steaming parameters [18]. Monsooned coffee is a and filtered through 0.2-µm polytetrafluoroethylene syringe
special wind treatment of coffee seeds to have good body, filter from Agilent Technologies (Santa Clara, CA, USA).
low acidity, and pleasant aroma and flavor in the cup [18].
Decaffeination process is performed prior to the roasting Chromatographic analysis of chlorogenic acids
and is usually attributed to Arabica coffee [19, 20]. Organic and caffeine
solvent extraction is the most common and cheapest
method of decaffeination, and coffee industry uses as sol- Caffeine was determined using chromatographic system
vents: dichloromethane or ethyl acetate, associated with the equipped with analytical HPLC unit model 1100 (Agilent
use of water or vapor prior to and after extraction. Decaf- Technologies, CA, USA) equipped with a binary pump
feination process, especially with water solvent, causes loss and an automated sample injector and DAD lamp (Agi-
of not only flavor components of coffee, but also may lose lent Technologies, CA, USA). Fifty microliters of samples
the chlorogenic acids (CQA) and their related compounds was injected into a C18 column (100 mm × 2.1 mm I.D.;
[19]. 2.6 µm) from Phenomenex (Torrance, CA, USA) main-
The aim of the study was to compare the content of tained at 25 °C. The mobile phase employed in the analysis
chlorogenic acids and caffeine in green coffee Arabica consisted of 8 mM formic acid in water (pH 2.8) (solvent A)
and Robusta extracts due to their origin and preparation and acetonitrile (solvent B) at a flow rate of 0.8 mL min−1.
of beans (decaffeinated and steamed coffee beans). Folin– Elution was initiated at 10 % A and maintained for 5 min;
Ciocalteu (F–C) assay and cupric ion reducing antioxidant the percentage of solvent A was increased to 20 % in
capacity (CUPRAC) method were used to evaluate the anti- 10 min and maintained for 10 min, then increased to 50 %
oxidant properties of coffee brews. Possible correlations in 20 min and maintained for 3 min, and finally increased
between the content of particular compounds and antioxi- to 80 % for 15 min. Detection was accomplished with a
dant activity are also in the scope of this study. diode array detector (DAD), and chromatograms were
recorded at 325 nm for chlorogenic acids and 276 nm for
caffeine. Identification of 5-CQA was performed by com-
Materials and methods paring the retention time and the photodiode array spectra
with those of its reference standard compound. 3-CQA
Chemicals and 4-CQA were identified by the isomerization of 5-CQA
standard. Quantitation of 5-caffeoylquinic acid (5-CQA)
Gallic acid, chlorogenic acid, caffeine and F–C reagent was performed by comparing the peak areas with those of
were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich Chemical Co. (Stein- the standards. Quantitation of the other chlorogenic acids
heim, Germany). MS-grade acetonitrile and methanol were was performed using the area of 5-CQA standard com-
from POCH (Gliwice, Poland), and MS-grade formic acid bined with their respective molar extinction coefficients as
was from Sigma–Aldrich. Ultrapure water from a Milli-Q reported earlier [21, 22].
system (Millipore, Bedford, MA, USA) with a conductivity
of 18 Ωm was used in all experiments. Cupric ion reducing antioxidant capacity

Material and extraction process A 1 mL aliquot of CuCl2 solution (0.01 mol L−1) was
mixed with 1 mL of neocuproine alcoholic solution
Twelve green coffee beans of different origin Coffea ara- (7.5  × 10−3 mol L−1) and 1 mL of acetate buffer (1 mol
bica: Brazil (TG), Rwanda (Ordinary), China, Laos and L−1, pH 7), followed by mixing with 0.5 mL of coffee

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Eur Food Res Technol (2016) 242:1403–1409 1405

Table 1  pH, antioxidant Coffee pH CUPRAC (mM Trolox kg−1) F–C assay (g GAE kg−1) Caffeine (g kg−1)
activity and caffeine
concentration in green coffee Robusta
extracts
Vietnam 4.47 7.49e ± 0.04 482f ± 4 74.3c ± 3.3
Vietnam decaf. 4.63 6.20d ± 0.09 498e ± 1 3.9a ± 1.2
Vietnam steamed 4.29 5.85c ± 0.03 340b ± 9 70.2b ± 1.6
India Cherry 4.78 6.47d ± 0.06 365b ± 12 74.4c ± 0.4
Indonesia 4.86 6.88de ± 0.16 385c ± 1 81.7d ± 1.8
Laos 4.90 6.46d ± 0.24 409d ± 25 70.4b ± 1.8
Uganda 4.84 6.72d ± 0.11 407d ± 21 68.6b ± 0.7
Uganda Bugishu 5.03 5.56b ± 0.01 307b ± 24 70.4b ± 1.8
Arabica
Brazil 4.92 5.11a ± 0.17 191a ± 17 36.2b ± 2.2
Laos 4.60 4.66a ± 0.01 220a ± 1 38.5b ± 1.8
China 4.73 4.64a ± 0.28 196a ± 1 34.1b ± 1.7
Rwanda 4.92 4.51a ± 0.18 198a ± 1 34.1b ± 2.5

Results presented as dry mass of lyophilized brews of coffee ± SD

Mean values with different letters are significantly different in Tukey’s test (p ≤ 0.05)

infusion and 0.6 mL of water [23, 24]. The tube contain- differences among means and correlation analysis were
ing the sample and reagents was incubated in a water bath performed with one-way ANOVA. The significance level
at 50 °C for 20 min, after which it was cooled under run- was based on a confidence level of 95.0 %. Principal com-
ning water. The absorbance against a reagent blank was ponent analysis of results was also presented. The experi-
measured at 450 nm. A calibration curve was constructed mental data were analyzed using Statistica 10.0 program
with Trolox, and the antioxidant activity was expressed as (StatSoft Inc., Tulsa, OK, USA).
Trolox equivalent (TE) in mM kg−1 of dry mass extract.
Data are presented as the average of three independent
measurements. Results and discussion
All spectrophotometric determinations were performed
on a Perkin Elmer model Lambda 20 UV–VIS spectro- Content of caffeine
photometer with cuvettes of 1 cm length. Spectra were
recorded in the range from 220 to 800 nm with 0.2-nm res- The levels of caffeine in studied green coffee brews are
olution. Data were processed with WinLab software. given in Table 1. Its content varies from 34.1 g kg−1 dry
mass of extract in Arabica coffees from Laos or Rwanda to
Folin–Ciocalteu assay 81.6 g kg−1 d.m. in Robusta coffee from Indonesia. Gener-
ally, Robusta coffee extracts contain twice as much caffeine
Aliquots (1 mL) of coffee infusion were introduced into as Arabica. The caffeine content in green bean extracts of
test tubes followed by 0.1 mL of F–C reagent and 0.9 mL Coffea arabica was very similar 34.1–38.5 g kg−1, while in
of water [25]. The tubes were allowed to stand for 5 min. Coffea robusta was in the range between 3.9 (for Vietnam
At the end of this period, 1 mL of Na2CO3 solution (70 g decaf); 68.6 (Uganda Sc) to 81.6 g kg−1 dry mass. Steam-
L−1) and 0.4 mL of water were added and a further period ing of green coffee beans has not significantly changed the
of 10 min was allowed for stabilization of the blue color content of caffeine (decrease of only 0.4 %). The results of
formed. The absorbance against a reagent blank was meas- caffeine are comparable with the results received earlier
ured at 765 nm. Data were expressed as gallic acid equiva- [26]. The caffeine content was lower than results obtained
lent (GAE) in mg kg−1 of dry mass extract. All determina- by Dziki et al. [16], but they used methanol in ASE extrac-
tions were carried out in triplicate. tion of green Arabica coffees [16].
“Decaffeinated” coffee does not mean 100 % caffeine-
Statistical analysis free. In fact, a decaf coffee only needs to be 97 % caffeine-
free according to the USDA, while Brazilian legislation
Results are expressed as mean ± standard deviation (at allows at most 0.1 % of residual caffeine in decaffeinated
least three replicates). Analysis of variance and significant coffee [27].

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Fig. 1  Major chlorogenic acids

present in coffee

Table 2  3-CQA, 4-CQA and 5-CQA content in green coffee extracts Concentration of chlorogenic acids
in g kg−1
Coffee 3-CQA 4-CQA 5-CQA Total Green coffee beans possess chlorogenic acids, and their
derivatives and their contents are 3.5–7.5 % (d.m.) for Ara-
Robusta
bica and 7.0–4.0 % (d.m.) for Robusta coffees [28]. 3-, 4-
Vietnam 21.77a ± 1.12 27.33a ± 1.01 109.9b ± 4.5 159.0b
and 5-CQA are dominated chlorogenic acids in green cof-
Vietnam 57.18c ± 2.01 59.77c ± 1.80 104.4b ± 3.2 221.4c fee beans and extracts [12, 16].
decaf.
Three major chlorogenic acids present in green cof-
Vietnam 35.45b ± 2.54 39.24b ± 1.74 56.0a ± 2.4 130.7a
steamed fee samples were determined by chromatographic analy-
India Cherry 18.91 ± 1.04 24.05 ± 0.89 137.5 ± 5.1 180.5 sis (Fig. 1). The highest concentration of 5-CQA among
Indonesia 27.25 ± 1.91 32.10 ± 0.96 126.2 ± 3.1 185.6 Robusta coffee type was obtained for both coffees from
Laos 16.47 ± 1.56 22.15 ± 1.32 144.3 ± 4.5 182.9
Uganda (135–137 g kg−1 of dry mass). The concentra-
Uganda 19.31 ± 1.67 24.74 ± 1.02 136.76 ± 6.5 180.8
tion of 5-CQA in the studied Arabica coffee brews was
Uganda 15.03 ± 1.88 20.87 ± 1.41 135.32 ± 7.1 171.2
in the range of 97–122 g kg−1 dry mass of dry extract.
Bugishu These results are 3–4-fold higher than in methanol–water
Arabica extracts (ASE, 100 °C, extraction time 2 min) [16] but sim-
Brazil 14.88 ± 2.44 19.70 ± 1.98 117.14 ± 6.3 151.7 ilar to results of beans obtained earlier [29]. On the other
Laos 15.83 ± 1.13 19.11 ± 1.35 97.17 ± 4.5 132.1 hand, when isopropanol and water in ratio of 60:40 were
China 16.28 ± 1.39 20.55 ± 1.46 115.50 ± 4.3 152.3 employed, the chlorogenic acid (5-CQA) content was two-
Rwanda 16.74 ± 1.57 21.39 ± 1.61 122.00 ± 3.4 160.1 fold higher [30].
Decaffeination process used on Vietnam Robusta cof-
Results presented as dry mass of lyophilized brews of coffee ± SD fee beans does not affect the concentration of 5-CQA, but
Mean values in columns with different letters are significantly differ- increases (almost twice) the total sum of chlorogenic acids
ent in Tukey’s test (p ≤ 0.05)

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Eur Food Res Technol (2016) 242:1403–1409 1407

Fig. 2  Content of 3-O-CQA
4-O-CQA and 5-O-CQA in
green coffee extracts (in g kg−1
dry mass)

in this coffee brew due to the increase in other chlorogenic Antioxidant activity of green coffee extracts
acids (Table 2).
Moreira et al. [20] determined the chlorogenic acids Antioxidant activity of coffee brews was measured by
contents in ground and instant, light and dark roasted, CUPRAC and F–C assays based on a single-electron trans-
regular and decaffeinated Brazilian Arabica commercial fer reaction. In both assays, the antioxidant activity equals
coffee samples, and observed usually lower CQA con- to the reducing capacity of a sample. One of the most
tents in all decaffeinated samples, in comparison with important advantages of the CUPRAC assay is that simple
non-decaffeinated ones. Farah et al. [19] observed loss sugars and citric acid are not oxidized and pH of reaction is
of 10 % in chlorogenic acids contents of decaffeinated close to the physiological pH [32].
and roasted Arabica coffee samples, in comparison with Robusta coffee extracts showed significantly higher
non-decaffeinated samples roasted in the same condi- antioxidant activity in Folin–Ciocalteu assay than Arabica
tions. Decaffeination process caused the increase 3-CQA extracts (Table 1). The mean values (expressed as gallic
and 4-CQA probably due to lixiviation process. There is acid equivalent in g kg−1 of d.m. extract) were 399.7 and
a state that these acids are adjacent to the cell walls of 201.8 for Robusta and Arabica coffees, respectively. Sim-
coffee beans and seems to be associated with caffeine ilar relationship was obtained for CUPRAC assay. It was
[19]. found that Robusta coffees contained more reducing sub-
In contrast to decaffeination process, steaming of these stances than Arabica (Table 1). Similar results have been
coffee beans with hot water produced a significant decrease reported [16, 17, 33] only for Arabica water extracts; how-
in the level of the main chlorogenic acid (5-CQA), while ever, in the last two papers methanol, ethyl acetate, ethyl
the concentration of 4-CQA and 3-CQA was slightly ether and dichloromethane were used for the extraction of
increased (Fig. 2). the reducing substances. Other authors determined higher
Degradation of chlorogenic acids during steaming level of these substances; however, they used other than hot
of green beans has been reported as a consequence of water solvents, such as hexane, methanol and water–iso-
increased water uptake [31]. The degradation could also propanol mixture [30, 34].
explain that high temperature affects 5-CQA in coffee Extracts of green coffee beans from Vietnam possessed
beans [21]. the highest antioxidant activity in both assays. There was
It is well known that phenolics content in green coffee no significant influence of decaffeination process of these
beans depends on growth conditions of plant, such as loca- coffee beans on antioxidant activity in F–C assay, but the
tion, light, drainage, temperature and weather and depends decrease in CUPRAC assay (17 %) was observed. Steam-
on the process used on beans [19]. ing of coffee beans with hot water decreased the antioxidant

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1408 Eur Food Res Technol (2016) 242:1403–1409

Fig. 3  Principal component
analysis of Arabica and Robusta
green coffee extracts

activity in F–C assay: (31 %) and CUPRAC assay: (22 %) chlorogenic acids, caffeine and antioxidant activity. Simul-
in comparison with unprocessed beans. taneously, preparation process of coffee beans influenced
The coffees from Uganda (Uganda Sc and Uganda on the differences in PCA, and this was confirmed in sepa-
Bugishu) showed the lowest antioxidant activities between rate cluster.
Robusta coffees, although Uganda Bugishu coffee is con-
sidered as the best Uganda coffee [35].
pH of Vietnam Robusta coffee was different from Conclusions
extracts obtained from processed beans. After steaming of
beans by hot water, pH of the extract decreased, but in the Not only species of Coffea or geographical origin but also
case of decaffeination pH increased (Table 1). Any correla- different preparation processes influence the content of
tion was not found between pH and antioxidant activity of major compounds in the extract of green coffee as well as
studied coffee extracts. its antioxidant activity determined by F–C and CUPRAC
The positive correlation between F–C and CUPRAC assays. Decaffeination process and steaming used on Viet-
assays (0.807) with the use of Pearson’s linear correlation nam Robusta coffee beans influence 3-, 4- and 5-CQA
coefficient was found. Although both used methods are content. Decaffeination process increased the level of sum
based on the redox properties of the sample components, of 3-, 4- and 5-CQA. Steaming coffee possesses better
but they differ in terms of reduction potentials, kinetics and quality for coffee experts, but the sum of 3-, 4- and 5-CQA
experimental conditions. The positive correlation between was at the lowest level, even lower than in Arabica coffees.
the sum of three major chlorogenic acids and F–C assay
(0.667) was also obtained. Lower correlation may be due Acknowledgments  This article was financially supported within the
project “Engineer of the Future. Improving the didactic potential of
to the fact that F–C reagent is not specific only for phenolic the Poznan University of Technology”—POKL.04.03.00-00-259/12,
compounds [36]. implemented within the Human Capital Operational Programme, co-
Principal component analysis has been applied to evalu- financed by the European Union within the European Social Fund.
ate differences between Arabica and Robusta coffees as Authors would like to thank Strauss Café Poland for the samples.
well as preparation process of coffee beans (Fig. 3). PCA Compliance with ethical standards 
performed on the complete data set of Arabica and Robusta
samples confirmed that coffee samples from Robusta Conflict of interest None.
formed a separate cluster in the PC1 versus PC2 plot
Compliance with ethics requirements  This article does not contain
(75.90 % of total system variability). Thus, it can explain any studies with human or animal subjects.
that Robusta coffee brews contain the highest content of

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Eur Food Res Technol (2016) 242:1403–1409 1409

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