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Properties and use of coal fly ash

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Properties and use of coal fly ash

A valuable industrial by-product

Coal fly ash, or pulverised fuel ash, from coal-fired power stations:
the production, properties and applications of the material

Compiled and edited by

Lindon K. A. Sear
United Kingdom Quality Ash Association
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Published by Thomas Telford Publishing, Thomas Telford Ltd,

1 Heron Quay, London E14 4JD.
URL: http://www.t-telford.co.uk

Distributors for Thomas Telford books are:

USA: ASCE Press, 1801 Alexander Bell Drive, Reston, VA 20191-4400, USA
Japan: Maruzen Co. Ltd, Book Department, 3–10 Nihonbashi 2-chome,
Chuo-ku, Tokyo 103
Australia: DA Books and Journals, 648 Whitehorse Road, Mitcham 3132,
Victoria

First published 2001

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN: 0 7277 3015 0

© Lindon K. A. Sear and Thomas Telford Ltd 2001

All rights, including translation, reserved. Except as permitted by the

Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, no part of this publication may be
reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without the prior
written permission of the Publishing Director, Thomas Telford Publishing,
Thomas Telford Ltd, 1 Heron Quay, London E14 4JD.

This book is published on the understanding that the author is solely

responsible for the statements made and opinions expressed in it and that its
publication does not necessarily imply that such statements and/or opinions
are or reflect the views or opinions of the publishers. While every effort has
been made to ensure that the statements made and the opinions expressed in
this publication provide a safe and accurate guide, no liability or responsibility
can be accepted in this respect by the authors or publishers.

Produced by Gray Publishing, Tunbridge Wells, Kent

Printed and bound in Great Britain by MPG Books, Bodmin, Cornwall
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Contents

Preface vii
Acknowledgements ix

1. The production and properties of fly ash 1

2. Fly ash and the environment 30
3. Using fly ash in concrete 63
4. Fly ash as a fill material 116
5. Use of fly ash for road construction, runways and 136
similar projects
6. The use of fly ash for grouting 169
7. Manufactured lightweight aggregates from fly ash 196
8. Fly ash in aerated concrete blocks and furnace 211
bottom ash in lightweight concrete blocks
9. Other potential uses of fly ash 234
Index 257
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Preface

Coal fly ash, or pulverised fuel ash (PFA) as it is known in the UK, from
coal-fired power stations has been produced for many years and many
research projects and papers have been published on the subject. It is esti-
mated that some 300 papers are published per annum with the words
‘fly ash’ among the keywords. Therefore, it is surprising that there is no
general textbook on the subject. We hope that this book will address that
omission.
Coal fly ash is known by a variety of names including fly ash, pulverised
fuel ash and as a coal combustion product (CCP). Within the UK, the
accepted term and the most descriptive one is PFA. However, in general
usage in many countries the term ‘fly ash’ is used for pulverised coal ash
but it can also cover ashes from burning other materials. Such ‘fly ash’
derived from the combustion of other materials may have significantly dif-
fering properties and may not offer the same advantages as ash from burn-
ing pulverised coal. It is also necessary to define the type of coal used in
the power station. Throughout this text, only fly ash from bituminous or
hard coals is considered. Such coals produce siliceous fly ash, that is with
less than 10% total calcium oxide (CaO), or class F fly ash using the USA
definition. Calcareous fly ashes, that is those with more than 10% CaO or
class C fly ash, may have significantly differing properties.
Throughout this text, when referring to coal fly ash, the preferred term
‘fly ash’ is used. However, the exception to this rule is when referring to a
particular standard that incorporates the term ‘PFA’ within its title, e.g. BS
3892: ‘Pulverised Fuel Ash as a Type II addition’.
The use of fly ash is not new. Recently published research1 considered
the properties of lightweight concrete made using fly ash that was devel-
oped 2000 years ago in the ancient culture of Totonacas near the modern
city of Veracruz, Mexico. At approximately the same time, but independ-
ently, the Greek and Roman civilisations developed lightweight poz-
zolanic ‘cement’, in the case of Rome founded on the use of pozzolana
from the village of Pozzouli, near Naples. The basic properties of pozzolanic
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Preface

materials, whether volcanic ash or power station fly ash, are still the same.
The material can be used to produce more durable concrete, as a structural
fill material, for landscaping sites scarred by industrial development and
for the manufacturing of building blocks, precast concrete elements, etc.
The production of fly ash, its physical and chemical properties, various
applications and environmental impacts are all considered in some depth.

Reference

1. Rivera-Villarreal R, Cabrera JG. The microstructure of two-thousand year

old lightweight concrete. International Conference, Gramado, Brazil, 1999.

viii
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Acknowledgements

Compiled and edited by

Lindon KA Sear, BSc (Hons), PhD, FICT. Technical officer of the United
Kingdom Quality Ash Association, a trade association representing the UK
coal-fired power stations and users of coal fly ash.

Contributors

Mr Robert Coombs, BSc (Hons), CChem, MRSC. Head of the National

Ash Laboratory. For contributing the chapter on fill and much of the infor-
mation on the environment, and for proof reading the text.

Dr Guy R Woolley, PhD, CEng, FICE. Chartered civil engineer. For contri-
butions to a number of chapters and proof reading plus his advice on
format.

Mr Ken Swainson. Head of National Ash. For proof reading and contribu-
tion of information.

Mr Allan Foster, MICT. Technical manager for Rugby Cement and Ash
Resources. For contributing towards the lightweight aggregates section.

Mr Steven Rule BSc, CEng. Civil engineer for P Forker Construction Ltd.
For contributing towards the section on grouting.

Dr Robert A Carroll, PhD, CChem, MRSC. Technical manager for Marley

Building Materials. For contributing the section on aerated concrete blocks.

Dr Trevor Grounds, PhD. Research and development manager for Tarmac

Topblock Ltd. For contributing the section on furnace bottom ash in block
manufacture.
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Acknowledgements

Mr Andrew Weatherley, BSc, CEng, MICE. Civil engineer for Powergen,

Power Technology. For contributing a section on the environmental aspects
of fly ash.

Mr Chris Bennett, AMICT, MCS. Technical sales representative for

ScotAsh Ltd. For proof reading various sections of the book.

Mrs Janice M Sear, BSc. For proof reading the text several times and cor-
recting numerous grammatical problems.

x
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Chapter 1

The production and properties of fly ash

Introduction

Fly ash has been used for many years for a wide range of construction
applications. Its uses range from a cementitious material in concrete to a
simple fill material. As a by-product material it has been reviled, abused,
researched, researched again, praised and criticised, and yet it is often the
ideal material for many applications. Fly ash for the purposes of this book
is defined as follows:
• Fly ash is the ash resulting from the burning of pulverised bitumi-
nous, hard coals in power station furnaces.
• The furnaces are used to generate steam for the production of electricity.
• The furnace temperature is typically 1400°C.
• The resulting material is a siliceous ash consisting of the oxides of sil-
ica, aluminium and iron, and containing 10% calcium oxide. Many
countries categorise siliceous fly ash as class F.
Coal is a readily available source of energy consisting of carbon and a
mixture of various minerals (shales, clays, sulfides and carbonates). Coal, a
mineral substance of fossil origin, may be one of four main types:
• anthracite (90% carbon)
• bituminous or hard coal (80% carbon)
• lignite and brown coal (70% carbon).
With one exception (anthracite), only bituminous or hard coal is burnt in
UK power stations. Hard coal originated in the Carboniferous period, part
of the Palaeozoic era, about 345 to 280 million years ago, from vegetable
matter (trees and ferns) which has been compacted and heated by geolog-
ical processes.
During the mining and subsequent processing, washing reduces the
siliceous material derived from the soil and minerals in which the trees
were growing. Most of the material from which ash is formed is extra-
neous material, such as shale, but some is inherent in the coal and cannot
1
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

be removed. Even after this processing the coal as delivered to power sta-
tions still contains about 15% of ash by weight after combustion.
Available reserves of coal in the world are estimated at more than 400
years’ supply. In the UK, coal was traditionally obtained from deep mines.
However, during the 1990s such coal became increasingly expensive to
obtain relative to open-cast mined coals. In many countries high-quality
coal exists near the surface and simply requires the overburden’s removal
and extraction. These coals are obtained from Australia, South Africa, South
America and Eastern Europe at relatively low cost and widely exported
throughout the world. Although coal is a readily available source of energy,
it is predominantly carbon and, when burnt, produces carbon dioxide
(CO2). In order to reduce the effects of global warming many countries
agreed to reduce CO2 emissions in the Kyoto agreement of 1992. This has led
to a move towards fuels richer in hydrogen and nuclear-based fuels, e.g.
natural gas and nuclear generation. Owing to these procurement changes
within the UK, overall CO2 emissions were reduced1 by 19% between 1970
and 1997, with 48% reductions being attributed to industry and 26% to
domestic consumption. However, these environmental gains are offset by
a large increase in emissions from UK transport, with an 87% increase
occurring during the same period. At the time of writing coal-fired power
generation still represents some 30% of UK electricity production.
Within the UK, coal-fired power generation was rapidly expanded after
World War II to satisfy the needs of an increasing population with higher
aspirations. Electricity output reached its peak in the early to mid 1970s
with sufficient coal-fired electricity capacity to produce some 16,000,000
tonnes of fly ash per annum. In the early 1970s, the UK deep mining
industry went through a period of rationalisation. Over the next 15 years
there was a decline in the UK deep mining industry until there was only a
handful of deep mines left at the time of writing. Continued economic
coal-fired generation will inevitably involve increasing levels of imported
coal. This may have some effect on the resulting ash, but since all power
stations in the UK are designed to handle UK coals, any imported coal will
have to have similar physical and chemical properties, thus limiting the
effect on the properties of the fly ash.
The pattern of coal-fired generation has changed over recent years
(Fig. 1.1), in order to reduce CO2 and other ‘greenhouse’ gas emissions.
The introduction of gas-fired generation meant that many coal-fired
stations ceased to be base load stations, that is those that are continuously
operated, but adopted the double-shift system.
To minimise the cost of keeping major coal-generated plant running at
full power, boilers are closed back or banked when not required for gener-
ation. Effectively, the boiler remains fired but at a lower level and virtually
unable to produce the steam necessary to drive the turbines. When called
on to generate, depending on consumer demand, the boiler will be brought
2
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The production and properties of fly ash

450
Projected energy sources
400
Renewables
Oil Derived gas
350
Electricity production (TWh)

Natural gas
300

250

200

150

100 Coal

50

0 Nuclear
1980 1990
Hydroelectric
1995 1996 2000 2005
Year 2010

Fig. 1.1. Change in primary energy sources: electricity production from coal has
reduced in recent years

back to full load. However, in normal circumstances it takes a relatively

long time to raise steam and pressure. To reduce this time, oil is injected
into the furnace, thereby boosting furnace temperature and making it
more quickly available for normal coal injection.
To a small degree, the quality of fly ash produced is affected. During this
‘boosting’ period, a small increase in unburnt carbon or loss on ignition
(LOI) has been found. In normal circumstances, the fly ash in collecting
bunkers will intermix, but where it is taken directly to a site silo, consumers
should be aware that there may be a small rise in LOI. It is therefore con-
sidered prudent to acknowledge this feature and check the LOI of fly ash
produced during the run-up period of the boilers.
During the mid-1990s the electricity pool system was adopted within
the UK. This operates by different generating companies offering elec-
tricity to the national grid at prices they think appropriate. The cheapest
supplier is then contracted to supply for a period of time. Consequently,
base load power stations are predominantly natural gas or nuclear. The
advantages of gas-fired generation include:

• high efficiency: the gas stream and the heat generated can be used to
extract energy
• reduced emissions: natural gas is low in carbon and high in hydrogen;
CO2 emissions are considerably less than from coal
• low capital costs: they are physically smaller, simpler and more
compact than the equivalent coal-fired stations.
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Nuclear generation supplies the base load because

• the nature of nuclear fission is such that switching off a reactor is

effectively a waste of fuel
• the high capital and decommissioning costs need to be minimised by
spreading over a high output
• the unit price of the electricity is low as a result of the way such gener-
ation was financed by the government through the ‘nuclear levy’.
Coal-fired power stations satisfy the peaks in electricity demand, e.g. at
breakfast and in the early evening. As many stations operate a number of
generation sets, it is common for one set to be run to operate continuously,
with the others being started when required by electricity demand.
Other environmental and economic aspects of coal-fired generation are
emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides (NOx). The emissions of
NOx have been reduced by installing low NOx burners that reduce the tem-
perature of the flame by staging the addition of the air to the coal. The burn-
ers work by creating a two- or three-stage combustion process. A lower
temperature fuel-rich region is created in which any NOx formed is partially
reduced back by nitrogen. Controlled amounts of excess air are introduced
at a later stage to complete the burnout of the semicombusted coal particles.
The overall effect on ash is generally seen as a slightly increased carbon con-
tent, because of the lower flame temperatures. Research studies carried out
in Germany into the use of ash from low NOx boilers found the ash to have
no adverse effects on properties relevant to concrete technology.2
To reduce sulfur emissions more complex equipment involving reacting
the acidic waste gases with calcium carbonate (CaCO3) or quick lime (CaO)
have been adopted. In the current UK coal-burning power stations two
specialist calcium carbonate flue gas desulfurisation (FGD) plants have
been installed. These plants use limestone as the absorbent, in an arrange-
ment whereby flue gases are directed through a curtain of limestone slurry
en route to the atmosphere. Sulfur dioxide in the flue gases combines with
the high-quality limestone to create calcium sulfite and CO2. This material
is then passed through an oxygenation tower where calcium sulfate
(gypsum) is formed.
The ‘wet limestone’ FGD plant is located in the flue gas emission route,
positioned after the electrostatic precipitators but before entry to the
power-station chimney. Because this secondary method of reducing sul-
fate emissions to the atmosphere is placed after fly ash has been extracted
from the flue gases, installation of this type of desulfurisation plant has no
effect on the quality of fly ash.
Desulfurisation equipment is large and expensive and adds the prob-
lems of consuming large quantities of carbonate aggregates. In addition,
a market for the resulting gypsum is required. Because of these changes,
the relative economic efficiency of coal-fired generation is being degraded
4
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The production and properties of fly ash

in favour of gas and nuclear generation. However, supplies of natural gas

are typically quoted as 20 years and nuclear generation carries the envi-
ronmental baggage of disposal, safety, etc. Whether this difference in per-
ception of coal-fired generation will continue depends on a large number
of factors. Several questions will have to be answered: will more nuclear
generation be allowed; will energy conservation begin to have significant
effects on electricity usage; will new natural gas supplies be found, etc.?

Coal-fired electricity generation

A coal-fired power station (Fig. 1.2) is used to generate heat, steam and
electricity. The typical schematic layout for a power station is shown in
Fig. 1.3. Steam is raised in modern power stations using coal which, before
combustion, is ground (i.e. pulverised) in mills of various types. Coal,
a mineral substance of fossil origin, may be one of four main types:
anthracite (90% carbon), bituminous, lignite and brown coal (70%
carbon). With the exception of anthracite, only bituminous coal is burnt in
UK power stations. It consists of carbonaceous matter and a mixture of
various minerals (shales, clays, sulfides and carbonates).
Coal is delivered to power stations as ‘smalls’, i.e. in lumps of about
50 mm diameter or less. It is stored in heaps where it is compacted to

Fig. 1.2. Typical UK coal-fired power station (courtesy of English Partnerships)

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Properties and use of coal fly ash

Fig. 1.3. Schematic layout of a power station

Table 1.1. Reduction in coal particle size after pulverising

Sieve size Before pulverising After pulverising

(% by weight passing) (% by weight passing)

12 mm 943
64 mm 809
32 mm 644
16 mm 395
790 m 188
150 m – 960
100 m – 920
75 m – 800

prevent any spontaneous combustion or oxidation. The coal is recovered

and placed in bunkers that feed the power station’s coal mills. These grind
the coal to a size 70% passing 75 m. This finely ground coal is transported
in a current of heated air (primary air) to the burners, where it is blown
into the boiler. The degree of size reduction can be seen in Table 1.1.
The pulverised coal is injected into the furnace in a stream of hot air,
as shown in Fig. 1.3. This air is heated by a heat exchanger using the
furnace exhaust gases. The coal burns in a multistage process suspended
in the combustion air in the boiler, reaching a peak temperature of some
1450  200°C. This temperature is above the melting point of most of the
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The production and properties of fly ash

minerals present, which undergo various chemical and physical changes.

For example, clay forms glass spheres of complex silicates; pyrites is con-
verted into oxides of sulfur and iron, including spherical particles of mag-
netite; and aluminium oxidises. The molten mineral matter forms into
spheres, which rapidly cool to below melting point and are frozen in
an amorphous glass (Fig. 1.4). Around 1–2% by weight of the fly ash
occurs as cenospheres that consist of silicate glass in which the silica
content is higher but the calcium content lower than fly ash.
The average residence time for a particle of coal within the furnace is
only 3–4 s,3 indicating the efficiency of this method of burning pulverised
coal. The furnace operating temperature compares with ash fusion tem-
peratures measured in the laboratory of about 1150°C for initial softening
to just over 1550°C for fully molten. The ash produced from the coal com-
bustion is, therefore, molten at the end of combustion and is still in sus-
pension in the furnace gases. The fly ash continues to be transported by the
combustion gases (now the ‘flue gas’) through the convection parts of the
boiler and is captured in an electrostatic precipitator at the boiler outlet.
The exact nature of the fly ash depends on a variety of factors including
the temperature, the type and fineness of the coal, and the length of time
the minerals are retained in the furnace. Approximately 80–85% of the ash
carried out of the furnace by the exhaust gases is subsequently extracted
by mechanical and electrostatic precipitators. The remaining 15–20%

Fig. 1.4. Fly ash particles are spherical

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Properties and use of coal fly ash

condenses on the boiler tubes and subsequently falls to the bottom of the
furnace where it sinters to form furnace bottom ash (FBA).
In the UK, FBA is flushed from the bottom of the furnace using water.
It passes through a crusher and is then delivered to ash pits to drain. This
material is then loaded directly into tippers where it is predominantly
used for the manufacture of concrete building blocks.
The gases from the furnace may pass through cyclone filters or mechan-
ical filtration systems which remove the coarser and heavier fractions. All
gases pass through electrostatic precipitators that are connected in series
to remove the finer and lighter materials. Here the flue gases, now at a
temperature of about 130°C, pass between plates at earth potential and
electrically charged wires at a potential of between 40 and 50 kV negative
to earth. The resulting corona current is carried by ions, which collide with
the ash particles making them negatively charged and attracted to the
earthed plates. A total current of 200–400 mA results. Nowadays, the spec-
ification for an electrostatic precipitator is based on outlet dust burdens set
by legislation (e.g. 50 mg/m3). However, in the past, the collection effi-
ciency was specified and this was usually greater than 993%, which gives
a better impression of the effectiveness of the plant. The ash is removed
from the plate by ‘rapping’, which is by blows from a series of mechanical
hammers that hit the plates at defined intervals. The ash falls into hoppers
at the bottom of the precipitator and is then removed dry.
Some unburnt or partially burnt carbon residue is collected with the fly
ash in the precipitators. The amount depends on the nature of the coal, its
fineness after being pulverised, and the design and configuration of the
furnace and precipitators. Many UK furnaces designed before 1975 were
intended to extract the maximum energy from the coal. Over more recent
years increasingly stringent environmental requirements have required
slightly lower furnace temperatures and the progressive injection of air to
reduce the degree of nitrogen oxidation, the so-called low NOx burner.
The drawback of such burners can be a higher LOI4 in the resulting fly ash.
LOI is a measure of the unburnt carbon, which remains in flue gases. This
increase in LOI is not simply due to the retrofitting of low NOx burners to
older furnaces. It is clear from reports throughout the world that power
companies are experiencing similar problems5 even with newer stations,
with a doubling of the LOI being found in some cases.6
To improve further the efficiency of electrostatic precipitators ammo-
nium and sulfur compounds may be injected into the exhaust gas stream
before the precipitators to encourage ionisation and agglomeration of the
ash. Sulfur injection improves the surface charge on the alumino-silicate
material. It is for this reason low sulfur coals can reduce SO2 emissions but
tend to be prone to increased particulate emissions. Ammonia injection
encourages agglomeration for particles that do not hold a charge. Conse-
quently, the precipitators remove the ash more efficiently, reducing the
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The production and properties of fly ash

particulates in the flue gases. Ammonia injection can have a detrimental

effect on the fly ash, with a slightly increased sulfate content and a distinc-
tive ammonia smell. The ammonia is released when the fly ash is exposed
to water, especially in an alkaline environment as in concrete. Although
the levels of ammonium injection are invariably very low and there are
no discernible deleterious effects on performance, e.g. in concrete, at these
levels the problem with the odour can be significant.
At some stations, the earlier electrostatic precipitators in the series tend
to extract a larger fraction of the coarser fly ash and more carbon. Some
stations are able to keep the various fractions of fly ash separate whereas
others are forced to combine the ash into a single output.
FGD has been installed at some power stations. In the limestone/gypsum
process, the flue gases, on exiting the precipitators, are passed through a
sprayed slurry of limestone to remove the sulfur dioxide before passing
into the chimney. In the UK, the resulting gypsum is used predominantly
for the manufacture of plasterboards for general construction purposes.
An alternative system using a spray-dried system uses lime, with the
resulting gypsum being collected in bag filters.
After extraction from the flue gases fly ash may be treated in a variety of
ways as follows:

• By being pumped using air into storage silos as a dry powder. This
material may then be used in concrete with or without selection (see
section on EN 450 fly ash and BS 3892 Part 2, Pulverised fuel ash in
Chapter 3) or may be classified to make a finer product (see section
on BS 3892 Part 1, Pulverised fuel ash in Chapter 3).
• By being ‘conditioned’: a small quantity of water is added to produce
a dampened material, which can be handled and transported with-
out problems with dust. The amount of water can be adjusted to suit
the end use.
• By slurrying in copious quantities of water where it is pumped to
lagoons. Here the ash is allowed to settle. These lagoons can some-
times be drained off and the ash recovered either for use or for
disposal. Lagoon ash may contain some FBA.
The various methods of extracting the fly ash from the furnace gases result
in fly ashes of differing particle size distributions.

Processing fly ash for use in concrete

Processing fly ash by classification is designed to optimise the characteris-

tics for use in concrete as per BS 38927 Part 1 ‘Specification for pulverised-
fuel ash for use with Portland cement’. The pozzolanic reaction (described
in Chapter 3) of fly ash with lime depends on the surface area exposed to
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

the lime-saturated pore solution within the concrete. In addition, the

spherical nature of fly ash and the packing/optimisation effect of classified
fly ash particles reduce the water requirement for a given workability. In
general, by selecting the ash or by removing the coarsest fractions from
within ‘run of station’ fly ashes three benefits are produced:

• increase in surface area per unit mass, resulting in increased poz-

zolanic activity and thus improving the rate of strength gain
• reduction in the water demand of the concrete for a given workability
• reduced variation in the concrete by improving the consistency of
the particle size distribution.
Both selection and classification were used to produce BS 3892 Part 1 PFA.
Selection involves monitoring the fineness and LOI of the fly ash and
diverting the ash to a differing storage silo when of suitable fineness.
However, in recent years selection techniques have not been used because
they proved to be unreliable at times. Classification currently predomi-
nates. With the advent of EN 4508 and to prevent any conflict with BS 3892
Part 1, classifying fly ash became mandatory for compliance with BS 3892
Part 1. Figure 1.5 shows the typical design of an air-swept classifier.
Typically, a ‘run of station’ fly ash, that is with no processing, will have
25% retained on the 45 m sieve and the fly ash post-classification will
have 8% retained on the 45 m sieve. Some 17% of the product will be
removed and sold as a fine aggregate or fill material and the balance is

Inlet for fly ash from

power station

High-efficiency
collector cyclone

Catch hopper
for coarse product Catch hopper
for fine product
BS 3892 Part 1 PFA

Fig. 1.5. Fly ash classifier system

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The production and properties of fly ash

45
0.27 N/mm2 0.22 N/mm2  Adjustment to strengths

40 Mean
8.1%, SD 1.86 (469 results)

35

30
Freqeuncy (%)

25
0.76 N/mm2 0.71 N/mm2
20

15

10 1.19 N/mm2
1.24 N/mm2
5

0
2 to 4 4 to 6 6 to 8 8 to 10 10 to 12 12 to 14
Range of PFA fineness

Fig. 1.6. Strength and fineness distribution of UK BS 3892 Part 1 fly ashes in 1997
(from mortar prism test data; see BS 3892 Part 1)

classified fly ash to BS 3892 Part 1. The reject product from the classifier,
called the grits, may be ground to increase the fineness, enabling it to be
sold as fly ash to BS 3892 Part 1.
It must be realised that the use of the percentage retained on the 45 m
sieve only gives an indication of the particle size distribution or the surface
area of a fly ash. Therefore, it does not follow that after classification of fly
ash all sources will give equal reactivity. Fortunately, within the UK the fly
ashes used in concrete are all siliceous (class F) and produced from similar
designs of power station, using similar hard coals. Consequently, UK clas-
sified fly ashes have a remarkably consistent strength for similar fineness
values, as indicated in Fig. 1.6.

Conditioned fly ash

For ease of handling fly ash can be ‘conditioned’ by adding a controlled

amount of water to prevent dust blow problems. Conditioners can consist
of screw-type continuous mixers that rely on a constant supply of water.
Batch-type mixers are also used which give a better control of the final
moisture content. This is important where fly ash is being used for fill
applications where the moisture content is critical in achieving maximum
compaction. However, as the fly ash is normally still warm some moisture
may be lost through evaporation, and water spraying on site may be
required to obtain this optimum moisture content.
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

Disposal schemes using conditioned ash are designed for the transport
of fly ash from the power station by either road vehicle or conveyor in
conditioned form. Moisture content, usually between 8% and 14%, is
based on the need to prevent dust blow. This is also to ensure that it can
be adequately compacted at the disposal site. Mist spraying of water or
fixation of the surface material using chemicals may be required on such
stockpiles to prevent further dust-blow problems until the material is
removed or capped.
If the disposal scheme involves the filling of worked out mineral
deposits, topsoil and subsoil will normally have been stripped and stored
next to the void before mineral extraction. Should disposal be taking place
above ground to create a mound on virgin ground, soils should be
stripped and stored prior to filling and placed for eventual use in final
restoration works.
Once site preparation works have been completed, which for above-
ground disposal may include a drainage blanket of granular material and
carrier drains, deposition of fly ash may commence. Fly ash is placed and
compacted using conventional earth-moving equipment. The thickness
of succeeding layers of PFA should be determined early in the disposal
programme. The fly ash is profiled to final levels and, upon completion of
filling to these levels, the topsoil and subsoil previously stored can be recov-
ered and spread over the ash to a minimum depth of 03 m. Cultivation of
the area may then begin.
A prime example of this type of above-ground scheme is found at the
Drax Power Station, where surplus fly ash is deposited at the Barlow Ash
Mound Landscape Reclamation Scheme. As final levels are completed top-
soil is spread and grass and shrub/tree planting follows. The scheme,
begun in 1974, is designed to produce over 160 ha of cultivated landscaped
mound when completed.9
It is not normal for earth embankments, or bunds as they are known, to
be constructed around a disposal area. They may be required, however, if
the disposal site lies within the wash lands of a river to prevent fly ash
being washed out by floodwaters. Suitable drainage channels and settling
pond facilities will be required around surface mounds created by disposal
of fly ash.

Lagoon fly ash

An alternative to stockpiling conditioned fly ash is to slurry it with water

and pump it to lagoons, where it is allowed to settle. Normally, ratios
between 10 : 1 and 35 : 1 water to fly ash are used. The more modern plants
use less water. Lagoons are of two types: those large enough to hold fly
ash until sale and those small enough to require regular emptying and
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The production and properties of fly ash

stockpiling of the reclaimed material. Discharge into a lagoon causes

segregation, with the coarser material concentrating at the inlet and the
finer at the water outlet. The pattern of particle sizes can become highly
complex if there are multiple inlets or outlets.
At the disposal site it is necessary to construct bunds in order to contain
the slurry. If the scheme involves the filling of worked out mineral
deposits, the bunds will normally be constructed using soils and subsoils
that were stripped prior to mineral extraction taking place. Alternatively,
if the scheme involves the disposal of fly ash above ground level, soil
and subsoil will be stripped from the disposal area and suitable material
will be imported to raise the bunds to their required height. Conditioned
ash may be suitable for this purpose, a method successfully used at the
Gale Common site in North Yorkshire, which has taken ash from the
Ferrybridge and Eggborough power stations.9
When pumped to a lagoon the fly ash particles will settle out while the
supernatant water will be decanted into a buffer pit or settling lagoon
before being discharged to a watercourse. In this way, suspended solids
should settle out and sufficient dilution will have taken place to ensure
that the discharge to the watercourse meets the relevant environmental
standards. When the fly ash has reached its final level pumping will cease
and the fly ash will be allowed to dry out. To prevent dust blow the surface
should be served with a dust suppressant. When the fly ash has dried out
sufficiently the soils contained in the surrounding bunds will be spread
over the surface of the ash. Cultivation of this soil may then begin and the
area be returned to agriculture.
A characteristic of lagoon deposited fly ash concerns the variable
nature in particle size of the deposit. As slurried ash is delivered into
the lagoon from the pipeline, it will enter a void filled with a solution
of around 70% water. Natural sedimentation dictates that the coarser par-
ticles will settle ahead of the finer particles. Consequently, the deposited
ash will have a variable particle size profile consistent with the position
of delivery and amount of solids in suspension at the time. Subse-
quent recovery of lagoon deposited fly ash, depending on utilisation,
may require remixing the ash to achieve a more acceptable particle size
gradient.
It should be emphasised that planning and environmental legislation
must be strictly followed during the disposal of fly ash in this way. It
should also be noted that where the capacity of a lagoon exceeds 5 million
gallons (227 million litres), the generating companies in the UK have con-
sidered such a lagoon constructed above surrounding ground level as a
reservoir. As such these fall within The Reservoirs Act, 1985, and this legis-
lation must be followed.
The material in a lagoon will drain and approach optimum moisture
content after a period of storage, as in Fig. 1.7. The speed of this process
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

Fig. 1.7. Fly ash in a drained lagoon

is influenced by various factors such as the ratio of transporting water to

fly ash, the design of the outfall, groundwater levels and the method of
operation. Some lagoons are kept flooded until full. This will prolong
the drainage time when the ash is recovered. At some stations, on occa-
sions, small quantities of FBA will be added to the fly ash/water mixture
to scour the pipe work. To aid drying lagoon fly ash will be dug out while
still very wet and piled up to encourage drainage and air drying. This
technique is known as harvesting. The main uses of lagoon fly ash are
in-fill and grouting, although both conditioned and lagoon can be used
in concrete.10

Stockpiled fly ash

The daily make of fly ash from a power station may not be sufficient to
meet the requirements of major fill contracts. To overcome this problem fly
ash is stockpiled as in Fig. 1.8, either with ash directly taken from the con-
ditioners or by removal from lagoons. In some areas, county and local
authorities are prepared to project their usage of fly ash for fill purposes,
e.g. for road construction projects. This allows for some forward planning
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The production and properties of fly ash

Fig. 1.8. Fly ash on stockpiles

of power station activities to meet this demand. During periods when pro-
duction exceeds sales the fly ash is stockpiled, normally on existing
tipping grounds. Material is tipped in such a way as to encourage some
secondary mixing, which gives a more consistent material. This is particu-
larly important with lagoon ash because of the variable nature of the par-
ticle size distribution within the lagoon. Lagoon and stockpiled material
may be mixed to obtain the optimum moisture content required for fill
purposes.
Stockpiled ash may harden owing to the presence of a small quantity of
CaO (quicklime) in the ash. This hydrates with water, producing some
heat and Ca(OH)2 (lime). In the presence of CO2, this carbonates to form
CaCO3 which acts as a binder. However, the lime content of UK ashes is
generally low and unlikely to lead to much heat evolution when the ash is
mixed with water. In addition to carbonation, the pozzolanic effect will
cause hardening. If there is sufficient lime available and the ash is com-
pacted so that CO2 is excluded, the lime cannot carbonate. Then, some
agglomeration of finer particles due to a pozzolanic reaction may occur,
forming lumps of material. To reduce this hardening of the fly ash during
the stockpiling operation it is necessary to tip over a high face greater than
35 m in height. This breaks up any hardened ash and ensures sufficient
compaction to preclude the CO2 required for hardening to occur. When fly
ash is supplied from stockpiles, it is often necessary to use some screening
plant to remove lumps of hardened ash (Fig. 1.9).
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

Fig. 1.9. Screening fly ash to remove the coarser fraction at the stockpile

Longer-term stockpiled fly ash

Considerable quantities of fly ash have been deposited through the years
either in former mineral workings below normal ground level or in above-
ground mounds. These stockpiles represent a valuable resource and this
fly ash retains significant chemical and physical properties.11 When recov-
ering fly ash from stockpiles for use in concrete or grout, this material will
have to be screened to remove any agglomerate.
To prevent dust-blow problems conditioned ash mounds and drained
lagoons are normally protected in some manner. Hydra seeding of the sur-
face is a useful option, where a controlled mixture of bitumen and selected
grass seeds is sprayed over the surface. This treatment will produce a grass
sward capable of growing on to a usable pasture. For permanent restora-
tion, fly ash surfaces are covered with a depth of topsoil. The topsoil sur-
face is sown with seed to produce pasture. Where seeding is undertaken,
the seed mixture will contain seeds that are resistant to boron and are
known to grow in this situation.12

Cenospheres

Cenospheres are unique free-flowing powders composed of hard-shelled,

hollow, minute spheres. Their main characteristics are:
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The production and properties of fly ash

• they are hollow spheres

• the particle sizes range from 50 to 200 m in diameter
• they have ultra low densities
• they exhibit low water absorption
• they have good thermal and electrical resistance.

Table 1.2. Chemical composition of cenospheres

Element Percentage

Silicon (as SiO2) 55–61

Aluminium (as Al2O3) 27–33
Iron (as Fe2O3) 42–95
Calcium (as CaO) 02–06
Magnesium (as MgO) 10–21
Alkalis (as Na2O, K2O) 05–46
Carbon (LOI – normally) 001–20

Between 1% and 2% of the fly ash produced from the combustion of coal in
UK power stations is formed as cenospheres. The source of the coal source
greatly affects the quantity of cenospheres produced. Cenospheres consist
of silicate glass in which the silica content is higher but the calcium content
lower than that of fly ash. The amount of soluble matter is very much lower,
averaging 02%. The range of chemical composition is shown in Table 1.2.
Demand for cenospheres is such that they are extracted from the lagoon
and sold to specialist processors. They dry them, grade them to single sizes
and then sell them to a variety of industries for use as a strong lightweight
filler material. Figure 1.10 shows a novel, though discontinued, technique
for removing cenospheres.
Cenospheres have low density and low thermal conductivity. The bulk
density, around one-quarter of that of fly ash, varies from 250 to 350 kg/m3
with an apparent density of individual particles in the range of 400–
600 kg/m3. The thermal conductivity of the lightly tamped material meas-
ured 010 W/mC, determined at a mean temperature of 50°C (cold face 10°C,
hot face 90°C). Cenospheres have a shell thickness of about 10% of their
radius. The mean diameter is 100 m, the range of diameters being 5% (by
weight) below 50 m and 20% above 125 m. They are at the coarser end of
precipitator fly ash grading. The initial sintering temperature is 1200°C i.e.
100–200°C higher than fly ash. However, unlike fly ash, sintering is accom-
panied by shrinkage and the spheres collapse at temperatures above 1300°C.

Applications
The main application of cenospheres is as an inert filler. With a density
lower than water (typically 07), cenospheres provide up to four times the
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

Fig. 1.10. Collecting cenospheres from a lagoon at Peterborough landfill scheme

bulking capacity of normal weight fillers. The microspherical shape dra-

matically improves the rheology of fillers, whether in wet or dry applica-
tions. Cenospheres are extremely stable. They do not absorb water and are
resistant to most acids. As it is a refractory material, the cenosphere can
resist high temperatures.
Cenospheres can be used in plastics, glass-reinforced plastics, light-
weight panels, refractory tiles and almost anywhere that traditional fillers
can be used. Because of their flexibility, they are used in many high-tech-
nology and traditional industries, including aerospace, hovercraft, carpet
backing, window glazing putty, concrete repair materials, horticultural
use, and off-shore oil and gas production industries. In the aerospace
industry, cenospheres have been used to manufacture lightweight pro-
peller blades. The cenospheres reduce the weight but also increase the
strength.

Furnace bottom ash

FBA forms around 20–25% of the ash produced. FBA is a coarse material
which may be as large as 75 mm in diameter. It falls to the bottom of the
furnace into a hopper and is removed using high-pressure water jets along
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The production and properties of fly ash

Table 1.3. Typical furnace bottom ash particle size distributions

Sieve size Typical % passing

Coarse range Fine range

375 mm 98 100
20 mm 85 95
10 mm 61 90
50 mm 44 70
236 mm 37 55
118 mm 29 50
600 m 21 40
300 m 14 25
150 m 7 14

sluiceways. Coarse material is crushed down to 25 mm before the mate-

rial passes to storage pits. It is normally loaded on to tippers and, in
the UK, transported to the block-making factories. Typically, FBA has the
particle size distribution shown in Table 1.3. Because of its size and the
lightweight nature of the material, it has proven ideal for the manufacture
of lightweight concrete blocks.

The future for fly ash production

Co-firing
One environmental aspect of burning carbon-based materials such as coal
is the production of CO2. This is believed to contribute to global warming
and many governments world-wide have made undertakings to reduce
CO2 emissions to 1992 levels. In addition, there have been moves to reduce
the amount of waste which is landfilled and considerable effort has been
put into using alternative fuels which may be co-fired with coal. Materials
currently being considered are:

• sewage sludge
• waste paper
• wood pulps, chippings, etc.
• rendered animal products, e.g. bone, fats and meat
• by-product solid, gaseous and solvent materials derived from a
range of chemical processes
• domestic waste.
These materials may have a wide range of calorific values and result in
varying amounts of fly ash. For example, co-firing solvents with coal at up
to 70% by mass of the input material may only produce some 1% of the
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

resulting fly ash. Conversely, a large proportion of the resulting ash may
originate from the input material, which could have a very significant
effect on the properties of the resulting fly ash. The chemical make-up
of the co-fired material will have consequences for the chemistry of the
final material. However, owing to the relatively high temperatures involved
in a power-station furnace (1400°C) these materials would tend to be held
in an amorphous glassy material, unlike in waste incinerators, which
normally operate at much lower temperatures, typically 850°C. Conse-
quently, there are considerable environmental benefits to firing at higher
temperatures.
Considerable other difficulties may be encountered depending on the
design and age of the furnaces. UK furnaces were designed to operate
with a narrow range of coals and produce the maximum energy efficiency
from them. With the advent of reducing NOx and SOx emissions, this effi-
ciency has been degraded. Co-firing can result in a further reduction in
efficiency or problems with the boilers, e.g. fouling of boiler tubes, exces-
sive corrosion within the furnace or adverse effects on coal pulveriser effi-
ciency. Although these problems are not insurmountable, in many cases
they may add to the running costs and not compare favourably with other
fuels, e.g. natural gas.
In addition to the above, co-firing of potentially hazardous wastes
requires extra control systems, including:

• increased environmental monitoring when dealing with biological

waste, e.g. sewage sludge
• additional tests to prove the effects, if any, of co-firing on resulting fly
ash, e.g. strength and durability of concrete mixes, leaching tests
• enhanced quality assurance systems to show satisfactory levels of
control.

Extraction of other substances

Fly ash contains a wide range of materials and examination of analyses
suggests that some of these substances could be profitably extracted.
Iron extraction is comparatively easy using magnetic processes. These
are able to extract up to half of the iron present. Both wet and dry methods
have been used and a two-stage separation has given a concentrate con-
taining 50% Fe, 15% CaO, 03% P2O5, and 018% S. This concentrate is
not considered a high-grade equivalent to iron ore and would require
more purification before attracting a sufficiently high price. However, the
concentrate has an alternative use as a heavy medium for coal washing,
which it performs very well, and has an advantage over magnetite in that
it can all be recovered by magnetic means. It could also be competitive as a
dense material for use in nuclear shielding mortars and concretes.
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The production and properties of fly ash

Aluminium can be extracted from fly ash. One method that has been
described makes use of the sulfating stage with concentrated sulfuric acid,
followed by the production of potash alum from which the aluminium
present is removed by a primary amine. Another process, which was oper-
ated on the European continent during World War II, makes use of the
high-temperature reaction between lime and shales, which produces a
water-soluble calcium aluminate.
Titanium (1%) and germanium (20–100 ppm) are present in fly ash.
Their extraction has proven not to be economically viable to date.

Carbon reduction
The unburnt carbon content of fly ash has increased with the introduction
of low NOx technology. Carbon in fly ash has some unfortunate effects on
air-entrained concrete in that the air bubble structure is destroyed and
large quantities of air entrainment admixture are required to compensate.
In addition, excessive carbon can float to the surface of concrete and cause
staining on slabs, especially with very fluid concretes. For fill applications,
a variable carbon content affects the optimum density and moisture con-
tent, which can cause problems. Consequently, carbon removal has many
attractions:

• The extracted carbon could be used as low-grade activated carbon13

for filtration applications.
• The carbon could be used to fuel the furnace, e.g. recycled.
• Greater consistency in colour and quality of concrete, especially air-
entrained concrete, would be achieved.
Various techniques are used to remove carbon. Froth floatation has been
used to float the carbon to the surface of a fly ash/water mixture. The
resulting materials require drying to be used for many applications. Levy14
suggests a bubbling fluidised bed of air in conjunction with an acoustic
field to aid particle separation. Strong segregation patterns are formed in
the fluidised ash, from which a high carbon layer is removed. Levy’s
experiments showed that this equipment is capable of reducing carbon
content by up to 50%.
Electrostatic extraction can be used where the fly ash is charged with a
controlled electropotential. The fly ash is exposed to some form of positive
charge and then allowed to free fall between charged plates. Stencel et al.15
suggest that this charge can be obtained by contact rubbing, whereas other
techniques charge the fly ash electrically. The carbon fraction gains a
differing charge to that of the fly ash and can be separated from the
mass as in Fig. 1.11. These techniques have been used commercially16 to
reduce carbon content to relatively low levels. Typically, LOI values will
be 2% even when the original fly ash has carbon contents in excess of
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

Fly ash is charged

in some manner

15 kV charge
applied
Carbon-
rich
fly ash

Fig. 1.11. Principles of electrostatic carbon removal

10%. Unfortunately, such techniques are only just commercially viable in

the UK.
Carbon burn-out is achieving some acceptance in the USA.17 The burn-
out process used is a fluid bed combustion technology that reduces the
carbon content of the fly ash to a desirable level and simultaneously
returns heat energy to the power plant boiler for the production of steam
to generate electricity.

High-performance fly ash

Ultrafine pozzolanas, such as silica fume, are used to produce high-
performance concretes. The particle size of silica fume varies between 01
and 1 m and dosage rates usually range between 5% and 15% by weight
of cement. Concrete strengths in the range of 80–150 MPa are commercially
feasible using silica fume. Fly ash from power stations has a small propor-
tion of such fine particles, typically 10%, which may be commercially
viable to extract. Micronisation of fly ash can be achieved either by air-
swept classification or by grinding. The latter is the more expensive
process but uses more of the fly ash. Vapourisation18 at 2400°C and conden-
sation of the fly ash is another possible method of creating such superfine
fly ashes. Cornelissen19 found that ground fly ash has no significant effect
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The production and properties of fly ash

on the fluidity and produced concretes of high strength and density.

Performance was similar to concrete made with silica fume at the same
water/cement ratios.

Utilisation of fly ash

Fly ash is utilised in many ways in the UK (Fig. 1.12). World-wide there is
a wide variance in utilisation, ranging from virtually all the ash being
dumped to total usage. For example, in The Netherlands it is illegal to dis-
pose of fly ash in a disposal site.
In addition to fresh production it is estimated that some 250,000,000
tonnes of fly ash exists in stockpiles throughout the country that could be
used as alternatives to naturally occurring aggregates. The UK utilisation
rate has remained stable at 50% of production for a number of years.
Other uses Cement raw material
Stockpiled 0.5% 3.2% Blended cement
6.9% 2.8%
Concrete addition
8.0%

Aerated concrete blocks

10.2%

Non-aerated blocks
0.9%

Lightweight aggregate
2.3%
Bricks and ceramics
Disposal 0.2%
43.6% Grouting
5.1%
General fill
2.3%
Structural fill
3.2%
Landfill, land reclamation In-fill
and restoration 1.1%
9.8%

Fig. 1.12. Utilisation of fly ash from power stations (1997); approximately 50% of the
fly ash produced in the UK is used

Particle size distribution and shape

Because of the way in which fly ash is produced, the particles, particularly
those below 50 m, are spherical in shape. As the coal is burnt producing
temperatures in the region of 1400°C, the minerals associated with it
become molten and form a spherical shape. Because of the rapid cooling
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

100
90
80 Precipitator ash
Cyclone ash

70
Percentage passing

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
Clay Silt Sand Gravels
Particle size (mm)

Fig. 1.13. Typical particle size distribution for UK fly ash (materials classification
based on BS 1377 Part 120)

experienced by the fine ash particles as they pass out of the furnace, they
solidify as an amorphous, glassy material in this shape.
Particles in the coarse silt/fine sand sizes have the potential to become
airborne in certain conditions. Fresh conditioned and stockpile fly ash is
like a fine-grained soil, and it is mainly silt-sized and generally acts like silt
(Fig. 1.13). Finer fly ash has a silky feel, although a coarser one may feel
gritty; these ashes exhibit dilatancy, are non-plastic and possess cohesion.

Consistency
The particle size distribution of fly ash can vary considerably depending
on how a power station is being operated. However, many stations oper-
ate some base load generation, reducing the potential variation of the
resulting fly ash. Figure 1.14 shows the fineness as the percentage retained
on the 45 m sieve with the date sampled from five sources of fly ash
throughout the country. The mean standard deviation in the fineness is
36%, with values ranging from 29% to 44%, remarkably consistent con-
sidering the diversity of the sources. Even the higher standard deviation
material complies with the fineness criteria contained in EN 450 ‘Fly ash
for concrete’; e.g. 0 to 40  10% retained on the 45 m sieve.
For use in concrete a considerable proportion of fly ash is classified to
make it finer, thereby improving its performance, e.g. BS 3892 Part 1 PFA.
The process of classification reduces the variability in fineness signifi-
cantly, with the standard deviation for fineness ranging between 12% and
19% with a mean of 14%. The fineness with time for classified fly ash,
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The production and properties of fly ash

40

35
Fineness % passing 45 m

30

25
Source A
Source B
20 Source C
Source D
15 Source E

10

0
98

98

98

04 /98

11 /98

18 /98

08 /98

15 99

22 /99

29 /99

05 /99

12 /99

19 /99

26 /99

05 /99

12 /99

19 /99

26 /99

02 99
99
1/

1/

1/

1/

3/

4/
1

3
/1

/1

/1

/1

/1

/1

/1

/0

/0

/0

/0

/0

/0

/0

/0

/0

/0

/0

/0

/0
06

13

20

27

Date sampled

Fig. 1.14. Typical variation in the fineness of fly ash from five UK power stations

40

35
Fineness % passing 45 m

30

25
Source A
Source B
20 Source C
Source D
15 Source E

10

0
98

98

98

04 /98

11 /98

18 /98

08 /98

15 /99

22 /99

29 /99

05 /99

12 /99

19 /99

26 /99

05 /99

12 /99

19 /99

26 /99

02 /99
99
1/

1/

1/

4/
1

3
/1

/1

/1

/1

/1

/1

/1

/0

/0

/0

/0

/0

/0

/0

/0

/0

/0

/0

/0

/0
06

13

20

27

Date sampled

Fig. 1.15. Classification of fly ash reduces the variation in fineness

i.e. PFA for use in concrete, is shown in Fig. 1.15. Fly ash and PFA in
concrete are discussed in detail in Chapter 3.

Physical properties

Table 1.4 lists some typical properties of fly ash.

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Properties and use of coal fly ash

Table 1.4. Some properties of fly ash

Property Typical value(s)

Compacted bulk density 1200–1700 kg/m3

Loose bulk density 1100–1600 kg/m3
Relative density (oven dry) 20–24
Specific heat capacity 08–07 J/kg/°C
Water permeability – compacted fly ash 109–106 m/s
Electrical conductivity 009 W/mK

4
LOI

0
21/05/99
04/06/99
18/06/99
02/07/99
16/07/99
30/07/99
13/08/99
27/08/99
10/09/99
24/09/99
08/10/99
22/10/99
05/11/99
19/11/99
03/12/99
17/12/99
31/12/99
14/01/00
28/01/00
11/02/00
25/02/00
10/03/00
24/03/00
07/04/00
21/04/00
05/05/00
19/05/00
Date

Fig. 1.16. Typical variation in loss on ignition (LOI) with time for fly ash from a large
UK power station

Loss on ignition

Carbon content, as assessed by measuring LOI, can vary widely. Before the
introduction of low NOx burners LOI values below 1% were possible, but
their introduction led to a gradual rise in LOI to the present levels. When
a station is continuously producing electricity, called base loading, the
LOI may be typically 35%. However, older stations and stations being used
to supplement the electricity grid during periods of peak demand, called
‘double shifting’, may have LOI values 10%. High-rank coals such as
anthracite and steam coal can also present combustion problems in the
boiler resulting in higher LOI values. The true carbon content of a fly ash is
lower than indicated by the LOI. Typically, the true carbon content will be
090 of the LOI value. With coal-fired stations double shifting during the
summer months there is a tendency for LOI to increase (Fig. 1.16).
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The production and properties of fly ash

Table 1.5. Typical range of analyses from UK fly ash

Element Typical range of values

for fly ash

Silicon (% as SiO2) 38–52

Aluminium (% as Al2O3) 20–40
Iron (% as Fe2O3) 6–16
Calcium (% as CaO) 18–10
Magnesium (% as MgO) 10–35
Sodium (% as Na2O) 08–18
Potassium (% as K2O) 23–45
Titanium (% as TiO2) 09–11
Chloride (% as Cl) 001–002*
Loss on ignition (%) 3–20
Sulfate (% as SO3) 035–25
Free calcium oxide (%) 01–10
Water soluble sulfate (g/l as SO4) 13–40
2 : 1 water solid extract
Total alkalis (% as Na2Oeq.) 20–55%
Water-soluble alkalis (% as Na2Oeq.) 03–10%
pH 9–12

*Chloride may be up to 03% for fly ash conditioned with seawater.

Chemical and mineralogical properties

Fly ash has three main elements, silicon, aluminium and iron, the oxides of
which account for 75–85% of the material. Fly ash consists principally of
glassy spheres together with some crystalline matter and unburnt carbon.
Silicon and aluminium are mainly present in the glassy phase, with
small amounts of quartz and mullite (3Al2O3, 2SiO2) included. The iron
appears partly as the oxides magnetite (Fe3O4) and haematite (Fe2O3),
with the rest in the glassy phase. The greater proportion of fly ash is a
glass, and mineralogical examination from six power stations21 showed
that the glass content varied from 66% to 88%. Analysis of the glass content
from those six stations showed a remarkable similarity in composition. The
SiO2 Al2O3 content varied between 70% and 88% and other constituents
included iron, calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium and titanium.
A typical range of oxides determined by chemical analyses of UK fly ash
is shown in Table 1.5.

Trace element analysis

Typical trace elemental analyses are shown in Table 1.6, which demon-
strates that other elements are present in only small quantities, 1% of the
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

Table 1.6. Solid-phase trace element analysis: typical ranges from UK

sources of fly ash

Element Typical range Element Typical range

of results of results

Antimony 1–325 Fluoride 0–200

Arsenic 4–109 Lead 1*–976
Barium 0–36,000 Manganese 103–1555
Boron 5–310 Mercury 001*–061
Cadmium 10*–4 Molybdenum 3–81
Chloride 0–2990 Nickel 108–583
Chromium 97–192 Phosphorus 372–2818
Cobalt 2–115 Selenium 4–162
Copper 119–474 Tin 933–1847
Cyanide 010* Vanadium 292–1339
Zinc 148–918

All data are expressed as mg/kg.

*Below the limit of detection.

total. The values quoted are generally in agreement with other quoted
values.22,23
The following chapters will explain the many uses to which fly ash can
be put.

References

1. Quality of life counts – Indicators for a strategy for sustainable development for
the United Kingdom: a baseline assessment. Stationery Office, London,
Government Statistical Service, 2000.
2. Thernox Unipede. NOX abatement in coal-fired power stations and the
consequences for fly ash quality. Thermal Generation Study, Committee
20.03, 01003 Ren 9317, Paris, 1993.
3. Unsworth JF, Barratt DJ, Roberst PT. Coal quality and combustion
performance – an international perspective. Coal and Science Technology.
Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1991.
4. BS EN 196-2. Methods of testing cement Part 2. Chemical analysis of cement. BSI,
London, 1995.
5. van den Berg JW. Effect of low NOx technologies on fly ash qualities,
ECOBA/ACCA Joint Meeting, Toronto, 1998.
6. Robl TL et al., The impact of conversion to low NOx burners on ash char-
acteristics. Proceedings of the 1995 International Joint Power Generation
Conference, Minneapolis, October 1995.
7. BS 3892 Part 1. Specification for pulverised fuel ash for use with Portland cement.
BSI, London, 1997. ISBN 0-580-26785-7.
28
chap-01.qxd 20/09/2001 10:06 Page 29

The production and properties of fly ash

8. BS EN 450. Fly ash for concrete – definitions, requirements and quality control.
BSI, London, 1997. ISBN 0-580-24612-4.
9. Brown RD. Ash concrete – its engineering performance. Ashtech ‘84,
London, 1984: 295–301.
10. Dhir RK, McCarthy MJ, Tittle PAJ, Kii HH. Use of conditioned fly ash in
concrete: strength development and critical durability. University of
Dundee, DETR research contract report 39/3/448 (CC 1411), April 2000.
11. McCarthy MJ, Tittle PAJ, Dhir RK. Lagoon fly ash: feasibility for use as a
binder in concrete. Materials and Structures/Materiaux et Constructions
1998; 31: 699–706.
12. Emberson PM. The integration of ash disposal in the landscape: some
aspects of the UK experience. Ashtech ‘84 Conference, London, 1984: 627–633.
13. Hurt R, Suuberg E, Gao Y. Unburned carbon in ash: formation, properties
and behaviour in construction applications, EPRI report TR-109340.
Effects of coal quality on power plants: 5th International Conference, November
1997.
14. Levy EK. Reduction of fly ash LOI using a bubbling fluidised bed separa-
tor. 12th International Symposium on Coal Combustion By-product Manage-
ment and Use proceedings, ACCA, January 1997.
15. Stencel JM, Ban H, Li T et al. Dry, electrostatic separation of carbon from
coal combustion fly ash, 12th International Symposium on Coal Combustion
By-product Management and Use proceedings, ACCA, January 1997.
16. Bittner J, Gasiorowski S, Tondu E, Vasiliauskas A. STI fly ash separation
system – operating history of New England Power’s Brayton Point power
plant, 12th International Symposium on Coal Combustion By-product Manage-
ment and Use proceedings, ACCA, January 1997.
17. For more information visit Santee Cooper’s website on
http://www.santeecooper.com/newsroom/2000releases/ash-6-28.html
18. Matsufuji Y, Kohata H, Tagaya K et al. Study on the properties of concrete
with ultra fine particles produced from fly ash. Fly ash, silica fume and nat-
ural pozzolans in concrete, Proceedings of an International Conference, ACI
SP132, Vol. 1, Istanbul, 1993: 351–365.
19. Cornelissen HAW. Micronised fly ash – a valuable resource for concrete.
12th International Symposium on Coal Combustion By-product Management
and Use Proceedings, ACCA, January 1997.
20. BS 1377. Methods of testing for soils for civil engineering purposes, Part 1:
General requirements for test methods. BSI, London, 1990.
21. Central Electricity Generating Board. Fly ash utilization. CEGB, London,
1972.
22. Brown J, Ray NJ, Ball M. The disposal of pulverised fuel ash in water
supply catchment areas. Water Research 1976; 10: 1115–1121.
23. Hoeksema HW. Working conditions for fly ash workers and radiological
consequences of living in a fly ash house. Proceedings of ASHTech 84, 2nd
International Conference on Ash Technology and Marketing, London, 1984.

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Chapter 2

Fly ash and the environment

Introduction

The word ‘environment’ means ‘surroundings; conditions of life or growth’.

This chapter concentrates on the environmental impacts of using fly ash
rather than the complex arguments about the combustion of coal, extrac-
tion of coal, power-station construction, etc. Fly ash, being a by-product of
the generation of electricity from coal, with electricity being the primary
product, has no intrinsic impact in respect of global warming gases. How-
ever, its unique properties are such that it can be used to reduce the impacts
of other industries. Some of the factors worth considering are as follows:

• Many of the applications for fly ash replace naturally occurring

aggregates and minerals, e.g. in-fill, road construction and brick-
making applications. This can significantly reduce the demand for
virgin aggregate.
• By using the pozzolanic reaction fly ash can complement and replace
Portland cement in cementitious applications. There is a consequent
reduction in greenhouse gas emissions.
• Fly ash can act as a filler extending a material, e.g. the use of ceno-
spheres in plastic (see Chapter 9).

Fly ash, concrete and environmental impact

The manufacture of Portland cement, by the very nature of the con-
stituents and its chemistry, involves the production of a number of
so-called greenhouse gases. The main one is carbon dioxide (CO2), not
from the burning of fossil fuels but from the calcining of calcium carbonate
to calcium oxide. Approximately 1 tonne of CO2 is produced for every
tonne of Portland cement made. Parrott1 reports in some detail on the
improvements that have been made to reduce emissions in the UK.
However, it is clear that there is little room for significant further
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Fly ash and the environment

Table 2.1. Cement required to manufacture 40,000,000 m3 of concrete: typical UK

annual production (redrawn from Parrott2)

PC GGBS PFA Total

cementitious

Replacement level – 50% 30% –

Extra cementitious – 5% 10% –
Tonnes used, with partial 10,560,000 960,000 480,000 12,000,000
replacement of PC by
GGBS and PFA
Tonnes of PC needed if 11,763,000 – – 11,763,000
no replacement by
GGBS or PFA
Savings in PC 1,203,000

PC: Portland cement; GGBS: ground granulated blastfurnace slag; PFA: pulverised fuel ash.

improvements in the Portland cement-making process without the chem-

istry being changed.
The replacement of some of the Portland cement offers greater potential
as a method of reducing environmental impact. In the UK only two add-
itions fit this category, ground granulated blastfurnace slag (GGBS) and fly
ash/pulverised fuel ash (PFA). Parrott2 produced Table 2.1 based on the 1998
utilisation of GGBS and PFA that shows some 1,203,000 tonnes of Portland
cement are being saved annually with current rates of addition utilisation.
On average, a 30% replacement of Portland cement with PFA with suit-
able adjustment for equal 28 strength reduces overall greenhouse gas
emissions by 17%. These reductions in emissions could be fully realised if
the use of additions was increased. In principle, a threefold increase in fly
ash usage would be possible.

Leachates from fly ash: chemistry and precautions

Composition
A small proportion of fly ash, typically 2–3% by weight, is soluble in water.
The soluble form of fly ash is usually alkaline in reaction and mainly
contains calcium and sulfate ions. Major elements within fly ash leachate
comprise the principal cation of calcium and sulfate in a range 01 g/l.
Other water-soluble anion components such as magnesium, sodium and
potassium are usually present but in smaller quantities than cations.
Typical trends in the leachate formation process observed in the labora-
tory have indicated that any initial formation of leachate fly ash is acidic
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

with sulfate ions present as a surface coating. This becomes hydrolysed to

form sulfuric acid, resulting in a reduction in pH. Thereafter, the pH rises
rapidly, turning alkaline over a comparatively short period of 48 h. Surface
deposits buffer pH levels within the leachate, leading to an adjustment in
pH, eventually settling out at a residual level within the alkaline range of
9–12. The soluble alkaline ash core is known to deplete; however, this
process is slow, may take many years to complete and is not considered to
have an impact in terms of leachate formation.

Leachate testing
Historically, the accepted method of determining leachate in the field has
been to use laboratory-based tests such as the column and/or lysimeter.
These have been used to determine the level of leachate likely to be gener-
ated based on certain local geological criteria and rainfall data.
Lysimetric studies have been undertaken by numerous authors who
have simulated natural weathering conditions. Lysimeters exhibit a very
slow release of leachant.3 In addition, other methods of generating
leachate under laboratory conditions such as those set out by the National
Rivers Authority (NRA) and DIN 38414 standards have been evaluated
and are considered acceptable methodologies within the UK for assessing
leachate quality by the statutory authorities. The data obtained from these
methods have been found to compare favourably when modelling the
level of leachate dilution likely to take place under site-specific conditions
by the Central Electricity Generating Board (CEGB) (Fig. 2.1).4–6
Results from column tests7 have shown that apart from the initial
‘flush’ of primary surface components, concentrations of cadmium
(Cd), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), mercury (Hg), manganese
(Mn), lead (Pb), titanium (Ti) and zinc (Zn) rapidly fell below detection
limits.
Other components such as arsenic (As) demonstrated a delayed release
mechanism, whereas a high percentage of boron (B) was shown by Eary
et al.8 to be flushed out within the first 48 h. It should be noted that the
exact mechanism of release for some elements is not well understood;
however, experimental data obtained by the CEGB9 through column tests
agreed well with observed patterns.
At present, evaluation of a Europe-wide test10 is being undertaken. This
has been concentrating on a 10 : 1 liquid to solid phase dilution factor and
is similar to the NRA and DIN 38414 tests. This has been the generally
adopted factor in considering the likely level of attenuation able to be
achieved in situ through groundwater flow effects. These tests are for a
particle range between 4 and 10 mm. These procedures are intended to
form the CEN suite of tests and are envisaged to comprise a mixture of
trickle11 and shake tests.
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Fly ash and the environment

Fig. 2.1. Barlow mound, Drax, UK, part of which is a site of special scientific interest

It is considered unlikely that these procedures will be found suitable for

the testing of monolithic samples. Appropriate applications for fly ashes,
especially grouting, often extend particle size distribution beyond the
range shown above. The monolithic test12 is likely to prove a more reliable
test and is scheduled for 2004. This test is again anticipated to be to the 10 : 1
dilution rate; however, there is some debate over how a monolithic sample
should be defined. It has been proposed that a monolithic test would
be suitable for samples taken for a range of compressive strengths
and dimension ratios. It is anticipated that a particle size in the order of
40 mm is likely to be appropriate under the proposed monolithic test.
Another potential test is being developed, and due in early 2001 before the
monolithic test, to consider the use of a larger particle of 32 mm whereby
abrasion is avoided and release is therefore controlled by matrix diffusion.

Leaching characteristics
Experiments on the leaching patterns for weathered fly ash within field
or laboratory conditions show two prominent patterns. These are com-
prised of leachate formation, either initially containing high concentra-
tions of calcium (950 mg/l), sodium (400 mg/l), potassium (5 mg/l) and
sulfur (5200 mg/l as SO4), or through a delayed leachate formation leading
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

to high levels of aluminium and silicon being discharged owing to the

presence of magnesium and iron.
It has been suggested that high initial concentrations occur as a result of
the possible hydrolysis of calcium oxide present in an elevated pH, typ-
ically 10, with free calcium species present as sub-micrometre surface
particles. High levels of sodium and potassium species found within initial
contributions are derived from their oxides with further dissolution of core
alkaline oxides and buffering by aluminium oxides contributing to a rise in
pH levels to levels indicated earlier. Magnesium solubility is highly pH
dependent and has limited solubility at high pH.
Significant trends exist within magnesium species present with the for-
mation of leachate appearing consistent with the chemistry of magnesium
oxide after initial low, near-zero concentrations. The release rates of minor
elements are determined by the total concentration, their distribution
within the ash and their method of final incorporation into secondary (or
weathered) solids.
Geochemical processes have been shown to control final concentrations
and consist of the following mechanisms:

• precipitation/dissolution
• redox speciation
• adsorption/desorption
• effect of pH upon solubility.
Elements may associate with specific minerals according to the chem-
istry of the following properties:

• chalcophilic
• lithophilic
• siderophilic.
In response to such concerns regarding the perceived risk of contam-
ination of elements leaching into groundwater, a substantial amount of
research work has been carried out. This indicates that leaching is not
considered a problem with fly ash compared with levels of trace elements
considered acceptable by the statutory authorities.
While it is possible to extract leachate-containing trace metals from fly
ash, the conditions under which these can be extracted are not those
encountered when the material is used, e.g. in fill applications (Fig. 2.2).
The leachability of trace elements depends largely on the quantity and
acidity of the percolating water and on the buffering capacity and redox
potential of the residues. For most trace elements leachate concentrations
increase with increased acidity and with increasing redox potential. Acid-
extractable leachate obtained under these conditions contains trace ele-
ment concentrations far higher than would be obtained with rainwater
leaching through alkaline residues under the conditions that exist in fly
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Fly ash and the environment

Fig. 2.2. Fly ash used as a fill material on the A69 extension, Newcastle upon
Tyne, UK

ash fills. In addition, studies have shown that the nitric acid-extractable
fraction of trace elements from material landfilled around 20 years ago is
virtually identical to that extracted from recently deposited fly ash. This
clearly demonstrates that leaching does not occur to any significant extent
with rainwater percolation through alkaline residues, since a lower acid-
extractable fraction would be expected in the older fly ash if it had been
leaching for this period.

Fly ash permeability

The particle size distribution means that compacted fly ash has a low per-
meability, typically 107 m/s or lower. This means that it is difficult for
water to penetrate. Because water will only flow through saturated mater-
ial, this will not occur unless the fly ash is placed in areas below water.
Experience has shown that if fly ash is subjected to heavy rain it is unusual
for saturation to affect the surface beyond the top 50 mm. Even when sat-
urated there will only be a limited rate of flow through the mass of the
material.
Laboratory and field measurements of the permeability of fly ash have
shown drainage characteristics that range from practically impervious
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

Fig. 2.3. Fly ash returned to agricultural use

to poor. The lower permeability of fly ash prevents leaching of soluble

material from the mass of the compacted fly ash. Consequently, there have
been no recorded cases of concrete structures adjacent to fly ash fill suffer-
ing from sulfate attack, despite exposure over many years. However, there
may be a need to consider hydraulic effects such as pore pressure distri-
butions in the design of backfilled structures.
Historical work conducted by the former CEGB over many years has
consistently demonstrated that leachate from fly ash does not represent a
threat to groundwater quality. Ray and Ball13 studied lagoons and landfills
used in the disposal of fly ash in water-supply catchment areas and con-
cluded that if correctly managed these did not present a risk to water
supplies for drinking or any other purpose (Fig. 2.3).

Waste labelling and risk assessment

In the latest version of both the EC European Waste Catalogue and the
UN–ECE list of wastes both furnace bottom ash (FBA) and fly ash are clas-
sified as non-hazardous. In addition, fly ash is classified as non-hazardous
in both The Netherlands and the USA, countries that are acutely con-
cerned about environmental impact arising from landfill.
As already stated, around 66–88% of fly ash is present as an amorphous
glassy material composed of silica, alumina and iron oxides, with other
metals present in smaller quantities. The constituents, apart from the glass,
that are of most significance to the properties of fly ash are the calcium
oxide content (lime) and sulfate contents.
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Fly ash and the environment

If there is sufficient lime present in the fly ash then it will result in
further hardening due to a combination of further crystal formation and
reaction between the lime and the glassy material in the fly ash (poz-
zolanic reaction). The high pH is likely to reduce the availability of the
trace elements.
When water is added to fly ash, it initially has a low pH as the sulfate
deposited on the surface of the particles is brought into solution as
sulfuric acid. This is a transient situation and the pH rapidly rises as
calcium is leached into solution. The pH is typically 9–11 for fly ash,
although the pH for those ashes with higher free calcium oxide contents
can rise to 12. Only a very small quantity of free calcium is required to
achieve the higher pH. Because most of the water-soluble material that
influences pH has been washed out of lagoon fly ash, the pH is lower,
typically around 9.
The calcium content of fly ash means that most of the sulfate is pres-
ent as gypsum, which has a limited solubility and will precipitate out
in compacted fly ash. The sulfate level of lagoon fly ash is usually very
low because the water/solids ratio used to slurry the fly ash means the
majority of the sulfate is washed out. Other water-soluble materials
are also removed in the process. The sulfate content is typically 01 g/l.
The sulfate content of fly ash means that it cannot be placed within
500 mm of metallic items, according to the UK Department of Transport
Specification for Highway Works (SHW). The water-soluble content of fly
ash is also sufficiently high to restrict the types of reinforcement that can
be used in reinforced earth structures.

Leachable elements
DIN leaching test
As discussed above, only a small fraction of the constituents present on the
surface of fly ash is leachable in water. Typical data obtained from routine
analysis are shown in Table 2.2; the extraction in this instance is to the
German standard DIN 38414-S414 (10 : 1 water/solids ratio). This DIN
extraction test is very similar to the proposed European test ‘Compliance
for leaching granular materials and sludges – Part 2: One batch test as
a liquid to solid ratio of 10 l/kg with a particle size below 4 mm (with or
without size reduction)’; prEN 12457 Part 2.
From Table 2.2 it can be seen that the major water-soluble constituents
are calcium and sulfur (usually present as sulfate). There are smaller
amounts of sodium and potassium, and traces of chloride, magnesium,
aluminium and silicon. If it is assumed that all of the water-soluble
calcium, sodium and potassium is present as hydroxide (ignoring the
sulfate or chloride) then the total water-soluble hydroxide, based on the
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

Table 2.2. Leachates found using the DIN 38414-S4 method: typical ranges from UK
sources of fly ash

Element Typical range of Element Typical range of

leachable elements leachable elements

Aluminium 01*–98 Magnesium 01*–39

Arsenic 01* Manganese 01*
Boron 01*–6 Molybdenum 01*–06
Barium 02–04 Sodium 12–33
Calcium 15–216 Nickel 01*
Cadmium 01* Phosphorus 01*–04
Chloride 16–175 Lead 02*
Cobalt 01* Sulfur 24–510
Chromium 01* Antimony 001*
Chromium VI 01*–1 Selenium 001*–015
Copper 01* Silicon 05–15
Cyanide 001* Tin 01*
Fluoride 02–23 Titanium 01*
Iron 01* Vanadium 01*–05
Mercury 001* Zinc 01*
Potassium 1–19 pH 7–117

Data are expressed as mg/l.

The data include a seawater-conditioned sample, hence the high chloride values.
*Value below detection limit.

highest values from Table 2.2, would be 21% (m/m). However, calcium
hydroxide would make up approximately 20% and the other compounds
represent 01%. In all instances quoted the calcium is highly domi-
nant, with sodium and potassium present in comparatively very small
quantities.

Harwell test
Samples15 of stockpile fly ash were subjected to extraction by the Harwell16
method and the results are summarised in Table 2.3. Although it is stock-
pile fly ash, the leachate still shows that the calcium content is dominant,
with smaller amounts of other elements. There is a more significant
amount of magnesium, probably due to the low pH of these samples.
The CIRIA report17 compared the CEN two-stage leaching method to
the Harwell method. It demonstrated that the total leachate was similar
for both techniques for the three fly ashes examined. Both showed that
with the Harwell method the calcium and sulfate were present in the
range of 100–1000 or 1000–10,000 mg/l, respectively, for the first bed
volume extracted, but both fell dramatically to the 100–1000 mg/l range for
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Fly ash and the environment

Table 2.3. Leachates found using the Harwell method: typical range from 10 samples
from a single UK source of fly ash

Element Typical range of Element Typical range of

leachable elements leachable elements

Bed volume 1 Molybdenum 015–088

pH 81–88 Sodium 5–44
Aluminium 01*–05 Nickel 001*
Arsenic 006–016 Lead 001*
Boron 18–43 Tin 001*
Calcium 33–250 Titanium 001*
Cadmium 0005* Vanadium 022–055
Cobalt 001* Zinc 001*
Chromium 002–006 Nitrogen 02–1
Copper 001* Phosphorus 01*
Iron 001* Sulfur 15–70
Mercury 0001* Chlorine 5–9
Potassium 5–29 Fluorine 01*
Magnesium 16–100 Selenium 004–016
Manganese 001* Antimony 001–002

Data are expressed as mg/l.

*Value below detection limit.

the next four bed volumes extracted. The concentration for the sixth to
tenth bed volumes fell to 10–100 mg/l. The only other elements that were
present at these levels were sodium and potassium, but these had signifi-
cantly reduced by the third bed volume for all but one of the fly ashes
examined.

Leachates from fly ash: summary

1. The majority of the ash is present as an alumino-silicate glass.
2. Most elements are present in very small quantities and are largely
entrained in the glassy material.
3. Typically 2% of the fly ash is water soluble; calcium and sulfate
constitute the majority of the water-soluble fraction. There are
smaller amounts of sodium, potassium and, in low pH leachate,
magnesium.
4. The pH is mainly determined by the water-soluble calcium and
sulfate.
5. The water-soluble fraction, although small, can be sufficient to
produce a pH above 115, but dilution can rapidly reduce the water-
soluble fraction and therefore the pH.
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in fly ash

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) can result from the incomplete
combustion of fuels such as wood, coal and oil. Metabolic transformations,
by aquatic and terrestrial organisms, result in carcinogenic substances.18
The most potent PAHs are benzofluoranthenes, benzo[a]pyrene, benz[a]-
anthracene, dibenzo[a,h]anthracene and indenol[1,2,3-cd]pyrene. Although
there has been a significant amount of work on PAHs arising from com-
bustion of coal, most effort has focused on airborne particulate matter.
PAHs will undergo photodegradation and are therefore thought to have
a limited lifespan in the atmosphere. PAHs are only sparingly soluble in
water, but their solubility decreases with increasing size of the molecule;
e.g. naphthalene with two benzene rings has a solubility of 32 mg/l
whereas benzo[a]pyrene with five rings has a solubility of 16  103 mg/l.
Wild and Jones18 reviewed PAHs in the environment in 1995. The
major sources, apart from gasworks sites, were found to be coal-fired
electricity generation (3140 tonnes per annum), domestic coal combustion
(600 tonnes per annum), incinerators (56 tonnes per annum) and vehicles
(80 tonnes per annum), with smaller amounts from oil and wood combus-
tion and stubble burning. Sharkey et al.19 noted that PAHs could also arise
from a number of other sources, such as coke ovens and metal smelting
and processing plants. Although power generation consumes the largest
proportion of coal, the emissions of PAHs are less per tonne than for coal
used for domestic consumption. This is due to the higher temperatures
and greater control over combustion conditions in the former. It was noted
also that concentrations of PAH were higher in urban areas and by the
roadsides, as might be expected. When deposited in water, PAHs tended to
bind to sediments rather than remain in solution: the estimated burden of
PAHs in sediments was 10 times greater than in freshwater. Levels in the
soil are rising as a result of atmospheric deposition and binding of the
PAHs by the soil particles, especially the organic matter. The report con-
sidered that leaching of PAHs from soils was unlikely to be significant.
Wright,20 working for the CEGB, indicated that the amount of PAHs
present in fly ash is small, typically in the range 141–935 ng/g. However, it
was noted that the amount detected was likely to be a small fraction of the
total owing to difficulties in extracting them. The conclusion was that the
quantities found and the inert nature of fly ash meant that fly ash was not
a major contributor to ‘active’ PAH in the environment.
Another study21 by Zenon Environmental detected no extractable trace
organics in fly ash, from large coal-fired power stations, in concentrations
above 05 g/g, similar levels to those found by the CEGB.
Leaching tests on fly ash in accordance with the Environment Agency
extraction method22 have indicated levels of the PAHs benzo[b]flu-
oranthene, benzo[k]flouranthene, benzo[a]pyrene, benzo[ghi]perylene,
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Fly ash and the environment

fluoranthene and indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene to be 02 g/l for each species,

confirming the above findings that the amount of available PAH from the
fly ash is negligible.
There have been a number of studies in the USA investigating the inter-
actions between PAHs and fly ash.
One recurring theme is the difficulty in extracting PAHs from par-
ticulate matter. Janssen and Kanij23 carried out desorption tests using
14
C-labelled 3,4-benzopyrene (BaP). They found that recovery from fly
ash was lower than for aluminium powder of a slightly greater surface
area. Extraction using xylene was found to give the lowest recovery of
BaP. Tests on a number of different fly ashes gave recoveries up to 50%,
compared with up to 95% for aluminium powder. Thermal treatment of
the fly ash at 400°C reduced recovery significantly, the lowest recovery
being 8%.
Natusch24 found that PAHs tended to adsorb on to the surface of fly ash,
rather than just being a surface deposit. It was noted that adsorption was
very temperature dependent, with little adsorption on stack ash at 290°C
but significantly more at 5°C. The adsorption occurred rapidly but it was
difficult to desorb PAHs. Adsorbed PAH is resistant to photodegradation
although some oxidation may occur at a lower rate on ash that has not
been exposed to light. The behaviour of PAHs with respect to fly ash was
found to be similar to that with activated carbon. The report noted that the
bulk of the PAHs not adsorbed by carbonaceous matter would be adsorbed
on the fine particles owing to the large surface area, these particles being
most likely to become airborne.
Harrison et al.25 studied both solid and liquid wastes from Four Corners
power station in New Mexico, USA. They found that recovery of PAHs
from fly ash was difficult and they did not detect any PAH with more than
four rings, although they could not confirm that these were not present on
the surface of the ash. The levels in precipitator ash were slightly higher
than for ash collected by the water scrubbing system. Total extractable
hydrocarbons in sluice water were low, at 79 ppb, with many species at
levels 1 ppt. No PAHs larger in molecular weight than naphthalene were
found in sluice waters.
Junk et al.26 studied levels of PAHs and other organics from stack
vapour, stack ash, fly ash and grate ash from Ames power station in the
USA. Only small amounts were found on both respirable and non-
respirable particles (Table 2.4). Although there were measurable amounts
in the vapour phase, it was noted that if all the vapour were to condense
on the particulate matter the amount would still be less than for ambient
air particles.
In addition to the above, measurements were made on sluice water car-
rying fly ash and grate ash to settling ponds. The water used was origi-
nally from an aquifer that had been contaminated by coal tar and
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Table 2.4. Levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in emissions from coal-fired

power stations (Junk et al.26)

Compound Concentration Concentration

range (ng/g) range (ng/m3)

Respirable Non-respirable Vapour phase

particles particles

Naphthalene ND–18 05–23 10–1800

Phenanthrene – – 26–640
Anthracene – – 04–100
Fluoranthene 02–03 005–15 05–240
Pyrene 02–7 008–11 02–2850
Chrysene ND ND–4 01–28
Benz[a]pyrene ND ND 01–120
Benz[a]anthracene ND ND–03 NM
Benz[ghi]perylene NM NM 3–22

ND: not detected at the limit of 005 ng/g; NM: not measured.

contained some PAHs. The sluice water, having been in contact with the
fly ash and grate ash, contained no contaminants above the detection limit
of 1 ppb, i.e. less than found in the aquifer water. This indicated that the fly
ash reduces the level of PAHs in the water. This was confirmed by a small
trial where water containing 20–50 ppb of PAHs was mixed with fly ash in
a ratio of 10 : 1. Within 10 min the PAH level was reduced to below the
detection limit.
In 1989 Mamantov and Wehry27 separated fly ash into carbonaceous, mag-
netic, light mineral and heavy mineral fractions. They reported that PAHs
with three or four rings may be found in equilibrium in the atmosphere both
as adsorbates on particulate surfaces and in the vapour phase. Larger PAHs
were present as adsorbates. Although PAHs will photodegrade, the extent
to which this occurs is dependent on the surface on which they are
adsorbed, so they may be more persistent on some surfaces than on others.
It was noted that resistance to degradation was increased when the PAHs
were adsorbed on carbonaceous and magnetic fractions. Their study used
a vapour deposition technique instead of the more usual solution-based
techniques to deposit pyrene on to the surface of fractions from two
sources of fly ash. This was considered to be a more realistic method of
deposition of the PAHs. They reached the following conclusions.

• Pyrene had a greater affinity for the carbonaceous fraction of the fly
ash than the other fractions.
• In the absence of carbonaceous material pyrene preferentially
adsorbs on the non-magnetic fraction.
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Fly ash and the environment

• Pyrene adsorbed on the carbonaceous fraction was very resistant to

photodegradation.
• Although the pyrene is not readily adsorbed on the magnetic frac-
tion, any that is will be resistant to photodegradation.
• Carbonaceous matter tends to be in the coarser fraction of the fly ash
but it is the finer respirable material that may result in atmospheric
emissions via the stack.
Further work by the same authors was reported in 1995.28 This involved
trying to ascertain the effect of surface roughness on photodegradation.
By measuring the surface area of the various fractions, they showed that
the carbonaceous fraction had the greatest influence on the surface area.
In one sample the carbonaceous fraction represented 47% of the material
by mass but accounted for 80% of the measured surface area.
The work confirmed that the surface roughness was important and that
the iron content, which tends to produce dark-coloured particles that may
absorb light, had little effect.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in fly ash: summary

1. Most work has been done on PAHs associated with particulate mat-
ter that is released to the atmosphere. Little work has been done on
water-borne PAHs.
2. There are traces of PAH present on fly ash, typically up to 900 ng/g,
although the difficulty in recovering PAHs from fly ash means that
the figure may be higher.
3. PAHs, particularly those with high molecular mass, tend to be
adsorbed on to the surface of the fly ash and recovery of the
adsorbed PAHs is very difficult.
4. PAHs have an affinity for particulate matter, especially carbon-
aceous matter, and dissolved PAHs can be removed from solution
by fly ash.
5. The leachate from fly ash contains very small amounts of PAHs.
6. PAHs adsorbed on to fly ash tend to be resistant to photodegrada-
tion, although it is possible that PAHs not exposed to light can still
undergo oxidation.
The concentration of effort on airborne emissions rather than water-
borne PAHs indicates the relative significance of each. When fly ash is
used as a fill, the amount that may become airborne is small, especially if
dust suppression is effective, and transient, occurring only during con-
struction. This means that this is not likely to be a major source of PAHs in
the air.
Fly ash, when used as a fill material (Fig. 2.4), will be well compacted
and therefore have a low permeability, typically 107 m/s. Furthermore, if
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

Fig. 2.4. Fly ash used as a fill material, A52, Derby, UK

used in road embankments it will be protected by topsoil/vegetation as

well as the construction of the road. Thus, water movement through the
fly ash will be slow to non-existent. Given the difficulty in extracting
PAHs from fly ash and their low permeability, the risk of their moving
from the fly ash fill is very small.
Furthermore, as discussed by Wild and Jones,18 when fly ash is used in a
road embankment the emission of PAHs from vehicles is likely to be a
greater threat than any leaching of PAHs from the fly ash.

Dioxins in fly ash

Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) are a family of chemicals

based on the tricyclic molecule benzo-p-dioxin, which has two benzene
rings linked by two oxygen atoms. PCDDs have some or all of the hydro-
gen on the benzene rings replaced by chlorine (up to the maximum of
eight chlorines). These are often associated with polychlorinated dibenzo-
furans (PCDF), which have only a single oxygen atom. Dioxins and furans
are considered to be toxic to humans, although furans less so than dioxins.
2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) is considered to be the most
toxic dioxin and therefore the most studied.
Dioxins are usually associated with the incomplete combustion of mate-
rial containing chlorine and as such are commonly associated with the ash
from municipal waste incineration, but can be found in small traces in
soils. The low chlorine content of coal combined with the high tempera-
tures found in the furnaces of power stations mean that dioxins are
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Fly ash and the environment

unlikely to form and only traces would be expected in the resulting ash.
Dioxins are ubiquitous and are present in a wide range of soils. Although
they can be persistent, they rapidly decay when exposed to light.
Work by the CEGB29 in the 1980s examined 18 fly ash samples from
a range of sources for dioxins from the tetrachlorinated to the octachlori-
nated. The findings were that the levels were very low, typically 25 pg/g,
with levels of 2,3,7,8-TCDD less than 2 pg/g in all but two samples.
The only exceptions were samples of fly ash from the low NOx burners at
one station (station A). It was thought that the low NOx burners might
have had some effect, although the same increase was not observed for
samples from other power stations fitted with similar burners. Although
the dioxin levels in the samples from low NOx burners at station A were
higher, 210 and 270 pg/g, they were still within the range found in soils in
the UK. Data from unpublished work cited an upper limit in soils of
290 pg/g.
A sample of cenospheres (‘floaters’) from one station was sent for analy-
sis in 1993. The analysis included the 17 most significant dioxins and
furans with the result quoted as a toxic equivalent (TEQ), relating the total
concentration of the 17 species to the concentration of 2,3,7,8-TCDD with
equivalent toxicity. This involves applying a weighting factor, the toxic
equivalent factor (TEF), to each dioxin or furan, the factor being consistent
with its perceived toxicity; the individual results for each species are
added together to obtain the TEQ. The highest factor (1) is for 2,3,7,8-
TCDD, the lowest is 0001 for OCDD and OCDF. The results are shown in
Table 2.5.
The TEQ is shown as 65 pg/g, which is slightly higher than found in soils
(10–40 pg/g) using this method of assessment. However, the density of the
floater particles is low compared with soil, with a density of 05 mg/m3
compared to 26 mg/m3. If the value is corrected to an equivalent density
then the value would be 125 pg/g, similar to the background level in soils
and in agreement with the earlier data.
Junk et al.26 looked at 2,3,7,8-TCDD at a detection limit of 10 ppt. No
TCDD was found in the effluents of any of the boilers at the two power
stations tested. Even when refuse-derived fuel was added no dioxins were
observed. This was explained by the high furnace temperature (1100°C)
and the excess oxygen used in combustion.

Dioxins in fly ash: summary

1. Various researchers have confirmed that no dioxins over 25 pg/g are
generally found in the ashes from power stations.
2. Although dioxins are present in fly ash, the levels are very low and
similar to the background levels found in typical soils. Thus, fly ash
is no more hazardous than soil.
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Table 2.5. Results of tests on cenospheres

Dioxin/furan Concentration TEF Typical background

level in soils (pg/g)

2,3,7,8-TCDF 30 01

Total TCDF 30 05–237
2,3,7,8-TCDD 20 1 05–21
Total TCDD 15 005–69
1,2,3,7,8-PCDF 50 005
2,3,4,7,8-PCDF 50 05
Total PCDF 35 05–185
1,2,3,7,8-PCDD 20 05 05–24
Total PCDD 10 05–165
1,2,3,4,7,8-HxCDF 10 01
1,2,3,6,7,8-HxCDF 20 01
1,2,3,7,8,9-HxCDF 10 01
2,3,4,6,7,8-HxCDF 70 01
Total HxCDF 35 43–212
1,2,3,4,7,8-HxCDD 40 01
1,2,3,6,7,8-HxCDD 50 01
1,2,3,7,8,9-HxCDD 60 01
Total HxCDD 350 28–165
1,2,3,4,6,7,8-HpCDF 110 001
1,2,3,4,7,8,9-HpCDF 20 001
Total HpCDF 175 15–138
1,2,3,4,6,7,8-HpCDF 1000 001
Total HpCDF 2000 75–234
OCDF 6000 0001 20–144
OCDD 25,000 0001 28–832
TEQ 65 10–40

TEF: toxic equivalence factor; TEQ: toxic equivalent.

Thresholds for leachates

Table 2.6 shows the Drinking Water Inspectorate thresholds for leachates,
PAHs and similar. These are provided for comparison with the various
trace compounds found in the sections above.
The leachate quality threshold is applied to leachates from materials in
contact with drinking water. The total concentrations data refer to the
maximum permitted within a sample of the material. However, normally
a dilution factor of 10 : 1 is allowed for leachates as being more representa-
tive of the true environmental risk. Barring the initial flush of elements,
these leachates would quickly reduce, for example for concrete in contact
with drinking water.
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Fly ash and the environment

Table 2.6. Drinking water threshold values used in the UK (derived from Guidance
Note ICRCL Note 59/83)

Leachate quality Total concentrations

threshold (g/l) (mg/kg air-dried sample)

Lower threshold Upper threshold

concentration concentration

pH 55–95 6–8 5–9

Toluene extract – 5000 (subject 10,000 (subject
to special waste) to special waste)
Cyclohexane extract – 2000 (subject 5000 (subject
to special waste) to special waste)
Conductivity 1000 S/cm – –
Chemical oxygen 30 mg/l – –
demand (COD)
Ammonia 05 mg/l – –
Arsenic 10 g/l 10 mg/kg 40 mg/kg
Cadmium 1 g/l 3 mg/kg 15 mg/kg
Chromium (total) 50 g/l 600 mg/kg 1000 mg/kg
Lead (total) 50 g/l 500 mg/kg 2000 mg/kg
Mercury 1 g/l 1 mg/kg 20 mg/kg
Selenium 10 g/l 3 mg/kg 6 mg/kg
Boron 2000 g/l 3 mg/kg –
Copper 20 g/l 130 mg/kg –
Nickel 50 g/l 70 mg/kg –
Zinc 500 g/l 300 mg/kg –
Cyanide (complex) – 250 mg/kg 250 mg/kg
Cyanide (free) 50 g/l 25 mg/kg 25 mg/kg
Sulfate (SO4) 150 mg/l 2000 mg/kg 2000 mg/kg
Sulfide 150 mg/l 250 mg/kg 250 mg/kg
Sulfur (free) 150 mg/l 5000 mg/kg 5000 mg/kg
Phenol 05 g/l 5 mg/kg 5 mg/kg
Iron 100 g/l – –
Chloride 200 mg/l – –
Polycyclic aromatic 02 g/l 50 mg/kg 1000 mg/kg
hydrocarbons (PAH)

Within the UK, permission to use a material is given by the Environ-

mental Agency and/or Drinking Water Inspectorate on a contract-by-
contract basis. Often an environmental risk analysis will be carried out.
This implies that for each job a complete reanalysis of the leachates would
be required. In practice, acceptance of concrete comprising of cement,
fly ash, GGBS, natural aggregates and some admixtures has been accepted
as being usable when in contact with drinking water.
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

Environmental impacts of using fly ash in applications

Fly ash has been successfully used in many applications for many years
and there has always been a need to consider its environmental impact.
The increasing awareness of environmental issues in recent years has had
an impact on sales. With the UK requirement to assess its use on a site-by-
site basis, followed by a risk assessment to be carried out, the time taken to
obtain approval for the use of fly ash can exceed the time scales imposed
by site operations. There has therefore been a need for an alternative
approach to the problem. At the time of writing an ‘Environmental Code
of Practice’30 has been proposed and put forward to the UK Environment
Agency as one solution to this problem.
The primary need to protect the environment is one using a common-
sense approach. The following practical considerations must be made
when using fly ash.

Recovery of fly ash from stockpiles and lagoons

The recovery process involves exposing an area of stockpile, which is then
excavated and loaded into wagons. There is clear potential for dust blow
from the exposed face as well as in the handling process. In addition, the
removal of some material on the wheels and bodies of the lorries, which
may be deposited on the roads, can be a problem. Items such as spillage of
diesel and tramp materials need to be considered at the design stage for the
fly ash stockpile, but this is not considered within the code of practice for fill.
Similar considerations apply to lagoons as to stockpiles (Fig. 2.5). There
may be a greater tendency for the wetter material to adhere to vehicles.

Fig. 2.5. A restored fly ash lagoon

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Fly ash and the environment

Conditioned fly ash

It is essential that mixers that are used to condition the material, i.e. moist-
en the fly ash, are designed in such a way to prevent fugitive dust from
being emitted from them. Consideration needs to be given to methods of
cleaning mixers and disposal of the waste, as well the material deposited
on the ground around the loading point.

Dry fly ash

Dry fly ash should be treated in the same way as cement. Sealed silos fit-
ted with filtration units to prevent dust release are required. To maintain
fluidity of the material dry aeration is needed. For silos where the material
may be stored for some period of time, some form of agitation may be
needed to prevent the fly ash from forming a dense mass at the periph-
eries of the silo. Such devices may consist of air cannons or mechanical
stirring systems.
For all the above categories of fly ash, should a vehicle be overloaded, a
properly managed procedure for tipping off any excess material is required.

Transport
For moistened fly ash, problems are often associated with dust blow from
unprotected wagons and deposition of materials on public roads from the
body of the wagon. In order to prevent dust blow during transport all
vehicle loads should be sheeted. For dry fly ash, sealed containers such as
cement tankers are required. However, surface treatments that stabilise
dusty material exist that are suitable for fly ash in some circumstances.

Design of fill structures

Account must be taken of the environmental impact of the construction in
the design process for structures using fly ash as a fill material. This will
involve ensuring that there is an adequate drainage layer to prevent capil-
lary rise and saturation of the fly ash. In addition, the profile of the fly ash
should be such to allow efficient run off rainwater both during and after the
construction period. Long-term protection of any side slopes, such as top
soiling, is required to prevent build-up of run-off and subsequent potential
environmental problems. Suitable methods for encouraging the growth of
plants and trees or physical barriers must be designed into the structure.

Laying and compaction of fill

The primary consideration when placing fly ash is one of minimising dust
blow by ensuring that fly ash as delivered and after compaction is kept

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Properties and use of coal fly ash

sufficiently moist to prevent dust being created. Windy conditions result

in the greatest risk of the fly ash being dried out. Therefore, water-spraying
equipment is needed to remoisten the surface. Fly ash that has been acci-
dentally overmoistened can be allowed to dry out by breaking up the
surface to encourage evaporation. After a suitable period, the fly ash may
be reused when the optimum moisture content is achieved.
If material is stockpiled on-site, it should be deposited in such a way
as to prevent accidental contamination of adjacent watercourses. Vehicles
leaving the site need to be in a clean condition and provision of wheel
washers or similar may be required.

Leaching from cementitious systems

Other than fill applications, fly ash is used in a variety of cementitious sys-
tems, e.g. concrete, grouts and sprayed concrete. Cementitious systems are
generally excellent at reducing leachates from their constituent components.
As fly ash is a pozzolanic material and reacts with the alkalis from Portland
cement, the resulting hydration structure becomes very impermeable (see
Chapter 3). The low permeability prevents trace elements from the fly ash,
the Portland cement and any other constituents from being easily leached.
The CEN report31 on leaching methods from concrete incorporated a num-
ber of fly ash concretes. This concluded that ‘concrete with bituminous
coal fly ash does not show significant leaching of trace elements shown by
the fact that for most elements the contents in the leachate were below the
detection limit’. Work carried out for the UK Drinking Water Inspectorate32
also concluded that concrete, including that using fly ash, presented no sig-
nificant risk for use in contact with drinking water. Exceptions were for
concretes that included some types of corrosion-inhibiting admixture.

Agricultural applications
When fly ash is used for fill applications or on disposal sites the normal
recommendation is to cover the surface with soil. Woolley et al.33 reviewed
the environmental aspects of fly ash in some detail. Fly ash contains no
organic matter or clay minerals to hold nutrients and when fresh is sterile.
It is deficient in nitrogen, and although phosphorus levels appear signifi-
cant, the high levels of aluminium oxides and the high pH prevent
phosphorus uptake. However, potash and sulfur are plentiful.
Soluble boron within fly ash that has not been lagooned causes some
toxicity problems. Boron content, when extracted using boiling water,
ranges from 5 to 200 mg/kg depending on coal type and source. In com-
parison, the normal range for UK soils is 04–31 mg/kg. Approximately half
of the total boron is available. However, because of the natural presence of
boron in some soils and irrigation waters, crops have been categorised into
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Fly ash and the environment

Fig. 2.6. Tree growth on a fly ash fill embankment after 35 years

boron-tolerant and -intolerant species. Tolerant species include perennial

rye grass, clovers, mustard, carrot, sugar beet, beetroot and spinach. Sweet
clover is the most suitable first crop on fly ash owing to its relatively high
uptake of boron. Subsequent weathering also reduces the boron available
to plants.
Molybdenum has been identified as a potential problem for ruminant
animals, e.g. cattle and sheep. A high molybdenum intake interferes with
the animals’ copper uptake, which could lead to growth problems and a
syndrome called ‘teart’. Natural soils can have similarly high molybdenum
levels. However, by increasing the copper intake for such ruminants these
problems can easily be overcome.
Exposed, untreated fly ash stockpiles will establish mosses, followed by
grasses, eventually willow and birch trees over a 30-year period (Fig. 2.6).
Orchids particularly like fly ash as a growing medium because of the low
fertility due to a lack of nitrogen and phosphorus.

Summary of environmental impacts

It has been established that the leachate is small and consists mainly of
calcium sulfate. Only very small amounts of other elements are available
to leach, the most significant being boron because of its potential problems
for plant growth. However, these problems can be overcome by the appro-
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

priate selection of plants. Furthermore, there is little significant difference

in leachate quality between all UK fly ashes, and these are well established.
Lagoon fly ash will have lower leaching potential, the leachates being
removed during the lagooning process. Therefore, only limited testing is
required to demonstrate consistency of the leachate, although if there is
any major change in fuel burnt then there will be a need to demonstrate
that there is no effect on leachate quality.
The typical construction of a fly ash embankment is to place a drainage
layer beneath the fly ash to prevent capillary rise, to protect the side slopes
with topsoil and/or vegetation and to build the road on top. In such situa-
tions the fly ash is effectively isolated from the surrounding environment
and therefore does not present a risk with regard to pollution. The major
risk of water ingress would be from cracked surfacing, but this would be
for a limited period and the effect would be small owing to the imperme-
ability of the fly ash. Thus, if such structures are to be built there is no need
for a major impact assessment other than establishing that the fuel burn,
and therefore leachate potential of the fly ash, is consistent, and providing
a method statement for handling the material on site. The method state-
ment should cover measures to prevent accidental discharge into water-
courses and prevent dust blow.
In other types of fill structure, where the fly ash cannot be protected to
the same extent, an environmental impact assessment may be required.
This should take into account the low permeability of the fly ash. There is
again no need for significant amounts of testing provided the producer
can demonstrate the consistency of the leachate potential.
If monitoring of the fly ash is required for any reason then the nature of
the monitoring needs to be established. Both conductivity and pH meas-
urement can be readily measured.

• There are few, if any, problems with leachates, e.g. small amounts
and low permeability.
• All UK fly ash sources appear similar.
• There are no known problems of leachates causing environmental
problems, in over 40 years of usage.
Therefore, the following procedures are recommended:

• Leachates should be monitored annually at the point of supply using

an approved method from each source to ensure consistency of
material.
• No further testing should be required unless there is a major change
in fuel type.
• If fly ash is to be used within an environmentally sensitive area then
conductivity and pH monitoring can be carried out at the rate agreed
between the customer and the supplier.

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Fly ash and the environment

Radioactivity

Radiation from fly ash results from the concentration of natural minerals
within the coal, e.g. the carbon fraction is removed when fired. The nat-ural
radioactivity of both the coal and the ash results mainly from the radio-
nuclides from the decay series of uranium and thorium, as well as potassium-
40. There is no significant increase in the radioactive composition as nothing
is added or no process used that could cause such an increase. Potassium-40
decays into calcium-40 or argon-40, both of which are stable nuclides that will
not decay further. From coal ash the K40 content of potassium is only 0012%
and from the radiation viewpoint K40 has little significance.
In 1986 the CEGB commissioned a comprehensive study of the emis-
sions from UK fly ashes, as reported by Green.34 The project included fly
ash, building materials made using fly ash and field studies of radiation
from buildings and ash disposal sites. Table 2.7 summarises the data from
this work.

Table 2.7. Summary of estimates of annual effective dose equivalents from fly ash
(Green34)

Situation Annual effective dose equivalent

Normal ground Fly ash disposal site with

500 mm of soil cover

From  From Rn Total From  From Rn Total

Indoors
All-brick dwelling 740 260 1000 750 360 1110
Heavy block dwelling 700 290 990 710 400 1110
Light block dwelling 530 340 870 540 440 980
Outdoors
Workers such as farm 56 57 110 70 60 130
or disposal site
labourer (2000 h p.a.) 14 7 21 18 8 26
Members of the
public (500 h p.a.)
Inhalation of 11
resuspended dust
(8760 h p.a.)

Values are rounded to two significant figures.

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Properties and use of coal fly ash

Green concluded that

• the incorporation of fly ash in building materials results in increased

radiation exposure compared with the use of traditional clay bricks
• aerated concrete blocks reduced the annual collective dose by
about 2%
• there was no significant radiological hazard to workers or members
of the public from restored or working ash disposal sites
• there was a potential risk of increased radon exposure from buildings
built from ash disposal sites. This risk could be removed by simple
preventive measures at the design stage.
More recently, the UNIPEDE produced an expert group report35 that
reviewed the various features of fly ash, including the radiological proper-
ties. Their summary of the radioactivity from fly ashes around Europe is
shown in Table 2.8.
UNIPEDE refers to the World Energy Conference Report, which sug-
gests an average specific activity concentration of 200 Bq/kg. It is clear from
Table 2.8 that some countries, especially those in Eastern Europe, may have
difficulties with such limits. However, UK fly ashes are the lowest reported.
Puch et al.36 reviewed the radioactivity of fly ash from German power
stations. As in the UK, they conclude that there is only an insignificant
increase in the exposure of workers, the public or within buildings result-
ing from the use of fly ash. Similarly, a European Commission report37 con-
cluded that most building materials, including those containing fly ash,

Table 2.8. Radioactivity in fly ash (Bq/kg) (UNIPEDE35)

Reports from Fly ash from U-Series Th-Series

Min. Max. Average Min. Max. Average

Germany Germany 93 137 119 96 155 121

UK 72 105 89 3 94 68
Australia 7 160 90 7 290 150
Poland 350 150
Italy Italy 130 210 170 100 190 140
Denmark Denmark 120 210 160 66 190 120
Sweden Sweden 150 200 150 200
Belgium Belgium 112 316 181 88 277 150
Spain Spain 80 106 91 77 104 89
Germany 189 118
Czech Czech 35 190 129 62 142 90
Republic Republic

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Fly ash and the environment

Fig. 2.7. Aerated concrete blocks made from 90% fly ash

would not present a significant risk, with the exception of natural building
stone, which may represent a risk in certain circumstances.
In conclusion, radiation from coal fly ash would not normally present
any significant risk to workers or the public from the coals in use in the UK
and most of Europe (Fig. 2.7). However, some coals from Eastern Europe
have a level of natural radiation that could give cause for concern in some
fly ash-intensive applications.
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

UK health and safety requirements

Fly ash and FBA, in general, are not considered hazardous to health but
should be handled in accordance with good occupational hygiene and
safety practices. Assessment of possible exposure to constituents of the
ash particles such as arsenic and chromium indicates that the content of
any particular compound is so low that health effects due to exposure to
the dust nuisance will occur long before any specific toxicity limit is
reached. The total exposure to harmful compounds is unlikely to exceed
natural background levels received from other dust sources in the envi-
ronment, such as soil. The following information is that required in
the UK for the Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH)
Regulations 1994.

Exposure to dust
Extensive testing38 has shown that fly ash and FBA are non-toxic and envir-
onmentally benign. Fly ash and FBA have not been assigned specific
occupational exposure limits within the UK, but exposure to airborne dust
may cause irritation to the eyes and the respiratory system. Within the UK,
the personal exposure limits require the user to keep dust to the minimum
that is reasonably practical. The COSHH Regulations 1994 require that air-
borne dust should not exceed 10 mg/m3 in an 8 h time-weighted average
(TWA) total inhalable dust. Respirable dust exposure should not exceed
5 mg/m3 in an 8 h TWA. Monitor as for airborne inhalable dust, by gravi-
metric determination.

Contact with the skin

Current information suggests that there is no epidemiological evidence of
a significant health risk associated with fly ash and FBA. When damp fly
ash and FBA are moderately alkaline, prolonged skin contact with these
materials may result in abrasion and irritation.

Handling precautions
Avoid creating airborne dust wherever possible. Where dust is generated
then engineering control measures should be considered (water sprays) to
keep the airborne dust concentration as low as is reasonably practical.
Avoid prolonged skin contact, especially where the product is damp-
ened. Wear protective clothing, e.g. goggles, gloves, overalls and boots.
Change heavily contaminated clothing as soon as possible; launder before
re-use. Good housekeeping practices as well as high standards of personal
hygiene should be maintained.
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Fly ash and the environment

The use of respiratory equipment must be strictly in accordance with

the manufacturer’s recommendations and any statutory requirements
governing its selection and use.

Fire and explosion information

There are no risks of fire or explosion as the by-products identified are
non-combustible.

First-aid treatment
The following are the current UK recommendations:

• Skin: Wash contaminated areas of the body with soap and water as
soon as is reasonably practical.
• Eyes: If the substance has entered the eyes then irrigate with emer-
gency eye wash solution (if available) or clean water for up to 15 min.
Obtain medical advice if any pain or redness persists.
• Inhalation: If inhalation of the dust causes irritation of the nose or
coughing remove the patient into fresh air. Keep warm and at rest.
Carefully remove any excess dust from nasal passages and rinse
mouth with water until clear. If symptoms persist obtain medical
advice.
• Ingestion: There are no known adverse affects. Wash mouth out with
water and give water to drink. Do not induce vomiting.

In all cases, should exposure be excessive or symptoms develop seek med-

ical attention.
Fly ash and FBA are composed of inorganic material with a small pro-
portion of carbon particulate resulting from the incomplete combustion
of the parent fuel, coal (Table 2.9). FBA is extracted from the combustion
chamber by a hydraulic process. Fly ash is extracted from the flue gases
discharged from the combustion processes by electrostatic and mechanical
extraction techniques.

Handling and storage

The following are the UK practice and precautions that should be taken
when handling or storing fly ash and FBA:

• In dry form: Keep in containers or silos or in sealed bags.

• In conditioned, lagoon or with added water forms: When stored in stock-
piles keep exposed surfaces damp and cover small stockpiles with
protective sheeting.

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Properties and use of coal fly ash

• Transporting in dry form: Transport in sealed tankers or similar

units.
• Transporting conditioned or lagoon or with added water forms: In open
vehicles with exposed surfaces protected with sheeting.
• Classification and transport: Fly ash and FBA are not classified as
dangerous under the Classification Packaging and Labelling of dan-
gerous Substances Regulations (Table 2.10). They are not classified
dangerous for road, rail, sea or air transport.

Table 2.9. Health and safety properties of fly ash and furnace bottom
ash (FBA)

Property Range of values for UK

fly ash and FBA

Particle density (specific gravity) 18–24

Solubility in water 3%
Bulk density 12–17 g/cm3
Alkalinity (pH) 9–12 when damp
Boiling point/boiling range N/A
Melting point/melting range N/A
Flash point N/A
Flammability and autoflammability N/A
Oxidising properties N/A
Vapour pressure N/A

Table 2.10. Chemical constituents of fly ash and

furnace bottom ash

Component Average % by weight

SiO2 45–51
Al2O3 27–32
Fe2O3 7–11
CaO 1–5
MgO 1–4
K2 O 1–5
Na2O 08–17
TiO2 08–11
SO3* 03–13
Cl 005–015

*Water soluble.
The figures for SiO2 refer not to free silica but to silicon
present as silicates of varying compositions.

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Fly ash and the environment

Accidental release measures

Prevent entry into drains and watercourses. Large spills of dry material
should be removed by a vacuum system. Conditioned (dampened) mate-
rial should be removed by mechanical means where possible and be recy-
cled or disposed of in a licensed site.
Applying a fine water spray can reduce the potential for dust blow.

Mobility, persistence and degradability, bioaccumulation potential

and aquatic toxicity
Fly ash/FBA has no known ecotoxic effects in the existing patterns of
production, handling, storage and use.

Disposal
Fly ash and FBA are classed as ‘Controlled Wastes’ in the UK and have no
special requirements for their disposal at appropriately licensed facilities.
They are included in the European Waste Catalogue (Code No. 10 01 02)
but are not hazardous materials as determined by EC Hazardous Waste
List (Directive 94/904/EC). They are also ‘Green List’ materials for trans-
frontier shipment. The CAS number is 68131-74-8. The ACX number is
X1014150-5.

Summary of properties of fly ash

UK fly ash is a fine, silt-like material with surprisingly consistent chemical

and physical properties. It has the potential for use in many applications
with beneficial results. It can be used for many different applications, e.g.
as a fill material, as a fine aggregate for grouts, and in concrete as both an
aggregate and a cementitious component. In environmentally sensitive
areas simple, common-sense precautions are required to prevent any risk
of contamination, e.g. boron-tolerant planting or protection of fill.

References
1. Parrott L. Environmental report for the UK concrete industry 1994 to 1998.
CIA/DETR project – Defining and improving environmental performance in the
concrete industry. British Cement Association, Crowthorne, January 2000.
2. Parrott L. Effects of ground granulated blastfurnace slag and pulverised-
fuel ash upon the environmental impacts of concrete. CIA/DETR project –
Defining and improving environmental performance in the concrete industry.
British Cement Association, Crowthorne, January 2000.
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

3. Meij R, Schaftenaar H. Hydrology and chemistry of pulverised fuel ash in a

lysimeter – the translation of the results of the Dutch column leaching test into
field conditions. Kema, Arnhem, 1994.
Fruchter JS, Rai D, Zachara JM. Identification of solubility-controlling
solid phases in a large fly ash field lysimeter. 1990; 1173–1179.
4. Brown J, Ray NJ, Ball M. The disposal of pulverised fuel ash in water sup-
ply catchment areas. Water Research 1976; 10: 1115–1121.
5. Morley Davies W, Gillham EWF, Simpson DT. An investigation into farm-
ing on land restored with fly ash. Journal of the British Grassland Society
1971; 26: 25–30.
6. Brown J, Ray NJ. The handling and disposal of coal ash in the CEGB in
relation to the aqueous environment. Water Science and Technology 1983;
15: 11–24.
7. Mattigod SV, Eary LE, Dhanpat R. Geochemical factors controlling the
mobilisation of inorganic constituents from fossil fuel combustion
residues 1, review of major elements. Journal of Environmental Quality
1990; 19: 188–201.
8. Eary LE, Rai D, Mattigod SV et al. Geotechnical factors controlling the
mobilisation of inorganic constituents from fossil fuel combustion
residues: Part II – Review of minor elements. Journal of Environmental
Quality 1990; 19: 202–214.
9. Gillham EWF. Trace elements in soils and ashes – a comparative view, Vols 1
and 2. CEGB, London, 1980.
10. Commission of the European Committees. Leaching and soil/groundwater
transport of contaminates from coal combustion residues. Report EVR
14054EN, 1992.
11. Various European standards are under preparation by TC292 –
Characterisation of waste, e.g. the prEN12457 series.
12. Proposed European standard. Characterisation of waste – Compliance leach-
ing test for monolithic material, 2004.
13. Ray NJ, Ball M. The percolation of water through pulverised fuel ash.
CEGB Internal Document, London, 1972.
Ray NJ, Ball M. Percolation of water through pulverised fuel ash: Part 3 –
Experiments under natural weathering conditions. CEGB Internal
Document, London, 1972.
Ray NJ, Ball M. Contributions of fly ash lagoon effluents to the chemical
constitution of the River Trent. CEGB Internal Document, London,
1973.
14. DIN 38414 Part 4. German standard methods for the examination of water, waste
water and sludge. Sludge and sediments (group S). Determination of leachability
by water.
15. Scott PE, Baldwin G, Sopp C et al. Leaching trials on materials proposed
as infill for Combe Down stone mines. AEA Technology Report AEA/CS/
18303036/019, 1994.
16. Young PJ, Wilson DC. Testing of hazardous waste to assess their suitability for
landfill disposal. AERE Report R10737, 1987.
17. Baldwin G, Addis R, Clark J, Rosevear A. Use of industrial by-products in
road construction – water quality effects. CIRIA Report 167, 1997.
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Fly ash and the environment

18. Wild SR, Jones JC. Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons in the United
Kingdom environment: a preliminary source inventory and budget.
Environmental Pollution 1995; 88: 91–108.
19. Sharkey AG, Schultz JL, White C, Lett R. Analysis of polycyclic organic mater-
ial in coal, coal ash, fly ash and emission samples. Report No. EPA-600/2-
76-075. United States Environmental Protection Agency, 1976.
20. Wright RD. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon compounds in pulverised fuel ash
from CEGB power stations. Report No. TPRD/L/2924/N85. CEGB, London,
1986.
21. Zenon Environmental Inc. Characterisation of organic contaminants in
ash samples from pulverised coal-fired power generating stations.
Environment Canada 1987.
22. National Rivers Authority. Protocol for a leaching test to assess the leaching
potential for soils from contaminated sites. NRA R&D Note 181. NRA, DETR,
London.
23. Janssen F, Kanij J. The trace analysis of polycyclic aromatic hydro-
carbons (PAH) adsorbed on coal fly ash. Mikrochimica Acta (Wien) 1984; 1:
481–486.
24. Natusch DFS. Formation and transformation of polycyclic organic matter from
coal combustion. Progress Report, Colorado State University, 1979.
25. Harrison FL, Bishop DJ, Mallon BJ. The kinds and quantities of organic
combustion products in solid and liquid wastes from a coal-fired power station.
Lawrence Livermore Laboratory, 1983.
26. Junk GA, Richard JJ, Avery MJ. Organic compounds in effluents related to coal
combustion. Pre-prints of papers. American Chemical Society, Division of
Fuel Chemistry, 1985; 30(2): 171–178 ACS.
27. Mamantov G, Wehry EL. Chemical interactions of polycyclic organic com-
pounds with coal fly ash and related solid surfaces. Report No. DOE/ER/
60552–2. US Department of Energy, Washington, DC, 1989.
28. Mamantov G, Wehry EL. Sorption and chemical transformation of PAHs
on coal fly ash. Report No. DOE/PC/19306-14. US Department of Energy,
Washington, DC, 1995.
29. Freedman AN. The analysis of power station fly ash for the presence of poly-
chlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins. CEGB, London, 1988.
30. See UKQAA website on www.UKQAA.org.uk for information about the
proposed code of practice.
31. European Commission. Development of a leaching method for the determin-
ation of the environmental quality of concrete. EUR 17869 EN, 1997. ISSN
1018–5593.
32. Lloyd T, Wilson I, Concrete in contact with drinking water. Society of
Chemical Industries seminar, 25th May 2001, London, UK.
33. Woolley GR, Simpson DT, Quick W, Graham J. Ashes to assets. PowerGen
UK plc, 2000. ISBN 0-9516457-06.
34. Green BMR. Radiological significance of the utilisation and disposal of coal ash
from power stations. CEGB, National Radiological Protection Board,
January 1986.
35. UNIPEDE. Coal Ash Reference Report. Thermal Generation Study
Committee Report, 20.05 THERRES, 1997.
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

36. Pugh KH, Keller G, vom Berg W. Radioactivity of combustion residues from
coal fired power stations. VGB Technical Association of Large Power Plant
Operators, Essen, 1996.
37. European Commission. Radiological protection principles concerning the
natural radioactivity of building materials. Radiation Protection 112,
Directorate-General, Environment, Nuclear Safety and Civil Protection,
1999.
38. Meldrum M, Maidment S, Gillies C. Pulverised fuel ash: criteria document
for an occupational exposure limit, HSE document EH 65/2.

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Chapter 3

Using fly ash in concrete

The history of concrete and the use of pozzolanic materials

from Roman times to date
Fly ash is a pozzolana, that is a material that reacts with lime to form a
hardened mass. By mixing a red volcanic powder, found at Pozzuoli near
Naples, with lime the Romans discovered in 75 BC that a form of concrete
could be created.1 The word concrete comes from the Latin concretus which
means grown together or compounded. Similarly, Rivero-Villarreal and
Cabrera2 reported on the properties of a lightweight concrete developed
around the same time in the ancient culture of Totonacas near the modern
city of Veracruz, Mexico. Pozzolanic cements were first used at Pompeii in
55 BC. For many years, these concretes were only used as an infill material
between walls. Gradually, concrete replaced the brick and stone as in the
arches of the Colosseum and the Pantheon, constructed in AD 115. The
dome of the Pantheon is an example of pozzolanic lightweight concrete,
which is over 50 m in diameter and made with a lightweight aggregate
(pumice), with an air-entraining agent (animal blood) and a pozzolanic
material (volcanic ash) (Fig. 3.1).
With the decline of the Roman Empire concrete disappeared until
Norman times. One of the first Norman structures was Reading Abbey,
built in AD 1121. Concrete was not used other than for foundations until
John Smeaton began experimenting in 1756. He used Aberthaw Blue Lias
and a pozzolana from Civitavecchia, near Rome, to build the Eddystone
lighthouse. This was later moved to Plymouth Hoe where it still stands
today. In 1824, Joseph Aspdin obtained his patent for ‘Portland cement’.
Owing to the more rapid gain in strengths of Portland cement, pozzolanic
or ‘Roman cements’ fell out of use. However, one of the hydration by-
products of Portland cement is lime. If pozzolanic materials are combined
with Portland cement the lime produced from cement hydration reacts
with the pozzolana. It is this reaction that led to the usage of fly ash within
concrete in later years.
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

Fig. 3.1. The Pantheon in Rome

The first reference to the idea of using coal fly ash within modern-day
concrete was by McMillan and Powers3 in 1934 and research in the USA4
indicated that fly ash had a role in concrete in 1935. Later research, also in
the USA,5 reported that fly ash was a possible artificial pozzolana. Trial
applications and continuing research promoted the idea that introduction
of a proportion of fly ash as replacement of cement would limit shrinkage
cracking in mass concrete by reducing internal hydration temperatures.
The introduction of modern steam raising plant in the UK, particularly
after World War II, gave access to fly ash and the late 1940s saw research
into the use of the material. In particular, the example of using fly ash in
mass concrete dams was considered and, following research at the
University of Glasgow,6 the practice was adopted for construction of the
Lednock,7 Clatworthy and Lubreoch dams. These dams formed part of the
Scottish Hydro-Electric Board’s Breadalbane scheme. Lednock involved
some 82 ,000 cubic yards (62,500 m3) of concrete, saving some 3000 tonnes
of Portland cement. The control criteria were somewhat crude, using the
colour and the gritty feel of the ash. It was found that the variability of
the fly ash both in fineness and in carbon content was problematical. The
power station supplying the ash used some 20 differing coal sources dur-
ing the period of construction and carbon content was not monitored or
controlled in any manner. However, the subsequent durability of the struc-
ture has been excellent.
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Using fly ash in concrete

There followed, in the period 1954–1958, examples of the use of fly ash
as cement replacement in structural concrete at the Fleet Telephone
Exchange, Newman Spinney Power Station8 and the High Marnham sub-
station.9 By the mid 1970s fly ash was regularly being used in concrete as
an addition at the concrete plant within many power company structures
and some notable public works10 being constructed. Such usage was
always on a basis of close monitoring by the site and within large con-
struction projects. In the UK, fly ash from coal combustion became known
as pulverised fuel ash (PFA, or fly ash) around this time to differentiate it
from ashes derived from other processes.
Although the use of fly ash or PFA in concrete was accepted by British
Standards it was not until 1965, when the first edition of BS 3892,11 was
published that there was a standard for the PFA for use in concrete. PFA
was treated as a fine aggregate with three classes of fineness based on
the specific surface area. During this period acceptance in the routine
readymixed concrete supply market was not being achieved. During the
1970s readymixed concrete suppliers were producing ever more technic-
ally demanding concretes of higher strength and lower water/cement
(W/C) ratios. It was perceived that the variability in quality and the supply
problems of fly ash when taken directly from the power station were
unacceptable.
Precast concrete manufacturers are somewhat more tolerant to some
variability as they have control of the whole process, being able to control
the curing methods and time before dispatching the finished concrete
element. In addition, they tend to have close working relationships, and
have developed individual specifications, with the power stations. As
a final resort they can adjust their process to compensate for any fly ash
variability.
Variability in the fly ash fineness, with all other factors being constant,
leads to variation in the water content and strengths of the resulting con-
crete for a given ash source. Variations in loss on ignition (LOI) lead to
colour variations and difficulties when trying to entrain air for frost-resistant
concrete. The variability stems from the limitations of the power produc-
tion process. Power can only be produced when it is needed, as electricity
storage on any scale is highly complex. Therefore, many coal-fired power
stations only operate when there is a high demand. Furnaces are started
and stopped, which leads to a variable quality of fly ash. In the summer
months electricity consumption reduces and only the ‘base load’ power
stations are able to provide fly ash of consistent fineness and LOI.
In the UK one solution was found to many of the fineness variability
problems when in 1975 Pozzolan Ltd introduced the concept of supplying
controlled fineness material. Controlling the fly ash/PFA to a tightly con-
trolled fineness involved either classifying the ash, to remove the coarse
fractions, or selection of the finer material by continual monitoring of the
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

ash production. In general, classification enhances the pozzolanicity

whilst reducing the water demand. An Agrément Board Certificate12 was
obtained for classified fly ash, or PFA, in 1975. These changes were
reflected within BS 389213 in 1982 with the various parts of the standard
indicating the uses and quality of PFA. Classified PFA to BS 3892 Part 1 was
accepted as counting fully towards the cement content of a mix, whereas
‘run of station’ ashes were at the discretion of the site engineer. The latter
were usually considered as inert fillers and are covered by BS 3892: Part 2,
1984.
In 1985 two British Standards were published for cements containing
PFA:

• BS 6588 for Portland PFA cements permitted an ash level between

15% and 35% by mass of cement
• BS 6610 for pozzolanic PFA cement permitted an ash level of 35%
and 50% by mass of cement.

Before 1985, interground Portland fly ash cement had been produced by
Blue Circle in the North of England, under an Agrément Certificate.
Classified PFA was increasingly accepted for use within concrete on
both technical and economic grounds. Currently, the use of classified PFA
is widespread within the UK readymixed and precast concrete industries.
Some 25% of the readymixed concrete produced in the UK contains a
binder that consists of, typically, 30% PFA and 70% Portland cement.
Currently, some 500,000 tonnes per annum of classified PFA is used in
readymixed and precast concrete. With European harmonisation, a new
standard for fly ash, BS EN 45014 1995, was introduced. With the exception
of the UK and Ireland, no other European countries routinely classify fly
ash for use in concrete. EN 450 reflects this differing approach and allows
a wider range of fineness for use in concrete than BS 3892 Part 1.15 The
enabling standard for EN 450 fly ash, EN 206,16 has taken a number of
years to finalise and consequently the use of EN 450 fly ash is restricted.
Within EN 206 the primary method of use only allows EN 450 fly ash to be
partially counted towards the cement content of the mix using the ‘k’
value approach developed by Smith.17 A maximum of 25% of the combin-
ation can be counted as cement within EN 206. An alternative route per-
mitted within EN 206 is the equivalent concrete performance concept
where it is required to show equal performance with a reference concrete.
One approach by Dhir et al.18 proposes the use of equal strength class con-
crete to give equal durability. Changes to either binder content, water con-
tent or both are proposed as ways of achieving equivalence. This method
accepts the better performance of finer fly ash. In order to allow UK prac-
tice to continue, classified PFA to BS 3892 Part 1 will remain permitted
under BS 850019 for the foreseeable future.
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Using fly ash in concrete

British and European standards for fly ash in concrete

Additions of fly ash during concrete manufacture

An addition is defined in BS EN 206 as a finely divided inorganic material
used in concrete to improve certain properties or to achieve special prop-
erties. There are two types of addition:

• type I: these are nearly inert additions

• type II: these are pozzolanic or latent hydraulic additions
Many additions of both types are available:

• PFA/fly ash (BS 3892 and BS EN 450): type II

• ground granulated blastfurnace slag (GGBS): type II
• filler aggregates (prEN 1262020): type I
• pigments for building materials (BS EN 1287821): type I
• metakaolin and silica fume (prEN 1326322): type II.

These may be used singly or in combination. Combinations of PFA to BS

3892: Part 1, with Portland cement to BS 12 (or BS EN 197-123 CEM I), count
fully towards the cement content and W/C ratio in concrete provided that
they have satisfied the equivalence testing procedures set out in the annex
to BS 3892 (also as an annex within BS 850024).

BS 3892 Parts 1, 2 and 3

BS 3892 Part 115 covers PFA for use in concrete. This is a type II addition
and counts fully towards the cement content of the mix. The standard
imposes stringent quality-control requirements on the supplier and the fly
ash must be obtained from the flue gases of power stations burning bitu-
minous or hard coal. The PFA must be processed to meet specific require-
ments on fineness, LOI, strength factor and water demand. Strength factor
is the ratio of strength of a 30% fly ash mix to a Portland cement-only mix.
The mixes are mortars compacted into prisms produced to the require-
ments of BS EN 196-1,25 except that the water content of the fly ash mix is
adjusted such that it has the same flow as the control, which is a plain
CEM I-only mortar.
BS 3892 Part 226 covers type I addition of PFA to concrete. These PFAs
are not processed and fineness and LOI limits are considerably less restrict-
ive than BS 3892 Part 1 and encompass all fly ash produced. There are no
limits on water requirement. However, as a type I addition such PFA can-
not be counted towards the cement content and is considered to be an
inert filler.
BS 3892 Part 327 covers PFA for use in cementitious grouts (see Chapter 6).
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

BS EN 450
BS EN 45028 covers fly ash produced from the burning of hard coal in
power stations, but has differing requirements from BS 3892 Part 1 PFA for
fineness and LOI. It introduces the concept of the activity index (AI). The
AI is the ratio of strengths of mortar prisms for a 25% fly ash plus CEM I
mortar mixture against a CEM I only mortar at fixed W/C ratio. Testing is
carried out to the requirements of BS EN 196-1. Minimum values for AI are
required at 28 and 90 days. The major difference from BS 3892 strength
factor requirements is that the mortar is prepared at a fixed W/C ratio. Any
water-reducing properties of the fly ash are effectively ignored.
BS EN 450 is based around the supplier providing a fly ash which does
not need processing but does require the supplier to demonstrate consist-
ency. Processing is allowed if the supplier wishes to improve the proper-
ties and/or consistency of the ash. The quality-control requirements are
not as onerous as BS 3829 Part 1 fly ash but more severe than in BS 3892
Part 2. The requirements are summarised in Table 3.1.

Properties of PFA to BS 3892 Part 1 and fly ash to BS EN 450

In 1999 NUSTONE carried out a programme of testing29 of UK fly ash from
five power stations using the test methods described in BS 3892 Part 1 and
BS EN 450. This programme was designed to assess the performance and
variability of UK ashes when tested to the two standards.
Figure 3.2 shows the variation found in fly ash both before (EN 450 fly
ash) and after classification (BS 3892 Part 1 PFA), showing the reduction in
both fineness and variation possible by classification.
All samples were tested using both standards’ testing regimes. It was
found the BS 3892 Part 1 requirements were more onerous as a fixed work-
ability of the mortars tested is required. Figure 3.3 shows the strength fac-
tor results and the high degree of scatter associated with taking a ratio of
two strengths, e.g. the strength of the fly ash prism divided by the
Portland cement prism. When one takes an overview of the ashes from all
the sources and only uses the fly ash prism strength a clearer picture is
seen, as in Fig. 3.4.
Clearly, the finer the ash the greater the reactivity at 28 days. Further
analysis of the data confirms that this is primarily due to the water-
reducing properties of the finer fly ash, although there is an element of
source dependency (Fig. 3.5).
One argument for classifying fly ash has been the reduction in variabil-
ity that is achieved. Although classification improves the mean strength
performance of fly ash and reduces the variation in fineness, the inherent
strength variability of unclassified fly ash was not found to be significantly
different from classified ash, as shown in Table 3.2 and Fig. 3.6.
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Using fly ash in concrete

Table 3.1. Summary of the requirements of the various UK fly ash/pulverised fuel ash
(PFA) standards

Attribute Requirements

Standard PFA BS 3892 Part 1 PFA BS 3892 BS EN 450

Part 2 fly ash

Particle density 2000 kg/m3 N/A 150 kg/m3 of

declared value
Fineness 12% retained 60% retained 40% retained
45 m sieve 45 m sieve* 45 m sieve
Must be within
10% of
declared value
Soundness 10 mm N/R 10 mm
30% fly ash  50% fly ash 
70% PC (BS 12 42.5) 50% CEM I 42.5
Sulfur: maximum 20%* 25%* 30%
present as SO3
Chloride 010% N/A 010%
Calcium oxide Expressed as total N/R Expressed as free
CaO 10% CaO 10%
or 25% if
soundness
satisfactory
Loss on ignition 70%* 120%* 70%†
Moisture content 05% 05% unless Must be dry
conditioned
ash used
Water requirement 95%of PC N/A N/A
30% fly ash 
70% PC (BS 12 42.5)
Activity index: ref. N/A N/A 75% at 28 days
EN 450 – EN 196-1 85% at 90 days
25% fly ash 
75% CEM I 42.5
Strength factor: ref. 080 at 28 days N/A N/A
BS 3892 Part 1
Annex F

*Absolute limits. Other values are autocontrol limits.

†
Permitted on a national basis only.

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Properties and use of coal fly ash

40

35 BS 3892 Part 1 - Retained 45 m

EN450 - Retained 45 m
Fineness % passing 45 m

30

25

20

15

10

0
20 /98
27 /98
04 /98
11 /98
18 /98
08 /98
15 /99
22 /99
29 /99
05 /99
19 /99
26 /99
05 /99
12 /99
19 /99
26 /99
02 /99
99
4/
1
1
1
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
/1
/1
/1
/1
/1
/1
/0
/0
/0
/0
/0
/0
/0
/0
/0
/0
/0
/0
13

Date sampled

Fig. 3.2. Typical variation in fineness found from a single UK power station (Source
B – EN 450 and BS 3892 Part 1 – fineness vs time)

1.00
Strength Factor BS 3892 Part 1 PFA
Strength Factor BS 3892 EN450 fly ash
0.95 All Data
Log. (Strength Factor BS 3892 Part 1 PFA)
Strength factor BS 3892

Log. (Strength Factor BS 3892 EN450 fly ash)

Log. (All Data)
0.90
y  0.0059ln(x)  0.8918 y  0.0635ln(x)  1.021
R 2  0.0014 R 2  0.3621

0.85

0.80

y  0.0593ln(x)  1.0068
R 2  0.0213
0.75
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
% Retained 45 m sieve

Fig. 3.3. Effect of fineness on strength factor (BS 3892 testing regime – strength
factor vs fineness source B)
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Strength at 28 days – BS 3892 Part 1 mortar prism Using fly ash in concrete

60

55

50

45

40
y  4.8085 ln(x)  61.015
R 2  0.7419
35
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Fineness – % retained 45 m sieve

Fig. 3.4. Effect of fineness on mortar prism strength (BS 3892 Part 1 testing regime;
all sources)

106
Source A Source B
Water demand as % PC control mix

104 Source C Source D

102 Source E Log. (All Sources)

100
98
96 y  3.5416 ln(x) 86.45
94 R2  0.4281

92
90
88
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Fineness – retained 45 m

Fig. 3.5. Effect on water demand of fly ash fineness (BS 3892 Part 1 testing regime)
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

Table 3.2. Confidence limits for mean fineness and standard deviations of strengths

SD of strengths (MPa) 95% confidence

limits for mean
BS 3892 Part 1 – BS 3892 EN 450 – BS 3892 fineness (retained
testing regime testing regime 45 m sieve) (Based
on 20 results)

Source A 1528 1189 1517

Source B 1609 1741 1505
Source C 2270 1718 1366
Source D 1568 1977 1365
Source E 2076 1655 1898
Overall 1810 1656 1530

2.5
SD of strengths for
BS 3892 Part 1 PFA SD of strengths for
Standard deviation in MPa

EN 450 fly ash

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0
Source A Source B Source C Source D Source E

Fig. 3.6. Comparison of standard deviations for fly ashes (BS 3892 testing regimes)

The following conclusions were drawn from the data.

• The fineness of fly ash has a significant effect on the water demand
and therefore the strength performance of the mortar when tested to
EN 196-1. Finer fly ashes give greater water reductions and improved
strengths.
• The source of the fly ash has a significance effect on the strength per-
formance. This effect is reduced when the ash is classified to comply
with BS 3892 Part 1, but the reason for this is unclear. It may result
from the lack of information about the particle size distribution given
by measuring the percentage passing the 45 m sieve.
• The BS 3892 testing regimes, which rely on testing at a fixed worka-
bility, are more sensitive to changes in the properties of the fly ash
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Using fly ash in concrete

than the equivalent EN 450 test. The variability in strength when

using EN 450 fly ash is not statistically significantly different from
that found with BS 3892 Part 1 fly ash when tested in mortar prisms.
• The fineness when measured as the percentage retained on the
45 m sieve only gives an indication of the particle size distribution
properties of a fly ash.

Cements containing fly ash

BS EN 197-1: 200023 contains a variety of cements, of which a number con-
tain fly ash (Table 3.3).
There are a few restrictions of the types of fly ash permitted:

• The reactive silica content shall not be

250% by mass.
• The loss on ignition for the fly ash shall not exceed 50%; 70% LOI is
permitted where allowed in the appropriate standards applicable in
the place of use, e.g. the UK.
• Reactive CaO shall be
10% and free CaO less than 10%. Free CaO
contents of 10% and
25% are permitted subject to a require-
ment on expansion testing (soundness). It shall not exceed 10 mm
when tested in accordance with EN 196-3 using a mixture of 30% fly
ash and 70% by mass of a CEM I cement conforming to EN 197-1.
• The fly ash shall be proven to be pozzolanic when tested in accord-
ance with EN 196-5.30
Compliance with the various requirements for all common cements,
e.g. soundness, LOI and sulfate content, assures the user that unsuitable
fly ashes are not used.
In addition to the cements permitted under the European standard,
pozzolanic pulverised fuel ash cement is permitted in the UK as BS 6610.
This was revised in 1991, with a minor revision in 1996, to bring these
cements in line with BS EN 197-1. The main features of BS 6610 are sum-
marised in Table 3.4. These cement standards form the basis of the equiva-
lence rules, which govern the use of fly ash in concrete.

Using fly ash within concrete: BS 5328 and EN 206

BS 532831 Parts 1–4 allow the use of BS 3892 Part 1 PFA as a mixer addition
and the factory-made cements, BS EN 197-1 and BS 661032, over the full
range of concretes. BS 3892 Part 1 PFA additions and factory-made
cements all count fully towards the cement content of the mixes. Where
increased cement contents are felt necessary owing to durability require-
ments these are given as separate figures within the various tables. These
depend on the proportion of fly ash being used and the specific durability
73
74
Table 3.3. Cement types containing fly ash (extract from BS EN 197-1, Table 1)

Main cement Designation Notation Constituents Minor additional

chap-03.qxd 20/09/2001 08:57 Page 74

type Proportion by mass (%) based on the constituents

Properties and use of coal fly ash

sum of the main and minor constituents

Clinker Fly ash
Siliceous Calcareous

CEM II Portland fly CEM II/A-V 80–94 6–20 0–5

ash cement CEM II/B-V 65–79 21–35 0–5
CEM II/A-W 80–94 6–20 0–5
CEM II/B-W 65–79 21–35 0–5
CEM IV Pozzolanic CEM IV/A 65–89 11–35* 0–5
cement CEM IV/B 45–64 36–55* 0–5

*May also be natural pozzolana.

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Using fly ash in concrete

Table 3.4. Summary of BS 6610 requirements

BS number: BS 6610: Pozzolanic PFA cement 1995

Fly ash Must meet the requirements of BS 3892 Part 1 PFA,

except for fineness if interground
Fly ash level* 36–55%
Minor additional 0–5%
constituents
Compressive strength 7 days: 12 N/mm2
(EN 196-1 mortar prism 28 days: 22.5 N/mm2
test)

*As % nucleus, i.e. clinker plus fly ash.

needed. BS 3892 Part 2 PFA is also permitted but does not count towards
the cement contents in any way. However, the standard does permit the
use of ‘non-standard’ materials and requires ‘satisfactory data on their
suitability and assurance of quality control’. Using this route, many struc-
tures have been built using a wide range of fly ash grades, which have
proven to be durable in the fullness of time.
BS EN 206 has a far more complex approach to the utilisation of fly ash.
BS EN 206 places little restriction on the use of additions, simply stating
that additions of type I and type II may be used in concrete in quantities as
used in the ‘initial tests’. Initial tests are defined in an annex of BS EN 206
as those required for demonstrating that a mix satisfies all specified
requirements for the fresh and hardened concrete. These initial tests may
be from laboratory work or from long-term experience.
The situation becomes more complex when additions are taken into
account as part of the total cementitious content and when calculating the
W/C ratio. BS EN 206 contains specific rules for fly ash to BS EN 450 and
these rules may be applied anywhere. It also permits the use of other rules,
if the suitability of the rules is established.
The specific rules in EN 206 are based on the ‘k-value’ concept:

• the term water/cement ratio is replaced by water/(cement  k 

addition).
• The minimum cement content (MCC) can be reduced by
k  (MCC 200) kg/m3. However, the amount of cement plus fly
ash must never fall below the MCC value.
• Fly ash to BS EN 450 has a k-value of 0.2 or 0.4, depending on
the strength class of the Portland cement with which it is used. The
k-value does not vary with the quantity of ash being used. Up to a
maximum of 25% fly ash by mass of the (cement  ash) is allowed to
be counted as cementitious. Any additional ash within the mix is
effectively a type I addition, which is assumed to act as an inert filler.
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

Other values of k or other k-value concepts may be used if their suitabil-

ity is established. One way of establishing suitability is via a National
Standard valid in the place of use of the concrete (Table 3.5). BS 850024 uses
this option by including rules by which PFA to BS 3892 Part 1 may count
fully towards the cement content and water cement ratio. These rules in
BS 8500 are available for all concrete conforming to EN 206 which is to be
used in the UK, but do not extend to concrete used in other countries
unless permitted by a National Standard.
BS EN 206 also contains an ‘Equivalent concrete performance concept’
that may be applied to a combination of any specified cement with any
specified addition if the suitability has been established. The test methods
necessary for its implementation are not standardised. The informative
Annex C of EN 206 places limits on the application of the concept.
The rules in BS 8500 are specific to both fly ash to EN 450 and PFA to BS
3892 Part 1. They are based on the testing of the combination of the add-
ition and the cement that are from specified sources. The procedure is
detailed in an annex of BS 8500 and determines permitted proportions of
fly ash for a combination that can count fully towards cement content and

Table 3.5. Summary of the ways in which fly ash combinations may be used in
concrete conforming to BS EN 206

Addition Standard Type Permitted by Route to count

towards cement
content and W/C ratio

Fly ash BS EN 450 II BS EN 206 as a BS EN 206 k-value,

type II addition proven equivalent
concrete performance
or compliance with an
annex in BS 8500.
Pulverised BS 3892 Part 1 II BS 8500 as a Counts fully in BS
fuel ash type II addition 8500 when shown to
be in compliance with
an annex in BS 8500.
Pulverised BS 3892 Part 2 I BS 8500 as a Does not count
fuel ash type I addition towards the cement
content unless the
equivalent concrete
performance route is
taken.

The equivalent concrete performance concept in BS EN 206 provides an additional route for
any type II addition effectively to count fully towards the cement content and water/cement
(W/C) ratio (by permitting amendments to the recommended values). To take advantage of
this route the manufacturing source and characteristics of both the addition and the cement
with which it is used must be clearly defined and documented.

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Using fly ash in concrete

W/C ratio. The strength class of the combination is also determined.

Combinations of Portland cement with BS EN 450 fly ash, which satisfy the
conformity procedure in the annex, may also count fully towards the
cement content and W/C ratio. Further restrictions on allowable propor-
tions are found in BS 8500, Table of Durability Requirements.

Properties of fly ash in concrete

The beneficial effects of using fly ash mainly result from the low permea-
bility of the resulting concrete. The low permeability is a result of the
particle shape, the fineness, the chemistry and the pozzolanic reactivity of
the fly ash.

The pozzolanic reaction and concrete

Fly ash from a coal-fired power station is a pozzolanic material that has a
rounded particle shape. The combination of these properties gives fly ash
its unique abilities of improving long-term strength gain, durability and
reduced shrinkage, etc.
A pozzolana is a natural or artificial material containing silica in a react-
ive form. By themselves, these materials have little or no cementitious
value. However, in a finely divided form and in the presence of moisture
they will chemically react with calcium hydroxide (lime) to form com-
pounds with cementing properties. It is important that pozzolanas are
finely divided in order to expose a sufficient surface area to the solution of
calcium hydroxide for the reaction to proceed at any detectable rate.
Examples of pozzolanas are volcanic ash, pumice, opaline shales, burnt
clay and fly ash. The silica in a pozzolana must be amorphous to be reactive.
When coal burns in a power station furnace at temperatures of around
1400°C the incombustible materials coalesce to form spherical glassy
droplets containing silica (SiO2), alumina (Al2O3), iron oxide (Fe2O3) and
other minor constituents. The melt is of high viscosity and when the fly
ash emerges from the flame and cools it remains frozen in a glassy, amorph-
ous form. A typical UK fly ash contains 80% glassy material, with the
remainder consisting mainly of silica (quartz), mullite, iron oxide and
residual carbon.
When fly ash is added to concrete the pozzolanic reaction occurs
between the silica glass (SiO2) and the calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2] or
lime, which is a by-product of the hydration of Portland cement. The
hydration products produced replace the partially soluble calcium
hydroxide filling the interstitial pores, reducing the permeability of the
matrix. Roy33 states, ‘the reaction products are highly complex involving
phase solubility, synergetic accelerating and retarding effects of multi-
phase, multi-particle materials and the surface effects at the solid liquid
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

Fig. 3.7. Hydration products of Portland cement

interface’. The reaction products formed differ from the products found in
Portland cement-only concretes. However, a very much finer pore struc-
ture is produced with time, presuming that there is access to water to
maintain the hydration process. Dhir34 also demonstrated that the addition
of fly ash improves the dispersion of the Portland cement particles,
improving their reactivity. The greater dispersion exposes a greater surface
area to the hydration reaction. These processes give fly ash concrete its low
permeability.
Figure 3.7 shows that when water is added to Portland cement hydra-
tion products form, locking the matrix of cement and aggregates particles
together in a solid mass. Ca(OH)2 (hydrated lime) is produced by the reac-
tion, which partially goes into solution. Owing to its limited solubility
particles of lime form within interstitial spaces in the matrix (Fig. 3.8).
Hydrated lime is physically a weak material, so it contributes little to
strength. With a continuing supply of moisture, the lime dissolves in the
pore solution and reacts with the particles of the fly ash, producing further
hydration products. These form a particularly fine pore structure that
occupies the spaces between the various particles (Fig. 3.9). This pozzolanic
reaction takes place between the glass phase of fly ash and calcium hydrox-
ide produced during hydration of the cement largely as given below:
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Using fly ash in concrete

Fig. 3.8. Lime is formed as a by-product of hydration

Fig. 3.9. The pozzolanic reaction products fill the interstitial spaces

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Properties and use of coal fly ash

Calcium hydroxide  silica  Tricalcium silicate  water

3Ca(OH)2  SiO2  3CaO.SiO2  3H2O (3.1)
This reaction requires movement of the calcium hydroxide to the react-
ive surface of the fly ash. It follows that if concrete is allowed to dry out
then this movement, and the reaction, will cease.

Depletion of calcium hydroxide

Figure 3.10 shows how the calcium hydroxide (lime) is depleted with time
and how this reaction affects the long-term gain in strength of fly ash
concrete (A) compared with a PC concrete control (B). The reaction, which
takes place both within the pores of the cement paste and on the surface of
fly ash particles, produces calcium silicate and aluminate hydrates.
Despite the pozzolanic reaction reducing the available hydrated lime in
the pore solution, there is still sufficient remaining to maintain a high pH.
Research has shown that pore size in fly ash concrete is significantly
smaller than the equivalent PC concretes, even though the porosity, a meas-
ure of pore volume, may be greater. It has also been shown that pore size
in fly ash concrete continues to reduce with time beyond that experienced
with an equivalent PC concrete.36 It follows that a well-compacted fly ash
concrete has a lower permeability. Studies of the oxygen permeability of
fly ash concrete found it to be lower than a similar PC concrete, even after
only 1 day’s curing.37 This reaction and the physical outcome reduce
porosity in fly ash concrete with time and increase the bond between the
paste and particles.38 This is illustrated well in Fig. 3.11.
Some pozzolanic reactions begin during the first 24 h. However, the con-
tribution to strength of fly ash is normally far less than that of PC. Thus, for
Strength A Calcium
hydroxide
content B
B

28 Age (days) 28 Age (days)

Fig. 3.10. Influence of calcium hydroxide on strength development (Cabrera and

Plowman35)
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Using fly ash in concrete

Fig. 3.11. Pore size distribution of ordinary Portland cement concrete (left) and fly
ash concrete (right) at different ages (Ramezanianpour A, 1986, PhD thesis, Uni-
versity of Leeds)
a given cementitious content with increasing fly ash content lower early
strengths are achieved. Taylor39 explains the hydration processes involved
in some detail. The presence of fly ash retards the reaction of alite, one of
the components of cement, in the early stages of the reaction. However,
alite production is accelerated in the middle stages owing to the provision
of nucleation sites on the surface of the fly ash particles. The calcium
hydroxide etches the surface of the glassy particles reacting with the SiO2
or the Al2O3–SiO2 framework. The hydration products formed reflect the
composition of the fly ash with a low Ca/Si ratio.
The pozzolanic reaction gives a fly ash concrete its fine pore structure,
low permeability, long-term strength gain properties and enhanced dur-
ability, since most durability problems are associated with the ingress of
aggressive agents via the pore structure. Clearly, the finer the fly ash the
greater the area exposed for reaction. In addition, the higher the tempera-
ture the greater the reaction rate. At later ages the contribution of fly ash to
strength gain increases greatly, provided that there is adequate moisture
to continue the reaction process.

Particle shape and density

Fly ash particles less than 50 m are generally spherical, with larger sizes
tending to be more irregular in shape. The spherical particles confer sig-
nificant benefits to the fluidity of the concrete in a plastic state owing to
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

the particle shape and by optimising the packing of particles. The fly ash
spheres appear to act as ‘ball bearings’ within the concrete, reducing the
amount of water required for a given workability. In general, the finer a fly
ash the greater the water-reducing effect (Fig. 3.1240). A very coarse fly ash
may not give any reduction in water demand, although this is dependent
on the particle size distribution of the fine aggregates and cements in use.
Visually, fly ash concrete may appear to be very cohesive until some form
of compactive effort is applied, e.g. when compacted into the slump cone
or vibrated. The reduction in water content reduces the propensity for
bleeding and lowers the drying shrinkage potential.
When relatively coarse fly ash, i.e. 45 m residue  12%, is interground
with clinker or ground separately, the water requirement of concrete is
markedly reduced.41 The grinding action appears to break down agglom-
erates and porous particles, but has little influence on fine glassy spherical
particles, smaller than approximately 20 m.42
The particle density of fly ash is typically 2300 kg/m3, which is substan-
tially lower than for Portland cement at 3120 kg/m3. Therefore, for a given
mass of Portland cement a direct, one-for-one by mass substitution of fly
ash will give a greater volume of cementitious material. The mix design for
the concrete should be adjusted in comparison to a Portland cement of the
same binder content to allow for the increased volume of fine material by
reducing the fine aggregate content. With very fine pozzolanic materials, a
deflocculating agent, such as ordinary water-reducing plasticiser, can help
to reduce the tendency of such fine fillers to agglomerate. This improves
their relative water-reducing properties and aids the pozzolanic reactions
by improving dispersal.
For a given 28 day strength the higher cementitious content needed in
comparison with Portland cement concrete and lower water content
required for fly ash-based concretes can give significantly higher quality
surface finishes.

Variability of fly ash

Controlled fineness fly ash has been available in the UK since 1975 and
over recent years the majority of fly ash/PFA supplied for concrete com-
plies with BS 3829 Part 1, which limits the percentage retained on the
45 m sieve to 12%. This standard by default restricts the variability of the
PFA. In practice, in order to achieve the required fineness, PFA to BS 3892
Part 1 is classified using air-swept cyclones. The typical range of fineness
found is  3%. BS EN 450 permits a wider range of variation of  10% on
the declared mean fineness range of up to 40% retained on the 45 m
sieve. The typical range of fineness found is  50%.
The variability of the fineness is felt by many to influence adversely the
variability of the concrete and reduce the commercial viability of using fly
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Using fly ash in concrete

ash. However, Dhir et al.43 concluded that LOI and fineness are only ‘use-
ful indicators’ of fly ash performance. They show that the differing char-
acteristics of seven cements produce a greater influence on concrete
performance than the characteristics of eight differing fly ashes. Dhir et al.
suggest that the fineness limits set in BS 3892 Part 1 are too low and that, a
limit of 20–25% is more realistic. Matthews and Gutt44 report on the effects
of fineness, water reduction, etc., on a range of ashes with up to 18%
retained on the 45 m sieve. At a fixed W/C ratio, the range of strengths
found indicates coefficients of variation of 17% at 365 days and 9% at 28
days. Typically, the coefficient of variation associated with a Portland
cement is 5% at 28 days. The influence of cement characteristics on per-
formance can be markedly reduced by the production of factory-produced
cement, where the manufacturer can adjust fineness and ash level (within
certain limits) to achieve the required concrete performance.
Fly ash variability must affect the final product somewhat and some
restriction on the variability of fineness is needed. However, within British
Standards many materials have minimal limits on variation, e.g. CEM I
42.5N can range between 42.5 and 62.5 MPa on a cement mortar prism. No
quality-assured concrete manufacturer would take such highly variable
cement, as it would have serious commercial implications. The same prin-
ciple is true of fly ash. Commercial pressure would apply, e.g. for a highly
variable fly ash only a low price could be commanded or expected.

220

210
Free water content (l/m3)

200 Control 0% PFA in cement

190 10% PFA

180 20% PFA

30% PFA
170
40% PFA
160 50% PFA

150
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Fly ash residue at 45 m(%)

Fig. 3.12. Finer fly ash and/or more fly ash reduces water content (Owens40). The fig-
ure shows the effect of fly ash sieve residue on the water content of 50–75 mm slump
concrete: nominal cement 300 kg/m3 with various percentages of fly ash
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

Fineness and pozzolanic activity

In general, fineness is an important factor because a smaller particle size
means that a greater surface area will be exposed to the alkaline environ-
ment within the concrete. Fineness is normally assessed by the percentage
retained on the 45 m sieve (wet sieved) and typical values would range
from a few per cent to 35%. With a single source of fly ash, the strength
performance can be related to water demand and fineness (Fig. 3.12).40
However, measuring the 45 m residue of fly ash does not give much
information about the very fine material/particle size distribution or struc-
ture. Cabrera and Gray36 reported on the effects of particle size distribu-
tion of fly ash and the pozzolanic activity of such ashes. Various methods
of comparing the surface area of the ashes were devised based on air
permeability, nitrogen absorption (both dry and burnt), glycerol retention
and iodine absorption. Cabrera and Gray conclude that there is no correl-
ation between pozzolanic activity (determined from lime-ash mortars) and
the calculation from particle size distribution (Table 3.6), except when
using nitrogen absorption techniques. They proposed a system of classifi-
cation based on the sphericity of the particles. When fly ash consists of
spherical particles its measured surface area is very nearly equivalent
to the surface area calculated from its particle size distribution. The two
values increasingly differ with a higher proportion of irregular particles.
Clearly, there are limitations to using the percentage retained on a 45 m
sieve as an indicator of the reactivity of fly ash, although it can be used as
a measure of consistency.
BS EN 196-5 details a method of determining the pozzolanicity of a fly
ash by comparing the hydroxide concentration of a mortar containing fly
ash against the theoretical hydroxide content saturation possible. As part
of a testing programme29 carried out in 1999 the pozzolanicity for a num-
ber of UK sources was determined over a period of 20 weeks for both clas-
sified and unclassified fly ashes. The results of this work clearly show the

Table 3.6. Correlation coefficients between the strength of lime–sand–fly ash mortars
and the fly ash specific surfaces as determined by different methods (reproduced from
Cabrera and Gray36)

Method of specific surface Correlation coefficient

determination
7 days 28 days 56 days

Ndry 0.527 0.673 0.657

Nburnt 0.055 0.039 0.058
Air permeability 0.082 0.090 0.415
By calculation from particle 0.043 0.049 0.349
size distribution

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18
Calcium oxide concentration (mmol/l)

16
ash A unclassified
14
ash A classified
ash B unclassified
12
ash B classified
10 ash C unclassified
ash C classified
8 Portland cement
Calcium oxide
saturation curve
6

0
35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Hydroxide concentration (mmol/l)

Fig. 3.13. Hydroxide concentration reduction due to pozzolanicity of various fly

ashes: calcium oxide concentrations produced by three ashes, both classified and unclas-
sified when tested with one cement, relative to saturation level at that pH

differences in reactivity from source to source (Fig. 3.13), as well as the

improved reactivity of classified fly ash.
Cabrera and Hopkins looked at the fineness and reactivity of fly ash in
the Drax project.45 They carried out a detailed review of which factors
influence the strength, porosity and workability of concretes. Nineteen
sources of fly ash were used from power stations throughout the UK. A
wide range of chemical and physical tests was carried out on the 720 sam-
ples of fly ash used in the project. The conclusions from this work can be
summarised as follows:

• All qualities of fly ash could produce concrete of the desired strength
if properly designed.
• The percentage retained on a 45 m sieve is only partially applicable to
the properties of the fly ash in concrete. Because of BS 3892 Part 1
requirements, over 70% of the fly ash available in the UK is deemed
unsatisfactory without classification. However, in reality coarser fly
ash does not have the same status or economic benefit and yet its use
would be beneficial to the durability of the concrete in the longer term.
• The important particle sizes are 101, 48 and 30 m. These govern fly
ash performance. A shape factor system was proposed to classify fly
ash more accurately. LOI was also found to play an important role.
• The use of a plasticising admixture (a lignosulfonate-based water-
reducing admixture) reduced the effect on the strength of the vari-
ability in the fly ash.
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

Bogdanovic46 compared Portland cement concrete against fly ash con-

cretes with between 589% and 631% retained on the 45 m sieve. The mixes
had roughly equal 28 day strength. At 112 days, although the fly ashes
used were very coarse, the fly ash concretes achieved strengths some 17%
higher than the Portland cement-only concrete. The modulus of elasticity
was reduced by 8% at 112 days. Allen47 reported on Lednock dam, the first
fly ash structure of any size built in the UK. Although problems with the
variability of LOI and fineness were reported, the dam has proven to be
durable. Bouzoubaa et al.47 reviewed the properties of fly ash cements pro-
duced by intergrinding with clinker and by separate grinding. It was con-
cluded that the grinding of fly ashes increased their specific gravity and
fineness, and consequently reduced the water requirement and increased
their pozzolanic activity.
It is clear that characterising the reactivity of fly ash is somewhat
complex. The pozzolanicity depends on the surface area of fly ash exposed
to the pore solution, the alkalinity of that pore solution, the curing temper-
ature and the chemical composition of the fly ash, e.g. the source and type.

Fineness and workability/strength characteristics

The particle shape and finer fractions of fly ash are capable of reducing the
water content needed for a given workability (Fig. 3.12). These effects are
felt to be due to void filling on a microscopic scale replacing water within
the concrete mix. Dewar48 found results from his mix design system which
correlate with water reductions found in practice when using fly ash.
Within the Dewar system, the mean particle size is the governing factor
that cannot be properly expressed using a single point test such as retention
on the 45 m sieve. As the surface area of a spherical particle is proportional
to the radius squared, small quantities of the finer fractions can have a
highly significant effect on the water demand. Where a water reduction is
found this partially contributes to the relative strength performance of the
cement/fly ash combination by acting as a solid particulate plasticiser.
The strength performance of a fly ash concrete will depend on the water
reduction achieved and the pozzolanic performance of the cement/fly ash
combination. While finer fly ashes are presumed to affect strength signifi-
cantly, not all researchers find this true. Brown49 concluded that ‘for curing
at 50°C a fine ash makes a larger contribution to strength than does a
coarse grade but the difference is only about 2 MPa for each 10% fly
ash/(fly ash  cement) by weight’, and ‘ … that the selection of either fly
ash or cement has no greater significance with regard to strength’. The fly
ashes were wide ranging, with 12% and 32% retained on the 45 m sieve.
Such effects may be simply physical, due to the particle-packing properties
of the concrete mix constituents, e.g. the fine and coarse aggregates.
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1.4
Relative strength – for equal 28 day strength

70% CEM I (PC)  30% PFA

1.2

1.0

0.8 100% CEM 1 (Portland cement)

0.6 Test cubes cured at 20˚C in

water
0.4
Mixes designed to give equal
28 day cube strengths
0.2

0.0
0 7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70 77 84 91
Age of concrete (days)

Fig. 3.14. At 20°C concrete containing 30% fly ash continues to gain significant
strength

As with the pozzolanic activity, there is a trend towards a reduction in

water requirement with increasing fly ash fineness. However, the strength
performance may not be directly related to the fineness. Fly ash chemistry
and surface area are the controlling factors. Fly ash affects the rate of gain
of strength in concrete. At early ages, the rate of gain of strength is lower
than an equivalent Portland cement concrete of similar grade. In the long
term, however, it may be higher. Mix design and in particular W/C ratios
play an important part in strength development. Typical strength devel-
opment graphs of standard cubes with and without fly ash are shown in
Fig. 3.14. The figure also clearly illustrates the effect of inclusion of fly ash
in concrete on the development of strength at early ages. Consideration
should always be given to this effect.
Where higher curing temperatures are encountered, as in thick sections,
significantly higher in situ strength can be achieved than in test cubes
cured at 20°C. Figure 3.15 shows this effect for some 30 MPa grade, 15 m
cubic concrete specimens.50 These were insulated on five sides to re-create
thick concrete sections. The elevated temperatures enhanced the poz-
zolanic reactions and the in situ strengths for the concrete containing fly ash.

Heat of hydration
The development of concrete mix design has seen an increase in the
proportion of cement being replaced by fly ash. Early uses of fly ash in
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

Relative strength from cores / 28 day cube strength

1.6

1.5
70% PC + 30% PFA – 30 MPa concrete
1.4
50% PC + 50% GGBS – 30 MPa concrete
1.3
100% Portland limestone cement – 30 MPa concrete
1.2

1.1
1
100% Portland cement – 30 MPa
0.9
0.8
0.7

0.6
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Age of concrete (days)

Fig. 3.15. The long-term in situ strength of concrete may be improved significantly
by 30% pulverised fuel ash (PFA) relative in situ strengths of various cement types
(gravel concrete mixes, cast in summer, 15  15  15 m blocks)

concrete concerned reducing the heat evolution in hardening concrete. In

particular, for mass concrete in large dams it was found that by replacing a
proportion of the cement with fly ash a large reduction in heat was
achieved. A measure of this reduction in heat can be seen for similar
strength concretes in Fig. 3.16. This lowered the potential for thermal
cracking and produced a less porous structure.
The hydration of cement compounds is exothermic, with up to 500 J/g
being liberated. Concrete is a poor conductor of heat, with the result that
the temperature at the interior of a concrete mass will rise significantly
during the hydration cycle. At the same time, external surfaces will be
cooled by ambient temperatures and damaging temperature gradients
may occur, resulting in cracking in the section.
The introduction of fly ash to replace a proportion of cement in concrete
influences the temperature rise during the hydration period. The rate of
the pozzolanic reaction increases with increasing temperature; however,
the peak temperatures in fly ash concrete are significantly lower than in
equivalent Portland cement concretes. Figure 3.17 shows adiabatic tem-
perature curves (°C/100 kg of cement) for a range of total cement contents.

Setting time and formwork striking times

The inclusion of fly ash in concrete will increase the setting time com-
pared with an equivalent grade of Portland cement concrete. There is
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Using fly ash in concrete

60 OPC - 360 kg/m3

50

OPC/PFA - 265/150 kg/m3

Temperature (˚C)

40

30

20
Relevant ambient
profiles
10

4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40
Relevant time from casting (h)

Fig. 3.16. Heat of hydration with time (Woolley and Conlin51)

16
Cement content (kg/m3)
14 15%
300
12 400
500
10
(˚C/100 kg fly ash)
Temperature rise

30%
OP

6
50%
4
2

2
4
1 2 3 5 10 20 30 50 100 200 300 500
Time (t1)(h)

Fig. 3.17. Temperature rise in fly ash and Portland cement (PC) concretes
(Bamforth52)
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

undoubtedly a delay in the onset of the hydration of fly ash concrete, but
it has been shown by Woolley and Cabrera53 that the actual gain in
strength once hydration has started is greater for fly ash concrete at nor-
mal temperature regimes. When 30% fly ash is used to replace Portland
cement in a mix, the setting time may be increased by up to 2 h. This
increased setting time reduces the rate of workability loss. However, it may
result in practical difficulties for finishing, particularly during periods of
low temperature. In compensation, it will reduce the incidence of cold
joints in the plastic concrete. EN 197-1 imposes initial and final setting
times that are comparable with CEM I requirements.
Formwork striking times at lower ambient temperatures normally will
need to be extended in comparison to Portland cement concrete, especially
with thin sections. In practice, vertical formwork striking times can be
extended without this affecting site routines, e.g. the formwork is struck
on the following day. For soffit formwork, greater care has to be taken.
Reference should be made to BS 811054 for recommended striking
times. Temperature-matched curing can be used to ensure that sufficient
in situ strength has been achieved while allowing for the concrete curing
conditions.

Elastic modulus
The elastic modulus of fly ash concrete is generally equal to or slightly bet-
ter than that for an equivalent grade of concrete. The direct relationship
between elastic modulus and strength is seen in Fig. 3.18 for concrete
cured at different regimes. The figure shows the slower rate of gain in

Elastic modulus (kN/mm2)

40 95% confidence limits

30

20 OPC PFA
20˚C water
5˚C water
10 40˚C air
Air at 20˚C/55% RH

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Compressive strength (N/mm2)

Fig. 3.18. Relationship between the modulus of elasticity and strength for fly ash
(PFA) and Portland cement (OPC) concretes (Dhir et al.55)
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strength experienced with fly ash concrete followed by the ongoing devel-
opment in strength. In a similar manner at early ages, the elastic modulus
of fly ash concrete is marginally less than for equivalent Portland cement
concretes at later ages.

Creep
The greater strength gains of fly ash concretes have shown lower creep
values, particularly under conditions of no moisture loss. These conditions
may be found in concrete remote from the cover zone of a structure.
Where significant drying is permitted the strength gain may be negligible
and creep of ordinary Portland cement and fly ash concretes would be
similar. Figure 3.19 shows the creep of fly ash and Portland cement
concrete loaded to different stress levels.55

Tensile strain capacity

The tensile strain capacity of fly ash concretes has been found to be mar-
ginally lower than for Portland cement, and fly ash concretes exhibit
slightly more brittle characteristics.56 There is possibly a greater risk of

OPC PFA

Creep (Microstrain) Stress level (%)

5000 80

4000
80

3000
60

60
2000

1000 30
30

0
0 60 120 180
Time under (Days)

Fig. 3.19. Creep of fly ash (PFA) and ordinary Portland cement (OPC) concrete
loaded to different stress levels (Dhir et al.55)
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

early thermal cracking for given temperature drop, partially offsetting the
benefits of lower heat of hydration in the fly ash concrete.

Coefficient of thermal expansion

The coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete is largely determined by
the type of coarse aggregate used. Replacement of a proportion of cement
with fly ash will have little influence on this property.57

Curing
The hydration reaction between cement and water provides the mech-
anism for the hardening of concrete. The degree of hydration dictates
strength development and all aspects of durability. If concrete is allowed
to dry out hydration will cease prematurely. Fly ash concrete has slower
hydration rates and the lack of adequate curing will, as with other con-
cretes, affect the final product. Thin concrete sections are more vulnerable
than constructions of thicker section, where heat of hydration will pro-
mote earlier hydration.

Durability of concretes made with fly ash

Keck and Riggs58 quote Ed Abdun-Nur, who said, ‘concrete, which does
not contain fly ash, belongs in a museum’. They list the benefits of using
fly ash, e.g. low permeability, resistance to sulfate attack, alkali silica reaction
and heat of hydration, giving references to their conclusions. Thomas59
reports that cores taken from 30-year-old structures in general have per-
formed well; such structures must have been made with unclassified fly
ashes over which minimal control of fineness, LOI, etc., would have been
exercised. Berry and Malhotra60 review the performance of fly ash con-
cretes in detail. They show the beneficial properties of using fly ash for
sulfate resistance, chloride penetration, permeability, etc. Some specific
durability aspects are considered next.
Penetration of concrete by fluids or gases may adversely affect the dur-
ability. The degree of penetration depends on the permeability of the con-
crete, and since permeability is a flow property it relates to the ease with
which a fluid or gas passes through it under the action of a pressure differ-
ential. Porosity is a volume property, representing the content of pores
irrespective of whether they are interconnected, and may or may not
allow the passage of a fluid or gas.
There are two mechanisms by which liquid or gas ions are transported
in concrete:
• Adsorption is the process whereby molecules collect in a condensed
form on the surface of concrete. Absorption describes the way in which
concrete takes in a liquid to fill voids or pores within the material.
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• Diffusion describes the process by which liquid or gas ions pass

through concrete under the action of a concentration gradient.
The rate at which liquid or gas ions pass through concrete owing to a
concentration gradient is known as diffusivity.
Other important factors are

• the moisture condition of concrete has a major influence on values of

absorption, flow and/or diffusion61;
• during the hydration process gel products are precipitated and block
pores in the concrete, reducing flow and/or diffusion.

Alkali silica reaction

The alkali silica reaction (ASR)62 is potentially a very disruptive reaction
within concrete. However, the amount of damage that has occurred is
small in comparison with the amounts of concrete produced. The first
reported occurrence in the UK was in 1976 and by 1983 some 50 cases were
known. ASR involves the higher pH alkalis such as sodium and potassium
hydroxides reacting with certain forms of silica, usually within the aggre-
gates, producing gel. This gel has a high capacity for absorbing water from
the pore solution, causing expansion and disruption of the concrete. Some
greywacke aggregates are particularly susceptible to ASR. The main source
of the alkalis is usually the Portland cement or external sources such as
cleaning fluids containing sodium hydroxide. Fly ash contains some
sodium and potassium alkalis but these are mainly held in the glassy struc-
ture and therefore are not available for reaction. Typically, only some
16–20% of the total sodium and potassium alkalis in fly ash are water
soluble.
Many researchers have found that fly ash is capable of preventing ASR.
The glass in fly ash is in a highly reactive fine form of silica. It has been
found that the ratio of reactive alkalis to surface area of reactive silica is
important in ASR. A pessimum ratio exists where the greatest expansion
will occur. However, by adding more reactive silica the dilution of the reac-
tion with the alkalis, coupled with the low permeability of fly ash concrete,
effectively means that no disruptive reaction happens. The recommenda-
tions63 within the UK require a minimum of 25% BS 3892 Part 1 fly ash to
prevent ASR. For coarser fly ashes, a minimum of 30% fly ash may be
required to ensure sufficient surface area to prevent ASR. Small quantities
of fly ash with low reactivity aggregates and a source of alkalis may be
more susceptible to ASR if the pessimum silica–alkali ratio is achieved.
Even when total alkalis within the concrete are as high as 5 kg/m3 fly ash
has been found64 to be able to prevent ASR. The addition of fly ash reduces
the pH of the pore solution to below 13, at which point ASR cannot occur.
The use of low alkali cements has a similar effect. However, the detailed
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

mechanisms by which fly ash prevents ASR are complex and imperfectly
understood.
According to Taylor65 the mechanism by which fly ash reduces the risk
of ASR can be summarised as

• the fly ash pozzolanic reaction is similar to the alkali silica reaction
• pessimum proportions of SiO2/Na2O must exist for disruptive ASR to
occur
• as the Ca/Si ratio decreases the alkali cations are more readily taken
up by the SiO2
• more C–S–H hydration products are formed rather than expansive gel.
The ACI manual of concrete practice66 suggests few restrictions on the
effectiveness of fly ashes. It states that ‘The use of adequate amounts of
some fly ashes can reduce the amount of aggregate reaction’. It is later sug-
gested that ashes only have to comply with ASTM C618, which permits a
wide range of fly ashes. Fournier and Malhotra67 investigated the ability of
a range of fly ashes to prevent ASR. The AI was found to affect the ASR
performance; however, there was no correlation between fineness and AI.
Nant-y-Moch, Dinas and Cwm Rheidol dams are excellent examples of fly
ash preventing ASR. The Nant-y-Moch and Cwm Rheidol dams were con-
structed using ‘run of station’ fly ash from Bold power station and the
structures have proven to be durable. These dams have performed well, in
comparison with the Portland cement-only Dinas dam, which has some
evidence of ASR cracking and yet was built around the same period using
the same aggregates.

Carbonation
The ingress of CO2 into concrete and the subsequent conversion of lime to
carbonate reduce the pH of the matrix to about 9. To occur this mechanism
requires two factors, some moisture in the concrete, but not saturated, and
a path by which the CO2 can diffuse through concrete. This reaction is not
detrimental to the concrete as such; in fact, it may help to reduce perme-
ability and improve sulfate resistance, but is deleterious to the reinforcing
steel in reinforced concrete. The high pH found in normal concrete main-
tains a passivity layer on the reinforcements which prevents corrosion. As
fly ash pozzolanically reacts with lime, this potentially reduces the lime
available to maintain the pH within the pore solution. However, fly ash
reduces the permeability of the concrete dramatically when the concrete is
properly designed and cured. In addition, when designing concretes for
equal 28 days strength the slow reaction rate of fly ash usually means that
the total cementitious material is increased. This increase partially com-
pensates for the reduction in available lime. Coupling this with the lower
permeability leads to the result that the carbonation of fly ash concrete
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Using fly ash in concrete

is not significantly different from Portland cement-only concrete of the

same grade (28 days).68 The ACI manual of concrete practice66 confirms this
view: ‘Despite the concerns that the pozzolanic action of fly ash reduces
the pH of concrete researchers have found that an alkaline environment
very similar to that in concrete without fly ash remains to preserve the
passivity of the steel’.
High Marnham power station was built in 1957. A 275 kV substation was
built with some of the bases using concrete where a partial replacement of
the Portland cement with fly ash was made. As the original concrete was
well documented this was a rare occasion on which the long-term per-
formances of Portland cement-only and fly ash concretes could be
assessed. In 1985, Cabrera and Woolley69 reported their findings after a
detailed study. The fly ash concrete contained 20% of the cement content
as ‘run of station’ fly ash, with an estimated 165% retained on the 45 m
sieve. They reported that this concrete had no significant depth of carbon-
ation. The durability of the concrete was excellent, with the compressive
strength development of the fly ash concrete being twice that of the
Portland cement-only concrete.
It is clear that carbonation is a complex function of permeability and
available lime. With properly designed, cured and compacted fly ash con-
crete, carbonation is not significantly different from other types of con-
crete. With extended curing and the low heat of hydration properties of fly
ash concrete, the resulting low permeability may more than compensate
for the reduced lime content.

Sea water and chloride ingress

Chlorides penetrating concrete will attack the reinforcing steel and cause
corrosion. An electrochemical cell is formed within the concrete between
the reinforcing steel and the pore solution. The Fe3  ions from the passivity
layer of Fe2O3 pass into solution, while the electrons pass along the rein-
forcing bar. They recombine to form ferric hydroxide [Fe(OH)3]. The reac-
tion requires oxygen, water and the presence of chlorides. The corrosion
at the anode site leads to loss in section of the reinforcing steel and can
ultimately lead to failure of the element.
Chlorides can come from many sources. First, it is important to restrict
the chloride content in the constituents of the concrete to a minimum
and guidance is given within various standards, e.g. BS 5328, BS 8110 and
BS 8500. Chlorides from external sources are normally from seawater
and deicing salts used on roads. Tricalcium aluminate (C3A), a compound
found in Portland cement, is able to bind chloride ions, forming calcium
chloroaluminate. Similarly, tetracalcium alumino ferrite (C4AF) can also
reduce the mobility of chloride ions, forming calcium chloroferrite. Fly ash
also contains oxides of alumina, which are able to bind chloride ions.
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

Log scale – Diffusion coefficient (D) cm2/s  109 100

25 MPa concrete
10

35 MPa concrete
1

50 MPa concrete
70 MPa concrete
60 MPa concrete
0.1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
PFA content (%)

Fig. 3.20. Estimate of chloride diffusion coefficient: by increasing the strength and fly
ash content of concrete the permeability reduces significantly (Owens40)

One highly effective way to reduce chloride ingress is to lower the

permeability of the concrete. When fly ash is added to concrete, the
permeability is significantly lower (Fig. 3.20). This reduces the trans-
portation rate of chloride ions, and many other materials, into the con-
crete.

Freeze–thaw properties
The freezing of water within concrete is responsible for gradual but severe
damage to the concrete. The volume of water increases by around 9%
when freezing occurs in the pore structure. If the ice is unable to escape,
the pressure exerted on the concrete simply exceeds the tensile strength of
the concrete. This initially manifests itself as microcracking, but after being
subjected to many cycles of freezing and thawing, continuous cracking
leads to failure. This is seen as spalling of the surface and ultimately there
is loss of cover to the reinforcing steel, corrosion and, finally, failure of the
concrete.
Fly ash concrete of the same strength has a similar resistance to
freeze–thaw attack as Portland cement concrete. Dhir et al.70 reported on
the freeze–thaw properties of concrete containing fly ash. They used nine
fly ashes of various sieve residues. All mixes were designed to give equal
28 day strengths. Freeze–thaw was assessed using an 8 h cycle of 4 h
at 20°C and 4 h at 5°C. Ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) and changes in
length were used for the assessment of freeze–thaw performance. They
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found, as have other researchers, that adding fly ash reduces freeze–thaw
resistance unless air entrainment is used. However, Dhir et al. found that
even 10% of air entrained in the concrete gave superior performance
compared with plain concrete, irrespective of the cement type.
It is clear that the less permeable and denser the mortar matrix is within
the concrete the less space is available to relieve the pressures associated
with the expansion of freezing water. The additional hydration products
created by the pozzolanic reaction result in fly ash being less frost resistant
unless voids are artificially created by the addition of air entrainment. In
all low-permeability concretes, irrespective of the fineness or chemistry of
the fly ash or other constituents, freeze–thaw resistance is given by air
entrainment. The air bubble structure is able to relieve expansive stresses of
the freezing water, presuming proper curing regimes have been adhered
to. The importance of good concrete practice, the correct mix for the appli-
cation, adequate compaction, curing, etc., cannot be over emphasised.

Sulfate resistance
Sulfates in solution attack the hardened cement in concrete. The attack is
both chemical and physical. Sulfate ions react with hydrated calcium alu-
minates to form ettringnite and they combine with free calcium hydroxide
to form gypsum. The rate of attack is influenced by concentration and type
of sulfate, i.e. calcium sulfate and magnesium sulfate. The pH of soil or
groundwater, water table and mobility of groundwater, and the concrete
constituents, compaction and permeability are all influences in this process.
Considerable increases in volume and disruption of the hardened con-
crete result from the expansive reactions to form ettringnite and gypsum.
Fly ash concrete can increase the resistance to sulfate attack compared
with a CEM I concrete of similar grade. Deterioration due to sulfate pene-
tration results from the expansive pressures originated by the formation of
secondary gypsum and ettringnite. The beneficial effects of fly ash have
been attributed to a reduction in pore size slowing the penetration of
sulfate ions. Less calcium hydroxide is also available for the formation of
gypsum.
The smaller pore size of fly ash concrete reduces the volume of ettring-
nite that may be formed. One of the major constituents of cement that is
prone to sulfate attack, tricalcium aluminate (C3A), is diluted since a pro-
portion of it will have reacted with the sulfates within the fly ash at an
early age. Building Research Establishment71 Digest 363 discusses the fac-
tors responsible for sulfate and acid attack on concrete below ground and
recommends the type of cement and quality of curing to provide resist-
ance. Concrete made with combinations of Portland cement and BS 3892
Part 1 fly ash, where the fly ash content lies between 25% and 40%, has good
sulfate-resisting properties and may be used for up to class 4A (Digest 363
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

classification) sites. Fly ash concretes do not appear to perform well in the
presence of magnesium sulfates, e.g. class 4B. When Portland-pulverised
fuel ash cements to BS 6588 are used, the cements are regarded as sulfate
resisting only when the fly ash content is not less than 25%.
Sea water contains sulfates and attacks concrete through chemical
action. Crystallisation of salts in pores of the concrete may also result in
disruption. This is a particular problem between tide marks subject to
alternate wetting and drying. The presence of a large quantity of chlorides
in seawater inhibits the expansion experienced where groundwater sul-
fates have constituted the attack.
Laboratory studies by the Building Research Establishment over a
5-year period led to the 1991 revision to BRE Digest 363, ‘Sulfate and acid
resistance of concrete in the ground’. Fly ash concrete samples were
immersed in various sodium sulfate and magnesium sulfate solutions.
Four different fly ashes and three different cements were used and con-
stituent proportions were varied. The study found that concrete contain-
ing combinations of fly ash with Portland cement, even when the C3A
content was as high as 14%, can be compared with concrete containing
sulfate-resisting cement immersed in sulfate solutions equivalent to class 4
exposure. Blends of fly ash with sulfate-resisting Portland cement (SRPC)
generally gave better sulfate resistance than SRPC alone at a cement con-
tent of 400 kg/m3. At a lower cement content, when concrete was exposed
to 15% sodium and magnesium solutions, SRPC gave better results.

Thaumasite
Much has been said about thaumasite in the UK, resulting from the dis-
covery of a number of damaged structures on a motorway. Bensted72
describes the chemistry of the thaumasite reaction. Thaumasite attack
occurs at temperatures below 15°C and requires the presence of calcium
carbonate. Limestone aggregates are a source of calcium carbonate, with
oolitic limestone appearing to be the most reactive form. Sulfates react
with the calcium carbonate and the C3S and C2S hydrates, forming thau-
masite. As these are the strength-giving phases of the cement, their
removal results in the disintegration of the concrete to a white, powdery,
sludge-like material. This reaction is not expansive and may not be easily
detected below the ground. At the time of writing several research projects
remain outstanding which should answer some of the questions posed by
this reaction such as:

• The affected motorway structures in the UK were backfilled with

pyritic clay. When exposed to air the pyrites decompose to sulfuric
acid. The significance of acid attack has yet to be determined.
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• At 5°C thaumasite forms readily in the laboratory. However, the inci-

dence of thaumasite attack, other than when pyritic clay and coal
shales have been used as a back fill, is relatively small. Why?
• Cement type has a bearing on the degree of attack. GGBS appears to
prevent the reaction at higher cement contents and low W/C ratios
with limestone aggregates. However, the mechanisms are not fully
understood as thaumasite reactions have been detected when
siliceous aggregates and GGBS are used.
In 1980, Burton73 carried out a series of mixes to determine the relative per-
formance of concretes made with Portland cement, SRPC and Portland/fly
ash-blended cement concretes when exposed to sulfate attack. The sulfate
solutions were not heated and the tanks were in an unheated, external
storeroom. The Portland cement mixes all showed signs of deterioration
after 6 months in magnesium sulfate solution but only slight deterioration
in sodium sulfate solution. However, after 5 years’ immersion there was
total disintegration of all Portland cement samples. The oolitic limestone
mixes suffered between 222% and 425% weight loss after 1 year in mag-
nesium sulfate and the crushed carboniferous limestone mixes 143–273%
weight loss (Fig. 3.21). This indicates the effect of aggregate type on the
rate of deterioration. Although thaumasite was not well understood at the
time of the project, a re-evaluation of the data and photographs suggests
that the deterioration found with both the Portland cement and SRPC
mixes was probably due to the thaumasite form of sulfate attack.
Bensted72 believes that the addition of fly ash should reduce the prob-
lems with thaumasite, simply because the permeability of fly ash concrete
should prevent sulfate in solution from penetrating to any depth.

Fig. 3.21. Deterioration of various cementitious types in sulfate solution (Burton73).

OPC: Portland cement; SRPC: sulfate-resisting Portland cement
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

Resistance to acids
All cements containing lime are susceptible to attack by acids. In acidic
solutions where the pH is less than 35, erosion of the cement matrix will
occur. Moorland waters with low hardness, containing dissolved CO2 and
with pH values in the range 4–7, may be aggressive to concrete. The pure
water of melting ice and condensation contain CO2 and will dissolve cal-
cium hydroxide in cement, causing erosion. In these situations, the quality
of concrete assumes a greater importance.

Concrete mix design

Strength effects
Concrete mixes for early constructions were designed to replace 20% by
mass of Portland cement with an equal mass of fly ash. There is a risk of
creating problems if very small percentages of fly ash are used in concrete,
e.g. there is an increased risk of ASR with susceptible aggregates. The prin-
ciple of a mass-for-mass replacement of Portland cement depresses early
and 28 day strength relative to ordinary Portland cement concretes, and
takes no account of workability. To overcome this it was shown that by
replacing some of the fine aggregate with fly ash and increasing the
cementitious content, equal 28 day strengths could be achieved.74 Smith17
developed a method based on applying a cementing efficiency factor
known as the k-factor. The mix design was adjusted as given below:
W/Cf  W/(C+kF), (3.2)
where W/C in the equation for plain Portland cement concrete is replaced
by the adjusted W/Cf ratio; W  weight of water, C  weight of Portland
cement, Cf  equivalent weight of Portland cement, k  cement efficiency
factor for fly ash, and F  weight of fly ash.
k-Factors can be created for and applied to many purposes, e.g. equal 28
day strength, equal chloride diffusion or equal durability. A calculated
k-factor will change depending on the Portland cement source, the curing
temperature and conditions, the fly ash source, etc. The technique has
been corrupted in that a single k-factor for CEM I 425 N of 040 is being
used to adjust minimum cement content in European standard EN 206. As
Smith17 used the W/C ratio, this has prejudiced the use of EN 450 fly ash
and water-reducing admixtures. Within the UK, National Standards will
continue to permit classified PFA to BS 3892 Part 1 to be fully counted
towards the cement content. Similarly, EN 450 fly ashes will also be per-
mitted to count fully towards the cement content if additional perform-
ance testing is carried out.

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Using fly ash in concrete

2.5
Dewar point E? As the slope changes due to variation in material performance tri-lines are computed

2
Main (central) line
Dewer point B
Log strength 28 days

1.5

40% change in slope

W/C offset at 0.10
1 Main line converges
at this W/C ratio

0.5
40% change in slope

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5

0.5

Water  air cement ratio

Fig. 3.22. Abram’s law over a wide range of water/cement (W/C) ratios (Sear75).
Families from the tri-line Abrams law approach; based on PC, 50 mm slump concrete
with no admixtures
The k-value approach applies a single point value to a highly variable
material such as concrete. To control the quality of concrete properly
requires a system of continual monitoring. Duff Abrams established a law
in 1919 which relates strength to W/C ratio as given below:
S  K1/(K2W/C), (3.3)
where S  strength, K1 and K2  constants, W  mass of water, and
C  mass of cement.
This rule can form the basis of a quality-control system as shown by
Sear75 that can control, compensate and even predict the strength per-
formance of concrete mixes. A triple linear relationship can be shown to
exist as in Fig. 3.22, which can relate a wide range of W/C ratios to strength.
Typical strength versus cement content curves are shown in Fig. 3.23 for
Portland cement and a fly ash concrete.
As the durability of concrete is often related to the strength or W/C ratio,
or both, such systems offer better control over the final material than the
broad-brushstroke approach of the k-value.

Mix proportioning
There are many methods of designing concrete mixes.76 Most give an indi-
cation of the optimum proportions required and resort to laboratory trial
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

80.0

70.0
CEM 1 (Portland cement)
Strength at 28 days (MPa)

60.0

50.0

40.0
CEM 1  30% PFA
30.0

20.0

10.0

0.0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Cement content (kg/m3)

Fig. 3.23. Typical cement content versus strength relationship (Sear75)

mixing as the final step in verification. Because of the particle shape and
fineness of fly ash the design of concrete mixes is slightly different from
normal Portland cement concretes in order to obtain the greatest technical
and economic benefits from the mix. The spherical shape of the particles
reduces the water content of the mix and the lower particle density in rela-
tion to Portland cement leads to a greater volume of cementitious fines in
the mix. As most fine aggregates are washed to remove excessive fine
material, fly ash can often correct for minor deficiencies in the overall
grading of the fine aggregate/cementitious material, reducing the water
content further.
Fly ash mixes tend to be somewhat more cohesive than Portland cement
mixes and some compensation in the mix design is beneficial rather than a
direct weight-by-weight replacement. In general, an increase in the coarse
content of 3% based on the coarse/fine ratio will correct for this. Table 3.7
indicates two mixes of equal 28 day strength.
For most applications, 30% of the cementitious material is PFA/fly ash,
which is the norm. However, for low heat applications, economic reasons
and for especially demanding durability requirements, higher fly ash
usage rates may be used. EN 197-1 permits CEM IV-B cements to contain
up to 55% fly ash as a percentage of the nucleus, which is equivalent to
523% fly ash.
Fly ash reduces the rate of bleeding owing to the lower permeability,
increased cohesiveness and lower water content of fly ash concrete. This is
an aid when designing high workability or self-compacting concrete mixes
to reduce settlement and cracking problems. However, efficient curing is
very important. Excessive evaporation of water that is greater than the rate
102
 Table 3.7. Adjusting a Portland cement (PC) to a 30% fly ash (PFA) mix for equal grade at 28 days

Typical material PC-only PC plus Comments

contents in kg/m3 version 30% BS 3892
for a grade 40 MPa Part 1 PFA
concrete at 28 days version
of fixed workability

Total cement content 325 365 The total mass of the combination normally increases by approx. 12%
PC 325 255 This blend ratio is based on 30% PFA of the combination being used.
For coarser fly ash a greater total cement content or smaller propor-
chap-03.qxd 20/09/2001 08:57 Page 103

PFA 110 tion of ash may be needed to maintain equal strength

20/5 mm gravel 1200 1238 The coarse/fine ratio of the PC mix is 365% and 333% for the 30% PFA
version. Increasing the coarse aggregate content of the PFA mix com
Sand 691 617 pensates for the cohesive nature of PFA
Water content 164 154 With PFA, a water reduction is normally found. Generally, for equal
workability, it is found that for every 10% of BS 3892 Part 1 fly ash
added the water content may be reduced by 3%.77 With increasing
coarseness of the PFA, this benefit may not be seen
Mix density (kg/m3) 2380 2374 Although there is less water in the mix the density is slightly lower
because the particle density of fly ash is lower (23) than for PC (312)
W/C ratio 050 042 In many countries, the fly ash is counted as being part of the cement.
However, within the European standard (EN 206) fly ash is only par-
tially counted as the cement using the ‘k’ factor route. The equivalent
concrete performance route is an alternative approach

*The mix information is indicative of the changes that are likely to be required. Mixes should be checked by trial mixes in all casses.

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Properties and use of coal fly ash

of bleed can result in drying shrinkage cracking. The low heat properties
and extended settings times of fly ash concrete lead to an increased risk of
such cracking.

Special types of fly ash concrete

Roller-compacted concrete
The traditional method for the placing and compaction of concrete is for it
to be laid in controlled layers between formwork. It is then compacted by
an immersion vibrator to expel entrapped air. In contrast, roller-compacted
concrete is a concrete mix with a high cementitious and low water content.
This material is transported to site, often in open trucks, laid in discrete
layers by earth-moving plant and consolidated by a vibrating roller. In this
process the concrete, as compacted, has a low void ratio, high density and
good bond between successive layers.
A development in the construction of concrete gravity dams saw a
change from the construction of a series of blocks or monoliths separate
from each other in the dam to the spreading of concrete in uniform layers
over the whole length of dam compacted by a vibrating roller. This
required the provision of temporary kerbs. From experience it had been
found that a high paste content, cementitious material and water, was
needed to bond successive layers of concrete together.
However, the relatively high cement content also generated heat of
hydration extremes across the section, leading to shrinkage cracking and
the development of internal strains in the concrete. Replacement of a pro-
portion of the cement with fly ash would reduce these heat of hydration
gradients.
High fly ash content roller-compacted concrete depends on achieving
the optimum packing of all constituents in the concrete.78 That means that
all voids should be filled. It is usual practice to optimise the coarse aggre-
gate content of a mix, but filling of the voids in the mortar fraction is rarely
considered. For mix design the paste fraction is the absolute volume of the
cementitious materials and free water. The mortar fraction is the absolute
volume of the fine aggregate and the paste fraction.
A minimum paste content is necessary to fill the voids in the fine aggre-
gate, while as low a cement content as possible is needed to reduce the
heat of hydration. This offers the opportunity to add substantial quantities
of fly ash, a material with the same particle size range as cement. The
inclusion of fly ash will modify the rheology of the mix and reduce water
demand. It is pozzolanic, will give long-term benefits and will lower
internal temperatures in the hardening concrete. Adopting these princi-
ples has provided roller-compacted concrete with 60–80% by volume of fly
ash being used in the mix.
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High fly ash content concrete

Mix design principles developed for roller-compacted concrete have been
used for concrete containing high volumes of fly ash and which may be
compacted by immersion vibration plant.79 Adopting the principle of min-
imum voids in the paste, mortar and aggregate, mix designs have been
successfully used for concrete placed to floor slabs, structural basements
and walls. These concretes have 40–60% of the cementitious volume as fly
ash. Other work, using the maximum packing, minimum porosity princi-
ple,80 have similarly been designed for structural concrete with fly ash
making up to 70% of the cementitious content by weight.

Sprayed concrete with pulverised fuel ash

Sprayed concrete is a mixture of cement, aggregate and water, which may
include fibres and/or admixtures, projected at high velocity from a nozzle
into place to produce a dense homogeneous mass. It is sometimes called
‘gunite’ when the maximum aggregate size is
10 mm. ‘Shotcrete’ is the
term for sprayed concrete where the maximum aggregate size is 10 mm or
greater. Sprayed concrete may be applied by the ‘dry’ process, that is
when the mixing water is added at the spray nozzle. The ‘wet’ process is a
mixture of cement and aggregate weight batched and mixed with water
prior to being conveyed through the delivery pipe to the nozzle.
The art of sprayed concrete largely depends on the experience and com-
petence of the sprayed concrete nozzleman. However experienced the
operator may be, the very velocity of placing the mixture causes some to
bounce back or rebound from the surface under construction. This
rebound is mainly the sand fraction, which may be as high as 30% for over-
head sprayed concrete. Thus, there is considerable waste or rebound with
the process.
Limited experimental work has shown that a major reduction in
rebound can be achieved by replacing a proportion of cement with fly ash,
or by using a blended fly ash–cement component. Using the ‘dry’ process
of spraying and replacing 30% of the cement content with fly ash, a 30%
reduction in generated rebound was recorded and at the same time the
hardened concrete revealed a smaller pore size with no loss of compres-
sive strength.81 This finding has major potential for the replacement of a
proportion of cement with PFA in sprayed concrete mixes.

Placing and compacting of fly ash concrete

The following information is provided to assist site engineers and foremen

to achieve the best from concrete made with fly ash and illustrate how it
can be used in all types of concrete structures.
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

Plastic properties of fly ash concrete

Fly ash is a fine material with a spherical particle shape. When added to
concrete it produces a cohesive concrete, which looks drier than normal
concrete of similar workability. Normally, less fine aggregate will be added
to fly ash concrete in order to produce the best performance from the mix.
The following factors should be taken into account.

• Fly ash concrete is often darker than Portland cement (CEM I)-only
concrete. The colour consistency is similar to other concretes.
• Fly ash concrete visually appears more cohesive and less workable
than CEM I-only concrete. Because of the rounded shape of fly ash
particles, when vibrated the concrete will become highly mobile and
will move readily within shutters. For this reason water should not
be added on site to ‘improve the workability’ of the concrete based
only on a visual assessment.
• Fly ash reduces the rate of bleeding within concrete. Bleed water that
collects at the surface of concrete increases the W/C ratio and reduces
the strength and durability. However, because less water rises with
fly ash concretes they must be protected from excessive water loss,
e.g. in drying windy weather conditions. If the surface of any con-
crete dries out before sufficient strength has developed, early age
shrinkage cracking may occur. Protection and curing should be car-
ried out at an early stage to prevent cracking problems.
• Fly ash concrete normally contains less water than the equivalent CEM
I concrete. If used with a water-reducing admixture, e.g. plast ciser, the
above effects are amplified. If retarding admixtures are used with con-
crete the risks of early age drying shrinkage cracking is increased.
• The lower the water content of the concrete the less effective is the
poker vibrator at compacting the concrete, irrespective of the cemen-
titious type. Because fly ash concrete has a lower water content, the
poker should be placed at closer centres for a longer period to ensure
full compaction of such mixes.
• Self-compacting concrete (SCC) should be considered. This needs no
vibration to compact the concrete.

Achieving the best results from the concrete

As stated above, fly ash is a pozzolana that reacts with the lime produced
when CEM I is mixed with water. The pozzolanic reaction is temperature
dependent. The following should be considered after the concrete is placed.

• Fly ash reduces the amount of heat produced in comparison with

Portland cement concretes of the same strength. In thick sections this
is a benefit and reduces the risk of thermal cracking. However, for thin
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Using fly ash in concrete

sections excessive heat loss may reduce strength, e.g. in cold weather
conditions. In cool or cold weather conditions, concrete should be pro-
tected from heat loss, both in the structure and for test cubes. Test
cubes should be moved to a heated room at 20  5°C after casting, and
the concrete insulated to keep the chemical reactions going.
• If stripping shutters are removed too early, or if the surface of the
concrete has been allowed to cool too much, a weak friable layer of
concrete may lead to scabbing. One should refer to the specification for
the minimum stripping times, e.g. BS 8110, Highways Specification.
• In hot and drying weather conditions, the importance of proper cur-
ing regimes cannot be overemphasised. Any exposed surface should
not be allowed to dry out for at least 3 days, and preferably longer. If
kept wet and warm for long periods fly ash concrete can produce
highly durable concrete second to none.
• Test cubes must be stripped after 24 h and stored under water at
20  5°C, or preferably at 20  2°C. Cubes must be fully compacted
using a representative sample of the concrete taken throughout the
discharge of the load. One should take care not to use excessive
amounts of mould oil in cube moulds and ensure that the moulds are
in good condition: they should be checked annually. Cubes should
be labelled so that errors cannot occur but this should not be done by
scratching the surface of the cube.

Hardened concrete
Fly ash concrete is very similar in most respects to Portland cement con-
crete. The following are a few factors to consider.

• Colour: During the first few days and weeks after casting, concrete
changes in colour as hydration of the cement proceeds. As fly ash acts
as a pozzolana, these reactions will continue for many years in the pres-
ence of water. However, as fly ash uses excess lime there is a reduced
risk of efflorescence from the concrete. Colour is also affected by the
absorption of water by formwork materials. Absorbent form face mate-
rials tend to produce dark concrete. With increasing reuse of formwork,
lighter concrete will appear as the absorption of the form face reduces
because the pores are blocked with fine particles and mould oils.
• Protection: All concrete should be protected from physical damage.
The strength development of all concrete takes time and arrises are
easily damaged. Access to the area should be prevented or protection
provided to exposed edges, corners, etc.
• Making good: No special procedures are required for fly ash concrete.
All ‘making good’ operations should be avoided wherever possible;
these is no substitute for care in construction.
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

• Durability: With proper site practice fly ash concrete can be excep-
tionally durable. The Romans used pozzolanic materials like fly ash
to build the Pantheon in AD 115. There is no reason why concrete on
a modern site should not last over 1000 years.
• Personal protective equipment: PPE appropriate for normal concreting
operations should be worn. Concrete has a high pH value and
should be handled with care.
• Environmental: Specifying the use of fly ash in concrete benefits the
environment by replacing manufactured materials with industrial
by-products. As concrete has a high pH value, it should be disposed
of appropriately.

Examples of fly ash concrete in the UK

Pozzolanic materials have a long history of producing highly durable con-

cretes. The following are UK structures, which were constructed using
unclassified fly ash prior to the inception of controlled fineness with
British Standards, e.g. BS 3892 Part 1.

• Lednock dam6 was the first significant construction within the UK

that used fly ash.
• Ferrybridge power station,82 Yorkshire: 16% replacement of cement
with fly ash in the foundations where over 49,000 m3 of concrete was
used.
• Stithians dam83 near Redruth, Cornwall: 25% and 30% replacement
of cement was used in the construction of this concrete dam; some
36,000 m3 of concrete was used.
• Pembroke Power Station:84 104,000 m3 of concrete was used in the
construction of culverts and other below-ground structures.
• Leith harbour development,85 east coast of Scotland: 180,000 m3 of
concrete was used in hearting and facing construction; 25% fly ash
replacement of cement was used. The standard deviation was
31 MPa on a grade 165 MPa mix.
• Ragdale terminal reservoir,86 north of Leicester: 30% fly ash was used
in the construction of the mass concrete water-retaining perimeter
wall, the lower floor and blinding layers.
• Upper Tamar reservoir,87 near Bude, North Cornwall: 20–27% fly ash
was used in the concrete mixes for the spillways, facing and heart
concrete within the dam.
• Drax power station88 used selected fly ash with LOI up to 12%.

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Fly ash and the environment

Fig. 3.24. Dinorwig power station tunnels, UK

Many more structures have been built with controlled fineness PFA to
BS 3892 Part 1, including:

• Dinorwic pumped storage scheme (Fig. 3.24):89 this involved the

production of concrete-lined shafts used as pumped water storage
conduits for electricity production
• the Thames Barrier (Fig. 3.25)
• the London Docklands development
• Maplethorpe sea defence works
• Sizewell B nuclear power station
• The Channel Tunnel.

Summary

The benefits of using fly ash in concrete can be summarised as follows.

1. Lower water contents at the same workability with consequent
reductions in bleeding, drying shrinkage and permeability.
2. Better placeability, increased fine solids content and higher-quality
surface finishes.
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

Fig. 3.25. The Thames Barrier, UK

3. Lower heat of hydration reducing the potential for thermal cracking

problems.
4. Longer-term strength gain properties. With Portland cements, high
initial curing temperatures will cause a rapid initial strength gain
but a relatively reduced 28 day strength. With concrete containing
fly ash, at normal curing temperatures, in relation to Portland cement
concrete, lower early strengths are obtained but at later ages,
e.g.  56 days, superior strengths are found.
5. Improved durability, because fixation of the lime produced during
the Portland cement hydration reduces the permeability of fly ash
concretes. This increases the long-term strength, as in Fig. 3.15,90
and lowers the susceptibility to sulfate attack, chloride ingress, acid
attack, etc.
6. Environmental and financial cost savings: if the destination is
within reasonable transportation distances of the supplying power
station, the cost of fly ash is normally less than Portland cement.
Significant cost savings are possible with careful mix design and by
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Using fly ash in concrete

fully utilising the long-term strength properties. Fly ash reduces the
Portland cement content of a mix. As the Portland cement process
involves the calcining of limestone its manufacture involves high-
energy input and is a significant contributor to CO2 emissions. With
coal-burning power stations the environmental burden is directly
associated with the production of electricity. By the use of fly ash,
the overall CO2 burden and energy consumption are reduced as a
result of the reduction of the Portland cement component.
The use of fly ash in concrete is beneficial to the performance and durabil-
ity of a structure in most applications. However, both concrete and fly ash
have been researched to such an extent that at times it becomes difficult to
see these benefits because of the extensive piles of papers. It is expected
that the ever-increasing environmental pressure on industry will promote
the further use of materials such as fly ash. Perversely, the same environ-
mental pressures are reducing the amount of coal burnt, reducing the
availability of fly ash of suitable quality. It is expected that recovery of
older ash stockpiles will become economic to compensate for the reduced
supply.
Whether the drying and reprocessing of stockpiled ash is environmen-
tally beneficial is a matter for some conjecture. However, Dhir91 has shown
that conditioned ash can be used in concrete successfully. Perhaps when
the handling problems of moist fly ash have been resolved there will be no
need for dry fly ash to be produced.

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strength development, Ashtech ‘84 Conference, London, 1984: 287–294.
53. Woolley GR, Cabrera JG. Early age in-situ strength development of fly
ash concrete in thin shells. International Conference on Blended Cement,
Sheffield, 1991.
54. BS 8110. Structural use of concrete. Code of practice for design and con-
struction. BSI, London.
55. Dhir RK, Munday JGL, Ong LT. Investigations of the engineering proper-
ties of OPC/pulversied fuel ash concrete – deformation properties.
Structural Engineer 1986; 64B(2): 36 –42.
56. Browne RD. Ash concrete – its engineering performance. AshTech ‘84,
London, 1984: 295–301.
57. Gifford PM, Ward MA. Results of laboratory test on lean mass concrete
utilising fly ash to a high level of cement replacement. Proceedings of an
International Symposium, Leeds, 1982: 221–229.
58. Keck RH, Riggs EH. Specifying fly ash for durable concrete. Concrete
International, 1997; April, 35–38.
59. Thomas MDA. A comparison of the properties of OPC and fly ash concrete in 30
year old mass concrete structures, Durability of building materials and compo-
nents. E & F N Spon, London, 1990: 383–394.
60. Berry EE, Malhotra VM. Fly ash in concrete. CANMET, SP85-3.
61. Concrete Society. Permeability of concrete. Concrete Society, London, 1985:
6–68.
62. Concrete Society. Alkali silica reaction: minimising the risk of damage.
Technical Report No. 30, 3rd edn. Concrete Society, London, 1999.
63. BS 5328. Part 2: 1997 Methods for specifying concrete, amendment 10365 BSI,
London, May 1999.
64. Alasali MM, Malhotra VM. Role of concrete incorporating high volumes
of fly ash in controlling expansion due to alkali–aggregate reaction, ACI
Materials Journal 1991; 88(2): 159–163.
65. Taylor HFW. Cement chemistry. Thomas Telford Publishing, London,
Reprint 1998. ISBN 0-7277-2592-0.
66. ACI manual of concrete practice, Fly ash, 226.3R, 1994.
67. Fournier B, Malhotra VM. CANMET investigations on the effectiveness
of fly ash in reducing expansion due to alkali aggregate reaction (ASR).
ACAA 12th International Symposium, 1997.
68. Concrete Society. The use of GGBS and fly ash in concrete. Technical Report
No. 40. Concrete Society, Crowthorne, Berks, 1991. ISBN 0-946691-40-1.
69. Cabrera JG, Woolley GR. A study of twenty five year old pulverised fuel
ash concrete used in foundations. Proceedings of the Institute of Civil
Engineers 1985; 79: 149–165.
70. Dhir RK, Munday JGL, Ho NY. Fly ash in concrete: freeze thaw durability.
Draft report. University of Dundee, 1987.
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Using fly ash in concrete

71. Sulfate and acid resistance of concrete in the ground. BRE Digest 1991;
363, (July).
72. Bensted J. Thaumasite – a deterioration product of hardened cement
structures, Il. Cemento magazine 1988: 3–10.
73. Burton MW. The sulphate resistance of concretes made with ordinary Portland
cement, sulphate resisting cement and ordinary Portland cement  pozzolan.
Kirton Concrete Services, Humberside, 1980.
74. Jackson AJW, Goodridge WF. A new approach to P.F. ash concrete. Contract
Journal 1961; 180: 1284–1296.
75. Sear LKA. The development of a decision support system for the
quality control of readymixed concrete. PhD Thesis, University of
Wolverhampton, August 1996.
76. Dewar J. The Particle Structure of Fresh Concrete – a new solution to an old
question. Sir Frederick Lea Memorial Lecture, Institute of Concrete
Technology, 1986.
Department of the Environment. Design of normal concrete mixes. BRE,
Watford.
Owens PL. Basic mix design, CEGB Ash-Tech Conference Proceedings
C74, pp. 29–35, 1974.
77. Hobbs DW. Portland-pulverized fuel-ash concretes: water demand, 28
day strength, mix design and strength development. Proceedings of the
Institute of Civil Engineers, Part 2, Paper 9322. 1988; 33: 317–331.
78. Dunstan MRH. Rolled concrete for dams. CIRIA Technical Note No. 106.
CIRIA, London, 1981.
79. Cabrera JG, Atis CD. Design and properties of high volume fly ash performance
concrete, ACI Proceedings, SP 196, Michigan, 1998.
80. Cabrera JG, Braim M, Rawcliffe J. The use of pulverised fuel ash for construc-
tion of structural fill. AshTech, London, 1984.
81. Cabrera JG, Woolley GR. Properties of sprayed concrete containing ordin-
ary Portland cement or fly ash Portland cement. Proceedings of the
ACI/SCA International Conference, Edinburgh, 1996: 8–24.
82. Ferrybridge C power station. CEGB datasheet No. 1. CEGB, London, 1965.
83. Stithians dam. CEGB datasheet No. 2. CEGB, London, 1965.
84. Pumping concrete at Pembroke power station. CEGB datasheet No. 28. CEGB,
London, 1969.
85. Leith harbour development. CEGB datasheet No. 31. CEGB, London, 1979.
86. Ragdale terminal reservoir, Leicester. CEGB datasheet No. 39. CEGB,
London, 1972.
87. The upper Tamar reservoir. CEGB datasheet No. 41. CEGB, London, 1974.
88. Fly ash concrete for Drax power station completion works. CEGB technical bul-
letin No. 5. CEGB, London, 1985.
89 Copeland BGT. Fly ash concrete for hydraulic tunnels and shafts,
Dinorwic pumped storage scheme – case history. Conference proceedings,
1981.
90. In situ concrete strength: an investigation of the relationship between core
strength and standard cube strength. Concrete Society Project Report No. 1,
The Concrete Society, 2000.
91. Dhir RK. The use of conditioned ash in concrete. University of Dundee, 1999.
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Chapter 4

Fly ash as a fill material

Introduction

Fly ash has been successfully used as a fill for many years, with the first
recorded use in the UK being in 1952. A considerable amount of research
was done in the 1950s and 1960s, which formed the basis of its use. It is
acknowledged to have benefits of low density and high shear strength,
which have been instrumental in developing its wide acceptance as a fill
material.

Types of fly ash

For the purposes of fill, fly ash can be considered as being available
in three forms: conditioned, stockpile and lagoon (Fig. 4.1). Chapter 1
describes the production, storage and properties of these types of fly ash.

Properties of fly ash as a fill material

As described in Chapter 1, fly ash will gain strength with the passage of
time. Work at Newcastle University,1 following earlier work at Glasgow
and Salford, looked at the age hardening of fly ash and found a number of
factors influencing the strength. When compacted, suctions develop in the
fly ash which result in a cohesive force in the fly ash. These will dissipate
slowly but disappear if the material becomes saturated. After a short
period there is growth of gypsum crystals that creates bonding between
the fly ash particles. This also results in a rougher surface to the particles,
increasing the friction angle. The resulting strength is not lost if the fly ash
becomes saturated, depending on the gypsum content.
If sufficient lime is present in the fly ash then it will result in further
hardening due to a combination of further crystal formation and reac-
tion between the calcium oxide and the glassy material in the fly ash
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Fly ash as a fill material

Fig. 4.1. A fly ash lagoon

(pozzolanic reaction). It has been noticed2 that it is not the total calcium
content that is important but the free calcium oxide, that is the amount
that can be brought into solution and is available to react. An increase in
free calcium oxide will result in greater strength gain with time. However,
there does not appear to be a simple relationship between total calcium
content and the free calcium oxide and therefore it is not easy to predict
the strength gain of a fly ash.
When water is added to fly ash, it initially has a low pH3 as the sulfate
deposited on the surface of the particles is brought into solution as sul-
furic acid. This is a transient situation and the pH rapidly rises as calcium
is leached into solution (Fig. 4.2). The pH is typically 9–11 for fly ash,
although the pH for those ashes with higher free calcium oxide contents
can rise to 12. Only a very small quantity of free calcium is required to
achieve the higher pH. Because most of the water-soluble material that
influences pH has been washed out of lagoon fly ash, the pH is lower,
typically around 9.
The calcium content of fly ash means that most of the sulfate is present
as gypsum, which has a limited solubility. When tested in accordance with
BS 13774 the water-soluble sulfate content of conditioned and stockpile fly
ash is typically 20–25 g/l, which means that it is on the boundary of sulfate
classes 2 and 3 as defined in BRE Digest 363.5 However, the permeability of
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

10

6
pH

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Time (s)

Fig. 4.2. When water is added to fly ash it quickly changes from being acidic to
alkaline

fly ash is well below 105 m/s, which means that there will be restricted
movement of groundwater through the fly ash, so class 2 exposure condi-
tions are the most appropriate classification. The sulfate level of lagoon fly
ash is usually very low, as the majority of the sulfate will have been
washed out. The sulfate content is typically 01 g/l, so exposure class 1 is
more appropriate.
The sulfate content of fly ash means that it cannot be placed within
500 mm of metallic items, according to the Department of Transport
Specification for Highway Works (SHW). The water-soluble content of fly
ash is also sufficiently high to restrict the types of reinforcement that can
be used in reinforced earth structures. This is discussed in more detail later
in this chapter.
The loss on ignition (LOI) is a measure of the carbon content. The car-
bon has a low density and can absorb significant amounts of water. This
means that the maximum dry density and optimum moisture content of
fly ash are influenced by the LOI. Higher LOI ashes are lower in density,
but have higher optimum moisture contents.

Density

The particle density of fly ash is typically 20–24 mg/m3, the lower density
being associated with a high LOI. There is some variability in the density
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Fly ash as a fill material

of particles, with smaller ones having higher densities. This is due to

air voids within many of the particles, and between 1% and 5% contain
sufficiently large voids that they float on water. The variation in particle
density means that sedimentation techniques for determining the particle
size distribution are not suitable and more appropriate methods are now
used, e.g. laser scattering.
Over the years, it has been accepted that the most appropriate method
for determining the compaction parameters in the laboratory is using the
25 kg rammer, as detailed in BS 1377.6 The heavy compaction will give
higher maximum dry densities and lower optimum moisture content
values, but they are only slightly different from the light compaction; the
latter produces more realistic target values for site control.
Typical compaction data are shown in Table 4.1. The compaction data
vary from station to station, so it is important that the source of fly ash is
established and that the data for that source are obtained. Typical curves
for a range of sources are shown in Fig. 4.3. The variation in maximum

Table 4.1. Typical data for compacted fly ash

Parameter Range

Bulk density 15 mg/m3–18 g/m3

Optimum moisture content 14–35%
Maximum oven-dry density 11–16 mg/m3

1.5

PFA Source A
PFA Source B
PFA Source C
Dry density (mg/m3)

PFA Source D
1.4

1.3

1.2
10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Dry moisture content (%)

Fig. 4.3. Typical compaction curves, showing that optimum moisture content varies
with pulverised fly ash (PFA)/fly ash source
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

1.4

Base load
1.35
Dry density (mg/m3)

1.3
Non-base load

1.25

1.2

1.15
10 15 20 25 30 35
Moisture content (%)

Fig. 4.4. Effect on density and optimum moisture content of power station loading

dry density and optimum moisture content can be seen, with denser ashes
having lower optimum moisture contents. The curves for the ashes with
lower optimum moisture contents tend to have more pronounced peaks
and consequently the density is more sensitive to changes in moisture
content.
As well as variation in compaction data between sources, there can
be variations within a source. The plot in Fig. 4.4 indicates the changes
that can occur when the load factor at a power station changes. When a
station runs continuously (base load) the loss on ignition of the fly ash will
be low, resulting in a high-density and low optimum moisture content.
Conversely, when the power station has a fluctuating load the LOI will
rise, affecting the density and optimum moisture content. However, it
should be noted that some sources have low-density fly ash with low LOI.
The air void content of compacted fly ash is relatively high. At maximum
dry density, the fly ash usually contains between 5% and 10% air voids
(Fig. 4.5), and some can even lie close to 15% air voids. This means that air
voids are not a reliable way of measuring the compaction of fly ash.

Compaction

Trials in the 1960s carried out by the Central Electricity Generating

Board (CEGB), Lancashire County Council and Stevenson Clarke and
reported by Smith7 laid the basis of placing and compacting fly ash as a fill.
The general guidelines are to place the fly ash in 200–225 mm loose and
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Fly ash as a fill material

1.30

5% air voids – theoretical

1.25
Dry density (mg/m3)

1.20
10% air voids – theoretical

1.15

1.10

Density that can be achieved

1.05 in practice

1.00
25 27 29 31 33 35 37
Moisture content (%)

Fig. 4.5. Typical air voids plot

compact layers with eight passes of a roller. It is possible to place fly ash in
thicker layers and successfully compact it but care needs to be taken. If the
material is drier than the optimum moisture content then the compactive
effort is dissipated in the top of the layer and the bottom may not be prop-
erly compacted.
It is usual in the UK to use vibrating rollers to compact fly ash because
these are widely available. Rollers towed by a tracked bulldozer give good
results, with the tracks of the dozer assisting in the compaction. Although
vibrating rollers have been shown to give acceptable results, they tend to
overstress the top 50 mm of the fly ash. This will heal when the next layer
is placed on top or can be sealed by running the roller over without vibra-
tion for the final pass. Smith noticed that fly ash was compacted by lorries
running over it. Consequently, pneumatic-tyred rollers were included in
the compaction trials. These were shown to be very effective in compact-
ing fly ash, producing a good, close-knit surface. These types of roller are
used widely elsewhere, including the USA.8 The recommendations are to
use self-propelled rollers with a dead weight of 10–12 tonnes and tyre
pressures not exceeding 250 kPa.
Sheepsfoot rollers, smooth-wheeled rollers and grid rollers have
been found to be unsuitable and vibrating plates should only be used in
small areas where access is difficult and layer thickness can be carefully
controlled.
Cotton9 reports that pneumatic-tyred rollers were used on several con-
tracts on the M6 in Lancashire and Cheshire in the early 1960s. The lack of
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

availability, cost and the fact that they were not accepted as suitable for
compaction of fly ash in the 1976 version of SHW, UK, restricted their use.
A pneumatic-tyred roller was successfully used in the construction of the
G-Mex Centre in Manchester. The area was supported by a series of arches
and a lightweight fill was required, but there was concern that vibrating
rollers might weaken the structure. A pneumatic-tyred roller normally
used on surface dressing work was employed, with concrete blocks added
to provide ballast, and this achieved the desired level of compaction of the
fly ash fill.
The SHW requires fly ash to be compacted to 95% of maximum dry
density. This has proved a difficult requirement to meet. The fly ash from
a single base load source is usually consistent, with a variation of less than
3% in maximum dry density measured over time. This is still sufficiently
variable to cause problems if a single target maximum is used. The Road
Research Laboratory in 196610 reported that a method specification was
more appropriate for control of the density of fly ash. It was also noted that
there was no need to monitor the moisture content of the fly ash as this
appeared to have little effect on the density achieved. This may be due to
the particular ashes having relatively flat curves. It is more common to
have trouble with compaction if the moisture content of the fly ash is low.
Fly ash can dry out rapidly, especially in warm, windy conditions and it is
therefore recommended that water is available on site to add to the fly ash
to overcome problems associated with drying.
If a method specification is to be used, then control of the quality of the
fly ash on delivery to site is required. The moisture content can be moni-
tored and 95% compaction can be achieved if the moisture content is
maintained within the range 08–12 times the optimum. However, if the
optimum moisture content is very variable, this may not be a suitable
means of control. The moisture condition value apparatus has been inves-
tigated as a control tool for fly ash suitability, but opinions as to its suit-
ability are varied. Reducing the drop height may produce results that are
more meaningful. Once an understanding of the nature of fly ash has been
gained, it is possible to assess the suitability of the fly ash by squeezing a
pat in the hand. If it binds together then it is considered acceptable.
Density is usually measured in the penultimate layer to avoid any influ-
ence of overshearing. Core-cutter and sand-replacement methods have
both been found to be acceptable, core-cutter especially so because of the
speed. Nuclear density meters are also suitable for bulk density measure-
ments, provided the fly ash has a consistent LOI, as the carbon can influ-
ence the results. Microwave ovens can be used to give a rapid measure of
moisture content, but care has to be exercised because excessive heating
can lead to the carbon burning off with high carbon ashes. When drying
lagoon or stockpile fly ash in a microwave oven the sample container
should be covered because there is a risk of the samples’ disintegrating
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Fly ash as a fill material

and being lost. The ‘Speedy’ moisture meter has also proved successful as
a means of measuring moisture content.

Permeability and capillarity

The permeability of fly ash is relatively low and values have been quoted11
to be in the range 001  107 and 8  107 m/s, meaning that it has
poor drainage characteristics. Experience has shown that if fly ash is well
compacted and is subsequently subjected to heavy rain, it will slowly
absorb moisture, the top surface may become saturated and the majority
of the rain will be shed. There will only be slow penetration of water into
the fly ash and studies from several disposal sites have indicated that there
is no conclusive evidence of percolation through the mounds.
If the upper surface of fly ash becomes saturated then it will recover
rapidly once the weather becomes drier. If necessary, the wet material can
be removed, stored and re-used when it has dried out. Alternatively, semi-
dry fly ash can be added to absorb moisture.
It is important to protect the side slopes of embankments as soon as
possible after completion, usually with topsoil, to prevent channels being
scoured out of the fly ash. Care must be taken to prevent excessive run-off
during the construction stage, wherever possible.
When the base of compacted fly ash becomes saturated, the water
will be drawn up by capillary action to 05–06 m above the water level.
This can cause instability problems in thin layers, 600 mm thick. It is
recommended that to avoid such problems, a drainage blanket should
be placed under the fly ash. This should be sufficiently thick to raise the
fly ash above the water level; a drainage blanket of sand with a thickness
of 300–450 mm is usually recommended. As well as sand, crushed rock,
crushed concrete and slag are all acceptable as a drainage material, pro-
viding the grading is correct. There have been instances where fly ash has
been successfully placed in wet areas, one example being the embank-
ments constructed as part of the Oakham Ness oil terminal.12 Here, two fly
ash embankments were built on saltings; the first layer was fly ash end-
tipped on to the marshy area to a depth of 600 mm without compaction.
Subsequent layers were spread and rolled with a 10 tonne pneumatic-
tyred roller. The side slopes were faced with stone to prevent erosion.
Another interesting application was reclamation of land adjacent to the
River Medway at Lappel Bank,13 Sheerness. Here, lagoon fly ash was
pumped through 1000 m of pipework into barges. The barges transported
the fly ash down river to the Lappel Bank reclamation site.
Because fly ash is a silt-like material, it can be considered to be susceptible
to frost. Work done by the Road Research Laboratory14 on seven different
ashes found that four of them were frost susceptible. They concluded that
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

ashes with more than 40% retained on the 75 m sieve were susceptible,
but these are exceptionally coarse ashes. The frost susceptibility of fly ash
was confirmed in work reported by Sutherland and Gaskin.15 Because of
the potential for frost heave, it is recommended that fly ash is kept at least
450 mm below the finished surface.

Settlement

Fly ash has a stiffness similar to a hard clay, with Mv typically 01–02
MN/m2, depending on the degree of compaction. Values for the elastic
modulus, based on secant measurements from undrained triaxial tests,
at 167% strain, have been quoted by Barber et al.11 as typically 70 MN/m2
for tests carried out immediately after compaction, rising to around
110 MN/m2 at 28 days.
Raymond and Smith16 noted that settlements predicted from laboratory
and, to a lesser extent, field test results overestimated settlements. The
Thermalite factory at Agecroft in Manchester was built on 15 m of stockpile
fly ash that had not had any systematic compaction. The settlements cal-
culated from laboratory consolidation tests were found to be in the range
of 300–405 mm. Standard penetration tests* gave an average N-value of 85.
It was estimated from this that settlements would be in the order of 25 mm.
Plate-bearing tests were then carried out on the site, from which it was
estimated that settlement would be in the range of 05–185 mm. Actual
measurements showed the settlement to be, in general, less than predicted
by the plate-bearing test.
Sutherland et al.2 reported the use of mixed lagoon fly ash in filling a
6 m deep railway cutting on the A452 at Packington in 1952. The material,
with a moisture content of 55%, was end-tipped into the cutting and
given no compaction. Despite the method of placing, the fly ash only
settled around 38 mm in 2 months while it was temporarily carrying the
traffic. The permanent road was then constructed and after 4 years no
further settlement had been detected.
Cabrera et al.17 examined the effect of applying load to a compacted
lagoon fly ash in a field trial. An area 105  85 m  15 m deep was excav-
ated and filled with fly ash under controlled conditions. A reinforced
concrete raft 47  25 m  015 m thick with a down-stand 03 m square-
section edge beam was cast on the surface of the fill. The raft was evenly
loaded with a surcharge of 55 tonnes. Settlement was measured at nine
reference points on the surface of the raft. The measurements showed that

*The standard penetration test involves driving a sampler using a standard rammer 450 mm
into the soil. The number of blows required to achieve the last 300 mm of penetration is the N-
value. It is used to estimate the relative density, bearing capacity and friction angle of the soil.

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Fly ash as a fill material

the majority of the settlement was in the range of 2–4 mm and was virtu-
ally complete in the first day. Water was then added to the area on several
occasions, but no further movement of the raft was detected.
Despite the low permeability, the pore pressures in fly ashes dissipate
quickly. In triaxial tests1 on 38 mm diameter, saturated specimens, the
pore pressures dissipated in 10 min. This is consistent with the rapid
settlements noticed above and indicates that long-term consolidation
is not a problem, as settlement within the fly ash will occur during
construction.

Shear strength

It was noticed very quickly that when fly ash was excavated from lagoons
and stockpiles it could maintain a very steep, even vertical, face. The stock-
pile of fly ash excavated from lagoons at Carrington power station had
side slopes typically of 45°. This highlighted the high shear strength pos-
sessed by fly ash. It was also noticed that strength could develop with time
and was influenced by moisture content, with the strength falling signi-
ficantly when the moisture content exceeded the optimum. A typical
example is shown in Fig. 4.6. Data from Raymond18 shows the effect of
time and moisture content on the California bearing ratio (CBR) of fly ash
from Bold power station.

140

120
28 day

100
CBR (%)

80

60

0 day
40

20

0
12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Moisture content (%)

Fig. 4.6. Effect of time and moisture content on the California bearing ratio (CBR)
value (Raymond18)
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

Table 4.2. Variation in Cu and u with time (Raymond and Smith16)

Source Elapsed time at test (days)

0 14 56

Cu u Cu u Cu u
(kPa) (degrees) (kPa) (degrees) (kPa) (degrees)

Agecroft 45 336 207 346 207 370

Battersea 48 380 83 365 110 365
Bold 34 346 234 386 276 388
Dunston 41 336 55 342 69 347
Skelton Grange 28 343 110 400 179 400
Westwood 34 318 48 318 83 365

Early work examined strength by either CBR, unconfined compressive

strength tests or undrained triaxial tests. Raymond18 noted that it was very
difficult to saturate the specimens when carrying out triaxial tests, recording
very low B-values in tests on fly ash from a trial embankment in Bedford, UK.
Both Raymond18 and Sutherland et al.2 demonstrated that most fly ashes
would gain strength with time but that this varied not only with source
but also over time for a given source. The ratio of 28 to 1 day strengths
ranged from 18 to 72 for Barony fly ash but from 09 to 21 for Kincardine.
As discussed earlier, the strength gain is due to the chemistry of the fly
ash, which in turn is dependent on the coal being burnt. The fly ashes
with higher calcium contents show greater strength gain. Fox19 confirmed
the above, commenting that lagoon fly ash, where the water has been
discharged from the lagoon, removing the water-soluble fraction, shows
only moderate strength gain.
The strength gain is due to increases in both cohesion and friction angle.
The increase in cohesion is due to the crystal growth and gel formation
described earlier. The increase in friction angle is due to the rougher surface
found on the fly ash particles as the self-hardening occurs. Undrained tri-
axial tests indicate that typically the cohesion will often more than double
from 1 to 28 days, whereas the friction angle will show a rise of between
10% and 20%. There will be continuing strength gain beyond 28 days. Data
obtained by Raymond and Smith16 shown in Table 4.2 demonstrate the
strength gains measured for different sources of fly ash. The difference in
shear strength gain for fly ashes from Agecroft and Westwood is highlighted
in Fig. 4.7. The two are similar at 0 days but there is a significant difference
after 56 days, mainly due to the increased cohesion of the Agecroft fly ash.
As expected, the shear strength will reduce with density (Table 4.3). The
cohesion at 90% relative compaction is typically 50–60% of that at 100%
relative compaction, the friction angle typically falling by one-fifth.
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Fly ash as a fill material

550
Agecroft 56 days
500

450

400
Westwood 56 days
Shear stress (kPa)

350
Agecroft 0 days
300
Westwood 0 days
250

200

150

100

50

0
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325 350 375 400 425 450 475 500
Normal stress (kPa)

Fig. 4.7. Comparison of the failure envelopes for Agecroft and Westwood fly ashes at
different ages (Raymond and Smith16)

Table 4.3. Effect of compaction on shear strength (Sutherland et al.2)

Relative Shear strength as a percentage of

compaction (%) value at 100% relative compaction

85 60
90 75
95 90–95

The shear strength of fly ash falls when it becomes saturated. This is
mainly due to a reduction in the cohesive element of the shear strength,
with immediate tests on saturated samples sometimes indicating that
there is no cohesion. This demonstrates that the immediate strength is
largely due to suctions within the fly ash. There is less effect on the friction
angle. This is shown in Fig. 4.8, which compares shear strength of a fly ash
on a total stress basis, using samples tested at optimum moisture content
without drainage, and strength on an effective stress basis from drained
tests on saturated samples. Based on this, Coombs20 suggested that a con-
servative estimate of effective shear strength can be made by assuming
the friction angle to be the same as for total stress tests and to ignore the
cohesion.
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

300

250
Total stress
Shear stress (kPa)

200
Effective stress

150

100

50

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
Normal stress (kPa)

Fig. 4.8. Effective stress and total stress failure envelopes (Coombs20)

Table 4.4. Peak shear strength parameters taken from direct shear tests on conditioned
and stockpiled fly ash (Clarke and Coombs21)

Age (days) Conditioned fly ash Stockpile fly ash

0 7 14 28 0 7 14 28

Unsoaked C (kPa) 28 30 30 38 15 20 24 27
Unsoaked  (degrees) 43 41 43 44 44 44 41 43
Soaked C (kPa) 24 81 87 28 17 27 51 78
Soaked  (degrees) 41 41 42 43 40 40 42 40

Although strength gain with time will be reduced, it often remains

significant, as shown in (Table 4.4), based on work reported by Clarke
and Coombs.21
As expected, the cohesion drops significantly when the fly ash becomes
saturated, but there is some strength gain, although it is less than for the
unsaturated material.
The effect of saturation of fly ash was examined and reported by Swain.22
A trial embankment was constructed at Warrington New Town in an area
with a high water table. This was drained and excavated, after which a small
embankment was constructed in the area. The area was then allowed to
flood. A series of samples was taken from the embankment to assess the
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Fly ash as a fill material

Fig. 4.9. Compacting fly ash as a fill material on the A52, UK

effect of saturation and these were compared with the performance of

laboratory-prepared and -stored specimens. The results indicated that the
laboratory specimens gained strength with time, mainly because of an
increase in cohesion. The specimens taken from a site showed a reduction
in strength as the material became saturated, although the undrained tests
indicated that some cohesion was maintained. It was noted that some
areas close to the edge of the embankment, where compaction was diffi-
cult, consolidated and after 151 days, the areas could safely take the weight
of a man even though the fly ash was wet.
It is important to select the correct shear strength parameters when
fly ash is to be used as a fill (Fig. 4.9). Saturated drained tests give results
that may be too conservative in situations where the fly ash is unlikely to
become saturated.

Reinforced earth

The first recorded use of fly ash in reinforced earth structures in the UK
was on the Dewsbury ring road in 1988.23 The poor ground in the area
meant that alternatives were sought to conventional reinforced concrete
retaining walls and the use of reinforced earth walls, up to 8 m high, with
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

Fig. 4.10. Fly ash as reinforced earth on the Connaught Crossing, UK

fly ash as the structural fill was considered the most suitable solution. The
relatively low bulk density of fly ash was a major factor in the decision to
use it. Before fly ash could be accepted it had to be subjected to an extensive
testing regime to ensure that it could meet the Department of Transport’s
requirements. This involved building a trial wall, and the results showed
that fly ash could perform as well as traditional fills (Fig. 4.10).
One of the main findings24 was that although the redox potentials of fly
ash were around 050 mV, the resistivity was typically in excess of
2000 cm, meaning that it could not be used with steel reinforcement.
This is in agreement with work elsewhere25 that indicated that the corro-
sion rate for steel embedded in fly ash was high. However, work by
Braunton and Middleton26 on the effects of fly ash on mild steel suggested
that long-term corrosion rates are not linear, as is often supposed, but are
parabolic with the depth of corrosion, as given below:

d
k  t (4.1)

where d
depth of corrosion, k
constant and t
time.
The rate of corrosion will therefore fall with time, this being con-
sidered to be due to corrosion products inhibiting further attack from the
surrounding material. Thus, short-term tests using linear corrosion
rates would lead to an overestimate of the depth of corrosion. They
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Fly ash as a fill material

Table 4.5. Coefficient of interaction between fly ash and reinforcement (Jones24)

Reinforcement Coefficient of interaction

High-density polyethylene 081

(Tensar SR2 geogrid)
Glass-reinforced polyester (Fibretain) 075

concluded that the fly ash used in the trial wall would have the required
design life.
However, the findings were too late for the trial wall, so non-metallic
reinforcement was examined; this included a high-density polyethylene
and a glass-reinforced polyester. The coefficients of interaction between
the reinforcement and the fly ash, measured using the method detailed by
Sarsby27 using a modified shear box, are shown in Table 4.5. The coefficient
of interaction between fly ash and Paraweb has been found to be similar to
that for Tensar. The success of the trial resulted in the construction of the
walls at Dewsbury and also the inclusion of fly ash in the Department of
Transport design code as an acceptable fill for reinforced earth.
Fly ash has been used successfully not only in reinforced earth walls but
also in other projects. Where reinforcement has been used to increase the
angle of embankments to reduce land take, polymer reinforcement has
been used, although polyester has also been used in some structures. This
reinforcing material is pH sensitive and generally values in excess of 10 are
not acceptable. Because the pH of fly ash can be in excess of this, any such
requirements need to be highlighted so that the fly ash supplier can
ensure that suitable material is available. Lagoon fly ash would be useful
in such circumstances because of its lower pH.

Miscellaneous uses

Fly ash has been used in some instances to improve the strength or
handleability of soils. Very low moisture content fly ash can be added to
wet soils or to improve the grading of single size sands. One example is the
A27 at Avisford.27 Here, fly ash was used to improve the moisture content
of wet, clayey sands so that the material could be properly compacted.

Summary

Fly ash has been successfully used as both a general and a structural fill
for over 40 years and has been demonstrated to be a valuable resource in
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

construction, with the advantages of:

• low density
• high shear strength
• no consolidation.
The guidelines for successful use were established early in its history28
and, provided these are followed, it will always prove to be a useful,
forgiving material that even if mishandled can give good service.

Laying and compacting fly ash on-site as a fill material

The following are guidelines for laying and compacting fly ash for fill
applications.

Recommended plant

• Spreading: Flat-tracked dozer (Drott or similar).

• Rolling: Towed or self-propelled vibrating roller, e.g. Bomag 90 or
larger according to site.
• Small tools: Tarmac rakes have been found more useful than shovels
for hand spreading.
• Heavy, dead-weight, self-propelled, smooth-wheeled rollers are not
recommended.
• Pneumatic-tyred rollers have been found to be suitable, but there is
little experience of their use in the UK.
• Once on site the fly ash must be spread and rolled as soon as possible
to avoid loss of moisture and consequent dusting.

Recommended procedure
The following procedure is recommended for fly ash.
1. The fly ash should be spread in layers (recommended 225 mm in
the loose state) and be well ‘tracked’ with the spreading plant.
2. Every effort should be made to add sufficient water to the fly ash at
the point of loading, but should it be too dry, it should be sprayed
with water during tracking and before rolling. Stockpile fly ash will
normally require the addition of further water after delivery, espe-
cially in windy/drying weather conditions.
3. If material is stockpiled the amount should be kept to a minimum and
should be sprayed with water as required to prevent dust problems.
4. It has been found from experience that the moisture content of
the fly ash can be roughly checked by visual inspection. Fly ash
moulded in the hand should keep together in one mass when slight
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Fly ash as a fill material

pressure is exerted; when it is approximately at the correct moisture

content, no moisture should be squeezed out. The moisture content
can easily be measured using a ‘Speedy’ moisture meter. Microwave
ovens have also been used, but care must be taken that the sample is
not ‘overdone’, which may result in combustion of the carbon in
the fly ash.
5. The fly ash should be spread in loose layers 225 mm thick, com-
pacting to 150 mm thick. On large sites, this is usually done with a
bulldozer. Thicker layers are possible, but it is recommended that
a trial is done to confirm the effectiveness of compaction (Table 4.6)
for suitable types of plant. On confined sites where access is limited

Table 4.6. Suitable compaction plant

Type of Best location Remarks

compaction plant

1. Allam Rampactor Very confined areas, e.g. (a) The largest size shoe
2. Wacker rammer the narrow strip next should be used
to bridge abutments, (b) The moisture content
retaining walls, and layer thicknesses
underpasses must be correct to
ensure adequate
compaction
3. Tandem vibrating Small and medium Bomag models smaller
sized areas: than those recommended
(a) behind bridge are considered too light
abutments and for fly ash
retaining walls Best results are obtained
(b) structural fills to if the surface of fly ash is
buildings, etc. thoroughly ‘tracked’ by
the spreading plant prior
to compaction and the
initial roller pass is
without vibration.
Usually eight roller
passes are sufficient
4. Towed vibrating: Large areas, e.g. The surface of the fly ash
Vibroll type T182 embankments and should be thoroughly
or similar other large open sites ‘tracked’ by the spreading
5. Self-propelled, plant before self-
pneumatic-tyred propelled pneumatic
roller types: tyred rollers can operate
Albaret Autopactor successfully
Albaret – Unipactor
Blaw Knox – Salcro

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Properties and use of coal fly ash

and a vibrating plate is used for compaction, thinner layers may be

required.
6. The rolling should consist of no fewer than eight passes of the
vibrating roller. The first two passes should be without vibration, the
remaining passes should be with vibration on and the final pass
should be in such a direction that the surface cracks are tightened
up (this is usually a reverse pass, but depends on the slope).
Sometimes a final pass with the vibration switched off will assist in
closing up surface cracks.
7. Density testing can monitor the performance of the placing and
compacting of fly ash. Because of the disturbance to the upper layer,
density tests should be carried out in the penultimate layer. The
core-cutter method has found to be reliable for this. Nuclear density
meters have been used but the carbon content of the fly ash can
influence the results. It is recommended that any density results be
checked against oven-dried tests on occasion.
8. It is important to protect side slopes as soon as possible after com-
pletion of the fill operation to prevent scour in case of heavy rain. If
the working area becomes saturated the water will not penetrate
significantly and the fly ash will dry out rapidly if left. If the area
needs to be worked before the fly ash is allowed to dry out then it
can be bladed into a stockpile to dry and re-used later.

References
1. Yang Y, Clarke BG, Jones CJFP. A classification of pulverised fuel ash as an
engineering fill. Proceedings of the Conference ‘Engineered Fills ‘93’, Newcastle
upon Tyne University, 1993.
2. Sutherland HB, Finlay TW, Cram IA. Engineering and related properties of
pulverised fuel ash. Journal of the Institution of Highway Engineers 1968;
June, 1–16.
3. Foreman R. The production of fly ash. UKQAA Seminar, Electricity Associa-
tion, London, February 2000.
4. BS 1377. Soils for civil engineering purposes, Part 3, Chemical and electrochemi-
cal tests. BSI, London, 1990.
5. Sulfate and acid resistance of concrete in the ground. Building Research
Establishment Digest 363, Watford, UK, July 1991 (NB. This document is
being revised).
6. BS 1377. Soils for civil engineering purposes, Part 4, Compaction related tests.
BSI, London, 1990.
7. Smith PH. Field trials on fly ash. Contract Journal 1962; September.
8. Meyers JF, Pichumani R, Kapples BS. Fly ash as a construction material for
highways. US Department of Transportation, Washington, DC, 1976.
9. Cotton RD. Construction of embankments. Proceedings of ‘The use of fly ash
in construction’, Dundee University, 1992.
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Fly ash as a fill material

10. Margason G, Cross JE. Settlement behind bridge abutments. Ministry of

Transport, RRL Report No. 48, 1966.
11. Barber EG, Jones GT, Knight PGK, Miles H. Fly ash utilisation. CEGB,
London, 1972.
12. Oakham Ness Tanker Terminal: PFA for Local Bearing Fill. CEGB Tech-
nical Bulletin No. 11. CEGB, London, 1966.
13. Pulverised fuel ash transport. CEGB datasheet. CEGB, Sheerness.
14. Croney D, Jacobs JC. The frost susceptibility of soils and road materials.
Ministry of Transport, RRL Report No. 90, Crowthorne, 1967.
15. Sutherland HB, Gaskin PN. A laboratory investigation of the frost susceptibil-
ity characteristics of pulverised fuel ash. Report No. 01038/4, University of
Glasgow, 1967.
16. Raymond S, Smith PH. Shear strength, settlement and compaction char-
acteristics of pulverised fuel ash. Civil Engineering and Public Works Review
1966; October.
17. Cabrera JG, Braim M, Rawcliffe J. The use of pulverised fuel ash for the
construction of structural fills. Proceedings of ‘AshTech ‘84’ 2nd International
Conference on Ash Technology and Marketing, London, 1984.
18. Raymond S. Pulverised fuel ash as an embankment material, Proceedings
of the Institution of Civil Engineers 1961; 19: 515–536.
19. Fox NH. Pulverised fuel ash as structural fill. Proceedings of ‘AshTech ‘84’,
2nd International Conference on Ash Technology and Marketing, London, 1984.
20. Coombs R. A comparison of properties of fresh and lagooned fly ash.
Dissertation for Postgraduate Diploma in Geotechnical Engineering,
Bolton Institute of Higher Education, 1987.
21. Clarke BG, Coombs R. Pulverised fuel ash as an engineering fill.
Proceedings of Bulk ‘Inert’ Waste: An opportunity for use, Cabrera JG, Woolley
GR, (eds), Leeds, 1995.
22. Swain A. Field study of the behaviour of pulverised fuel ash under par-
tially saturated conditions. Proceedings of the 1st International Ash
Marketing and Technology Conference, London, October 1978.
23. Jones CJFP, Cripwell JB, Bush DI. Reinforced earth trial structure for
Dewsbury ring road. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Part 1,
1990: 88.
24. Jones CJFP. The use of ash in reinforced earth. Proceedings of ‘AshTech ‘84’,
2nd International Conference on Ash Technology and Marketing, London, 1984.
25. Headon AC, Chan HT. Laboratory corrosion studies of metals in coal ash.
Proceedings of the 6th International Ash Symposium, Reno, 1968.
26. Braunton PN, Middleton WR. Assessment of the corrosion of mild steel
in reinforced earth structures back-filled with pulverised fuel ash,
Proceedings of ‘AshTech ‘84’, 2nd International Conference on Ash Technology
and Marketing, London, 1984.
27. Sarsby RW. The interaction between pulverised fuel ash and grid
reinforcement. Proceedings of ‘AshTech ‘84’, 2nd International Conference on
Ash Technology and Marketing, London, 1984.
28. CEGB Technical Bulletin No. 19 – A27 Trunk Road Improvement. CEGB,
London, 1967.

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Chapter 5

Use of fly ash for road construction,

runways and similar projects

Introduction

Fly ash can be used in the construction of roads, runways and similar pro-
jects in a variety of ways. These can range from soil stabilisation and sub-
base through to a constituent of the wearing surface. Fly ash as a
constituent in concrete as a wearing surface was covered in Chapter 3.
However, in the other applications the physical and pozzolanic properties
of fly ash, as described in Chapter 1, are important. As previously
described, a source of calcium hydroxide such as ‘quicklime’, hydrated
lime or the by-product of the hydration of Portland cement provides the
alkali for a pozzolanic reaction to occur. However, with many of these tech-
niques, the initial strength of the system relies on the mechanical proper-
ties of the mixture. The ultimate strength and durability result from the
pozzolanic reaction binding the various components together chemically or
improving the bond formed, e.g. as when used with Portland cement.
The techniques described are kept as discrete methods. However, in
general terms success depends on a few basic requirements, many of
which apply to all material combinations:

• A mix design which properly caters for the particle size distribution
of all the constituents. This is the only way to produce a dense and
stable matrix.
• A mix design which is able to be compacted by the available plant.
Some types of plant suit some applications and material combin-
ations better.
• Plant and equipment which is capable of producing a fully integrated
mixture of the cohesive fine powders involved, such as Portland
cement, lime and fly ash. Often cement/lime contents are very low
and effective and thorough mixing is imperative to guarantee the
performance of the method.
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Use of fly ash for road construction, runways and similar projects

• The mixes must have access to moisture and a source of calcium

hydroxide. These requirements are vital in ensuring a pozzolanic
reaction takes place.
• The application and techniques employed must be tolerant of the
temperature/time periods needed for the pozzolanic reaction to
occur.
These requirements are valid for a whole range of fly ash techniques, as
follows.

General principles of stabilisation

Soil stabilisation is defined as the treatment of a material to improve its

strength and other physical properties. While the properties of treated fly
ash are adequate for many applications in civil engineering, the idea of
stabilisation has figured prominently in its development. Many stabilisa-
tion techniques rely on reducing the water content of the in situ soil and
increasing the strength and stability. The latter may be provided by a poz-
zolanic reaction between lime and a siliceous material, e.g. clay. However,
for soils that are devoid of all suitable siliceous material, the addition of fly
ash will provide the necessary pozzolana.

Development and application of stabilisation

Portland cement is probably the most widely used stabilising material. The
resultant stabilised material, usually known as soil cement, has given good
results in many parts of the world, especially in road and aircraft runway
bases. A comprehensive cement technology has been developed as an
offshoot of the parent science of soil mechanics.
Other additive stabilisers that have been relatively widely used are lime
and bitumen. Quicklime is often used to stabilise soft, clayey soils. The
reaction of quicklime and water produces hydrated lime and heat. This
process helps with drying the soil and, when the treated material is
compacted, forms a firm working platform for following construction.
The lime both carbonates and reacts pozzolanically with the clay to give
increased strength in the longer term. The choice of additive in any particu-
lar instance depends on the cost and availability of the additives in relation
to the material to be stabilised.

Stabilisation processes

Soil stabilisation techniques have one thing in common in that the sta-
bilised material is formed by intimately mixing a predetermined amount
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

of additive with the soil and then compacting so far as possible under opti-
mum conditions. In some parts of the world, the only materials available
for road construction are the native soil and a limited choice of additives.
These are special cases, however, and more typical are the conditions in
the UK, where native materials and processes are available. Soil stabilisa-
tion using fly ash has to compete with other processes, materials and
cements, for example, and must be cost effective.

Mix-in-place stabilisation
The mix-in-place method involves the mixing of the additive, soil and pos-
sibly water using a rotovator or specialised self-propelled pulveriser. Good
mixing-in of the additive is possible with most soils. However, in the field
the efficient mixing of additives with clay soils presents the greatest diffi-
culty. Both Portland cement and quicklime have been used for mix-in-place
stabilisation. Most of the work has been in areas of predominantly sandy
soil. In such regions, the mix-in-place process will normally be the cheapest
method of stabilising the soil.

Pre-mix stabilisation
The additive is mixed with the soil in separate mixers, in much the same
way that concrete is mixed, so that much better control of mixing efficiency
and quantities of water and additive is possible. Equipment similar to a
concrete-mixing plant is required, e.g. weighing, batching and mixing sys-
tems are needed. Although it is possible to treat the existing soil in a road
subgrade in this manner, selected soil from borrow pits is often used.
Because of the extra excavation and haulage involved, this procedure is
generally dearer than mixing in place, but may still be economical com-
pared with other types of construction. A limiting factor in the pre-mix
method tends to be the haulage distance of the borrowed soil. Since this is
often relatively long in areas covered by clay soils, consideration began to
be given in the 1950s to the use of fly ash as the imported material. The
power stations producing fly ash are well distributed throughout the UK
and they tend to be concentrated in those areas in which constructional
activity is high. Hauls are thus not excessively long, and the material is low
in cost.

Use of fly ash in stabilisation

Within stabilisation, fly ash can be considered to act in the following roles:

• As a stabilising agent: a material that can be used by itself to improve

the physical properties of a soil or in conjunction with lime or cement
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Use of fly ash for road construction, runways and similar projects

to form a binder. The term ‘soil’ in this context includes imported

material.
• As a binder as fly ash is a pozzolana: i.e. it will react with lime and
water to form cementitious material. In the case of cement it reacts
with the lime liberated during hydration but the product gains
strength more slowly than the cement itself.
• As an aggregate: it has been shown that most fly ash can be success-
fully stabilised using economic amounts of lime or cement. In view of
the lower gain in strength with lime and its greater sensitivity to low
temperatures, cement is often preferred.
Stabilised fly ash can be used for

• road bases and sub-bases

• hard shoulders
• site roads
• footpath bases
• factory floors, hard standings, etc.
Although stabilised fly ash would not normally be considered a wearing
surface it has been used successfully for coal-stocking areas in power
stations.

Cement stabilised fly ash

General
Cement and lime are the most widely used soil-stabilising agents and most
fly ash stabilisation contracts in the UK have been carried out with these as
the binder. Fly ash, cement and lime are all readily available and of pre-
dictable performance. Therefore, fly ash can be considered as an aggregate
in place of the existing soil in cases where this, owing to its chemical or
physical properties, is unsuitable for direct stabilisation.

Design of cement fly ash or lime fly ash mixes

With cement fly ash (CFA) mixes, an increase in cement content gives an
increase in strength, but since a pozzolanic material is being considered, the
minimum cement content to give durability in the field should be used.
Typically, 7% cement by weight can be used for sub-base and road-base
applications, although mixes with up to twice this level have been used.
For design purposes the unconfined compressive strength, or crushing
strength, forms a useful indication and is used in the UK. It used to be gen-
erally accepted that the minimum crushing strength should be 18 MPa at
7 days, but many authorities now consider that it should be 28 MPa at this
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age. The upper limit of about 56 MPa should also be preserved, since at
higher strengths the CFA tends to behave as a low-quality concrete in which
cracks develop owing to lack of aggregate interlock. In good-quality CFA,
the finer cracks that form do not impair the performance of the material.
With lime fly ash (LFA) mixes as little as 2 –4% lime has proven to be
effective and little improvement in compressive strength is found with
higher lime contents. However, with such small quantities of binder effect-
ive mixing is very important. As indicated below for LFA mixtures, the rate
of strength gain is significantly slower than when using Portland cement.
For this reason LFA mixtures rely on the unbound strength for their early
age performance characteristics.
Fly ash mixes have been improved by inclusion of a coarse aggregate, as
in granular fly ash (GFA) below, and this is considered desirable if a supply
of suitable material is available. Finer ash and granulated slag may also be
used. The proportion in the mix is not critical as this will depend mainly on
the grading of the coarse aggregate and should be determined by labora-
tory trials. The usual amount is 25% of the fly ash by weight. The incorp-
oration of a proportion of coarse aggregate will improve the mixing with
cement and result in easier compaction. Furthermore, the mix also appears
to be less affected by heavy rain if this occurs shortly after laying.

Influence of compaction
Compaction should be such as to give the maximum dry density for the
compactive effort employed, which means that the moisture content must
be controlled at the optimum or slightly above that required for the CFA
mixture. Maximum dry density and optimum moisture are determined
using standard compaction tests as described in Chapter 4. If mixtures of
CFA or LFA are compacted drier than optimum using a vibratory roller
there is a risk of overshearing the surface, leaving lenses of loose material.
Unlike unbound fly ash, such material may not be properly incorporated
when the next layer is placed. Reasonable correlation exists between labora-
tory optimum moisture content, the field value and the CFA. In the field,
normally a minimum density of 95% of the compaction to refusal density
should be specified.

Durability under frost action

Since fly ash is composed mainly of particles lying in the silt range, it is
potentially frost susceptible, and many ashes suffer surface heave under
freezing conditions. CFA with a cement content sufficient to give a 7 day
compressive strength in the order of 28 MPa will not, however, undergo
any significant volume change under frost action. LFA mixtures, owing to
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their slower strength gain, may be adversely affected by frost. If they are
protected by 450 mm of surfacing material this will offer sufficient protec-
tion. However, some assessment of frost heave properties may be required
where less cover is possible.

Soluble sulfate content

Most ashes, unless lagooned, have soluble sulfate contents that are high
compared with soils. The acid-soluble extract from 13 ashes gave a value
of between 049% and 142% SO3, with the majority present as gypsum.
These can be taken as typical values. Despite this, the set of the cement
and gain of strength time are unaffected for mixes cured in the partially
saturated condition.

Field procedure and plant

The field procedure chosen will depend on the plant available, and the
possible methods are:

• mix-in-place
• multi-pass plant
• single-pass plant
• pre-mix.

Mix-in-place methods: general

Mix-in-place methods will give a finished thickness of up to 200 mm,
although 150 mm is more usually specified. After preliminary excavation
has been carried out, the fly ash is spread at the required thickness by a
blade grader over the area to be stabilised. In the normal delivered condi-
tion, 200 mm thickness of loose material will reduce to 150 mm after com-
paction. Careful control is essential at this stage to give a regular surface
and accurate levels on the finished layer. The cement or lime is then added
either by mechanical spreader (which can be adjusted to give the required
distribution) or by the following manual method. The surface of the area is
pegged out into rectangles of such area to require 50 kg of cement to give
the correct mix. A bag of cement is then placed in each rectangle. The bags
are then broken and the cement is raked evenly over the area.

Multi-pass methods
After cement or lime spreading, an initial mixing is given to prevent blow-
ing and any necessary adjustment to the moisture content is made. Water
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

is supplied by tanker, preferably with an offset spray bar so that the tyres
do not compact the mixed material. Quicklime may be used on wet sites.
The reaction between quicklime and water reduces the moisture content
of the site. Where added, the amount of water applied to the fly ash is
controlled by the pressure at the spray bar with the tanker running at a
constant speed. If a large increase in moisture content is required, the
process could be repeated between passes of the mixing equipment. The
tines of the machine break up any lumps in the fly ash and mix in
the cement or lime to the required degree by a series of passes over
the layer. Power is supplied through a coupling from a take-off from the
towing tractor.

Single-pass methods
Single-pass plant differs from multi-pass mixing by employing a spe-
cialised rotary tiller with a high speed of rotation and a very low forward
speed. A range of proprietary equipment is available, specifically designed
to ensure efficient mixing without creating dust problems.

Compaction

Here, independent compaction plant is needed; the first pass is preferably

carried out by tracked equipment as this gives a very good surface on
which following plant can operate. In general, good compaction and a
good surface finish can be achieved by using plant described in Chapter 4
and this chapter. Choice will depend on the scale of the job and the num-
ber of stabilising machines used.

Pre-mix methods
Although very efficient and economical stabilisation can be carried out
with plant of the type described above, pre-mix methods cannot be
ignored. The fly ash has to be brought to the site, and pre-treatment in a
stationary mixer enables good control to be kept over the moisture and
cement or lime contents, and the efficiency of mixing. The mixer should be
specially designed to prevent the formation of pellets of unmixed fly ash.
Either high-speed double-shaft continuous mixers or high-speed pan
mixers may be used. The configuration and mixer blade settings can have
a significant effect on the quality of the material. Balling of the mixture can
be caused by badly adjusted or worn blades and regular maintenance is
essential.
A works trial should be carried out in each case as the machine has to
mix two fine and uniformly graded powders with water. The CFA is
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spread to correct levels and compacted as in the mix-in-place method.

Hand laying may be used for small jobs but for large schemes machine lay-
ing, using e.g. a paver machine, will be more economical and will give an
improved profile.

Multilayer construction
Pre-mix construction has marked advantages where thick layers of sta-
bilised material are required, as for example in a construction of bunds,
bridge seating and road bases of thickness 150–200 mm. Actual work
in situ is restricted to spreading and compaction, the efficiency of the latter
governing the thickness of the layer that can be used. Although multilayer
work is possible with the other procedures, there is a risk of debonding
occurring at the interfaces of the layers.

Influence of weather
The usual precautions against the effects of adverse weather should be
taken as in other forms of construction. For example, adequate cover must
be provided in frosty weather. In wet conditions the laying of polyethyl-
ene sheeting on the subgrade, despite adding to the cost, helps to protect
the soil and prevents wetting-up of the underside of the CFA by absorp-
tion of soil moisture. In mix-in-place construction, the water supply must
be adjusted to make allowance for any increase in ash moisture due to
rainfall. Pre-mix construction suffers least from rainy conditions so long as
the compaction process follows quickly after the spreading. It may be
advantageous to use rapid-hardening cements to improve early strength
properties. The gain in strength gives added safeguard against the effects
of adverse weather after compaction, at small additional cost.

Field control
With soil stabilisation in general, good site provision and control testing
are essential for CFA or LFA construction. The controls required vary with
the nature of the job.

Curing of fly ash/cement or lime

It is important that the compacted CFA or LFA is maintained at the ‘as-laid’
moisture content for as long as possible to allow the development of
strength. Sisal or hessian covers can be used, but the best method of pre-
venting a rapid drying layer is to spray the green surface with bitumen
sealer. This provides not only a proof membrane, but also a non-strip layer
on to which the subsequent surfacing can be readily laid.
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

Road bases and sub-bases produced with fly ash bound

mixtures
The following text describes the techniques that are specific to road base and
sub-base construction. They have been developed in the UK based on experi-
ence and usage in France. Many French roads, including the heavily traf-
ficked AutoRoutes, use fly ash as a cementitious binder/aggregate in their
construction. In recent years in Europe these systems have become known
as fly ash bound mixtures (FABMs). FABM is a construction material for road
and airfield pavements. It is a mixture of fly ash and one or more other com-
ponents, the performance of which relies on the pozzolanic properties of
the fly ash. As the pozzolanic properties require the presence of an alkali
activator, normally lime, a wide range of fly ashes may be used successfully.

Types and composition of fly ash suitable for fly ash bound mixtures
Dry, conditioned or lagoon fly ash can be used for FABM. The fly ash need
not be fresh as the pozzolanic properties depend on the presence of an
alkali to initiate the reaction. Old, stockpile fly ash may be used and found
perfectly acceptable. Indeed, it maybe advantageous in some respects to
use stockpile ash in preference to fresh material. Significant proportions of
UK ash stocks are suitable for making FABM. The following are the basic
requirements from the fly ash:

• Particle size: Carried out in accordance with BS EN 451-2, shall con-

form to those in Table 5.1.
• Chemical composition: Expressed as a percentage by mass of the dry
product, which is obtained by drying a laboratory sample in a well-
ventilated oven at 105  5°C to constant weight, and cooled in a dry
atmosphere.
• Loss on ignition (LOI): The LOI, measured in accordance with BS EN
196-2, but using an ignition time of 1 h, or other equivalent method,
shall not exceed 8% by mass. If, proportion-wise, the fly ash is the
main component in the FABM then the LOI shall not exceed 10%.*

Table 5.1. Particle size limitations for fly ash

Sieve size (m) % by mass passing

90 70
45 40

*The purpose of this requirement is to limit the residue of unburned carbon in fly ash. It is
sufficient, therefore, to show through direct measurement of unburnt carbon residue, that it
is less than the value specified above.

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• Sulfate content: The sulfate content, expressed as total SO3, shall not
exceed 4% by mass when measured in accordance with BS EN 196-2.
• Free calcium oxide content: The free calcium oxide content, measured in
accordance with BS EN 451-1, shall not exceed 1% by mass. If this
requirement is not met, soundness shall be measured in accordance
with BS EN 196-3, and the expansion shall not exceed 10 mm with a
50 : 50 blend of fly ash and cement.
• Water content: Dry fly ash shall contain not 1% mass of water. Fly ash
can be stored, used and supplied in either a wet or dry condition.
As with concrete, the binders can be either blended on site or produced
in a factory and added as a hydraulic road binder.

Types of fly ash bound mixture

There are many types of FABM. They all rely on the pozzolanic reaction
resulting from the combination of fly ash and the added lime or the by-
product lime created when Portland cement hydrates. Examples of FABMs
are shown in Table 5.2. This table has been extracted from a draft European
standard, prEN13285 Part 3 ‘Unbound and hydraulically bound mixtures –
fly ash bound mixtures’, which is due to be published in 2003. It should be
noted that the list of FABMs shown in the table is not intended to be
exhaustive but illustrative of the current use of FABMs in Europe.
FABM, which is based on the addition of quicklime or hydrated limes,
reacts slowly and the reaction rate is temperature dependent. This is advan-
tageous for many applications. The initial strength in the layer of FABM is
due to internal cohesion and friction rather than chemical bonding, as with
cement bound materials. This allows freshly laid FABM to be trafficked
without detriment to the long-term strength and stability of the material.
The trafficking of the material also aids compaction. Granular fly ash (GFA)
is particularly suited to immediate trafficking after compaction. Sand fly ash
(SFA) mixtures can also be used subject to a suitable bearing index being
achieved. For use in colder weather conditions and cooler climates lime-
only based FABM may prove problematical and Portland cement can be
used to increase the rate of hardening in these circumstances.

Manufacturing fly ash bound mixtures

With respect to the quality of the finished product, FABMs are preferably
produced in central batching plants using pug-mill type continuous
mixers (see Fig. 5.12). Other stationary mixers and the mix-in-place
method of construction can be employed in certain situations. Owing to
the cohesive nature of fly ash-based mixtures and the low water contents
and workabilities involved, forced action mixers are preferred to ensure
145
 Table 5.2. Examples of fly ash bound mixtures (FABMs) for road and airfield pavements

146
Type of FABM Abbreviation Typical proportions as a percentage of dry mass (%)

Conditioned Lime PC Graded Sand Soil/ Other Typical Normal

fly ash (CaO) crushed earth material water age of
coarse content performance
material (%) testing
(days)*

Lime fly ash LFA 93–97 3–7 15–25 90

Lime gypsum fly ash 91 4 5% 15–25 90
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gypsum
Properties and use of coal fly ash

Cement CFA 90–95 5–10 28

fly ash
Lime fly GFA 85–13 15–3 50–55 30–40 6–8 90
ash granular 1† 50–55 40–45 4–6% 6–8 90
material dry fly
(two options) ash
Cement fly ash 3–6 1–3 50–55 40–45 6–8 28
granular
material
Slag fly ash 5–7 0–2 50–55 30–40 5–7% 6 –8 90
granular GBS
material
Lime fly ash SFA 9 –12 2–4 84–89 10 90
sand
Cement fly ash sand 6 –8 2 –4 88–92 10 28
Lime fly ash EFA 1–2† 90–93 6–8% Depends 90
earth (soil) dry fly on soil
ash
Cement fly 3–6 2 –4 91–94 Depends 28
ash earth on soil

*Earlier age testing is permissible subject to data and experience.

†
Lime is usually preblended with fly ash.
GBS: granulated blastfurnace slag.
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Use of fly ash for road construction, runways and similar projects

adequate dispersal of the relatively low lime or cement additions being

used. For mix-in-place applications, the use of farming equipment has
been superseded in recent years by specially designed machines. These
reduce the problems associated with in situ mixing of fly ash, lime and
cement, and the dust that can be created.

Laying
Placement and compaction are by conventional plant such as drot, grader,
paver and vibrating roller. Pneumatic-tyred rollers are usually specified for
finishing purposes and for some FABMs, as the only means of compaction.
Immediately after compaction, FABM shall be prevented from drying out
by the application of an alkaline bitumen emulsion or the repeated light-
spray application of water. The slow rate of hardening of FABM ensures
good workability and some capacity for self-healing. The mechanical inter-
lock between the particles (with granular materials) and the good cohe-
sion in LFA allow for immediate traffickability.

Pavement terminology
A road and airfield pavement construction consists of a multilayer system
(Table 5.3).

Road design using fly ash bound mixtures

The conventional road design in the UK is a bituminous surfacing and
road base over an unbound granular type I sub-base. Table 5.4 compares a
traditional UK flexible design with FABM equivalent designs.
The capping layer thickness depends on the strength of the subgrade
and can vary from nothing to 600 mm of material consisting of a wide
range of materials. Furnace bottom ash has been used successfully as a
capping layer in many European countries. However, stabilised fly ash can
be used as a capping layer.1 More recently, recycled road planings have
been used for capping.

Applications of fly ash bound mixtures

FABMs may be used for capping layers, sub-bases and road bases of
all classes of road and airfield pavements and footways. Fly ash is a
pozzolanic material, which in the presence of lime [CaO, quicklime, or
Ca(OH)2 , hydrated lime] hardens under water. Compared with ordinary
Portland cement, the rate of hardening of the fly ash/lime combination is
much more protracted, which has advantages in pavement construction.
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

Table 5.3. Multiple layers used in road construction

Layer Description

Bituminous or Wearing course This is the layer used to provide the

cementitious all-weather, wearing properties, skid
surfacing resistance and texture, and a
smooth-riding road surface. With
bituminous systems, these materials
are the most expensive in the road
and very thin, e.g. typically 25–30 mm
If a cementitious-based system is
used the wearing course will
normally be combined with the
base-course layer to form a rigid,
thick slab which is textured
Base course This layer is a level regulating layer
and provides thermal insulation to
following layers
Road base The main long-term structural layer
in the road. This could be either
bituminous (HRBM), a cementitious
lean concrete or a FABM such as GFA
Sub-base layer This layer provides a working
platform for contractors who need to
work in all weather conditions. This
is designed for a long life, typically 40
years. It may act as a drainage layer
and provide a frost break. Type I
crushed rock or FABM (GFA) can be
used, although neither of these will
act as a drainage layer
Capping layer Similar to sub-base layer and only
used when the subgrade is poor, i.e.
crushed rock or FABM. Suitable
FABMs would be CFA, LFA, EFA or
SFA. May be a wide range of
materials including granular, which
can be asphalt planings and stabilised
cohesive materials such as FABM.
Open textured materials will act as a
drainage layer; however, FABM is not
an open textured material
Subgrade The soil on which the road is formed

HRBM: hot-rolled bituminous material; FABM: fly ash bound mixture. For other abbrevia-

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Table 5.4. Illustration of fly ash bound mixture (FABM) pavements and their design

UK traditional flexible FABM sub-base option FABM sub-base and

design road-base option

30 mm SMA wearing 30 mm SMA wearing 30 mm SMA wearing

course over course over course over
70 mm DBM base 70 mm DBM base 70 mm DBM
course over course over base course over
200 mm DBM 125 mm DBM 175 mm GFA road
road base over road base over base* over
150 mm type I 225 mm GFA sub-base 175 mm GFA sub-base*
sub-base
450 mm in total 450 mm in total 450 mm in total

*These should be laid as two separate layers, compacting each layer separately.
SMA: stone mastic asphalt; DBM: dense bitumen macadam; GFA: granular fly ash mixture
(granular material treated with fly ash/fly ash and lime).

• In the short term, FABMs have extended handling times and thus the
flexibility in the construction process of unbound granular pavement
materials, e.g. type I sub-base.
• In the long term, FABMs develop significant stiffness and strength,
giving them the performance and durability of bituminous and
cement-bound materials.
Where quicker hardening is required, e.g. in cold weather working, partial
or complete replacement of lime with cement or the addition of gypsum or
other suitable material can be performed.

Granular fly ash mixtures

Granular fly ash (GFA) is a mixture of crushed graded coarse material,

sand, fly ash, lime or cement, possibly slag and water, where the fly ash
and lime combination performs as a binder. GFA can be used for sub-bases
and road bases of all classes of road and airfield pavements and footways.
The GFA is laid on a subgrade, capping or sub-base material with a soaked
laboratory California bearing ratio (CBR) of at least 15%.

Characteristics, performance and durability of

granular fly ash
GFA is a cementitious material that changes from an unbound crushed stone
material into a bound paving material, the rate of reaction being strongly
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

Unconfined compressive strength (MPa) 12

40C 20C
10

8
10C
6

0
1 10 100 1000
Age (days) (log scale)

Fig. 5.1. Effect of temperature on unconfined compressive strength for a typical

granular fly ash

dependent on temperature (Fig. 5.1). This has advantages in road construc-

tion under bituminous or pavement quality concrete surfacing. In the short
term, GFA has a handling time of many hours with similar flexibility
to unbound granular paving materials, e.g. type I. In the long term, and
depending on the aggregate, GFA develops significant elastic stiffness (ran-
ging between 10 and 30 GPa) and tensile strength (between 1 and 3 MPa),
which results in a pavement material with the performance and durability of
bituminous and cement-bound materials. The slow reaction rate means that
there is extended time to work the material and the capacity to self-heal.
In the fresh condition on normal sites, the correct grading framework
for the GFA produces a tight, closed finish that can withstand light rain.
However, on hilly sites, the fines in the fresh GFA can be removed by run-
ning water and measures should be taken to prevent this occurring by the
provision of adequate drainage systems. The use of crushed material and
the correct grading framework is responsible for the immediate trafficka-
bility of GFA. Thus, the stability of GFA over the short and medium term
favours the development of the strength and stiffness in the longer term.
The ultimate structural characteristics may not be achieved until 2 –3 years
after laying. The slow reaction rate generally limits construction to the
period April to October inclusive (in the UK) to enable frost resistance to
be achieved before the first frosts. Outside this period, the setting time can
be reduced by the partial or complete replacement of the lime with cement
or the addition of an accelerator such as gypsum. Overlaying the material
will give some protection from frost.
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Structural design of granular fly ash pavements for roads

Basis of the design

These designs cater for traffic in excess of 80 million standard axles (msa),
based on French design practice. These documents include designs for
GFA up to the equivalent of 320 msa, the maximum catered for on French
roads:

• 1977 Catalogue des structures types de chaussees neuves, DRCR,

SETRA, LCPC
• 1998 Catalogue des structures types de chaussees neuves, DR,
SETRA, LCPC.
When interpreting these documents to formulate the designs, account has
to be taken of French practices such as:

• 13 tonne maximum axle load

• the different approach to capping design
• the differing pavement life/maintenance strategies.
Regarding axle loads, the designs offered below relate to a maximum of
11.5 tonnes. Using analytical design, this has the effect of reducing the
French design thicknesses by 30–40 mm.
For capping, the French have four strength categories, PF1, PF2, PF3 and
PF4. PF is the abbreviation for ‘platforme’. The categories relate to forma-
tion surface stiffnesses of 20, 50, 120 and 200 MPa, respectively. For the pur-
pose of this document, the top of the standard UK foundation of type I
granular sub-base on capping has been assumed to lie between categories
PF2 and PF3. The top of the standard UK capping is assumed to lie between
categories PF1 and PF2.
The French pavement life/maintenance strategy in the above references
includes constructions based on stage construction at 7–9 year intervals. In
addition, they provide constructions that have structural design lives up
to either 20 or 30 years, depending on the class of road. The designs
employed are based on the equivalent of the ‘20 year-to-critical’ design
life normally used in the UK. They have been checked against UK practice
for similar pavement performance and by the semi-analytical approach
described by Williams.2 Williams, in turn, based his approach on an empir-
ical formula developed by Lister and Jones3 (TRL).

Design for the maintenance and strengthening of new roads, including

reconstruction and overlay
Table 5.5 has been formulated to satisfy both new build and maintenance
scenarios. All that is required to use the table is knowledge of the design
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 Table 5.5. Design recommendations for granular fly ash (GFA) road construction

152
Traffic Combined GFA thickness (mm) as a function of the surface stiffness or CBR of the underlying
(msa) thin-wearing supporting layer/formation (MPa)
course and
bituminous 200 MPa 70 MPa 40 MPa 30 MPa 20 MPa 10 MPa
layer
thickness Stabilised formation Equivalent to top of Equivalent Equivalent Equivalent Equivalent
(mm) using a suitable depth UK standard foundation to top of to a CBR to a CBR to a CBR
of OPC, lime  OPC, of 225 mm type I sub-base standard of 5% of 3% of 2%
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lime  GGBS or on subgrade CBR of 5% UK capping

Properties and use of coal fly ash

lime  fly ash or 150 mm type I granular

treatment sub-base on capping

80 170 230 260 290 330 380 430

30–80 170
12–30 130 200 230 260 300 350 400
6–12 100
2–6 100
05 –2 80 180 210 240 280 330 380
05 60

1. The design recommendations assume a GFA meeting the specification requirements and T3 tensile strength class (or equivalent compressive strength class) of UKQAA
data sheet 6.7.
2. In the case of GFA of T2 tensile strength class, the GFA thickness shall be increased by 30 mm. In the case of class T4, the GFA thickness can be decreased by 30 mm, except
for a surface stiffness of 200 MPa, where the GFA thickness shall be unchanged.
3. In the case of frost susceptible subgrade materials or capping, the depth of overlying non-frost-susceptible construction shall satisfy local requirements.
4. Do not use the table to verify a correlation between surface stiffness and California bearing ratio (CBR). The table has been formulated to account for both the short- and
long-term situation for the foundation under the GFA.
5. For traffic between 2 and 12 msa, and depending on individual circumstances, a reduction in the total bituminous cover is permitted provided the resulting bituminous
cover is not less than 80 mm and the reduction is offset by an equal increase in the thickness of the GFA.
6. For traffic in excess of 12 msa, and depending on individual circumstances, a reduction in the total bituminous cover is permitted provided the resulting bituminous cover
is not less than 100 mm and the reduction is offset by an equal increase in the thickness of the GFA.
OPC: ordinary Portland cement; GGBS: ground granulated blastfurnace slag.
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Use of fly ash for road construction, runways and similar projects

traffic in msa and the support condition of the supporting layer/formation.

Table 5.5 must be used in conjunction with the notes below the table. Under
certain situations, such as patch and overlay jobs, it is possible to match the
bituminous cover to the GFA given in the table with local standard overlay
practice or requirements (see notes 5 and 6).

Lime fly ash and cement fly ash mixtures

LFA is simply fly ash with added lime either as CaO (quicklime) or as
Ca(OH)2 (hydrated lime). It is a slow setting and hardening mixture with
self-healing properties. Table 5.6 shows the results from various LFA labo-
ratory trial mixes that had differing lime contents with CFA mixes of simi-
lar composition for comparison purposes. The results show the advantage
of Portland cement over lime at 7 days but illustrate the superiority of lime
at 91 days. They suggest that 5% CaO is equivalent to 8% Portland cement.
The soaked strengths for LFA are about 80% of the unsoaked strengths.
The cube strength requirement for cement bound sub-base (CBM I) for
a flexible pavement is 45 MPa at 7 days. Projection to 91 days yields an
equivalent strength requirement of 7 MPa. LFA with 5% CaO satisfies
this 91 day projection. The typical UK requirement for capping is a soaked
CBR of 15%. The above results indicate that since the LFA mixture with
25% CaO is almost of CBM I quality and soaked strengths are good, it

Table 5.6. Strengths of various lime/fly ash (LFA) mixtures in comparison with
Portland cement

Sealed LFA with LFA with CFA with CFA with

specimens 25% CaO 5% CaO 7% PC 9% PC

7 days 15 18 30 50

28 days – – 40 80
35 days 40 40 – –
28 days  7 days 33 33 – –
in water
91 days 50 73 60 90

Standard Proctor optimum moisture content (OMC) for mixtures 21%. Typical specimen
wet density 1600 kg/m3.
Mixture percentages are based on dry weight. Thus, 25% CaO 33 kg/m3.
Strength results are for 1 : 1 cylinders and can be considered equivalent to cubes.
Specimens were cured at 20°C and sealed to prevent evaporation.
The results at 28  7 days designate 28 days’ curing by sealing followed by 7 days in water.
LFA: lime fly ash; CFA: cement fly ash.

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Properties and use of coal fly ash

Fig. 5.2. Grading lime/fly ash to level

should satisfy capping strength requirements. The above results are typical
for LFA mixtures. However, there will be some variation in strength for fly
ash and lime from different sources. It should be noted that below 5°C, the
reaction between lime and fly ash virtually ceases. This is generally not a
problem with capping, but LFA sub-base work should be limited to
warmer weather conditions, e.g. ambient temperatures of 10°C and more,
unless the roadbase is laid and surfaced before the first frosts. Soft burnt
fine-grade quicklime or hydrated lime should be used for LFA as hard
burnt lime has caused problems with ‘pop-outs’ and expansion. This
appears to be due to the hard burnt material reacting more slowly, result-
ing in gradual expansion of the compacted material as it fully hydrates.
LFA is best produced in pug-mill mixers, laid ‘high’ and trimmed by
‘tracked’ blades (Fig. 5.2), and compacted by a pneumatic-tyred roller (Fig.
5.3). Alternatively, in situ stabilisation can be used. In general, LFA at opti-
mum moisture content will support traffic immediately, although surface
disturbance may occur, but this can be rectified with wetting, shaping and
rolling 3 days and longer after laying. For best results, LFA should be over-
lain within 4 h by the next layer. If this is not possible, LFA should be sealed
or kept moist to prevent drying out.
CFA can also be used for lightly trafficked roads in the same manner
as LFA.
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Use of fly ash for road construction, runways and similar projects

Fig. 5.3. Compacting lime/fly ash with a rubber-tyred roller

Pulverised fuel ash/fly ash in cement-bound material:

CBM III, IV and V
Cement bound materials (CBM) III, IV and V are categories of Portland
cement-bound materials that are specified in the UK Department of
Transport’s (DOT) Specification for highway works (SHW) for use in trunk
road and motorway pavements. In accordance with the DOT’s Design
manual for roads and bridges, Volume 7:

• CBM III is the specified sub-base for concrete pavements across the
full traffic range.
• CBM III, IV and V are permitted roadbases for traffic up to 80 million
standard axles.
CBM III, IV and V are also specified by the relevant authorities for airfield
and port pavements.

The use of fly ash in cement-bound material

The structural and cost benefits from fly ash use in CBM have long been
recognised and employed. These benefits relate to the more progressive
strength development that fly ash gives CBM. The strength gain beyond 7
days is usually much higher than with straight OPC mixtures. The Notes
for Guidance on the SHW recognise this difference and suggest that when
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

Fig. 5.4. Mixing fly ash modified CBM IV (courtesy of Fitzpatrick Contractors Ltd)

fly ash is used in CBM, cube strength compliance should be carried out
at 28 days rather than the 7 days for the usual Portland cement (CEM I)
mixtures (Fig. 5.4). This is provided the contractor shows from trial mixes
that the 28 day strength of the fly ash modified CBM compares with that
of the CEM I mixture which meets the SHW requirements at 7 days. The
Notes for Guidance also provide construction advice. The Notes for
Guidance also provide construction advice. Figures 5.4 and 5.5 show fly
ash modified CBM IV being used.

Strength compliance of CBM III, IV and V with fly ash

Table 5.7 shows results from the 1998 work using different sources of fly
ash, Portland cements (CEM I) and aggregates.
The strength developments shown for CBM III, IV and V (CEM I)
illustrate the theoretical minimum cases. The real results shown for the fly
ash-modified CBM illustrate that it easily realises CBM III, IV and V PC
strengths at 28 days.

Airport paving case study

The East Midlands Airport Project,* in the UK, required that an area some
15.6 ha (39 acres) be constructed for the use of various types of aircraft,

*The authors would like to thank the John E Ferguson of Fitzpatrick Contractors Ltd of
Hertfordshire for their co-operation in preparing this case study.

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Table 5.7 – Compressive strength results for cement bound materials (CBMs)

Mix Proportions Cube strength (MPa)

designation (% by dry weight) at various ages (days)

CEM I Fly ash Aggregate 3 7 28 56 91

CBM III 5 – 95 – 10 12 13 14

(CEM I):
theoretical
CBM III 3 12 85 5 65 15 19 22
(CEM I/fly
ash): actual
CBM IV 6 – 94 – 15 18 20 21
(CEM I):
theoretical
CBM V 7 – 93 – 20 24 26 28
(CEM I):
theoretical
CBM IV/V 35 75 89 – 16 24 – –
(CEM I/fly
actual

Fig. 5.5. Paving fly ash modified CBM IV roadbase (courtesy of Fitzpatrick
Contractors Ltd)
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

ranging in size up to and including 747 jumbo jets. This involved the con-
struction of a large turning apron, incorporating taxiways, and some 16 air-
craft stands adjacent to the express cargo building, which was constructed
under a separate contract. The client for the Project was East Midlands
Airport Ltd, with Scott Wilson Kirkpatrick & Co. Ltd as their acting con-
sulting engineers. The contract was awarded to Fitzpatrick Contractors Ltd,
a company with many years’ experience in similar projects world-wide.
Burks Green Ltd was engaged as designers for the project. Construction
commenced in October 1998. The paving element of the works started in
April 1999 with a completion date of October 1999.
The existing subgrade was mainly a firm clay material and it was decided
to lay 225 mm of dry-lean concrete (DLC) directly on to this formation.
Following extensive trials, the final mix design for the dry-lean incorpor-
ated 30% fly ash as part of the total cementitious content; 20–5 mm
limestone coarse aggregate, 3 mm down limestone dust and medium
grade concreting sand were used. The binders used were 91 kg/m3 of
Portland cement and 30 kg/m3 of fly ash to BS EN 450 as supplied from
Ratcliffe-on-Soar power station near Nottingham, UK. During the mix
trials, it was planned to use a DLC with a high fly ash content. Compaction
of this mix, owing to the high fines content contributed to by the fine
aggregate, proved problematical and the option was shelved for further
investigation later.

Fig. 5.6. Laying lean mix concrete

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The density requirements were 95% of cube refusal density and the
strength was in excess of 15 MPa at 7 days. The mix with 30% fly ash easily
achieved these parameters.

Placing and compacting the dry-lean Concrete

The DLC was site batched using two mixing plants. The majority of the
DLC was produced by an Erie Strayer 9 m3 tilting drum mixer, backed up
by a 2.5 cm Elba ESM 110 plant. The mixed DLC was transported to the
point of deposition in Maxon Agitors, each having a capacity of 9 m3. These
trucks, together with all of the plant used on the project, are parts of an
extensive fleet of paving plant owned and operated by Fitzpatrick. It was
not necessary to use the agitator paddles in the truck bodies with the DLC
owing to the free-flowing nature of the fly ash mix.
The DLC was spread on to the formation using an ABG Titan 423
tracked paver (Figs 5.6–5.8). The vibrating Duo-Tamp on this paver
achieved 92–93% of the required compaction. A Bomag 135 tandem roller
was used to complete the compaction and close the surface. Curing of the
DLC was by conventional bituminous spray.

Pavement-quality mix design

The pavement-quality concrete (PQC) mix had to meet stringent flexural
strength requirements. The minimum flexural requirement was 45 MPa at
28 days. In order to satisfy this requirement a strength of 51 MPa at 28 days

Fig. 5.7. Specialised tipping concrete trucks

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Properties and use of coal fly ash

Fig. 5.8. Spreading the concrete

was required in situ. Following extensive site mix trials it was concluded
that a strength of 63 MPa at 28 days in laboratory-cured beams would sat-
isfy the desired criteria. The average strength achieved for the contract
was 69 MPa at 28 days and 87 MPa at 56 days. Compressive strength was
closely monitored using test cubes throughout the works. Testing was
carried out in accordance with the contract testing plan. Cubes for testing
at 3, 7, 14, 28, 56 and 91 days were made at regular intervals. Beams for flex-
ural testing at 7, 14, 28 and 56 days were made for every 300 m3 produced.
The entrained air content required was set at 45%  15%.
The final mix design, incorporated into the works, was based on a total
cementitious content of 380 kg/m3. Thirty per cent BS 3892 Part 1 pul-
verised fuel ash (fly ash) was used in conjunction with Portland cement.
Coarse aggregates were single sized limestone 28, 20 and 10 mm. Fine
aggregate was zone 2 concreting sand. Water-reducing and air-entraining
admixtures were used.

Placing and compacting the pavement quality concrete

A Gomaco 2800 slipform paver was used to lay the PQC (Fig. 5.9). The con-
crete was transported from the dedicated site batchers to the point of dep-
osition in the Maxon Agitors. Initial spreading in front of the paver was
carried out by a rubber-tyred excavator. Compaction was achieved using
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Use of fly ash for road construction, runways and similar projects

Fig. 5.9. A quality-surface finish was achieved

24 vibrating pokers mounted on the paver. Following the passage of the

conforming plate over the concrete, only minimal finishing by bull float
(Fig. 5.10) and hand trowel was required. Surface texture and a curing

Fig. 5.10. Using fly ash gave a superior quality of surface finish
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

Fig. 5.11. Applying the curing agent

membrane were applied by a Wirtgen 850 TCM working directly behind

the paver (Fig. 5.11). The completed slab was protected by movable tent-
age.
Production achieved throughout the works averaged approximately
1350 m3 per day.

Granular fly ash case study

In August 1997, GFA was used for the reconstruction of a 1 km length of the
A52 in Staffordshire, UK. The job consisted of the removal, by planning, of a
400 mm depth of existing pavement. By processing and recycling the plan-
nings, then mixing them with fly ash and lime, a GFA was produced to
replace the sub-base and road-base layers of the road. The new pavement
consisted of 300 mm of GFA under 100 mm of bituminous surfacing. GFA was
chosen for its laying flexibility, immediate stability under traffic, and devel-
opment of significant stiffness and strength. These attributes were necessary
because access to the site was only possible from either end. Thus, any
paving material had to be capable of immediate use as well as being able to
accommodate the future heavy, slow-moving in service traffic.
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Use of fly ash for road construction, runways and similar projects

Pavement design
The section of road requiring repair is known as Kingsley Bank and is a
steep, winding, hilly section of the A52 near Froghall, Staffordshire, UK.
The road and surrounding area is geologically unstable. Investigation
revealed significant distress in the bituminous layers but a relatively sound
and strong formation. In line with the local council policy on recycling and
the use of local industrial by-products, it was decided to recycle the exist-
ing bituminous layers with lime and fly ash from a local power station.
The design for the reconstruction was based on:

• a formation CBR of 15%

• channelled in service traffic of 8 msa.
The road design was

• 30 mm stone mastic asphalt wearing course

• 70 mm dense bitumen macadam base course
• 150 mm GFA road base
• 150 mm GFA sub-base.
Using material recovered from the road during site investigation, potential
mixtures were examined in the laboratory to establish the lime and fly
ash contents to satisfy the above. The chosen mixture on a dry basis was
3% CaO (quicklime)  12% fly ash  85% planings. It was found that 2%
and 4% CaO addition gave virtually identical results. However, 3% was
selected for this first application of GFA in the UK. The vibrating hammer
optimum moisture content (OMC) for the mixture was 7%. The strength
results for 3% CaO are shown in Table 5.8.
Table 5.8. Strength results from granular fly ash used on the A52

Age (days) 7 28 60 90 365

Elastic stiffness: Eit (GPa) – 110 – 120 130

Indirect tensile strength: Rit (MPa) – 06 08 10 12
Unconfined compressive strength: Rc (MPa) 15 50 90 110 150

Production, construction and control

The existing flexible pavement, consisting of 300/400 mm bituminous
material on stone/cobbles, was planned out and taken to a nearby Staffs
County Council depot, where it was screened into 20–5 mm and 5 mm
fractions. Kerbing and drainage work was carried out at the site and the
formation tested with the falling weight deflectometer (FWD) and cone
penetrometer. This revealed that in places the foundation was weaker
than anticipated. Depending on strength and location, these areas were
locally excavated to depths of 150 or 350 mm to be reinstated with GFA.
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

Fig. 5.12. Typical mixing plant for fly ash bound mixtures

At the depot, the screened planings, fly ash, lime and water were mixed
in a continuous pug-mill mixer (Fig. 5.12), and the resulting GFA was
returned to the site and placed in two 150 mm layers as sub-base and road
base. The placing was by conventional paver (Figs 5.13 and 5.14) and com-
paction by a combination of vibrating and pneumatic-tyred rollers (PTR)
(Fig. 5.15). The latter were necessary to produce a tight, crack-free surface
and as a test of GFA under traffic . The finished GFA was kept damp by the
application of a fine water spray. Under the PTR, the GFA proved its sta-
bility under tyres and was able to act as an immediate working platform
for access and other subsequent operations. This was important since
access was restricted to either end of the job and there was no provision for
lorries to turn. This meant that freshly laid GFA was immediately traf-
ficked by lorries bringing in fresh GFA and, later, the surfacing vehicles
(Fig. 5.16).
The weather during the GFA operations was variable (see Fig. 5.17).
This necessitated tight control of moisture content, particularly in the
stockpiles.
On two occasions, over-wet GFA was laid which was impossible to com-
pact. This was rectified by opening up the laid GFA using a toothed JCB
bucket. This allowed excess water to evaporate and permitted later com-
paction. This opening up was possible up to 3 days after mixing. After this
time, the GFA began to set and harden.
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Use of fly ash for road construction, runways and similar projects

Fig. 5.13. Laying the granular fly ash road base

Fig. 5.14. Laying the granular fly ash road base (different view)
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Fig. 5.15. Compacting the granular fly ash

Fig. 5.16. Finished granular fly ash road base ready for surfacing
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Use of fly ash for road construction, runways and similar projects

Fig. 5.17. Laying granular fly ash on the A52 in the rain

No time restrictions were placed on the surfacing operation. In general,

bituminous base course was laid within 1–3 days after the GFA road base,
with the SMA wearing course following as required. During the oper-
ations, in situ compaction was monitored and test specimens were made
for strength determination. These confirmed the mix design testing and
design assumptions.

The finished product and monitoring

After surfacing but before opening, an FWD survey was carried out. This
was repeated in the following spring and on the anniversary of opening.
The deflections found are shown in Table 5.9.

Table 5.9. Falling weight deflectometer values

Deflections Sept. 1997 June 1998 Sept. 1998

(mm
0001) (13°C) (18°C) (14°C)

Total 170 90 80
Subgrade 40 35 35
Pavement 110 35 20/25

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Table 5.10. Core results

Eit (GPa) Rit (MPa) Rc (MPa)

16 (range 11–24) 085 (06–11) 6 (5–7)

At the same time as the 1-year FWD survey in September 1998, 20 no.
150 mm diameter cores were taken. Unusually, all of the cores were
removed successfully. The results are shown in Table 5.10.
GFA proved ideal for the A52 work, with its requirements for full flexi-
bility during construction and significant stiffness and strength in the long
term. Curing was not necessary, immediate trafficking was possible, and
as the FWD and coring exercises illustrate, stiffness and strength have
developed as anticipated.

References

1. UK Highways Agency. Specification for Highways Works, 9C, Cement

stabilised fly ash; 9D, lime stabilised cohesive material. UK Highways Agency,
London, 1996.
2. Williams RIT. Cement-treated pavements. Elsevier Applied Science, London,
1986.
3. Lister NW, Jones R (Transport Research Laboratory, UK). The behaviour of
flexible pavement under moving wheel loads. Ann Arbor Conference,
Michigan, USA, 1968.

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Chapter 6

The use of fly ash for grouting

Introduction

Grouting has been defined as the injection under pressure of suspensions,

emulsions and chemical solutions to improve the geotechnical properties
of soils and rocks and to facilitate the filling of voids for structural processes.1
Grout in its simplest terms is a thin fluid mortar. More technically, with ref-
erence to ground improvement, grout is a suspension composition used to

• reduce the permeability of the ground

• increase the shearing resistance and subsequent strength of the ground
• fill inaccessible voids.
Grouts may be categorised as chemical, suspension or emulsion systems,
and include cement, sand/cement, clay/cement, slag/cement, resins,
gypsum/cement, clays, asphalts, bitumens, fly ash, and various colloidal
and low-viscosity chemicals.2
Grouts are suspension compositions generally produced on site, most
commonly comprising fly ash, Portland cement and water. Fly ash has
been used for many years as an alternative to sand and cement grouts. Fly
ash grouts have a number of important technical, rheological (flow), dura-
bility and economic advantages over simple sand and cement grouts.

Types, properties and source selection of fly ash used for

grouting
The properties of fly ash which have particular importance in grouts are
considered in more detail.

Properties of fly ash when used as a grouting material

Free lime liberated during the hydration of cement is very susceptible
to chemical attack and makes little or no contribution to the strength of
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

the mix. Fly ash, having pozzolanic properties, will combine with this lime
to produce a stable cementitious material resulting in stronger and more
durable grouts. The chemical reaction between lime and fly ash provides a
more effective bond than that between sand and cement in weak cement
grouts. The pozzolanic activity of fly ash also compensates for the reduc-
tion in strength usually associated with fine fillers.3

Grading, particle shape, density and moisture content

Fly ash consists of spherical particles with sizes ranging predominantly
from 1 to 150 m (Fig. 6.1).4 Clearly, fly ash particles are mainly of silt
size but there is also a small but significant percentage of finer clay-sized
material. The forms of fly ash used for grouting are dry, conditioned and
lagoon fly ash. The latter generally is somewhat coarser. These form a con-
tinuous grading which imparts the excellent rheological properties to fly
ash grout. BS 3892 Part 25 and more recently BS 3892 Part 36 specify the
composition, chemical and physical properties of fly ash for use in cemen-
titious grouts.

Particle size analysis

When choosing a grout for a specific application, the particle size analysis
of the suspended particles (and especially the size of the largest) must be

100

90

80
Percentage passing

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 0.01 0.1 1
Sieve size (mm)

Fig. 6.1. Typical range of grading curves (particle size distribution envelope) for fly
ash used in grouting
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The use of fly ash for grouting

known. Where several constituents are used, this will be determined from
the grading curves for the individual materials. The shape of the grading
curve is extremely important in the case of dense grouts, as the size of the
largest particles determines the smallest size of passage that can be injected.

Bulk density
The bulk density of compacted fly ash grout is typically 1500–1800 kg/m3.
The particle density of fly ash is approximately two-thirds that of Portland
cement and 90% of that of natural aggregates. Typically, fly ash particle
densities lie in the range 20–24. This produces a grout with a significantly
lower density than Portland cement and sand grout, which can be benefi-
cial where weight is an important factor. The bulk density of loose (dry) fly
ash is about 1000 kg/m3. Table 6.11 indicates the material requirements to
produce 1 m3 of hardened grout together with the associated bulk densi-
ties. However, fly ash used for grouting purposes is generally supplied in
conditioned form with around 10–15% added water. Thus, the loose bulk
density is nearer 1100–1200 kg/m3.

Table 6.1. Typical designs for grouting mixtures

Fly ash : cement Quantities (kg) to produce Bulk Approximate

ratio by weight 1 m3 of grout density compressive
(kg/m3) strength (MPa)
Fly ash PC Water at 28 days

1:4 285 1140 500 1925

1:3 355 1065 500 1920
20–30
1:2 465 930 490 1885
1:1 675 675 475 1825
2:1 870 435 455 1760
3:1 965 320 450 1735
5–20
4:1 1020 255 445 1720
5:1 1055 210 445 1710
6:1 1080 180 440 1700
7:1 1100 155 440 1695
8:1 1115 140 440 1695 2–5
9:1 1125 125 440 1695
10 : 1 1135 115 440 1680
11 : 1 1140 105 435 1680
12 : 1 1150 96 435 1680
13 : 1 1155 90 435 1680 1–2
14 : 1 1160 85 435 1680
15 : 1 1165 80 435 1680
PC: Portland cement.

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Properties and use of coal fly ash

Moisture content
Fly ash can be supplied dry, either in bags or in bulk, or as is more generally
the case for large-scale grouting schemes, in a conditioned form, e.g. with
between 10% and 15% moisture content.

Properties of fly ash grouts

Water/solids ratios
As the particles which make up fly ash are mostly spherical in shape, fly
ash-based grouts have intrinsically enhanced flow (rheological) properties.
This means that less added water is required to attain a given flow than for
the equivalent sand/cement grout. Water has a significant effect on the
properties of grout, both before and after setting. Excessive amounts of
water result in increased bleed levels, lower strengths and reduced durabil-
ity. It is important therefore that the water/solids ratio is kept to a minimum
consistent with the flow properties required. In general, the water/solids
ratio of fly ash/cement grouts ranges between 04 and 05 by weight.

Segregation of grout particles (bleeding)

The suspended particles in grouts tend to segregate during flow and settle
under gravity when stationary, the latter being analogous to the bleeding
of concrete. When bleeding occurs in a grouted medium, fluid-filled chan-
nels or spaces are left at the top of the grouted voids. The strength of the
grout in the upper parts of the voids is often appreciably less than the
average strength. The amount of segregation and bleeding that occurs will
depend on such factors as

• the ratio of the volumes of solids and suspending fluid

• the ratio of particle densities of particles and fluid
• the specific surface of the particles
• the rate of strength development of the grout.
Bleeding is measured by the ratio of depth of clear fluid to the original
depth of grout expressed as a percentage and is usually plotted as a graph
against time. The method of measurement is to perform a simple sedimen-
tation test by filling a 1 l capacity transparent graduated cylinder with the
grout. The depth to the grout/fluid interface is then measured at regular
intervals. Bleeding will cease when either a stable porosity is reached or
the grout starts to set.3
The rate of bleeding for a suspension of fly ash in water is compared
with that of Portland cement in water in Fig. 6.2,4 both suspensions
containing equal weights of particles and fluid. It can be seen that the rate
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The use of fly ash for grouting

30.5

25.5
% Bleeding (h/H  100)

Water h 20.5

H 15.5
Solids
10.5 1:1 Cement : Water grout (by wt)

1:1 PFA : Water grout (by wt)

5.5

0.5
0 50 100 150 200 250
Time (min)

Fig. 6.2. Effect of fly ash (PFA) on bleeding

Table 6.2. Bleed capacity

PFA/fly Water/solids Wet Bleed capacity (% of depth with

ash : cement ratio density time), 100 mm deep specimens
ratio (kg/m3)
1h 2h 3h 4h 24 h

1:1 040 1765 1 3 3 3 0

045 1715 3 8 6 6 2
050 1677 4 5 5 6 5
2:1 040 1718 2 3 3 3 1
045 1679 4 5 5 6 3
050 1648 5 6 7 8 6
3:1 040 1695 4 5 6 7 4
045 1650 5 7 9 10 9
050 1628 9 9 10 70 9
5:1 040 1675 4 5 5 5 5
045 1641 6 8 8 8 8
050 1599 8 9 10 10 10
7:1 040 1680 3 4 4 5 4
045 1611 5 6 8 8 6
050 1587 9 10 11 11 9
10 : 1 040 1643 4 4 5 6 4
045 1620 7 8 8 8 6
050 1575 8 11 11 11 9
15 : 1 040 1658 3 5 6 7 6
045 1608 5 7 9 9 7
050 1582 8 9 10 11 9
20 : 1 040 1645 5 7 8 8 6
045 1607 5 10 9 10 9
050 1580 7 9 10 11 9

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Properties and use of coal fly ash

of bleeding is lower for the fly ash. This is due in part to the lower specific
gravity of the fly ash, the fact that its finer graded particles take longer to
settle and its ability to attract and retain water on the particle surface.
In addition, Table 6.21 shows the bleed capacity of various fly ash–cement
grout mixes over a period of up to 24 h.

Increasing compressive strength

The absence of any coarse aggregate within a grout influences its ultimate
attainable compressive strength and therefore the required, or specified,
strengths for grouts are lower than those for concrete. This situation reflects
the end-use applications and the technical scope of the grouting market.
Figure 6.31 shows a sample range of 28 day strengths that can be obtained
by varying the fly ash to cement ratio and also the overall water/solids
ratio. An important point to note is that since grouts are generally specified
in terms of attaining a minimum compressive strength, it is possible to
make beneficial and economic use of the fact that fly ash–cement grouts
exhibit a slower but longer-term gain in strength. This can be achieved by
specifying strength criteria at 90 rather than 28 days of age.
Table 6.3 and Fig. 6.4 show the strength development of fly ash–cement
grouts typically used for mass filling applications up to 90 days.

30

0.40 w/s ratio

28 day compressive strength

0.45 w/s ratio

standard curing (MPa)

0.50 w/s ratio

20

10

0
1 : 1 2 : 1 3 : 1 4 : 1 5 : 1 6 : 1 7 : 1 8 : 1 9 : 1 10 : 1 11 : 1 12 : 1 13 : 1 14 : 1 15 : 1 16 : 1 17 : 1 18 : 1 19 : 1 20 : 1

Ratio of PFA to cement by weight

Fig. 6.3. The 28 day compressive strength of low shear mixes: fly ash (PFA) to BS
3892 Part 23
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Table 6.3. Compressive strengths with time of grouts

Fly ash : cement Water/solids Compressive strength development

ratio ratio (N/mm2)

7 days 14 days 28 days 90 days

1:1 040 179 225 317 493

045 140 180 260 429
050 103 149 200 343
2:1 040 87 122 175 379
045 62 87 132 277
050 54 77 121 251
3:1 040 45 70 104 239
045 33 53 83 188
050 27 44 72 191
5:1 040 22 37 51 153
045 16 27 44 134
050 14 22 40 145
7:1 040 22 24 55 88
045 16 20 46 65
050 14 18 29 60
10 : 1 040 15 19 23 49
045 08 14 19 40
050 07 12 18 28
15 : 1 040 10 14 23 31
045 06 10 17 22
050 06 08 12 17
20 : 1 040 07 09 15 20
045 05 07 14 20
050 05 06 08 13

For example, if the specified design strength required for a grout is a

minimum of 4.0 MPa, then

• from Table 6.31 it can be seen that if the strength were specified to be
attained after 28 days, then a 5 : 1 fly ash : cement mix with up to 045
water/solids ratio would be required
• if, however, the strength were specified to be attained after 90 days
then a 10 : 1 mix would meet the requirement, thereby halving the
cement content.

Strength of the set grout and the soil

The increase in strength of a grouted soil may not bear much relationship
to the strength of the grout. The strength developed in the soil can often
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

70
PFA: PC ratio 1:1
Strength (N/mm2, 100 mm cubes)

60

50 PFA: PC ratio 2:1

40

PFA: PC ratio 3:1

30

20
PFA :PC ratio 5:1

10 PFA: PC ratio 10 :1

PFA: PC ratio 15 :1
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Age (days)

Fig. 6.4. Strength development in fly ash grout (typical strength of grouts : water/solids
ratio 0.45). PFA: pulverized fuel ash; PC: Portland cement

depend on the bleeding and segregation properties of the grout. Other

important factors may be a lining of soft soil to the surfaces of fissures.
When natural ground is injected its bearing capacity will depend on the
finer grained soils and very fine cracks. The grout may not penetrate such
soils and fine cracks. The chemical reactions that occur when the con-
stituents of the grout, the soil particles and the groundwater come into
contact may affect the bearing capacity. For example, free lime in the grout
may react preferentially with clay in the soil rather than with the fly ash.
From the above it can be seen that many factors have a great effect on
the strength of the grouted ground. Where the bearing pressure or design
loads to be imposed are critical factors measurements should be taken.
These should be based on a large enough area used as a trial area. The
following should be noted:

• Grouts in situ are usually fully saturated. Strength tests on samples of

unsaturated grouts will give misleadingly high results.
• The pozzolanic reaction between lime and fly ash is very tempera-
ture dependent. The in situ curing temperature could significantly
affect the strength contribution from the grout.

Specification of grout strengths: a note of caution

It is vital that the specification is sufficiently rigorous and detailed as to the

suitability of the plant used, together with the mixing method adopted.
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Ultimately, confidence in specifying at 90 day rather than 28 day strength

is dependent on the control of added water to the mix. Certain computer-
controlled batching plants are able repeatedly to attain accurate mixes
of grout. In addition, simple batch mixing of calibrated quantities in
an agitation tank can achieve an accurate mix. However, confidence is
needed that the specified grout strength has a sufficient factor of safety
for the specified strength when working with lower cement contents
to attain strengths at 90 days rather than 28 days. Here, the ultimate
control of water content becomes a critical factor. An excess of as little as
5% water, e.g. from 45% to 50%, can have marked effects on the range of
grout strength attainable. Should works proceed based on longer-term
gains in grout strength, it is essential that the mix can be controlled very
accurately and that a repeatable method with inbuilt safeguards to pre-
vent too much addition of water is adopted. If there is any doubt, it
is clearly better to increase the cement content and work within wider
parameters.
As stated earlier in this chapter, fly ash is a pozzolana, which reacts
with lime to form complex calcium silicate hydrates, which contribute to
strength. The lime can be added either as hydrated lime or from the by-
product of the Portland cement reaction with water. It is this reaction,
which occurs over an extended period (Fig. 6.4),4 that causes fly ash-based
grouts to exhibit slower but longer term gains in strength.

Reduced permeability
Fly ash reduces the permeability of grout through the precipitation of gel
products of the pozzolanic reaction. These gels act as a blocking mech-
anism within the pore structure. Laboratory tests carried out on samples of
32 : 1 fly ash : cement mix at 04 water/solids ratio recorded permeability
values of 13  108 m/s. In practice, increases in density due to consolida-
tion and the use of higher cement contents would be expected to result in
lower values.

Void filling properties

The flow properties of a grout must be such that it can be pumped and
injected a reasonable distance into the ground, otherwise the number of
injection points needed would be unduly large.
Grouts containing a well-graded range of particle sizes are more easily
pumped than those containing uniformly sized particles. In addition,
rounded particles, such as those in fly ash, can be pumped with less water
than angular particles of corresponding size and grading.
The flow properties of fly ash grouts are often discussed in terms of their
workability or fluidity. This grout workability is normally measured by a
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

Rate of strain (T)

T  So


So

Shear strength (E)

Fig. 6.5. Stress–strain behaviour of grouts if considered a Bingham substance

viscometer using the Bingham fluid characteristics, which are used to

describe the observed behaviour of the material.
A Bingham substance is an idealised model material which has both a
finite yield stress (So) and a strength component that is proportional to the
rate of strain (). The constant of proportionability () is known as the
Bingham viscosity of the material. The stress–strain rate behaviour of such
a substance is shown in Fig. 6.5 and in the following equation:
T  So , (6.1)
2
where T is the shear strength of the material.
Fly ash, because of the nature of its particle shape and size distribution,
improves both the shear strength (T) and viscosity () values.
In practice, fluidity is measured by use of a Colcrete™ Flowmeter or
Marsh cone and is expressed, respectively, as horizontal flow or flow time.
Empirical data, from work carried out at the University of Bradford Depart-
ment of Civil Engineering on flow properties, are shown in Table 6.4.1 This
shows that fly ash grouts with flow values in the region of 450 mm and
above are relatively easy to pump through small-diameter pipework.
In addition, fly ash grouts tend to have slower setting times than Portland
cement/sand grouts. The overall strength development can, for practical
purposes, be considered similar, although at very high fly ash contents this
is at a slower rate. Fly ash grouts retain their workability for longer periods
after mixing than Portland cement-only grouts (Fig. 6.6).4
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Table 6.4. Flow properties with time

Fly ash : cement Water/solids Time from mixing at 20°C

ratio ratio
15 min 1h 2h 3h 4h

1:1 040 510 470 400 – –

045 700 700 700 620 570
050 700 700 700 700 700
3:1 040 460 550 550 560 440
045 700 700 700 700 700
050 700 700 700 700 700
5:1 040 530 530 500 500 470
045 – 700 – – –
050 – – – – –

Fly ash : cement ratios above 5 : 1 produced flow readings in excess of 700 mm at water/solids
ratios of 0.40, 0.45 and 0.50.

800.5
20 :1 Fly ash : cement ratio
700.5

600.5
Colcrete flow (mm)

10: 1
500.5
5:1
400.5

300.5 3:1
Water/solids ratio  0.40
200.5
2:1
100.5
1:1
0.5
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
Age of grout (h)

Fig. 6.6. Typical flow properties of various grouts: fly ash grouts retain their work-
ability well

Admixtures
The performance of fly ash grout can be extended by the use of admix-
tures. These are often specially formulated for grouts to control setting,
prevent washout, and improve flow and pumpability characteristics.
Retarders, air entrainers and plasticisers are all regularly used with fly ash
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

grouts. In addition, fly ash grouts can be modified to produce little or no

shrinkage and attain non-dispersing properties.4

The filling of large caverns and open voided ground

Fly ash-based grouts have long been used in operations to stabilise aban-
doned and collapsing mine workings. This subject has been dealt with at
great length by a number of technical papers and publications. One of the
most notable of these was Construction over abandoned mine workings, pub-
lished as CIRIA Special Publication 32 in 1984, and co-authored by Healy
and Head.7 This discusses in detail the entire process of using fly ash-
based grouts to stabilise both mine shafts and mine workings.
Since the late 1980s and continuing to the present day, several large-
scale infilling contracts have been undertaken throughout the Metropolitan
Boroughs of Dudley, Sandwell, Walsall and Wolverhampton in the West
Midlands (UK), together with Shropshire County Council. Initially, these
contracts were funded by the Department of the Environment, and more
recently English Partnerships, under the Derelict Land Scheme, to remove
the blight of abandoned shallow limestone caverns. The volume of mate-
rial required to fill these extensive caverns would have been prohibitively
expensive using a conventional grout of the proportion 10 parts fly ash to
1 part cement, and therefore alternative materials were considered. After
lengthy trials and experimentation it was concluded that a material based
on fly ash but with considerably reduced cement content, as little as 2%,
was the most favourable. This material, is commonly referred to as fly
ash/cement paste owing to its relatively low water/solids ratio. Minimising
the water content improves the strength of the grout. This is discussed at
length in a number of technical papers, and more specifically by Jarvis and
Brooks.8

Durability
Sulfates attack ordinary Portland cement grouts by reacting with calcium
hydroxide to form gypsum, and calcium aluminates to form ettrignite,
resulting in volume increase and disruption. It is well established that fly
ash improves the sulfate resistance of grouts by diluting the tricalcium
aluminate content of the cement and reducing the calcium hydroxide con-
tent as a result of the pozzolanic reaction.1
In some circumstances grouts may come into contact with sulfates, e.g.
in certain clay soils, contaminated ground or old mine workings. The use
of fly ash with Portland cement is normally satisfactory for sulfate resis-
tance. Work at Bradford University showed that in a range of grouts from
1 : 1 to 5 : 1 fly ash : cement grouts, using fly ash from a range of sources, the
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The use of fly ash for grouting

sulfate resistance improved as the content of fly ash increased. The use of
sulfate-resisting Portland cement (SRPC) offers no additional benefits. Fly
ash reduces the permeability because of the particle size, shape and the
pozzolanic reaction. In addition, shrinkage is significantly reduced com-
pared with Portland cement-only grouts.
The principal benefits of using fly ash in grouts can be summarised as
follows:

• reduced bleeding
• increased working life
• improved pumpability and flowability
• reduced permeability
• increased compressive strength and durability
• increased yield per tonne and hence economy
• reduced water/solids ratio.

Types of grout

Fly ash and Portland cement grouts

Since fly ash has approximately the same grain size distribution as cement
it is possible to use fly ash as a filler in cement grouts without further lim-
iting the size of cracks or pores that can be injected. Addition of the more
rounded fly ash particles to a Portland cement grout improves the flow
properties and generally improves pumping and penetration.
By varying the fly ash : cement ratio, dense grouts with a wide range
of strengths can be obtained. This makes it possible to choose the most
economical proportions giving the desired strength instead of using an
expensive, very strong, brittle cement grout for all applications. The ratio of
fly ash : Portland cement in common use varies from 1 : 4 to 20 : 1 depend-
ing on the strength and elastic properties required. Fly ash/Portland
cement grouts do not bleed as much as cement/water grouts but the limi-
tations applied to fly ash/lime mixtures mentioned in the following section
may also apply to those of fly ash/cement.

Fly ash and lime grouts

Fly ash/lime grouts are not in general use but tend to be used for specific
applications such as fighting spoil heap fires resulting from spontaneous
combustion.
Addition of lime to fly ash/water mixtures increases the pozzolanic
activity and the final strength of the set grout. Since lime is finer than fly
ash and forms a more colloidal suspension the particles within the grout
do not segregate so readily and the pumpability is improved. Mortar tests
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

to study the pozzolanic properties of fly ash indicate that the optimum
lime : ash ratio for maximum strength is about 1 part of lime to 25 parts of
fly ash.9 Fly ash and lime mixes may in time attain strengths comparable
with fly ash and cement mixes, but the rate at which the strength increases
with time is appreciably lower. At present, there are no data on the
strength developed by fly ash and lime grouts, but they will generally
have appreciably lower strength than equivalent cement mixes because of
their much higher water contents.
Since lime and cement are comparable in cost, there is at present little
economic advantage in using lime instead of Portland cement. However,
in cases where maximum penetration is required or a slow rate of strength
increase may be advantageous, as possibly in tunnel grouting, the use of
fly ash/lime mixes may provide the best solution. There are at present no
quantitative data available on the bleeding of fly ash/lime/water grouts.
Provided the amount of water is kept to a minimum compatible with
pumpability, the amount of bleeding is unlikely to be very different from
comparable fly ash/Portland cement grouts. Since, however, even very small
percentages of bleeding can result in poor adhesion between the grout
and the upper faces of cracks, neither type is recommended for grouting
fissured rocks where very low permeability occurs or high strengths are
required. In these circumstances fly ash/Portland cement/bentonite grouts,
as described in a later section, are more applicable.

Fly ash and other combinations of materials

The use of fly ash/Portland cement/bentonite compositions is increasing
in popularity, particularly in cut-off trenches. Advantage can be taken of
the low permeability of the composite grout, which is particularly useful
in preventing the migration of methane gas rising from waste disposal
sites.
Advantage can be taken of the self-hardening properties of fly ash to
produce low-strength grouts containing only fly ash and sufficient added
water to facilitate placing. The strength of a fly ash grout will depend on
the residual water content and therefore these grouts should only be used
in applications where removal of excess water is possible by either natural
or induced drainage.
The unconfined compressive strength of fly ash at 95% compaction (BS
1377 Part 4: Clause 3.3) is shown in Table 6.51 up to 90 days of age.

Fly ash and Portland cement/clay grouts

Bleeding of cement grouts can be prevented for the short time required for
the cement to develop its initial set. This is achieved by suspending the
cement particles in clay suspensions with viscosity and yield strength
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Table 6.5. Unconfined compressive strength of fly ash-only grout

Water/solid Bulk density Unconfined compressive strength (N/mm2)

ratio (kg/m3)
0 days 7 days 28 days 90 days

015 1835 008 010 016 019

sufficient to resist the natural fall of the cement particles. Suspensions con-
taining up to 8% by weight of an active bentonite are commonly used for
this purpose. The presence of the bentonite makes the grout more viscous,
but this may be more than compensated for by the further reduction in
segregation and the better pumping and penetration characteristics of the
grout. Since the more active bentonite used for this purpose is sodium
based, trial mixes should be made to check that the effectiveness of the
bentonite as a suspending medium is not reduced by the presence of the
calcium ions in the cement or fly ash.

Fly ash/sand grouts

Sand and even gravel can be added to grouts that are being used in situa-
tions where the grain size is not a severe limitation. The wider range of
particle sizes enables denser grouts to be produced with properties similar
to those of good-quality concrete. Fly ash is particularly useful in sanded
grouts because of the lubricating action of its rounded particles which
makes it possible to pump very dense grouts.

Grouts containing only fly ash

These are essentially cheap, low-strength grouts useful for filling large
cavities in the ground. Many fly ash/water mixtures will slurry at a moisture
content of about 35% and in this condition the viscosity will probably be
too high for pumping. Such mixtures do, however, flow easily at a mois-
ture content of 50%. Provided that the excess water needed to pump the
grout can subsequently drain away it is possible to obtain fills with bulk
densities very near to those obtained by compacting the fly ash at its
optimum moisture content. No strength measurements are available for
hydraulically placed fly ash, but data on material compacted at its opti-
mum moisture content have shown that the self-hardening strengths can
vary considerably, depending possibly on the amount of free lime present.
The percentage of water should be kept to a minimum compatible with
the flow requirements, since excess water carries some of the lime with it
as it drains away and thus reduces the self-hardening properties of the
grout. Where the excess water is not free to drain away the grout may
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

remain very soft for long periods, and until more data are available on this
aspect it is recommended that some Portland cement should be added in
these circumstances. Without cement or lime to act as a binder the drying
shrinkage of fly ash can be significant.

Grouting techniques
Grouting techniques10 are many and varied and do not differ significantly
when using fly ash within the grout. The following list is not meant to be
exhaustive but only to indicate to the reader the techniques that may be
used. The use of fly ash in grout, as stated above, improves the properties
of the grout.

Permeation grouting
Permeation grouting is the most common type of grouting and is designed
to improve the structure of the soil or to control the influx of groundwater.
The aim is uniformly to displace water in the voids by the steady outward
progression of the grout. Fly ash is preferentially used when open textured
soils are encountered, e.g. gravel and coarse sandy soils. For the treatment
to be effective, injection pressures must not be so large as to displace the
soil particles. Hole positions and depths (Fig. 6.7) are chosen so that the
grout from each stage of injection overlaps to form an integrated mass of
grouted soil. The sequencing of grouting is arranged so more permeable
layers are grouted first.
The ease by which such soils can be grouted depends on the particle size
distribution of the soil to be grouted. The cohesive nature and reduced
relative water content of fly ash grouts mean they are suitable for most
applications. When the soils are of such fine nature, e.g. similar to a coarse
sand or fine gravel, that cementitious systems including fly ash grouts can-
not fully penetrate them, ultrafine cements and fillers or chemical grouting
systems may be used.

Hydrofracture grouting
This relies on injecting cement-based grout at high pressure, up to 4 MPa,
to cause localised and controlled fracturing of the soil. The pressures
are often higher than the overburden pressure. The method is primarily
designed to increase the bearing pressure and shear resistance of the
soil. The grout cuts fissures and channels in the soil until it finds voids,
which are filled by permeation. It can be used to fill lenses and layers of
open-textured soils prior to construction work. It can be used to raise
structures before tunnelling operations to compensate for the anticipated
settlement.
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The use of fly ash for grouting

Fig. 6.7. Grouting injection points

Compaction grouting
This technique involves injecting a stiff grout, 25–50 mm slump, into pipes
or casings which are driven into the soil. The grout is pumped under high
pressure, up to 7 MPa, to form a bulb-shaped mass. Owing to the relatively
low workability of the grout, this tends to compact the surrounding soil
rather than permeating the pores. This bulb of grout affects an area of
soil that can be up to 20 times greater than the diameter of the bulb.
Typically, such mixes will contain 10% Portland cement and fly ash, clay,
silt or bentonite. Compaction holes can be positioned either vertically or
on the incline, especially when compacting under existing structures. Care
has to be taken when working near such structures. Monitoring of move-
ment will be required.

Consolidation grouting
This technique is for grouting of open joints, fissures, bedding planes,
faults, cavities, etc., found in rock strata. Consolidation grouting strength-
ens the rock and reduces the flow of water into the structure. It is often
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

carried out below ground from tunnels and shafts. The defects in the rock
strata may result from natural weaknesses or from damage resulting from
tunnelling operations.

Curtain grouting
This is used for underground structures and tunnels, normally in rock,
which contain some form of liquid or gas. A curtain of grout is formed
around the structure, normally radially, to reduce seepage and outflows of
the stored material.

Site investigation

No ground treatment can be properly considered until adequate investi-

gation of the relevant ground conditions has been undertaken. The most
important part of site investigation is to determine the location, size and
type of voids. In rock grouting, an overall geological picture is useful in
predicting the location of voids. Geological maps and sections should be
prepared to include such information as the boundaries between different
geological materials, the inclinations of various layers of soil and rock, con-
tours of the bedrock and locations of prominent faults and falls. In rock
grouting, the significant structural features are faults, joints, bedding planes,
solution cavities and lava flow structures.
The nature of underground openings may be deduced from groundwa-
ter studies, rock exposures, examination of drilled cores, the behaviour of
drill tools, core losses, drill water losses, water-pressure tests in drill holes,
inspection of large-diameter borings or adits, and finally by the behaviour
of injected grout during grouting operations. Surface exposures are invalu-
able, but care should be taken to remove any superficial debris and to
inspect only the intact soil or rocks. Diamond drill cores give useful infor-
mation on the nature of foundation rocks, but they may yield inadequate
or misleading information on openings in the rock. Bedding plane open-
ings are particularly hard to identify unless obviously weathered, because
cores tend to break on bedding planes irrespective of whether these are
open or not. Even when openings can be identified in rock cores, it is sel-
dom possible to determine the width of the opening from the cores. Drill
tools with hydraulic or manual feeds are sensitive to cavities and soft
seams, and the behaviour of tools during drilling should be recorded. Core
losses may occur for many reasons, but are often due to intense jointing
or to the presence of cavities. Areas where core losses are high should
be investigated from large borings, inspection shafts or adits. Water pres-
sure tests are extremely valuable and may be done by observing the rise
and fall of water in open holes or, preferably, in holes closed by single-or
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double-packer systems. Tests carried out by injecting water between two

packers are particularly useful, since it is possible to obtain values of per-
meability for the various strata. The testing pressure with water should be
roughly the same as that considered safe for grouting, which is 23 kN/m2
of pressure per metre of depth.
On all major projects, large man-sized boreholes or shafts should be
sunk at strategic positions so that the rock can be inspected visually. Large-
scale in situ tests should be done on all large projects both before and after
grouting to ascertain the effectiveness of the operation. In soft rocks such
as chalk, man-sized holes can be drilled down to 30 m using pile-drilling
rigs. Borehole cameras can be used in boreholes as small as 75 mm in
diameter, and the width of openings can be ascertained accurately. When
colour film is used, it is also possible to check grouted areas. Closed circuit
television may also be used for inspection purposes in boreholes. It has the
advantage that the results can be seen immediately, and interesting zones
can be inspected more thoroughly.
The pattern of groundwater flow can be obtained from the location of
wells and springs and from pore pressure measurements made in perme-
able strata. In all but the finest soils, porous cylinders fixed to the bottom
of vertical standpipes will provide a reliable means of measuring the pore-
water pressure. Whatever type of piezometer is used, it is necessary to
ensure that it measures water pressure only in the layer for which meas-
urement is required. It is essential to provide an adequate seal above the
measuring point in such a position as to prevent leakage to or from parts
of the soil or rock mass which contain water under different piezometric
pressures.
Flow rates may be calculated:
Q  AKwi, (6.2)
where Q  rate of flow (m /s), A  total area of pores (m ) (obtained
3 2

from cross-sectional area and voids ratio), Kw  permeability (m/s) and

i  hydraulic gradient.
When grouting of alluvial deposits is being considered, the first require-
ment is to have a detailed knowledge of soil profiles and particle size dis-
tributions of permeable soils in the various strata. Particle size analyses
should be conducted on typical samples of all silt, sand and gravel layers.
In the case of silts and fine sands, the analyses should be done on portions
of undisturbed samples that have been opened to examine soil structures
such as laminations. If laminations are found, then separate analyses should
be done on typical material from both coarse and fine layers.
Once an overall picture of the soil strata has been obtained, tests should
be conducted to determine the permeability of typical strata. The perme-
ability corresponding to laminar flow through a porous bed is defined by
Darcy’s law. Approximate values of the permeability can be obtained from
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

particle size distribution data, used in Hazen’s formula:

Kw  C1D10
2
, (6.3)
where C1 is a constant between 10 and 15, and D10 is the size (mm) below
which 10% of the particles by weight fall. This simple relation is applicable
only to uniform sands in a loose state.
If the permeability of the soil is known, more accurate estimates of flow
rates can be obtained by a method suggested by Loudon in 1952.11 In all
but small projects, it is desirable to perform some in situ permeability tests.
The most reliable tests are those in which the quantity of water pumped
from a single test well or ring of test wells is used in conjunction with
water pressures measured in the surrounding ground. When several layers
of different permeabilities are present, it may be necessary to repeat the
tests with different penetrations and exposures of the well screens. Even
so, except in the case where the various permeable strata are separated by
impervious layers, the measured permeability will be partially influenced
by the permeabilities of the adjacent layers.

Pumping of grout
Selection of pumping equipment will depend both on the type of applica-
tion and on the grout mixture. Very large voids can often be filled by grav-
ity flow. Pumps used to grout rock cracks, porous ground and other small
cavities should be capable of close control over both pressures and flow rate.
Pumps can be divided into five main types:

• piston pumps
• screw-type pumps
• centrifugal pumps
• pneumatic placers
• flexible tube pumps.

Piston pumps
Piston pumps are capable of pumping grouts at pressures in excess of
1720 kN/m2. Special valve systems are required for pumping thick suspen-
sions and these may take the form of large ball valves or sliding shutters
which cover the inlet and outlet ports at the appropriate times. Ball and
piston pumps are suitable for thick mortars at pressures up to 2070 kN/m2.

Screw-type pumps
Pumps using the Archimedian screw principle are less complicated than
piston types but are subjected to heavy wear when used for grouts
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The use of fly ash for grouting

containing sand. Pressures up to 690 kN/m2 are common, and some pumps
of this type can operate at up to about 1380 kN/m2.

Centrifugal pumps
These are particularly useful when large volumes of fairly fluid grout have
to be delivered at low pressure. Difficulty with cleaning and the vulnera-
bility of the bearings to the abrasive action of grout particles are the main
disadvantages of this type of pump. They have been successfully used to
pump fly ash slurries, but are not recommended for use with sanded grouts.

Pneumatic placers
Pneumatic placers are the traditional means of grouting tunnel linings.
Care must be taken to avoid emptying the compression tank or air will be
forced into the previously grouted voids.

Tube pumps
This type embodies a flexible tube along which the grout is forced by exter-
nal rollers. There are no valves or other moving parts to jam, but the wear
on the flexible tube is very severe. Tubes up to 75 mm in diameter are avail-
able and give a steady, continuous flow.

Maintenance
For successful pumping, the grout should be kept in continuous movement.
Changes in pipe size should be gradual. Good maintenance is essential for
efficient grouting and pumps must be flushed out every few hours when
cementitious materials are used. Mixers and agitators should be cleaned
thoroughly after each period of use, otherwise hardened grout and scale
will accumulate which, if dislodged, can cause considerable damage to
pumps and lead to blockages in pipelines. Mixed grout, in temporary stor-
age, should be kept moving either by circulating pumps or by agitators in
the storage tanks. Auxiliary pumps are often used to transfer the grout from
the mixer to one or more pumping stations. All grouts should be passed
through suitably sized screens before pumping to remove lumpy material.

Injection of grouts
The injection process is concerned with filling the necessary volume of
voids in order to provide the required engineering improvement in the
most economical manner. Injection involves the pumping of grout through
a distribution pipe system to a tube provided with discharge points through
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

Fig. 6.8. Drilling the grout injection points

which the grout enters the ground or structure to be treated. The tube
must be sealed into the ground (Fig. 6.8) or structure to ensure that the
grout travels to where it is required, and does not simply seep back along
the pipe to be discharged near the point of entry.

Injection systems
The simplest type of injection point consists merely of a tube with a dis-
charge orifice or perforated length near its end. Simple arrangements of
this type are satisfactory for grouting voids in existing structures or in
ground immediately adjacent, as e.g. in tunnel grouting. More sophisti-
cated methods are generally required when grouting porous soils or fis-
sured rocks. The main systems used in this type of grouting are as follows.

Single-stage drilling and grouting

This consists of drilling and grouting in one operation along the full length
of the drill hole, which penetrates the full depth of ground to be grouted.
The grout pipe passes through a packer that seals the top of the hole. This
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The use of fly ash for grouting

method is limited to formations where the upper soil layers are reasonably
uniform. There is no control of the grout injected at the various levels, and
the grouting pressures are restricted to the maximum which uplift consid-
eration will allow in the highest part of the strata being grouted.

Multistage drilling and grouting

In this method, a hole is drilled into the upper part of the soil strata to be
treated. The surrounding ground is grouted as in the single-stage system,
using relatively low pressures in order to avoid uplift of the ground. When
this first injection is completed and the grout in the ground has started to
set, the grout in the drill hole may be washed out while it is still soft. Alter-
natively, the hole may be re-drilled through the set grout while drilling for
the next deeper stage, which can now be grouted at a higher pressure than
was used in the first stage. This process is repeated in stages until the full
depth of strata has been grouted. The depth treated in each stage will
depend on the variability of the ground and the pressures necessary to
inject the grout the required distance. There is much greater control of the
quantity of grout injected at each level in the multistage than in the single-
stage system.

Pneumatic packers
Additional control can be achieved by using pairs of packers to isolate a
particular section of a grout hole, and then injecting this portion through
a pipe that passes through the centre of the upper packer. In this way indi-
vidual seams or fissures can be washed and grouted separately by posi-
tioning the packers at different elevations.

Sleeve grout pipe

This uses a pipe with discharge points covered with short rubber sleeves
situated at intervals along its length. A hole is drilled to the full depth of the
strata to be grouted, and a sleeved pipe of corresponding length inserted.
The pipe is sealed along its length with a weak grout. In order to inject
through any given discharge point, the particular portion of the pipe is
isolated by a double packer. The grout is then pumped through an inner
pipe into the space between the two packers. As the pressure increases, the
rubber sleeve expands and cracks the surrounding ground. This system has
the following advantages:

• Grout can be injected at any selected point, at any stage in the grout-
ing process.
• It is possible to return to a previously grouted level and inject for a
second time if this should prove necessary.
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Injection operations
Preparation of voids before injection
Loose sediments should be flushed out of cracks before injection using
water under pressure. The technique is to drill a number of closely spaced
holes and force water or air from one hole to the next with the object of dis-
placing the sediments. In soft, cohesive sediments such as clay it will gen-
erally be possible to blow channels through only a part of the clay.
Repeated flushing, interspersed with the grouting of the clean parts of the
cracks, will usually be necessary. Where thorough removal is essential it
may be necessary to make large, man-sized holes to provide direct access
to the cracks to be cleaned.
Large surface leaks, which become apparent during water testing, should
be caulked before injection to prevent wastage of grout and enable the
necessary pressures to be reached.

Trial injections
On large contracts trial injections should be made using the grouts that
laboratory tests have indicated as being suitable. The trial should be suffi-
ciently large to enable direct inspection and in situ tests to be made in the
treated ground. For example, when the object is to reduce leakage, the
groundwater flow towards a well or shaft in the grouted area will enable
an estimate to be made of the effectiveness of the grouting.

Spacing and positioning of injection points

The basic methods of injection have been dealt with above. Except where
pressure washing is required, it is usual to space the initial holes in rock
and alluvial ground 12–24 m apart. When these have been grouted, inter-
mediate injection holes are drilled and grouted at half the spacing, and the
split spacing technique is continued until the ground will accept no more
grout. Final spacing of 3–6 m is common, but the holes may be 15 m or less
in difficult cases. Care should be taken not to grout too close to previously
treated holes until the grout in these has been allowed to set.
When grouting ahead of tunnels, the drill holes are usually fanned out
a few degrees so that the ground adjacent to the tunnel is also sealed. It is
generally easier to seal the ground around unlined tunnels in this way
before excavation than to attempt to grout round the tunnel afterwards.
Drill holes in typical applications are 9–15 m long.
Injection of ducts, construction joints, voids inside structural members
and around tunnel linings should normally be done from the lowest point
and the higher holes successively plugged as grout appears at these levels.
In large structures injection pressures of 172–345 kN/m2 and grout lifts of
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The use of fly ash for grouting

up to 15 m are common. Slow, steady injection is essential for adequate fill-

ing of joints. Rapid injection under high pressure may result in many cav-
ities being bypassed.

Pressure losses in pipelines and in the ground

Whatever system is adopted, the pressure head developed by the pump is
partly dissipated in the pipe systems and partly in the porous body being
grouted. In both cases there are two components: that required to over-
come the shear strength of the grout and the resultant friction along the
surface of the pipes or soil particles before flow can commence, and that
required to overcome viscous drag during flow. Both components increase
as the size of the pipes, soil pores or cracks decreases. The relative impor-
tance of pressure losses in the pipes and in the ground depends mainly on
the distance the grout is pumped and on the size of the voids that are
being injected. For example, when grouting porous gravel or cracks in
rocks, the pressure losses in the pipelines are usually very small compared
with the losses in the ground around the point of injection. In contrast,
when filling cavities around tunnel linings, the losses in the pipelines may
be a substantial proportion of the total pressure loss. At the start of an
injection the pressures are usually low and gradually build up as the grout
advances into the ground from the injection point. The pressures are high-
est, and exert their influence over the largest zone, at the end of the injec-
tion process. The total force produced by an injection can be very large,
even when the injection pressures used are in the range of 69–103 kN/m2,
which are relatively low in grouting practice.
Approximate estimates of the pressure losses in the pipelines and in the
ground can be calculated from the flow properties of the grouts.

Site control and records

The success of all but the simplest operations depends on the skill of the
grouting crews and on detailed supervision by an engineer experienced in
the relevant techniques (Figs 6.9 and 6.10). The engineer should ensure
that the following aspects are considered.
Prior to the commencement of work, a survey of adjacent structures
and services should be made. Further surveys should be made as the
work proceeds to check that no damage is being caused by the grouting
operations.
Records of injection at each location should be made at regular intervals
(about 15 min) throughout the period of injection. The total amount of
grout injected at each location and relevant remarks such as bad leakage or
tight holes should be recorded. When injection pressures greater than the
overburden pressure have to be used, datum pegs should be installed on
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

Fig. 6.9. Typical fly ash grout mixing plant

Fig. 6.10. Grouting can be cold and wet work

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The use of fly ash for grouting

the surface and level records taken at regular intervals to control the
amount of ground heave.
Regular inspection and simple field tests should be done to check that
the consistency of the grout is within the prescribed limits. An index of
fluidity can be quickly obtained by measuring the time taken for the level
of the grout in the chamber of a tube viscometer to drop by a fixed amount
when using a standard pressure.
Alternatively, simple rotary viscometers can be used. Strength measure-
ments taken on samples of set grout at specified times after mixing provide
an additional control on the consistency and composition of the grout.
The effectiveness of the grouting should be checked and for this purpose
it will be necessary to take measurements both before and after grouting.
It will probably be necessary to form inspection pits or adits in which to
conduct in situ tests.

References
1. National Power. Engineering with ash-grout. Technical Bulletin, National
Power PLC, Selby.
2. Somervill SH, Paul MA. Dictionary of geotechnics. Butterworths, National
Power, London, 1983. ISBN 0-408-00437-1.
3. CEGB. Fly ash data book, grouting. CEGB, London, 1969.
4. Pulverised fuel ash for grouts. UKQAA Technical Data Sheet No 3, UKQAA,
Wolverhampton.
5. BS 3892. Part 2: Specification for pulverised-fuel ash for use as a Type 1 addition.
BSI, London, 1996. ISBN 0-580-26444-0.
6. BS 3892. Part 3: Specification for pulverised-fuel ash for use in cementitious
grouts. BSI, London, 1997. ISBN 0-580-27689-9.
7. Healy PR, Head JM. Construction over abandoned mine workings. CIRIA
Special Publication 32, PSA Civil Engineering Technical Guide 34, 1984.
ISBN 086017-218 X.
8. Jarvis ST, Brooks TG. The use of fly ash: cement pastes in the stabilisation
of abandoned mineworkings. Waste Management 1996; 16: 135–143.
9. Watt JD, Thorne DJ. Investigation of the composition, pozzolanic properties and
formation of pulverised fuel fly ash. British Coal Utilisation Research
Association Information Circular No. 265, October 1962.
10. Henn RW. Practical guide to grouting of underground structures. Thomas
Telford, London, 1996. ISBN 0-7844-0140-3.
11. Loudon AG. The computation of permeability from simple soil tests.
Geotechnique December, 1952.

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Chapter 7

Manufactured lightweight aggregates

from fly ash

Introduction

There exists a considerable number of lightweight aggregate types. These

range from naturally occurring materials from volcanic rocks, e.g. pumice,
tuffs, pozzolanas, and volcanic slags, to material produced industrially,
e.g. furnace bottom ash (FBA), expanded clay, colliery shale, slate and sin-
tered fly ash. Fly ash/pulverised fuel ash (PFA) has been used in a number
of aggregates. The principal aggregate in production is sintered fly ash
aggregate, or Lytag, and FBA. Aardelite is a cold fusion process using
fly ash and lime that is being marketed at the time of writing, but has yet
to go into production within the UK. In the 1980s a material called Taclite1
was produced using fly ash and FBA using a process similar to the Lytag
system. However, it is no longer produced in the UK. FBA is exclusively
used in lightweight concrete blocks within the UK and is covered in
Chapter 8.

Sintered pulverised fuel ash aggregate

Sintered fly ash aggregate is made from ash that is pelletised, fused
and graded. The only material manufactured within the UK of this
type, known as Lytag, has been in manufacture since 1960. It is a
high-quality aggregate that is used in a variety of applications. Lytag,
the company, is the originator of the sintering process. Lytag is an
Ash Resources Ltd Company, itself a wholly owned subsidiary of RMC
Group plc.
Lytag was originally developed in the UK in the late 1950s. The first pro-
duction plant, of 100,000 tonnes annual capacity, was commissioned in
1961. Lytag has constructed five factories. Since starting production of
Lytag some 15 million tonnes have been produced, saving 30 million
tonnes of natural aggregate.
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Two further plants were constructed, at Rugeley in 1965 and Tilbury in

1966, giving a production capacity of up to 400,000 tonnes per annum.
Product demand increased leading to the commissioning of Lytag’s larg-
est UK plant at Eggborough in 1978 (Fig. 7.1), which has a capacity of
250,000 tonnes per annum. During the 1980s, a Lytag factory in The
Netherlands for BV VASIM, a subsidiary of a major electricity utility, was
built. This plant produces 150,000 tonnes per annum of Lytag. A similar
sized plant was also commissioned in Poland in 1990.
For power stations (Fig. 7.2) it has been found that constructing fully
engineered disposal sites requires substantial capital expenditure pro-
grammes and there are high operating costs to maintain environmental
standards.
Lytag manufacture utilises fly ash, thus decreasing the extraction of local
natural aggregate resources and preserving them for future generations.

Fig. 7.1. Eggborough Lytag plant

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Properties and use of coal fly ash

Fig. 7.2. Fly ash for Lytag is sourced from a UK coal-fired power station

Lytag has been used regularly throughout Europe and in many countries
world-wide. The benefits of using Lytag are:

• it utilises a by-product material

• finite natural aggregate resources are preserved for future generations,
• as Lytag is an insulating material, when used in the construction of
buildings it can reduce heating requirements
• when used in concrete the reduced mass of the resulting structure
leads to a reduction in foundation capacity and hence a lower vol-
ume of concrete is required
• it has a variety of applications, including horticulture, concrete,
water-treatment filters, vehicle arrestors and children’s play areas.

Producing Lytag from fly ash

The Lytag pelletising process is sensitive to the fly ash particle size grading
and loss on ignition (LOI) and new sources are assessed for suitability
through a pilot plant. Fly ash contains a small percentage of unburnt fuel,
which is measured by the LOI test and the results are reported as a per-
centage. Ideally, the LOI of the fly ash should be 6%, although variations
are acceptable. Fly ash conditioned or lagooned with fresh water at
residual moisture content levels of 14% is acceptable subject to appropriate
handling facilities.
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Supplementary additions may be blended with the fly ash to bring bene-
fits to the process and the product. Pulverised coal can be included where
fly ash LOI contents are low to aid the Lytag sintering process. Minor addi-
tions of waste materials such as cement kiln dust (CKD) and incinerated
sewage sludge ash (ISSA) can be included.

The Lytag production process

Lytag is formed because of the agglomeration which occurs as the fly ash
particles fuse and bond together. The transformation of fly ash to aggre-
gate has long been established; however, the Lytag process brought a new
technique to fly ash conversion (Fig. 7.3). The process required that no
binding agents were used and that no pre-heat was applied to the pellets
before ignition. The only additives that may be needed are water and
additional fuel.
Water assists with the binding of particles. The fuel, typically in the form
of high carbon fly ash or coal, is needed to ensure that the homogeneous
pellets contain sufficient energy to raise the temperature of the fly ash to
the sintering point later in the process.
The Lytag production process is, by necessity, a fully automated system
using advanced process and quality-control techniques. The unprocessed
dry fly ash is pneumatically conveyed from the power station into suitably
sized storage silos to meet process needs and fly ash availability; how-
ever, the process is also capable of processing stockpiled moistened or
‘conditioned’ fly ash. The transfer of fly ash is carried out in fully enclosed

Feed silo
Sinter strand

Pelletiser

Fig. 7.3. Schematic layout of a production facility

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Properties and use of coal fly ash

systems to prevent dust emissions. Excess air displaced by the fly ash
when being conveyed and fluidised is extracted from the system by dust
extraction filters.
Fly ash is fed from the storage silos via variable-speed rotary feeders to
process continuous screw mixers where a metered amount of water is added
to achieve a moisture content of 14% (Fig. 7.4). The mixers are fully
enclosed and receive metered quantities of fly ash and supplementary mate-
rials. The damp fly ash discharged from the mixers is transferred by belt con-
veyors to inclined, rotating pan pelletisers as shown in Fig. 7.5. The damp fly
ash is formed into pellets by the further addition of metered process water
sprayed on to the rotating pan until the required size of pellets is achieved.
The full-size ‘green pellets’ are discharged from the bottom rim of the pel-
letiser pan on to a belt conveyor and transferred to the sinter machine feed
hopper (Fig. 7.6). The green pellets are evenly laid across slowly moving
grate pallets of the sinter machine (Fig. 7.7). The pallets pass under an igni-
tion hood (Fig. 7.8), fired by waste oil or gas at the driven end of the sinter
machine. The top surface of the green pellet bed automatically ignites as the
temperature in the hood is maintained at 1000–1200°C.
A down-draught is applied to the underside of the pellet bed through
a series of ducts running the total length of the sinter machine (Fig. 7.9).

Fig. 7.4. Conditioning the fly ash with water before pelletising
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Fig. 7.5. Pelletising the fly ash on rotating pans

Fig. 7.6. Discharge of the ‘green pellets’ from the pelletising pan
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

Green pellets Ignition

from pelletisers hood

Down-draught
Sintered
pellets

Fig. 7.7. Schematic of sinter strand

Fig. 7.8. Ignition hood

As the slowly moving pallets emerge from under the ignition hood, the
burning zone is slowly drawn through the bed depth of the green pellets.
The full depth is burnt through by the time the pallet discharges the
finished product at the non-drive end of the sinter machine. As the fin-
ished product slides off the pallet at the discharge end, it falls into a slowly
rotating finger breaker unit that breaks any agglomerated material created
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Manufactured lightweight aggregates from fly ash

Fig. 7.9. Pellets being carried along the sinter strand

during the sintering process. The down-draught air for the sintering
process is provided by a fan pulling 3400 m3/min. The air drawn through
the bed via the ducts is fed to a chimney via an electrostatic precipitator to
remove remaining particulate material.
The sintered pellets are directed to an enclosed screening unit to sep-
arate the Lytag into the two main products, granular (4 mm) and fines
(4 mm). The system allows a variety of sizes to be produced to meet mar-
ket requirements. The granular material is discharged via a conveyor into
a collection pit via a water spray curtain, installed to minimise dust emis-
sions and cool the material (Fig. 7.10).
Stringent quality-control and process test measures are used on both
raw material and the finished product to minimise waste and to achieve a
consistent and reliable Lytag product. Control of the raw material includes
measurement of moisture content, particle size distribution, LOI and prin-
cipal oxides. The product is tested for strength, size grading and density,
and its performance in concrete is assessed.

Properties of Lytag

The pelletising process provides a rounded spherical shape to the finished

aggregate (Fig. 7.11). The internal structure is a honeycomb of generally
interconnected voids of varying size and shape amounting to some 40% of
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

Fig. 7.10. Processed Lytag cooling before grading

Fig. 7.11. The final product: a sintered lightweight aggregate

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Manufactured lightweight aggregates from fly ash

the volume. This void space provides a reservoir for absorbed water and
the expansion chambers needed to avoid the disruptive effects of ice for-
mation if the aggregate is exposed to freezing. The air voids also act as an
insulating material enhancing the thermal properties and frost-resisting
characteristics of the finished concrete. As the surface consists of open
pores, moisture can enter and exit the aggregate, which helps fully to
hydrate the cement paste so that better quality concrete may be produced.
The chemical composition of Lytag is similar to the raw materials used to
make the green pellets, with the exception of the carbon content, which is
reduced significantly during the sintering process.
The bulk density of the Lytag granular is typically 825 and 1100 kg/m3
for the fines. Density can vary with a variable LOI percentage in the
raw material, although process control measures and/or the inclusion of
additional supplementary materials can be used to minimise the effect.
Boiler innovations and the use of coal from multiple sources will influence
most fly ash characteristics but, generally, fly ash from a single source will
be relatively consistent.
Although Lytag aggregate absorbs water, this can greatly assist in the
long-term hydration of the cement paste, resulting in high-quality, high-
strength concrete. In addition, Lytag does not degrade when exposed to
the atmosphere, even under freezing conditions.
It is practically and commercially unwise to attempt the production
of Lytag using an unknown fly ash in a full-scale factory without first
commissioning a technical feasibility study including pilot plant trials

Applications of Lytag
Lytag is a very strong, lightweight aggregate that has proven durability
and a record of acceptance internationally. Lytag is purchased by many
different market sectors, from the construction industry, which includes its
use in readymix concrete up to 100 N/mm2, as indicated in Table 7.1 to
water companies, which use Lytag as a filter medium.
Table 7.1. Properties of various aggregate types

Material Concrete Density of 24 h water

strengths concrete absorption of basic
(MPa) (kg/m3) aggregate
(% by volume)

Lytag 5–100 1550–1900 15%

Slag/furnace 1–10 N/A N/A
Bottom ash 5–100 2300–2500 Variable, depending on
Natural aggregates type of aggregate

NA: not applicable.

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Properties and use of coal fly ash

As well as being lightweight, Lytag has other useful features. As it is an

insulating material, it can reduce future energy demand when used in
buildings. In the UK, many houses and buildings are constructed using
concrete blocks incorporating Lytag. The material is chemically inert and
does not contribute to alkali silica reactions in concrete. Lytag therefore
has many applications, which include the following.

Concrete blocks
A block made of Lytag tends to have a higher strength than other light-
weight blocks (strengths up to 14 MPa are easily obtained from blocks
weighting 20–25% less than normal-weight blocks). The lightweight
nature of the blocks leads to transport cost savings and reduces manual
handling problems. Lytag has excellent insulating properties, so concrete
products using Lytag conduct less heat. When used in buildings this pro-
vides a more comfortable, warmer environment for similar energy input
than if standard concrete is used.

Concrete
Lightweight concrete can be manufactured at densities between 1550
and 1900 kg/m3, compared with normal-weight concrete of 2400 kg/m3.
This allows less material to be used in construction. Slimmer structural
elements can be achieved and smaller foundations with less piling
are needed as the dead load is reduced by about 20%. As spherical aggre-
gate, Lytag produces workable concrete (Fig. 7.12). This speeds up the
construction process as the material flows around reinforcement easily
and ensures a lower risk of poor workmanship. Better quality work should
result. Major projects in which Lytag concrete has been used include:

• Canary Wharf Tower, London, UK (Fig. 7.13)

• bridge across the River Rhine, Arnhem, The Netherlands
• Hunterston Oil Platform for BP Oil, Scotland, UK
• Commerz Bank Tower, Frankfurt, Germany.

Screeds
A Lytag screed is a cement-bonded Lytag lightweight aggregate no-fines
base coat, with a 4 : 1 by weight sand: cement topping. This is used to
provide a smooth, insulated finished floor or roof level. The no-fines base
coat, of either 10 : 1, 8 : 1 or 6 : 1 by volume, can be bonded to the sub-base
or unbonded, or float over a further insulating layer.
A Lytag screed has a density approximately one-half that of a sand/
cement screed, so substantial weight savings can be gained. Not only can
these savings in weight lead to lower construction costs, but a Lytag screed
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Fig. 7.12. Lytag concrete

Fig. 7.13. Canary Wharf tower, London, UK

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Properties and use of coal fly ash

uses only one-half the cement of a normal-weight screed, again saving

money. Owing to the regular shape of Lytag, air can easily pass through
the base coat, so more rapid drying out occurs. This allows for speedier
access on to the floor, to continue with construction operations.
The extremely low shrinkage characteristics of a Lytag screed allow
large bays to be poured. There is no restriction on the maximum depth
that can be laid, so falls can be achieved easily. Additional material can be
added for thermal insulation.

Refractory concrete
Lytag aggregates have low densities and high strengths. These properties,
combined with inherent fire resistance and insulating characteristics,
make an ideal aggregate for use in refractory concrete products, such as
flue and chimney linings.

Drainage
Because of its spherical shape, Lytag is an excellent material to use in land
drainage (Fig. 7.14). It flows easily into trenches, so time is saved in plac-
ing. Lytag virtually eliminates future settlement since it moves readily to
fill all voids when it is being placed. Lytag allows about six times more
water to pass through it than do ordinary aggregates, thus draining the
land far more quickly.

Fig. 7.14. Lytag used as a lightweight fill material.

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Manufactured lightweight aggregates from fly ash

Vehicle arrestor beds

A Lytag arrestor is a prepared bed of Lytag pellets used to form escape
routes on roads which have either steep gradients or dangerous bends; on
motor racing tracks and at airports. Owing to Lytag’s regular shape and
strength, it decelerates vehicles of all sizes, at a controlled rate, with min-
imal damage to the occupants or vehicle.
In the UK, arrestor beds have been in place for up to 25 years with no
degradation of the material. Unlike natural aggregates, Lytag does not
compact after being placed, so minimal maintenance is required to keep
the arrestor bed functioning and ready for use.

Water filters
The properties of Lytag, as an artificial material, are closely controlled dur-
ing the production process. This, combined with its resistance to wear
and degradation, makes it an ideal material for use in water filtration for
sewage systems (‘Aqualyt’).
Lytag has numerous applications and the development of new oppor-
tunities continues at a pace. Currently, predominant market is in concrete,
where its demand is determined by the technical and environmental ben-
efits that it uniquely provides.

The Aardelite process

This is a cold-bonded process for the production of lightweight aggregate.

The process combines fly ash, calcium oxide (quicklime), additives, fine
sand and/or FBA. A mixture of fly ash and sand is agglomerated with cal-
cium hydroxide (hydrated lime) as a binder to form green pellets. These
are formed using pelletisers, similar to those used in the Lytag process.
These pellets are then bound in a mixture of calcium oxide (quicklime) and
sand. The mixture is moistened and heated by low-pressure steam up to
80°C. This moisture and heat produces an exothermic reaction raising the
temperature to around 96°C. Calcium silicate hydrates and aluminates are
formed in the hardening process, which takes up to 8 h. On completion,
pellets are screened to size prior to marketing. The same principles can be
applied to other materials, such as phosphate residues and incinerator
waste ashes.
The composition of the Aardelite pellet production is 48% fly ash, 45%
sand, 4.5% lime, and 2.5% additives and water. The Bulk density of Aardelite
varies from 980 to 1020 kg/m3. The weight of concrete produced with
Aardelite gravel is 18–20% lower than concrete produced from natural
aggregates.2
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

Aardelite can be used in a wide range of applications, including blocks,

concrete, precast elements, asphalt for roads and paving stones. One plant
in the USA3 has produced over 1,000,000 tonnes of material since opening
in 1988, with a fly ash utilisation of 95%. However, at the time of writing
there is no Aardelite plant in the UK.

References

1. Concrete Society. Lightweight concrete. Construction Society, Crowthorne

1980. ISBN 0-86095-861-2.
2. Boas A, Spanjer JJ. The manufacture and the use of artificial aggregates from fly
ash produced according to the Dutch cold bonded ‘Aardelite’ process. CEGB,
AshTech’ 84, 1984: 577–582.
3. Ash Management brochure. Progress Materials Inc., Florida.

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Chapter 8

Fly ash in aerated concrete blocks and

furnace bottom ash in lightweight
concrete blocks

Introduction

In 1999, the UK market for pre-cast concrete masonry units was 8.6 mil-
lion m3 (DETR). The vast majority of precast concrete masonry blocks
produced in the UK using modern technology and quality-controlled cast-
ing methods contain fly ash or furnace bottom ash (FBA). Fly ash may
be included as part of the cementitious material, as an aggregate or both
to produce dense and aerated concrete blocks. At least 30% of the cement
content may be replaced with fly ash.
Of this total market 24% were lightweight aggregate blocks in the dens-
ity range of 1000–1500 kg/m3 and 31% were autoclaved aerated concrete
(AAC) blocks in the range of 400–800 kg/m3. These blocks have high levels
of thermal insulation and a high strength/weight ratio, and are able to meet
acoustic and fire insulation requirements. The blocks, which conform to UK
standards, contribute overall costs savings arising from a number of sec-
ondary savings. Lighter foundations and structural frames and the need
for less insulation all produce real benefits. They are easily cut, worked and
laid, with minimum maintenance and low handling costs.

Autoclaved aerated concrete

AAC, also known as ‘Aircrete’ in the UK, is a lightweight building product
used in the construction of domestic dwellings and commercial buildings.
It is manufactured as blocks (Fig. 8.1) or steel-reinforced panels. Charac-
terised by its fine cellular structure, with air pores ranging from 01 to
2 mm, AAC has a high ratio of compressive strength to density. This prop-
erty allows AAC to be used as a load-bearing unit where efficient thermal
insulation is required.
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

Fig. 8.1. Typical autoclaved aerated concrete blocks produced with fly ash

AAC is made by reacting together finely divided calcareous and siliceous

raw materials in saturated steam at temperatures above 100°C (hydrothermal
conditions). Steam curing of specimens within pressure vessels (auto-
claves) at several times atmospheric pressure ensures that hydrothermal
conditions are maintained. The curing process is termed autoclaving. The
calcareous raw material is normally quicklime (calcium oxide) or a combin-
ation of quicklime and Portland cement. The siliceous component is most
often finely divided quartz, obtained from sand or sandstone. Alternatively,
a raw material containing amorphous silica, or alumino-silicate glass, may
be used. Fly ash from coal-burning power stations is a suitable siliceous
raw material and is extensively used within the UK for the manufacture
of AAC.
In principle, the cellular structure of AAC can be formed either by gas
evolution from a chemical process or by mechanically entrained air.
However, addition of fine aluminium flakes to a cementitious slurry is the
only common industrial process used. Typically, most cells are discrete and
do not connect with adjacent cells. This ensures low moisture permeability
through AAC, despite its cellular structure.
The intercellular matrix within AAC is bound together by the reaction
products formed during autoclaving, either calcium silicate hydrates or
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Fly ash in aerated concrete blocks and FBA in lightweight concrete blocks

a combination of calcium silicate hydrates and calcium alumino-silicate

hydrates. These reaction products are more crystalline than analogous
binding phases formed in conventional concrete or mortar.

History
Experiments with autoclaved concrete were conducted in the nineteenth
century. Patents relating to autoclaved sandlime bricks were filed in
Britain and Germany in 1866 and 1888, respectively. Industrial manufac-
ture of sandlime bricks started in Germany in 1894. Cellular concrete has
also been produced since the nineteenth century. Johan Axel Ericksson, a
Swedish architect, successfully combined these technologies and in 1924
developed the method for producing AAC. Full-scale production of AAC
began in Sweden during the late 1920s and it rapidly became an estab-
lished building material throughout Scandinavia. After World War II,
manufacture started in other European countries, as well as Asia, Latin
America and the Middle East. AAC was introduced to the UK in 1951.
North America is the only industrialised region that has not manufac-
tured AAC in significant amounts. Readily available timber throughout
Canada and the USA has been an explanation for the slow growth of AAC
use. However, dwindling timber reserves have led to increased costs for
construction lumber, making AAC a financially more attractive building
material. Consequently, AAC is gaining acceptance within North America
and three full-scale manufacturing plants established in the south-eastern
USA use ground quartz sand as the siliceous raw material.

Fly ash use in autoclaved aerated concrete manufacture

World-wide, most AAC is manufactured using quartz sand as the siliceous
raw material, rather than fly ash. Quartz sand is used throughout continental
Europe, Japan, Latin America and the Middle East. However, the use of fly
ash is well established in the UK, the former Soviet Union, China and
India. Most AAC made in the UK uses fly ash as a siliceous raw material.
The variability of fly ash must be considered during AAC manufacture.
However, there are several advantages associated with the use of fly ash
for the manufacture of AAC. Environmental benefits are achieved by using
a waste raw material as an alternative to a primary aggregate such as sand.
The autoclaved matrix that results from the use of fly ash, because of the
influence of aluminium ions, has a high resistance to sulfate attack. A low
thermal conductivity can be achieved for AAC made with fly ash, owing to
the low conductivity of the fly ash.
The environmental benefits of using fly ash are of particular interest in
North America. As disposal costs for fly ash sent to landfill or lagoons
increase, AAC manufacture becomes an attractive outlet for the by-product.
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

An EPRI-sponsored project in 1993 used a mobile pilot plant to demon-

strate the feasibility of using fly ash from several power stations for the
manufacture of AAC. A full-scale factory is being built at the Bull Run Plant
near Clinton, Tennessee.

Manufacture of autoclaved aerated concrete

Manufacture of AAC is unlike that of conventional concrete or mortar. The
raw materials are fine powders, without aggregate particles of any signifi-
cant size, and the starting point is a water-based slurry. Three aspects of
the process differentiate it from other concrete pre-casting methods. There
is an initial ‘aeration’ stage in which the slurry expands to form a stable
cellular mass. Once stiffening of the mix has occurred and sufficient ‘green
strength’ has been achieved, the cellular mass is cut into individual
masonry units. Finally, autoclaving at elevated temperatures promotes
hydrothermal reactions, which form a stable high-strength intercellular
matrix. The manufacturing process is detailed below.

Weigh batching and mixing

The dry raw materials are transported from storage silos into weigh bins
above the batch mixer. Mix water and any slurried material are weighed or
volumetrically dosed into the batch mixer.

Casting
A low-viscosity water-based slurry (10 Pa·s), containing fly ash, cement,
quicklime and additives, is produced in the mixer. Finely divided aluminium
powder is the final raw material added to the mix. A total mixing time of
2–4 min is typical, but the aluminium powder is dispersed for only 10–20 s
before the slurry is discharged from the mixer into oiled rectangular steel
moulds. Typically, the moulds are 05–07 m deep and have a volume of
3–4 m3. The mass of dry raw materials used in a single mix of AAC ranges
from 1500 to 3000 kg, depending on the final density of the product.
An AAC mix is normally termed a cake once it has been cast (Fig. 8.2).
Contact with the alkaline mix (pH 9–12) leads to the reaction of the
aluminium flakes, liberating hydrogen gas as
2Al  Ca(OH)2  2H2O  Ca(AlO2)2  3H2. (8.1)
After casting, numerous small bubbles of hydrogen (02 –2 mm) form
within the slurry. Approximately 12 m3 of hydrogen gas is generated from
every kilogram of aluminium powder used. The cake expands rapidly
within 15–30 min, by up to 220% of its original volume. The volume of
hydrogen gas generated within the mix is proportional to the amount of
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Fly ash in aerated concrete blocks and FBA in lightweight concrete blocks

Fig. 8.2. Casting an autoclaved aerated concrete cake

aluminium powder used. Therefore, a certain quantity of aluminium pow-

der is necessary in order to achieve the required expansion and specified
density. Too little aluminium powder will result in a low cake of high
density, whereas too much gives a high cake of low density.
The cement and quicklime within the cake react exothermically with the
water. Gels of calcium silicate and calcium aluminate hydrates form because
of the hydration of cement grains. The quicklime slakes to gelatinous calcium
hydroxide (Equation 8.2), which has a strong dewatering effect on the mix:
CaO  H2O  Ca(OH)2. (8.2)
The changes increase viscosity and stiffen the cake. A rise in internal
temperature takes place, from 40–45°C at casting to 65–85°C after about
120 min. The hydrogen trapped within the cells diffuses out, to be replaced
by air. At this stage the cellular mass has gained sufficient green strength to
allow demoulding, handling and cutting into individual blocks.
For a particular formulation, using specific raw materials, the critical
control parameters at casting are as follows:

• cast temperature
• water content
• amount of aluminium powder.
The amount of quicklime in the formulation and the temperature of the
mix water largely determine cast temperature. In general, cast temperatures
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

must be controlled between 40°C and 45°C. Lower temperatures are likely
to give slow cake rise and prolonged set. However, excessive cast temper-
atures are to be avoided, since this results in rapid expansion of the cake to
give a coarse, unattractive cellular structure.
Maintenance of the correct water content of the slurry is important to
control the early stage of the manufacturing process. Water/solids (W/S)
ratios between 040 and 055 are typical for AAC mixes. If the W/S ratio is
low the mix will be very viscous at casting. Expansion of the mix may be
impeded and the cakes will not reach the correct final height. In addition,
significant amounts of air may become entrained during mixing or at
discharge into the mould. Large air bubbles retained in the expanding mix
will be evident on the surface of the finished AAC blocks.
Conversely, if the W/S content of the slurry is too high, the cast AAC mix
will have a low viscosity and the stability of cake may be reduced. This is
critical in the first few minutes after casting, when the cake is expanding
rapidly. There is a fine balance between the cohesiveness of the mix and
the pressure exerted by the hydrogen gas generated from the reacting
aluminium flakes. If the expanding mix has low viscosity and is not
sufficiently cohesive the hydrogen bubbles will coalesce to form large cells
in the weak cementitious mass. This coalescence can be so extensive that
the cellular structure within the cake breaks down completely. Cake
stability is critical for the successful manufacture of AAC and is affected by
raw material selection and the formulation used.

Setting
Reaction of the aluminium powder is normally complete 15–30 min
after casting, depending on the formulation and choice of aluminium
powder. The cementitious mass has sufficient green strength to maintain a
stable cellular structure, but is still too soft to cut. Hydration processes,
initiated at mixing, continue to stiffen the cake. Heat liberated from the
exothermic reactions of the quicklime and cement raises the internal
temperature from 45°C to 80°C within 120–150 min after casting. The
cellular structure at the exterior of the cake insulates the interior and aids
the temperature rise. Cakes are normally allowed to stiffen within tunnels
or enclosed bays for 90–180 min. These structures normally can be heated
to accelerate setting. Once sufficient green strength has been achieved
(05 MPa), demoulding occurs and the cake is moved on to the cutting
stage.
Common industrial practice is to rotate the mould through 90° along its
main axis in order to remove the AAC cake (Fig. 8.3). One side of the mould
is also unlatched during rotation so that the AAC cake is supported under-
neath. Thus, one of the sides of the mould becomes a base, which supports
the cake during the rest of the manufacturing process.
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Fly ash in aerated concrete blocks and FBA in lightweight concrete blocks

Fig. 8.3. Autoclaved aerated concrete cake rotated through 90° before demoulding

Fig. 8.4. Demoulded autoclaved aerated concrete cake about to enter the cutting line

Cutting
The stiffened cake (Fig. 8.4) must be cut into individual blocks or panels
before curing within steam autoclaves. Cutting is normally achieved
by three sets of thin steel wires. The cutting line mechanism moves the
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

AAC cake horizontally through the three sets of wires. At the first cutting
stage vertical wires remove excess material from what were the ‘top’ and
‘bottom’ relative to the cake rise. A second set of reciprocating horizontal
wires cuts the cake into a series of slices. Finally, the cake is held stationary
while an array of reciprocating horizontal wires cuts down through
the cake.
Block dimensions are determined by the spacing of the wires on the
cutting line. In the UK, tolerances on dimensions for building blocks are
specified in BS 6073.1 The most common block size is 440 mm long by
215 mm high but other sizes are available. Block thickness is varied, depend-
ing on the thermal insulation characteristics and load-bearing properties
that are required. This dimension is achieved at the second cutting stage
and therefore the mechanism allows the spacing of these reciprocating
wires to be changed readily (Fig. 8.5).
Some off-cut material is produced at the cutting line. Since this contains
expensive raw materials, such as lime and cement, it is slurried and
recycled to the mixer as an ingredient. This waste slurry has the additional
benefit of stabilising the AAC cake during the first few minutes after casting.
It is believed that this effect is due to the seeding influence of fine grains of
hydrating calcium silicate hydrates and calcium hydroxide.

Fig. 8.5. Autoclaved aerated concrete cake passing through the horizontal wires of the
cutting line

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Fly ash in aerated concrete blocks and FBA in lightweight concrete blocks

The green strength developed within the AAC cake is sufficient to

enable demoulding, cutting and loading of uncured material into the
autoclaves. The time from casting to autoclaving is typically 4 h or less. If
the cakes were not autoclaved, the hydration reactions would continue,
giving increased strength. However, even with prolonged curing for
several days or weeks, the strength gain is insufficient for the structural
strengths required. Satisfactory compressive and tensile strengths for
constructing load-bearing walls can only be achieved by curing in steam
autoclaves.

Autoclaving
Aerated concrete cannot be cured by dry heat alone. This would drive
water of hydration from the cellular structure and prevent the formation
of calcium silicate hydrates and calcium aluminosilicate hydrates. Auto-
claving is essential because the combination of elevated temperatures and
moisture ensures that hydrothermal reactions and the rapid formation of
semi-crystalline and crystalline reaction products occur. The four stages
of autoclaving are reviewed below.

Purging
Saturated steam conditions are required throughout the autoclaving
process. This requires the efficient removal of air from the sealed vessel.
Air/steam mixtures must be avoided during the autoclaving process. At
saturated steam conditions, without air contamination, there is a well-
defined relationship between the pressure and temperature. However,
even a relatively modest amount of air will give a lower temperature than
predicted from the steam curve. Air pockets can also form within an auto-
clave, or a thin film of air can adhere to the surface of cakes. Since air is an
effective thermal insulator, poor heat transfer can arise which adversely
affects the autoclaving process. In the purging stage, air is removed from
the autoclave by evacuation, or passing steam marginally above atmospheric
pressure through the vessel.

Pressurisation
The autoclaves are pressurised at a controlled rate to the desired max-
imum pressure. This ensures that the AAC cakes do not experience thermal
shock. In addition, there will be an economic pressurisation rate, depend-
ing on the steam plant available. It is normally desirable to use ‘blowover’
steam, whereby an autoclave is partially pressured with steam from
another vessel which is at the end of its dwell cycle.

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Properties and use of coal fly ash

Dwell
The dwell stage is the longest part of the autoclave cycle. The autoclave
and its contents are maintained at a set pressure for a period of 6–12 h.

Depressurisation
The final stage of the curing process is the controlled depressurisation of the
autoclave to atmospheric pressure, minimising the risk of thermal shock.
Figure 8.6 shows AAC cakes being unloaded from an autoclave.

Hydrothermal reactions
Calcium silicate hydrates (CSH) are considered to be the reaction products
that make the largest contribution to the development of strength within
autoclaved materials. Calcium silicate hydrates form by the reaction of
calcium ions and solubilised silica to give insoluble products that are
generally poorly crystallised within conventional concrete. Autoclaving
accelerates the process and results in further crystallisation of initial CSH
phases. The concentration of both calcium ions and solubilised silica
within the aqueous phase determines whether saturation occurs and the
calcium to silica ratio of initial CSH phases.

Fig. 8.6. Autoclaved aerated concrete cakes being unloaded from a production
autoclave
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Fly ash in aerated concrete blocks and FBA in lightweight concrete blocks

The behaviour of fly ash within autoclaved products is similar to the

pozzolanic reactions that occur in conventional concrete and mortar.
However, reaction rates are significantly higher and the crystallinity of the
calcium silicate hydrate is increased. The reactions between siliceous
pozzolanas and calcium hydroxide can be represented as follows:
xCH  yS  zH CxSyHx  z. (8.3)
The reaction products are calcium silicate hydrates (CSH phases). There
is a reduction in the molar lime/silica (C/S) ratio of the CSH phases formed
as autoclaving proceeds, with an associated increase in crystallinity.
A CSH gel is considered to be the initial reaction product, which converts
into semi-crystalline C–S–H (II) or C–S–H (I), which in turn crystallises
into tobermorite (C5S6H5).
Similarly, calcium hydroxide reacts rapidly with fly ash at typical auto-
claving temperatures. However, since the pozzolana is an aluminosilicate,
additional reactions occur. Calcined kaolinite (Al2O32SiO2) may be used as
an example of such a pozzolana, as
AS2  3CH  zH CSHz5  C2ASH8 (gehlenite hydrate). (8.4)
Amorphous alumino-silicate glass is the major constituent of fly ash.
As is the case for a purely siliceous pozzolana, CSH phases form during
autoclaving. However, phases from the garnet–hydrogarnet solid solu-
tions series (C3AS3–C3AH6) also form. Aluminium substitution into the
semi-crystalline CSH phases also increases the rate of crystallisation to
tobermorite.
The formation of tobermorite and C–S–H (I) within the autoclaved
matrix is associated with the build-up of compressive strength. These
low-density CSH phases have a fine crystalline structure and numerous
points of contact, which constitute bonding sites throughout the cured
matrix. Hydrogarnets have dense octahedral crystals, which provide
fewer points of contact and therefore contribute less to the strength of the
autoclaved material.

Raw materials

Pulverised fuel ash

The chemical compositions and physical properties of some fly ash sources
used to manufacture AAC in the UK are given in Table 8.1.
In general, ‘run of station’ ash is used for the manufacture of AAC. The
fineness specifications of BS 3892 Part 1 or EN 450 are not relevant to auto-
claved products. It is possible to use relatively coarse fly ash because the
elevated temperatures and high alkalinity within the autoclaves ensure
rapid dissolution of the aluminosilicate particles.
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

Table 8.1. Analyses of fly ash samples used to manufacture autoclaved aerated
concrete

Source A Source B Source C

Elemental analysis (%)

SiO2 4136 4574 5562
Al2O3 2367 2545 2420
Fe2O3 1741 964 709
CaO 498 275 219
MgO 215 159 129
TiO 084 095 098
K2O 307 281 252
Na2O 101 118 127
MnO 015 008 005
P2O3 023 023 022
SO3 234 222 084
C 279 736 373
Loss on ignition (%) 267 710 303
Median particle diameter 2250 4540 2680
(m) (laser diffraction)
Relative density (g/cm3) 236 202 215

The carbon content of fly ash, normally assessed by loss on ignition

(LOI), has a significant effect on the casting and setting characteristics of
AAC. High carbon ashes can have excessive water demands and give mixes
with high W/S contents. A large number of carbonaceous particles also tends
to destabilise the cellular structure of the cementitious mass. Both of these
factors can lead to instability within cakes in the early stages of manufac-
ture and collapse can occur. Wide variations in the carbon contents of fly
ash can lead to significant process difficulties. However, these are con-
trolled within the factory and the final product specification is maintained.
The composition of the fly ash also influences the hydrothermal reac-
tions that occur during autoclaving. This affects the strength that can be
achieved at a given density. In general, a ‘good’ fly ash in respect to its
performance during autoclaving is characterised as having a high SiO2
content, low Fe2O3 and low carbon (LOI). However, the performance of a
fly ash sample cannot be predicted from its chemical analysis. Test mixes
must be produced, autoclaved, and tested for strength and other relevant
properties.

Cement
A range of Portland cements can be used for the manufacture of AAC.
In the UK all cements comply with BS 12.2 The choice between ordinary
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Fly ash in aerated concrete blocks and FBA in lightweight concrete blocks

and rapid-hardening cement depends on the rate of setting required for

the particular plant.

Quicklime (calcium oxide)

The choice of ground quicklime is an important consideration in the
manufacture of AAC. Quicklime is produced by the calcination of either
limestone or chalk under carefully controlled kiln conditions. The rate at
which quicklime slakes to calcium hydroxide is termed its reactivity and is
the most significant property of the raw material. The purity of the feed-
stock, type of calcination kiln used, fineness of quicklime and amount of
water added during grinding determine reactivity. Modern kilns generally
produce medium- to high-reactivity quicklime of low variability.

Aluminium powder
Successful manufacture of AAC relies on the use of high-quality aluminium
powder, often developed for particular formulations or combinations of
raw materials. Finely divided aluminium flakes with modified surface
characteristics must be used. During manufacture various organic addi-
tives are used and the aluminium powder is partially oxidised under
controlled conditions. Various grades of aluminium powder are produced
which liberate hydrogen at different rates.

Properties of autoclaved aerated concrete

General
AAC consists of air-filled cells, a result of hydrogen evolution, and a dense
intercellular matrix. The matrix forms a network of narrow bridges sur-
rounding the cells, accounting for only 20–30% of the volume of AAC, but
responsible for its strength and, therefore, the load-bearing characteristics
of the material (Fig. 8.7). The amount and nature of the reaction products
within the matrix and its microporosity are important factors in determin-
ing the compressive strength of the bulk material.

Strength
The compressive strength of AAC determines the load-bearing characteris-
tics of structures made with the material. There is a direct relationship
between strength and density (Fig. 8.8).
The range of strengths illustrated is significant. At a given density, the
compressive strength achieved depends on the choice of raw materials
and the autoclaving conditions used. Experience of producing AAC has
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

Fig. 8.7. Cellular structure of autoclaved aerated concrete

11

10

9
Compressive strength (MPa)

0 200 400 600 800 1000

Oven-dry density (kg/m3)

Fig. 8.8. Relationship between compressive strength and density for autoclaved
aerated concrete (RILEM3)
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Fly ash in aerated concrete blocks and FBA in lightweight concrete blocks

0.25
Thermal conductivity (W/m K)

. 0.20

0.15

0.10

0.05
300 400 500 600 700 800 900
3
Oven-dry density (kg/m )

Fig. 8.9. Relationship between thermal conductivity and density for autoclaved
aerated concrete (RILEM3)

shown that the strength obtained for a specific autoclaving temperature

and duration is affected by the siliceous raw material used. The particular
fly ash source chosen often determines the ultimate compressive strength
that may be attained.

Thermal conductivity
The thermal conductivity of AAC, at a particular moisture content, is
directly related to density (Fig. 8.9). As a means of energy conservation,
regulatory bodies in the industrialised countries have specified improved
thermal insulation for new dwellings. This requires building products of
lower thermal conductivity. For AAC this means lower density and the
trend is likely to continue. However, the relevant standards for building
materials, such as BS 6073, specify compressive strengths that must be
achieved in order to maintain the load-bearing characteristics of struc-
tures. The selection of raw materials that maximise compressive strength
at a particular density is therefore important.

Drying shrinkage
The drying shrinkage measured in AAC is influenced by the crystallinity of
the CSH phases formed. The duration and pressure of autoclaving, raw
material selection and formulation used therefore affect drying shrinkage.
In the UK, BS 6073 Part 1 specifies a maximum value of 009% for AAC.
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

Durability
AAC has considerable resistance to frost damage. Ice crystals can form
in cells, rather than within the matrix, and this reduces the disruptive pres-
sures that build during freezing.
AAC made with fly ash has excellent resistance to attack by sulfate ions
and two factors are important. First, crystals of reaction products can form
harmlessly within the cells, similarly to the process that occurs during
freezing. Secondly, the presence of significant amounts of aluminium from
the fly ash leads to the formation of hydrogarnets during autoclaving, in
addition to CSH phases. Hydrogarnet phases are resistant to sulfate attack
and AAC specimens have been shown to survive class 4 conditions as
defined by BRE Digest 363.4

Lightweight aggregate concrete blocks using furnace

bottom ash
Market, applications and standards
During 1999 more than 2 million m3 of lightweight aggregate (LWA)
concrete blocks were sold in the UK for a variety of construction purposes
in the density range of 1000–1500 kg/m3. LWA blocks form cost-effective,
general-purpose load-bearing or non-load-bearing masonry units with a
proven track record for use above and below ground level. They can also
be used as infill units in beam and block floor systems. Blocks can be
produced in a standard face texture suitable for plaster and dry lining,
a close-textured finish suitable for direct decoration or ‘fair face’ where no
decoration is required (Fig. 8.10).
LWA blocks are available in solid, cellular and hollow formats depending
on the design requirements. The common face size is 440 mm long by
215 mm high, with a thickness of 75–215 mm. Other face sizes are also
available for different co-ordination options. Specially shaped blocks can
also be produced to facilitate a variety of construction details.
Currently, BS 60731 is the relevant standard regulating the properties
and testing of LWA blocks, and products may be assessed for the BSI
kitemark against this standard. A harmonised European standard is in
preparation, which covers a wider range of properties and will allow
assessment for CE marking. This is likely to be published as BS EN 771-3.

Manufacture
The majority of LWA blocks today are manufactured in modern, highly
automated and closely controlled factories (Fig. 8.11) using ‘static’ casting
machines or mobile ‘egg-laying’ machines.
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Fly ash in aerated concrete blocks and FBA in lightweight concrete blocks

Fig. 8.10. Typical range of dense and lightweight concrete blocks produced in the UK

In a static plant, as shown schematically in Fig. 8.12, cement, fly ash,

aggregates and water are usually batched into and mixed in a horizontal
pan-type mixer to an almost earth-dry consistency which is then vibro-
compacted into a mould on to a steel or wooden pallet. The blocks are
immediately demoulded and transferred on the pallet to a storage area for
curing. Commonly this curing area consists of enclosed chambers that are
heated at temperatures up to 80°C, depending on the heat source, to accel-
erate the cement hydration and strength development to optimise the
throughput of the plant. Blocks are then packaged into cubes (Fig. 8.13) of
various configurations and further stored in a stockyard, if required, to
achieve the final strength.
For an egg-laying machine the mix is transferred to the hopper of the
mobile machine, which vibrocompacts the mix into moulds, momentarily
set down on to a concrete base. Once the blocks are formed the machine
lifts the mould immediately and moves along to the next position to repeat
the process. The blocks are then left in place to cure until they are strong
enough for handling and further storage. Egg-laying production takes
place in large sheds or on outdoor concrete pads, depending on the local
environmental conditions.
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

Fig. 8.11. Aerial view of a modern UK lightweight aggregate concrete block plant

In both static and egg-laying production, grading of raw materials,

moisture content, cement content, vibration patterns and curing condi-
tions are all key to quality, cost and rate of production.

Use of fly ash and furnace bottom ash in lightweight aggregate block
production
Furnace bottom ash
Although many lightweight aggregates are suitable for use in LWA blocks,
FBA has been used for many years and remains the most commonly used
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Fly ash in aerated concrete blocks and FBA in lightweight concrete blocks

Aggregate Computer-
Aggregate storage conveyors controlled
weighing
and batching

Mixer
Static block
'Green' block machine
Elevator conveyor Static casting

machine

Packaging
Curing kilns into cubes
Pallet return

Stockyard Packaging line

Cured block
conveyor

Fig. 8.12. Schematic layout of a lightweight aggregate block plant

material in the UK (Table 8.2), although the practice does not seem wide-
spread in the rest of the world. The success of FBA in the UK may stem
from the relatively limited range of chemical and physical properties of
both FBA and fly ash.
FBA collected from the base of furnaces in the power station is usually
water cooled (Fig. 8.14) and transferred to stock piles. The material is then
crushed and screened in different size fractions either at the station or at
the block manufacturer’s site (see Chapter 1). Typical grades used in block
production are 14-0, 14-5 and 5-0 mm, depending on the type of block
being manufactured.
The density of FBA, in the range of 800–1100 kg/m3 depending on the
grade used, is ideally suited to achieve the typical LWA block density
range and the relevant technical properties. For use in blocks, FBA is per-
mitted by BS 6073. This gives limits on the properties specified in BS 37975
covering pumice, expanded clay, shale and slate, clinker and FBA, and
those based on fly ash and blastfurnace slag. Table 8.3 gives the important
values. FBA from most modern power stations is well within these limits.

Sintered fly ash aggregate

Pelletised/sintered fly ash lightweight aggregate (Lytag; see Chapter 7)
can be used, thus increasing the utilisation of the major by-product from
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

Fig. 8.13. Automated plant forming the cubes of lightweight aggregate concrete
blocks

Table 8.2. Utilisation of fly ash and FBA in the UK (1997 data)

Materials Production Utilisation % in blocks

(tonnes) (tonnes)

Furnace bottom ash 1,600,000 1,520,000 95

Fly ash 6,200,000 682,000 11
Totals 7,200,000 2,202,000 31

coal-burning stations. The aggregate produced, again easily in compliance

with BS 3797, has a density of around 800–900 kg/m3 and, therefore, can be
used for blocks at the lower end of the typical density range.
The particle shape tends to be rounded which, when blended with
other appropriate grades of aggregate, can be beneficial to ‘workability’ of
the relatively dry block mix during manufacture. As production of sintered
fly ash involves a secondary process, it is more expensive than FBA but can
have the benefit of being more predictable and consistent in producing
quality LWA blocks.
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Fly ash in aerated concrete blocks and FBA in lightweight concrete blocks

Fig. 8.14. Furnace bottom ash collection pits at a UK power station

Table 8.3. Limits on lightweight aggregates for masonry

Properties in BS 3797, lightweight aggregates Maximum limit

for masonry and structural concrete (%)

Loss on ignition (masonry units) 25

Reinforced and high-durability concrete 10
Sulfate content (expressed as SO3) 1

Fly ash
BS 6073 permits the use of two types of PFA/fly ash to be used in LWA
blocks:

• BS 3892 Part 16 PFA: This is the classified material primarily designed

for use in concrete. It is classified to increase fineness and reactivity,
and can reduce the water requirement of the concrete mix. These
properties enhance the contribution of the fly ash to strength.
• BS 3892 Part 27 PFA: This is unclassified fly ash. It is lower cost as no
processing is required. The economics make this option preferable in
most cases.
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

In general, the fly ash used in the context of LWA blocks tends to be ‘run
of station’ fly ash complying with BS 3892 Part 2. This is usually handled
and transported to block plants in the dry powder form in tankers and
silo-stored at the works. The function of the fly ash in this case is more as
a fine filler to improve cohesion of the mix, which gives benefits during
mould filling, compaction and demoulding, and in modifying the texture
to improve the finish of paint quality blocks. However, depending on the
source of fly ash, the other mix constituents and the efficiency of curing,
there can be some contribution to strength from the pozzolanic reaction
with cement. The inclusion of fly ash also contributes to block durability,
particularly with regard to sulfate resistance.
Overall, the use of FBA and fly ash in LWA blocks has several benefits:

• sustainable conversion of by-products into a cost-effective building

material;
• production of blocks with a wide range of properties and a flexible
range of applications at a weight that is safe to handle manually;
• both FBA and fly ash are relatively inert materials, ensuring that the
units produced are stable and durable using raw materials that can
be stored and handled safely during manufacture;
• the environmental impact of block production is reduced, with the
possibility of obtaining environmental credits, e.g. when using the
BREEAM assessment method.

Fly ash in other precast products

Fly ash can be used either as part of the cementitious material or as an

aggregate in numerous precast concrete products. These include paving
units, kerbs, edgings and flags, concrete roof tiles, concrete pipes, lintels
and fence posts. One example would be the UK section of the Channel
Tunnel, where around 450,000 pre-cast reinforced concrete tunnel lining
segments were produced. The units, cast with 30% fly ash of the cementi-
tious component, gave a concrete mix of exceptionally low permeability
and diffusibility.8

References

1. BS 6073-1. Precast concrete masonry units. Specification for precast concrete

masonry units. BSI, London, 1981.
BS 6073-2. Precast concrete masonry units. Method for specifying precast concrete
masonry units. BSI, London, 1981.
2. BS 12. Specification for Portland cement. BSI, London, 1996. To be replaced on
1 April 2002 by: BS EN 197-1. Part 1: Composition, specifications and conform
ity criteria for common cements. BSI, London, 2000.
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Fly ash in aerated concrete blocks and FBA in lightweight concrete blocks

3. RILEM. Recommended practice, autoclaved aerated concrete, properties, testing

and design. E and FN Spon, London, 1992.
4. Sulfate and acid resistance of concrete in the ground. BRE Digest 363,
BRE, Watford, July 1991.
5. BS 3797. Specification for lightweight aggregates for masonry units and struc-
tural concrete. BSI, London, 1990.
6. BS 3892. Part 1: Specification for pulverised-fuel ash for use with Portland cement.
BSI, London, 1997. ISBN 0-580-26785-7.
7. BS 3892. Part 2: Specification for pulverised-fuel ash for use as a type I addition.
BSI, London, 1996. ISBN 0-580-26444-0.
8. Eves RCW, Curtis DJ. Tunnel lining design and procurement. Proceedings
of the Institute of Civil Engineers, The channel Tunnel, Part 1: Tunnels, 1997:
127–143.

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Chapter 9

Other potential uses of fly ash

The use of fly ash with brick clays

There is nothing either new or startling about mixing ashes, resulting from
the burning of coal, with clays for brick making. This has been done since the
seventeenth century for the manufacture of stock bricks. The motives for
doing so are to reduce the shrinkage of the clay and to make use of the heat-
ing value of the unburnt carbon in the ashes. The latter, derived from the
minerals deposited with the vegetable matter that forms the coal, is very
similar to that of clays. Anderson and Jackson1 review the history of the use
of fly ash in brick making and assess the results. They report that isolated
trials with fly ash took place in the 1930s. Pilot-scale work was carried out in
the early 1950s to establish the possibility of making bricks from a mixture
consisting mainly of fly ash. Trials were also carried out with the minimum
plastic clay plus fly ash to bond it and make it workable. This work was never
carried through to full-scale production. For some years there has also been
interest in calcined clay, i.e. clay lightly pre-fired to destroy its drying shrink-
age and then ground and mixed with more clay from the brick-making body.
Outside that section of the brick industry that makes stock bricks, ashes
are little used, although fired-clay grog is employed where necessary to con-
trol drying shrinkage. The range of composition of brick clay is very wide, as
typically shown in Table 9.1. Since brick making is not a very demanding
process in the materials sense, a variety of earthy materials can meet its
requirements. The table also shows that fly ash is similar to brick clay in com-
position and, being a pre-ground, pre-calcined material, is a possible
replacement for grog or calcine if its cost at the brickworks is not excessive.
The amount and grade of fly ash added are dependent on the clay. Heavy
clays require a greater quantity of fly ash and a coarser ash may be used.

Method of treatment to be followed

Before discussing the use of fly ash in brick making, some background
information will be given on the brick properties and brick manufacture.
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Table 9.1. Range of composition of brick clay and fly ash

Constituent Brick clay (%) Fly ash (%)

Silica (SiO2) 80–43 58–38

Aluminium (Al2O3) 35–8 40–20
Iron (Fe2O3) 12–0 16–6
Lime (CaO) 26–0 10–2
Magnesium (MgO) 13–0 3.5–1
Potassium (K2O) 6.5–1.5
Sodium (Na2O) 1.5–0 } 5.5–2.0
Sulfur (SO3) 5.6–0 2.5–0.5

The use of fly ash as a minor constituent is compared to cases where fly ash
is the major constituent and clay is a plasticiser. The possibilities of making
structural ceramics other than bricks will be considered briefly, as will the
possible utilisation of cenospheres.

Properties required of bricks

General
Fly ash can be used successfully in brick making only if the resulting bricks
have the required properties. It is necessary to distinguish between intrinsic
properties of the bricks, such as density and soluble salt content, and
performance properties, such as weather resistance. The latter depend not
only on the bricks, but also on the applications.
Methods of testing are prescribed in BS 3921,2 in which the variations in
the conditions that bricks have to withstand are described:
• ‘ordinary quality’: for normal applications in internal walls
• ‘normal exposure’: in external walls between the damp-proof course
and the roof
• ‘severe exposure’: in parapets, retaining walls and below the damp
course where the bricks may become and remain saturated and may
be frozen in that condition.
This broad distinction is meaningful over the greater part of the British
Isles, although there are exceptions, e.g. in wet mountainous areas a brick
of ‘special quality’ may be required in external walls.

Physical and chemical properties

The physical properties of bricks that are most commonly measured
are compressive strength and water absorption. Compressive strength
is required primarily as a basis for calculating permissible pressures on
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load-bearing brickwork.3 Water absorption, when measured by the vac-

uum method, is expressed as a percentage by volume or weight. The only
direct application of the water absorption test is the identification of bricks
that have so low an absorption ( 45% by weight by the vacuum method)
that they can be used in damp-proof courses.
The chemical composition of bricks is not critical, but it is important that
the proportion of water-soluble sulfates, especially magnesium, sodium
and potassium sulfates, should not be too high when the bricks are to be
used in very wet conditions. Sulfates can lead to efflorescence and sulfate
content should be tested for. The danger is that a chemical reaction between
the sulfate and tricalcium aluminate in the set cement, or hydraulic lime,
may cause the mortar to expand and, ultimately, to soften. BS 39212 imposes
limits on soluble salt content for bricks of special quality suitable for these
conditions. No such limits are imposed for bricks of ordinary quality, but
even in normal exposure bricks containing significant quantities of the
more soluble sulfates are to be avoided. Fly ash often contains calcium sul-
fate, but has not been found to contribute dangerous quantities of sulfates
to bricks in which it has been used.

Performance characteristics
Bricks are the chief constituents of walls forming part of structures, which
provide permanent shelter. These walls are therefore required:

• to be sufficiently strong and stable

• to resist rain penetration
• to provide sufficient thermal insulation
• to be dimensionally stable, ensuring freedom from cracking and
distortion
• to be durable.
Most of these performance characteristics are only partly dependent on
the intrinsic properties of the bricks. Thus, the strength and stability of
walls depend primarily on their being of sufficient thickness in relation to
their height and being supported laterally by cross-walls. The intrinsic
strength of bricks is seldom fully used, although there is increasing interest
in load-bearing brickwork.
Resistance to rain penetration is sometimes thought, wrongly, to depend
on the bricks being of low absorption. In fact, it is now usual, except in
sheltered positions, to rely on cavity construction to prevent rain penetra-
tion. Even if a solid wall is built, it is by no means certain that a dense brick
will give a drier wall than a porous one. Indeed, a permeable brick, such as
many of those containing fly ash, has a certain capacity for water, which
may be beneficial in that it may hold any absorbed rainwater until it can
evaporate later.
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Thermal insulation also largely depends on the choice of wall construc-

tion, on the presence and thickness of the cavity, and on whether or not
insulation is used. For example, with average bricks, a 300 mm cavity wall
has a thermal resistance one-third greater than that of a 230 mm solid wall,
although the thickness of brick material in it is the same. Thermal resist-
ance also varies significantly with the porosity of the bricks, with more
porous bricks showing higher thermal resistance.
The dimensional stability of brickwork depends on both the bricks and
the mortar. In addition to thermal expansion and contraction, which are
normally well understood and allowed for, it is necessary to consider mois-
ture expansion of bricks and expansion of mortar due to sulfate attack.
It has long been known that all masonry materials undergo an expansion
on wetting and a shrinkage on drying, and that these movements are
generally much smaller with fired-clay products than with mortars, most
natural stones and concretes. In addition, fired-clay products have a some-
what larger irreversible expansion owing to the absorption of moisture
vapour from the air. This expansion is relatively rapid in the first few days
after the bricks leave the kiln. It proceeds at a decreasing rate for months
or years; it is also independent of the small reversible wetting and drying
movement and is not extinguished by wetting the bricks in water. The
exact amount of the expansion varies with the nature of the clay from
which the bricks are made and with the firing temperature. No precise
information on the subject was available in the early 1950s when, as noted
above, most of the pilot-scale work on fly ash bricks was done.
Durability, in the UK climate, is primarily a matter of frost resistance.
Frost resistance depends at least as much on the conditions of freezing,
and especially on how wet the bricks are when frozen, as it does on the
properties of the bricks. It is often assumed that high compressive
strengths and low water absorption are signs of good durability. There is
some truth in this idea, but there are many exceptions. Many bricks of high
water absorption and comparatively low strength are durable. In addition,
fairly dense and strong bricks are liable to decay in severe exposure. It is
necessary to stress this point because bricks containing a substantial pro-
portion of fly ash are frequently weaker and more porous than bricks
made from the same clay without fly ash. However, this does not usually
make the brick containing fly ash less resistant to frost; indeed, the reverse
is often true.

Requirements of manufacturing processes

Cost limitations of brick making

The selling price of common bricks and good-quality facing bricks is
relatively low. Bricks are probably the cheapest manufactured articles
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in existence. Manufacturing on a large scale in modern and very effi-

cient plants by simple and largely automatic processes keeps the costs
low. Clay can be dug in quantity, often from a pit beside the factory for
minimal cost, with between 3 and 4 tonnes being required for 1000 bricks.
The labour requirement, in an up-to-date plant, is about 3 man-hours
per 1000 bricks. These figures will indicate that, if fly ash is to be used in
brick making, the brickworks must be near to suitable sources to avoid
high transport costs. The scale of manufacture necessary to achieve the
standard of efficiency indicated above is shown by the size of plants and
the high capital costs. Few plants have a capacity of fewer than 300,000
bricks per week. Facing bricks and other high-quality bricks command
higher prices and they are considered essential to the economic success of
a modern plant.

Processes of manufacture
The first stage in the brick-making process consists of grinding, screening
and tempering (i.e. adjusting the water content) of the clay. Next follows
the forming of the bricks usually by extruding a ribbon of plastic clay
and wire-cutting it. There are other methods in use in the UK, but less
so in most other countries. Where the clay used is a mudstone or shale,
which is dry enough to be ground to a granular form, the bricks may be
semi-dry pressed (the well-known Friction brick is the typical representa-
tive of this process) or stiff-plastic pressed. The most typical stiff-plastic-
pressed bricks are common bricks made from colliery shale and some
smooth red bricks made from shales from the coal measures. Where the
clay is a soft and silty material of recent geological age, it may be machine
moulded, as in making London stock bricks. When the bricks have been
formed, they must be dried and fired. Wire-cut bricks are usually, and
moulded bricks must be, dried in a separate dryer. Semi-dry-pressed
bricks, stiff-plastic-pressed bricks and some wire-cut bricks made by
stiff extrusion are stiff enough to be stacked in the kiln without deform-
ation. They can then be dried and fired without being rehandled in
between. Nearly all of the most modern plants use car tunnel kilns in
which the bricks are passed through a stationary fire on cars with firebrick
decks. Most of the older plants use one of the many variants of the continu-
ous kiln invented by Hoffmann in 1862. The fire travels round a closed cir-
cuit, with fired bricks being removed and green bricks set at the point
farthest from the fire. Kilns may be fired with coal, oil or gas and it is usu-
ally advantageous if some fuel is contained in the bricks. One of the rea-
sons for using fly ash in brick making is that any carbon that remains
unburnt can be oxidised in the time available in a brick kiln, and its heat
utilised.
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Manufacture of fly ash bricks

General
It may be possible to use one particular ash with a particular clay, and the
ash may show advantages in both manufacture and the properties of
the bricks produced. Yet, with different clay, even from the same works,
the introduction of the ash may lead to increased losses and lower quality.
It is always necessary, therefore, to consider specific cases.
Two general situations may be distinguished:

• those in which fly ash is the minor constituent, being added to the
clay to improve its working properties and for its fuel value
• those in which the fly ash is the principal constituent, the clay being
essentially a bonding agent.
There is no theoretical reason why there should not also be 50/50 mixtures
of the two materials. Some have been used, although in practice it seems
that the clays ordinarily found to be suitable for brick making are of such a
size-grading and plasticity that they do not readily accept more than
10–30% by volume of fly ash without some deterioration in their proper-
ties. Hence, additions of this order are common when the use of fly ash is
taken up by existing brickworks. At the other end of the scale, when the
aim is to use the maximum amount of fly ash, it is possible to find bond
clays which will enable the ash to be worked with the addition of only
15–20% of clay. This was the type of mixture considered when proposals
were studied for constructing brickworks near power stations as a means
of fly ash utilisation. Here, it was the clay that would have had to bear the
cost of transport and there was interest, therefore, in keeping the propor-
tion of clay to a minimum. Although hundreds of bricks of very satisfac-
tory quality were made in the large pilot-scale trials, no works has been
established in Britain to use the process on the full scale. The problems of
full-scale production of bricks consisting mainly of fly ash remain to be
worked out. Anderson and Jackson1 suggest that high ash bodies are possi-
ble (65% fly ash) and with lower levels of fly ash (25–35%) a comprehen-
sive range of clays could be used if attention were paid to the mix design.

Addition of fly ash to brick-making clay

Reasons for use of fly ash

The results obtained by the addition of fly ash to brick clay depend largely
on the grading or particle size distribution of the materials. Brick clays in
general are far from consisting entirely of ‘clay’ in the sense of material of
a particle size below 2 m equivalent diameter. Some such as the Wealden
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series, found by Watts4 to carry fly ash satisfactorily, may contain about
60% of the clay fraction, but others such as the Keuper marl have been
found to contain only 12 –35%.
Fly ash is a coarser material than brick clay. It therefore follows that the
maximum scope for the use of fly ash is with those clays having a high con-
tent of material below 2 m equivalent diameter. Each case will have to be
decided by tests on the materials to be used. Where a suitable combination
of brick clay and fly ash is found, one or more of the following advantages
will accrue:
• Easier feed to the grinding mill: this usually only applies in the case
of very wet or sticky clays.
• Less power required for extrusion or pressing: Watts4 carried out a
works trial with Weald clay in which some 200,000 bricks were made.
He found the average power produced by the engine driving the
brick machine to be 4–3% higher when running without fly ash than
when an addition of 11–5% by weight (20% by volume) was made.
• Easier drying.
• Savings in fuel: in the trials conducted by Watts4 there was a saving
of 45 kg of coal per 1000 bricks fired, which represents a reduction of
one-third of the coal consumption compared with when no fly ash
was used.
• Easier firing: in the same trials, it was found that the fire was more
easily controlled and travelled more rapidly. This was supported by
the results of another trial5 using a 60 : 40 mixture of Keuper Marl and
fly ash. In the case of shales with a high carbon content, which are
used for brick making in some places, fly ash is sometimes used as a
diluent to reduce the carbon content to acceptable limits.

Limitations of works trials

In many works trials with fly ash the number of bricks made has usually
been at most a few thousand, enough to set about half a chamber of an
average continuous kiln. Consequently, it has not been practicable to vary
the firing temperature from that normally used without fly ash. This,
however, may not be the most suitable temperature for the clay/fly ash
mixture and such a trial may therefore give an unduly unfavourable
impression of the quality of bricks that can be made. This is confirmed by
evidence given below, where the properties of laboratory-fired bricks are
compared with those fired at the works.

Handling and treatment of fly ash

The method of handling to be adopted will depend to some extent
on the conditions of supply and the equipment of the works. Three types
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are possible:

• Delivery to the clay pit: Damp fly ash is tipped into the clay pit beside
the clay haulage and the required amount placed in each tub before
it is filled with clay. The contents of the tubs are then tipped into the
grinding mill in the usual way. This method gives the maximum
period of mixing and may be satisfactory so long as the tipped fly ash
does not dry out. Suitable precautions against this should be taken,
as otherwise there may be some dust nuisance in dry weather.
• Delivery to the preparation machinery: Damp fly ash is fed in a regu-
lar stream into the train of preparation machinery at a convenient
point where adequate control can be maintained. For example, it can
be fed to the mixer with the ground clay, particularly if the mixer is or
can be enclosed. Before adopting this procedure the adequacy of the
mixing available between the point of supply and the brick machine
should be checked.
• Deliveries of dry fly ash: The cost of the handling plant tends to limit
this to works of high output.

Fly ash bricks with a clay bond

Scope of pilot-scale experiments

Between 1952 and 1955, extensive tests were conducted on two particular
mixtures of fly ash and clay:

• fly ash from Hams Hall, near Birmingham, with an Etruria Marl from
Wilnecote
• fly ash from Rye House, Hoddesdon, with London Clay from Nazeing.
These two case studies covered a wide range of conditions. The Hams Hall
fly ash was available in the dry state and the problems of dry mixing it with
ground clay were studied. At Rye House, fly ash was available only as
slurry and involved the quite different problems of dealing with an ash of
high water content. Hundreds of bricks were made successfully from each
combination of materials, generally in the proportion of 85 : 15 fly ash : clay
by volume (80 : 20 by weight). In the absence of experimental brickworks,
no observations were possible on the drying and firing of the bricks under
practical conditions. However, the bricks were fired in the laboratory to dif-
ferent temperatures for the studies of their properties, as reported below.

Manufacture based on dry fly ash

Several attempts were made to produce semi dry-pressed bricks from a
mixture of fly ash with ground clay. Some bricks of tolerable appearance
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were produced, but their quality as shown by exposure tests was so

poor that it is unnecessary to discuss them further (see the photographs of
exposure piers in Figs 9.1 and 9.2). The wire-cut process achieved the best
results.
With Hams Hall fly ash, it was found that the dry ash mixed with dry
powdered clay, if wetted down immediately before extrusion, had remark-
able working properties. It tended to stiffen up after extrusion, so that the
green bricks were resistant to damage in handling and were very easy to
dry, with a linear drying shrinkage of only about 2%. It was possible to put
freshly made bricks into an oven at 70°C and to dry them in about 6 h, a
treatment that few ordinary clay bricks would withstand. It is probable
that the early stiffening, and the insensitivity to drastic conditions of
drying, was due to the early removal of some of the mixing water. This was
by absorption on the large surface area of glassy particles in the fly ash.
In addition, water was lost by combination with the small amount of
anhydrous calcium sulfate in the fly ash. The same mixture of fly ash and
clay did not possess the same advantages if it had been kept wet overnight
before extrusion. The bricks made from the mixture so treated were much
more sensitive to drying conditions.
A corollary of the unusual stiffening behaviour of the newly wetted
mixture was that care had to be taken to prevent it from setting in the brick
machine. It would normally be necessary to run the machine empty at the
end of a day’s work, and possibly before a lunch break, to avoid difficulties
in restarting.

Manufacture based on wet fly ash

These experiments were conducted using fly ash from Rye House power
station, where the ash was discharged wet to a lagoon, and could not be
readily extracted from the system in the dry state. The preparation of a
mixture of fly ash and clay suitable for brick making was more trouble-
some and likely to involve higher costs for plant than at a power station
where dry ash is available. The basic difficulty with fly ash from a lagoon
is the high water content. It remains even when the fly ash has been
allowed to settle in a tank and as much water as possible has drained
away. Under such conditions, a water content of at least 55%, calculated on
the wet weight, is likely. Further reduction in the water content is essential,
and vacuum filtration is capable of bringing the water content down to
about 40% rapidly. If the bond clay were then introduced as a dry powder,
the result would be a mixture that might be suitable for machine moulding.
It is likely not to be sufficiently stiff for the wire-cut process unless more
water is removed. As has been emphasised previously, any instance where
the idea of making bricks from fly ash with a clay bond is contemplated
must be considered on its merits, after trials with the proposed materials.
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It will be seen, however, that the possibilities are more restricted if the fly
ash has to be taken from a lagoon, and the prospects of an economic and
successful process are much reduced.

Firing of fly ash bricks

It has been pointed out that even a modest addition of fly ash effects a
worthwhile saving in the fuel consumption necessary for firing bricks. It
follows that some attention must be paid to the carbon content of any fly
ash that might be used for a brick containing 70% or 80% fly ash. This is a
problem which is already familiar to makers of colliery shale common
bricks, since many colliery shales contain more coal than is really required
to fire the bricks. The result is that the air supply to the kiln has to be
restricted to prevent overfiring. The bricks tend, consequently, to have
black cores owing to insufficient oxidation. The same situation could arise
with fly ash bricks if an ash of high carbon content was used, and this
would make it impossible to produce good-quality facing bricks. At base-
load power stations, it is perfectly possible for the carbon content to
remain below 4% for long periods. Provision should be made for the
prompt detection, and exclusion from supplies going to the brickworks, of
any fly ash of higher carbon content that may be produced.

Special bonding materials

The materials considered so far as bonds for fly ash have all been common
clays, such as may be considered for brick making in the absence of fly ash.
If the considerations mentioned above are borne in mind, it would be
difficult to justify the use of anything more expensive. It is necessary,
however, to mention one or two alternatives that have been proposed, and
have been the subject of some experiment.
In the late 1940s, an attempt was made to produce floor tiles from fly ash
by burning out the residual carbon (thereby losing its potential fuel value),
bonding with sodium silicate, pressing and firing. Some small, laboratory-
made tiles of indifferent quality were made, but an attempt to make tiles of
normal size on a press of the type used for clay tiles was a complete failure.
It is possible that the use of a much higher pressure on a different type of
press would have given better consolidation.
Consideration had to be given to the subject matter of the Corson patent.6
This proposed making bricks from fly ash with a variable proportion of
furnace-bottom ash and with 1–2% of bentonite as a bond. Bentonite is a
clay mineral of exceptionally fine particle size and high plasticity which
finds application in drilling muds and as a bond in foundry sands, to quote
only two examples. These make it probable that it may be effective even in
the very small proportions quoted. Fuller’s earth is mineralogically very
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similar to bentonite, and four different grades of fuller’s earth were tried
on a small experimental scale, with bricks being made by hand and fired in
the laboratory. It was found that 1% and 2% of fuller’s earth were not
enough to bond fly ash effectively. With 5%, the absolute maximum that
could be considered on grounds of cost, some rather weak and friable
bricks were made which nevertheless were more weather resistant than
expected. It was clear, however, that 15% of plastic common clay, such as
London clay, would be much cheaper than 15% of Fuller’s earth and
would make a better brick. A more promising approach appeared to be the
substitution of sodium silicate for the fuller’s earth or bentonite.7
Apart from the special bonding materials discussed above, there are two
approaches to the production of fly ash bricks that appeared to be promis-
ing, but have led to disappointing results. There are theoretical reasons
why this should be so and again a warning may save wasted effort. These
two approaches are semi-dry pressing and the total omission of the clay
bond.
The making of bricks by semi-dry pressing has one main attraction,
namely that it practically eliminates drying shrinkage and hence the diffi-
culties of cracking and warping that can arise in drying plastic articles
made from clays of high shrinkage. In spite of this, plastic processes and
especially the wire-cut process have maintained their position nearly
everywhere, the semi-dry-pressed Fletton brick being an exception for
which there are special reasons. It is very difficult, in the semi-dry process,
to secure effective bonding of the grains of clay. They tend to stick where
they touch, leaving pore spaces in between which can be easily opened up
by frost if the bricks are used in conditions of severe exposure. The imper-
fect contact between the grains means that the firing process is less
effective in developing the all-important partial fusion of different mineral
species. When the same material is made using the plastic process, the
grains are in more intimate contact. Normally, a semi-dry brick needs a
higher firing temperature than a plastic-made brick to mature it, and more
accurate temperature control is necessary to avoid overfiring. Since bodies
containing high amounts of fly ash have very small drying shrinkage,
there is no real reason to depart from the plastic process.
When, in addition to adopting the semi-dry process, the bond clay is
omitted and an attempt is made to produce bricks from moist fly ash alone,
the difficulties are multiplied. The very fine powder is difficult to con-
solidate by pressing without developing pressure cracks due to entrapped
air, although bricks can be made, at least from some samples of fly ash, by
double pressing. Even with evacuation of the press die, difficulties have
been experienced in eliminating the considerable volume of air entrained
by the damp fly ash. The addition of grog does not fully overcome the dif-
ficulties. Methods of doing so have been suggested in work carried out in
the laboratories of the Central Electricity Generating Board.8,9
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Properties of fly ash bricks

Properties considered
When the original exploratory work on fly ash bricks was done,4,5 the con-
ventional tests for water absorption and compressive strength were used
as a rough method of assessment, in spite of their known shortcomings.
Analyses of soluble salts were conducted on a number of samples in which
London clay was used, because soluble salts are frequently a problem with
clays of that formation, but not on all samples. These analyses will be
considered separately from the physical properties. In addition, bricks
from the various test batches were exposed to the weather under standard
severe conditions, and useful information has accrued from these expos-
ure tests.
The form of exposure test generally used was the ‘tray’ test, in which
representative specimens, usually two, were placed on edge in metal trays
75 mm deep and left outside. During the winter, the trays normally con-
tained water, so that the bricks were saturated when frozen. In addition,
similar specimens were exposed on a level concrete slab outside the trays.
The tray test is very severe and bricks decay in it in roughly one-third the
time needed for similar effects to occur in the brick on the edge coping of
a parapet. Exposure outside the trays is not as severe as in the trays. The
condition of the bricks in exposure tests is recorded in Tables 9.2 and 9.3
as good (G), moderate (M) or bad (B), according to their condition after
7 years’ exposure. The mark G means no significant decay in 7 years, M
means decay to a depth not exceeding about 25 mm, and B means decay
that is more extensive.
In addition, a few brick piers were built. These were built and capped in
such a way that rainwater drained from the capping into the middle of the
pier, which was filled with sand. The conditions were classified as severe
exposure, comparable with an earth-retaining wall (Figs 9.1 and 9.2).
Fig. 9.1 shows a wire-cut rustic facing brick and Fig. 9.2 a semi-dry-
pressed common brick, both containing 85% by volume of fly ash, after
12 years’ exposure. The condition of these piers emphasises the point that
it is difficult to make durable bricks from fly ash by semi-dry pressing.

Properties of bricks with moderate additions of fly ash

Reasonable comparisons are available for the effect of additions of fly ash
on the properties of two types of clay, each represented by two examples.
The types are:

• coal measure shales (Carboniferous)

• Keuper marl (Triassic).
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Fig. 9.1. Rustic wire-cut facing bricks, containing 85% by volume fly ash, after
12 years’ exposure as a hollow pier

Table 9.2 shows that the effect of fly ash on the properties of the bricks
varies from clay to clay. With some clays, the porosity and strength are
hardly affected at all (within the limits of variation to be expected in works
tests), whereas with others the porosity is increased although the strength
is not necessarily decreased. Even where the porosity is increased and the
strength decreased, the durability of the bricks in severe exposure is not
affected adversely; indeed, it seems to be marginally better. (The number
of bricks used in the exposure test is small, so it is difficult to be sure
of small differences in performance.) The marked improvement in the
properties of the Keuper marl brick fired in the laboratory, compared with
the same mixture fired at the works, is to be noted. The temperature of the
laboratory firing was adjusted to the needs of the fly ash mixture and was
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Fig. 9.2. Semi-dry-pressed common bricks, containing 85% by volume fly ash, after
12 years’ exposure as a hollow pier.

about 50°C higher than the temperature used in the kiln at the works for
firing the clay without fly ash.

Properties of bricks with a high proportion of fly ash

Information about the properties of bricks made mainly from fly ash with
a clay bond rests chiefly on the results of pilot-scale tests in which the
bricks were fired under laboratory control. One or two trials with a high
proportion of fly ash have been conducted under works conditions. There
is no point in attempting a comparison with the properties of the bond
clay without fly ash, since the clays selected for this purpose are not
247
248
Table 9.2. Effect of moderate proportions of fly ash on the properties of bricks

Source and Bricks containing no fly ash Bricks containing fly ash
brick type

Water Compressive Condition after Fly ash Water Compressive Condition after
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absorption strength 7 years and Clay absorption strength 7 years

Properties and use of coal fly ash

(% by (MPa) (% by (% by (MPa)
weight) volume) volume)

In tray Outside In tray Outside

Carboniferous clays
Hamstead SP 183 219 B, B M, B 40/60 182 235 M, B G, M
Tamworth 122 319 G, G G, G 40/60 186 368 G, B G, G
Keuper marl
Knowle WC 227 253 B, B B, B 50/50 197 256 B, B G, B
Bickenhill WC 208 329 B, B B, B 39/61 270 188 B, B B, B
215 284 B, B B, B 50/50 272 169 B, B M, B
Bickenhill WC, 39/61 216 308 B G
Lab. fired

SP: stiff-plastic pressed; WC: wire cut; G: good (no significant decay); M: moderate (decay not exceeding 25 mm); B: bad (extensive decay).
 Table 9.3. Properties of bricks with a high proportion of fly ash

Materials Fly ash and Method of Firing Water Compressive Condition after
clay (% by making absorption strength 7 years
volume) (% by weight) (MPa)
In tray Outside

Hams Hall fly ash and 85/15 M Works ‘soft’ 292 173 G, G G, G
Etruria marl 85/15 M Lab. 1080°C 255 259 G, G G, G
85/15 HM Lab. 1080°C 268 233 G, G G, G
85/15 HM Lab. 1070°C 302 185 G, G G, G
chap-09.qxd 20/09/2001 09:05 Page 249

90/10 HM Lab. 1070°C 316 153 G, G G, G

95/5 HM Lab. 1070°C 355 – G M
85/15 WC Lab. 1080°C 221 314 M, M G, G
85/15 SD Lab. 1000°C 290 107 B, B G, B
Rye House fly ash and 85/15 HM Lab. 1080°C 327 154 G, M G, G
London clay 85/15 WC Lab. 1080°C 307 228 M, M G, M
Portobello fly ash and coal 75/25 WC Works 150 397 G G
measure shale
Fly ash and Brickearth made 75/25 M Works 316 198 G, M G, G
stock fashion
Rye House fly ash and fuller’s 95/5 HM Lab. 1080°C 484 – G G
earth (four different grades) 95/5 HM Lab. 1080°C 469 – G M
95/5 HM Lab. 1080°C 473 – G G
95/5 HM Lab. 1080°C 466 – B M

M: machine moulded; HM: hand made; WC: wire cut; SD: semi-dry pressed; G: good (no significant decay); M: moderate (decay not exceeding 6 mm);
B: bad (extensive decay).

249
Other potential uses of fly ash
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

necessarily suitable for brick making on their own. No bricks were made
from the clays alone. Representative test results on two examples are given
in Table 9.2.
Bricks with a high ash content have properties very similar to those of
many other facing and common bricks in general use, although their
water absorption levels are generally very high. While an engineer accus-
tomed to the dense bricks from the coal measures may regard these high
water absorption figures as unacceptable, Table 9.3 contains evidence that
this attitude would not be justified. The excellent durability in the very
severe conditions of the tray exposure test of nearly all the specimens
tested would compare favourably with any random selection of ordinary
clay bricks. It is not easy to find satisfactory reasons why these fly ash
bricks are as good as they are. A possible explanation may be found in their
generally uniform pore sizes, which at least theory supports. Frost action
takes place in a structure in which ice lenses in coarse pores can be fed by
water in adjacent very fine pores. It should not be overlooked that the
high porosity of these bricks of high fly ash content will have a very
favourable effect upon their thermal insulation properties.

Soluble salts content of bricks of high fly ash content

As mentioned above, London clay has a bad reputation as a source of efflo-
rescence and other problems due to soluble salts in bricks. The possibility
of excessive amounts of soluble salts being found in London Clay/fly ash
mixtures was therefore studied carefully. Sample bricks were made from
fly ash and clay taken from different depths in a number of different bore-
holes. They were fired to 960°C, 1020°C and 1080°C, i.e. over the range
which could be practically described as moderately well fired to hard fired,
and were analysed. Similar trends were shown by all the batches tested,
and are illustrated by the results in Table 9.4.

Table 9.4. Analyses of soluble salts of fly ash and London clay bricks

Temperature (°C)

Bricks fired to: 960 1020 1080

Total soluble salts composition 258 231 099

Silicate (SiO22) 004 003 001
Sulfate (SO32) 150 142 065
Calcium (Ca2) 071 059 028
Magnesium (Mg2) 001 001 001
Sodium (Na) 003 001 002
Potassium (K) 003 001 003

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Other potential uses of fly ash

Since the soluble salts consist mainly of calcium sulfate, and the amount
is well within the limits found with other bricks in common use, e.g.
Flettons, they provide no grounds for alarm. At the same time, with this
clay at least, a uniformly high firing temperature should clearly be the
objective.

Hollow blocks
With the exception of one case near Birkenhead,10 little development work
has been done on the manufacture of structural ceramic products other
than standard solid bricks from fly ash mixtures, but the general possibili-
ties can be indicated. The plasticity that the raw material must possess
for the manufacture of different products increases in the order: solid
bricks  perforated bricks  hollow blocks (and/or roofing tiles) (Fig. 9.3).
It is not very useful to attempt to quote actual figures for the plasticity nec-
essary for each type of product. The ranges for plasticity are wide and the
plasticity at which a given type of product can be made successfully
depends on the machinery used and the skill with which it is operated.
However, it will be useful in any programme of practical trials to deter-
mine the plasticity index of any mixture on which extrusion trials are
conducted. In this way, a useful collection of basic data can be built up as
the programme proceeds.
In the mixture of moderate fly ash content, it is unlikely that the pres-
ence of fly ash will prevent a manufacturer from producing perforated

Fig. 9.3. Some products that have been made using fly ash
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

bricks owing to lack of plasticity. Fly ash will be used if the clay is plastic or
even sticky and the mixture chosen for solid bricks may well be usable
without modification for perforated bricks.
In high fly ash mixtures, much will depend on the bond clay available in
any particular instance. It may be necessary to increase the proportion of
bond clay, from one-fifth to perhaps one-third, to obtain the plasticity
necessary for hollow-ware. The possibilities still need to be worked out.
The manufacture of hollow blocks of some kind may be a useful way of
keeping control of the firing process in case the carbon content of the fly
ash tends to rise. A kiln set with hollow blocks necessarily contains a
smaller weight of ware per volume of kiln space than one set with solid
bricks. Therefore, the use of a slightly increased proportion of bond clay
may enable a slightly higher carbon content in the fly ash to be tolerated.

Fly ash in asphalt

Hot rolled asphalt (HRA) is widely used for the surfacing of motorways and
heavily trafficked roads. It is produced by heating a mixture of mineral
aggregates, filler and bitumen to relatively high temperatures. The material
is transported, laid and compacted in a short period to avoid loss of temper-
ature. HRA is produced at 1600°C, placed and compacted at not less than
1250°C, to maintain workability. Proportions of coarse aggregate (34%), sand
(56%) and filler (10%) required to produce specified size distributions are
given in BS 594 Part 1, 1992. In general, the filler used is limestone dust.
A detailed laboratory study followed by a site trial on a heavily trafficked
road was undertaken using HRA with fly ash replacing the limestone dust
filler. Mixes were prepared at various mixing and laying temperatures.
These temperatures were recorded and subsequently the paved area was
examined for rutting, surface texture and density.11
The predominantly spherical particles of fly ash improved the packing
properties of HRA, and since they tend to occupy more bulk volume per
unit weight, a lower bulk density was achieved. The fly ash HRA had a far
higher workability index than conventional asphalt. This suggests that the
fly ash could be mixed and compacted at temperatures as low as 110°C and
850°C, respectively without impairing its engineering performance and
other properties.
Savings in energy input when replacing limestone dust with fly ash
were considerable, and this classifies the product as a low-energy material.
The optimum bitumen content for engineering properties was found to
be lower. However, there was some concern about reducing the bitumen
content for durability reasons, especially the oxidation of bitumen. Replac-
ing the limestone dust with fly ash did not affect the optimum bitumen
content of the HRA.
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Other potential uses of fly ash

Other ceramic products

Cenospheres
When fly ash is discharged into a lagoon, a small proportion of the particles
separates from the rest of the material and rises to the surface. These are the
cenospheres, which are hollow particles made of expanded silicate glass.
They have a non-porous shell thickness of about 10% of their radius. The
mean diameter is 100 m, the range (by weight) being 5% below 50 m
and 20% above 125 m. Typically, 1–2% of the fly ash produced from
the combustion of coal in power stations is formed as cenospheres. Their
main characteristics are:

• hollow spheres with spherical morphology

• particle sizes ranging from submicrometre to millimetres
• ultralow density
• low thermal conductivity
• high particle strength
• resistance to acids
• low water absorption.

Applications
The main application is that of an inert filler. With a density lower
than water (typically 07), cenospheres provide up to four times the bulk-
ing capacity of normal-weight fillers. The microspherical shape dra-
matically improves the rheology of fillers, whether in wet or in dry
applications. It is an extremely stable material. It does not absorb water
and is resistant to most acids. As it is a refractory material, it can resist high
temperatures.
Cenospheres can be used in plastics, glass-reinforced plastics, light-
weight panels, refractory tiles and almost anywhere that traditional fillers
can be used. Because of their flexibility, they are used in many high-
technology and traditional industries. Aerospace, hovercraft, carpet back-
ing, window-glazing putty, concrete repair materials, horticulture, and
off-shore oil and gas production industries all use cenospheres. They are
also used as an aggregate for insulating blocks and an additive to fire clay
to aerate it. When the clay is heated to about 1400°C the cenospheres
collapse, leaving a cellular structure with improved insulating qualities.
Both of these applications have been exploited in Europe.
In the aerospace industry, cenospheres have been used to manufacture
lightweight propeller blades. The cenospheres reduce the weight but also
increase the strength.

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Properties and use of coal fly ash

Thermal and dielectric properties

Cenospheres are extremely resistant to heat and typically have a melting
point in excess of 1300°C. As cenospheres are hollow, they have a relatively
low coefficient of thermal conductivity, typically 009 W/mK. Cenospheres
conduct very little electricity and are ideal for use in insulators. Specialist
technical advice is available.

Physical properties
Particle size
In their raw form cenospheres have a continuous particle size distribution
from submicrometre to around 500 m. Cenospheres can be classified into
particular particle size distributions by prior arrangement.

Density
The overall particle density is around 04–07 g/cm3 but varies depending
on the size fraction. Densities as low as 03 g/cm3 can be achieved by selec-
tion of the various size fractions. In general, the smaller the size fraction
the lower the density. Bulk density ranges from 025 to 035 g/cm3.
The density of the shell material varies between 20 and 24 g/cm3.

Chemical composition
The cenosphere shell contains typically:

• 55–65% of SiO2
• 25–35% of Al2O3
• 1–5% of Fe2O3
• The central voids typically contains 70% CO2 and 30% N2 in gaseous
form.

Water absorption
Cenospheres have virtually no water-absorbing properties.

Chemical resistance
The aluminosilicate shell is particularly resistant to acidic environ-
ments. However, like most glasses, cenospheres are not resistant to strong
alkalis.

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Other potential uses of fly ash

Aerated ceramic

Experimental work in both the UK and the USA12 has shown that by
the addition of a foaming agent and small proportions of other materials,
fly ash can be used to manufacture an aerated ceramic. Units up to
12  06  01 m have been produced in the USA.

Summary

This book has demonstrated the wide range of uses to which fly ash has
been put. There are many other potential applications for this versatile
and readily available by-product. Research continues throughout the
world, with some 300 papers per annum being published covering
the properties and applications of fly ash. It is hoped that eventually this
material will be considered not a waste product but a valuable material in
its own right and will be fully utilised world-wide.

References

1. Anderson M, Jackson, G. The history of pulverised fuel ash in brickmak-

ing in Britain. Transaction and Journal of the Insitute of Ceramics 1987; 86(4):
99–135.
2. BS 3921. Specification for clay bricks. BSI, London, 1985.
3. BS 5628. Part 3: Code of practice for use of masonry. Materials and components,
design and workmanship. BSI, London, 1985.
4. Watts AJC. Full scale experiments on the addition of fly ash in brick mak-
ing. Transactions of the British Ceramic Society 1954; 53(5): 315.
5. Butterworth B. Bricks made with fly ash. Transactions of the British Ceramic
Society 1954; 53(5): 293.
6. British patent 653,070.
7. Cockrell CF, Shafer HE Jr, Humphreys KK. Fly ash based structural materials:
recent developments utilising the WVU-OCR process. Report No. 16, Coal
Research Bureau, West Virginia University, February 1966.
8. Jones GT, Corrie DA. The production of 100% fly ash bricks, interim report, June
1960 to July 1961. CEGB North Western Region Research Note No. 4/61,
1961.
9. Crimmin WRC, Gill GM, Jones GT. The production of 100% fly ash bricks,
interim report. CEGB North Western Region Report No. 6/63, 17 June 1963.
10. CEGB. North Western Region, fly ash news review No. 2. CEGB, London,
February 1963.
11. Cabrera JG, Zoorob SE. Design of low energy hot rolled asphalt.
Proceedings of the 1st European Symposium, Leeds, 1994: 289–308.
12. Griffith JS, Dusek JT, Bailey EC. A new use for fly ash – a lightweight ceramic
building material. ASME Paper No. 61-WA-291, 1961.

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Index

Aardelite process 209–210 Brown coal 1

Acids 100 BS 12: 222
Admixtures 179–180 BS 1377: 119
Aerated ceramic 255 BS 3797: 229, 230
Agricultural applications of fly ash BS 3892: 65, 67, 68, 69, 72, 73, 170, 221,
50–51 231
Airport paving case study 156–162 BS 3921: 235
Alkali silica reaction 93 BS 6073: 218, 225, 226, 229, 231
Aluminium 21 BS 6610 :75
Aluminium powder 223 BS EN 196-2: 144
Ammonia 8–9 BS EN 196-3: 145
Anthracite 1 BS EN 196-5: 84-85
Autoclaved aerated concrete 211–212 BS EN 206: 75, 76
autoclaving 219 BS EN 450: 68, 69, 72, 198, 221
casting 214–216 BS EN 451-1: 145
cutting 217–218 BS EN 451-2: 144
depressurisation 220 Bulk density of compacted fly ash
dwell stage 220 grout 171
fly ash use in 213–214
history of 213 Calcium hydroxide depletion 80
hydrothermal reactions 220–221 Calcium sulfate (gypsum) 4
manufacture of 214 Capillarity 123–124
pressurisation 219–220 Carbon dioxide emissions 2
properties of 223–225 Carbon reduction 22–23
purging 219 Carbonation 94-95
setting 216 Carboniferous period 1
weigh batching and mixing 214 Cement 222–223
Cement
Bituminous or hard coal 1 bound materials 155
Bleed capacity 173 strength compliance of 156
Bleeding 172 fly ash mixtures 153–154
Bleeding within concrete 106 stabilised fly ash 139–140
Boiler usage 2–3 types containing fly ash 74
Bricks, properties required of 235–237 Cements containing fly ash 73

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Properties and use of coal fly ash

Cenospheres 16–17, 45, 46, 253 Durability of concretes made with fly
Centrifugal pumps 189 ash 92
Channel Tunnel 232 Dust exposure 56
Chloride ingress 95-96
Coal Elastic modulus 90-91
mills 6 Electrostatic
particle size after pulverising 6 extraction of carbon 21–22
reserves 2 precipitators 8–9
treatment at power station 5–6 Energy sources, pattern of use 3
types of 1 Environmental impacts of using fly
Coal-fired power generation 2, 4, 5–9 ash 48–52
layout of 6
usage in recent years 3 Fibretain 131
Coefficient of interaction between fly Field procedure and plant 141–142
ash and reinforcement 131 Fill structures 52
Coefficient of thermal expansion 92 design of 49
Co-firing 19–20 laying and compaction 49–50
Compaction 120–122, 140, 142–143 Filling of large caverns 180–181
plants 133 Fineness 84, 86
Compressive strength 174 and mortar prism strength 71
Concrete 206 effect on strength factor 70
blocks 206 effect on water demand 71
freeze–thaw properties 96-97 variation 70
mix Fire or explosion risks 57
design 100–104 First-aid treatment 57
proportioning 101–102 Flue gas 7
hardened 107-108 desulfurisation (FGD) plants 4, 9
pavement-quality 159–160 Fly ash
use of fly ash in 9 addition during concrete
Conditioners 11–12 manufacture 67
Confidence limits for mean fineness as a stabilising agent 138–139
72 benefits of selection and
Control of Substances Hazardous to classification 10
Health (COSHH) Regulations bound mixtures (FABMs) 144
1994 56 manufacturing 145–147
Corrosion rate 130 types of 145
Creep 91 brick clays and 234–235, 239–240
Curing 92 bricks
firing of 243
Desulfurisation equipment 4–5 manufacture of 239
DIN leaching test 37–38 properties of 245
Dioxins in fly ash 44–45 with a clay bond 241
Drainage 208–209 cement-bound material and 155–156
Drax Power Station 12 chemical and mineralogical
Drinking Water Inspectorate properties 27–28
threshold 46 chemical constituents 58
Drying shrinkage 225–226 classifier system 10
Dry-lean concrete 158, 159 concrete
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Index

benefits of using 109–111 Granular fly ash case study 162–168

placing and compacting of Granular fly ash mixtures 149
105–108 properties of 149–150
plastic properties 106–107 structural design of roads using 151,
UK examples 108–109 152
conditioned 11–12, 49 Grout S169
definition of 1 containing only fly ash 183–184
disposal 59 fly ash/lime 181–182
dry 49 fly ash/Portland cement 181
ecotoxic effects 59 fly ash/sand grouts 183
extraction from flue gas 7–8 injecting 189, 189–192
grouts, properties of 172 mixtures 171
handling and storage 57–58 permeation 184
health and safety properties of fly strengths 175–177
ash 58 use of fly ash in 169–172
high-performance 22 Grouting 185
history of 63-66 compaction
in asphalt 252 consolidation 185–186
in concrete, properties of 77 curtain 186
lagoons 48, 117 hydrofracture 184
composition 31 techniques 184
testing 32
laying and compacting 132 Handling precautions 56
leaching characteristics 33–34 Harwell test 38–39
particle 7 Heat exchanger 6–7
consistency 24 Heat of hydration 87-88, 89
density 82 High fly ash content concrete 105
size 81 High-density polyethylene 131
permeability 35–36 Hollow blocks 251–252
physical properties 25–26 Hot rolled asphalt 252
processing for use in concrete 9–10 Hydration product 79
production 3, 7-8
properties of 116–118 Injection operations 192
recovery process 48 Iron extraction from fly ash 20
stockpiles 48
strength and fineness 11 Kyoto agreement of 1992 2
transportation of 49
treatment after extraction 9 Lagoon fly ash 12–14
types of 116 Leachate quality threshold 46–47
utilisation 23 Leachates from fly ash 31–39
variability 82-83 Leaching from cementitious systems
Formwork striking times 88-90 50
Frost action 140–141 Lightweight aggregate concrete blocks
Furnace bottom ash 8, 18–19 using furnace bottom ash 226–232
Fy ash embankment 52 Lignite 1
Lime 79
Gas-fired power generation 3 fly ash 153–154
Glass-reinforced polyester 131 /gypsum process 9
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Properties and use of coal fly ash

Loss on ignition 3, 26–27, 65, 144 Quick lime 4, 137, 223

Lytag 197–198
applications 205–206 Radiation from fly ash 53–55
pelletising process 198–203 Reduced permeability 177
properties 203–205 Refractory concrete 208
Reinforced earth 129–131
Magnesium solubility 34 Road design 147, 148, 152
Manufacturing processes 237–238 Roller-compacted concrete 104
Minimum cement content 75
Moisture content 170, 172 Screeds 206–208
Multistage drilling and grouting 191 Screw-type pumps 188
Sea water 95
Nitrogen oxides 4 Setting time 88-90
Nuclear power generation 4 Settlement 124–125
Shale 1–2
Open voided ground 180–181 Shear strength 125–129
Siliceous material 1–2
Palaeozoic era 1 Single-stage drilling and grouting
Particle 190–191
density 118–120 Sintered fly ash aggregate 196–198
size Site
analysis 170–171 control and records 193–195
distribution and shape 23–24 investigation 186–188
Pavement construction 147, 149, 151, Skin contact, effect of 56
163 Sleeve grout pipe 191–192
Permeability 123–124 Soil
Piston pump 188 stabilisation
Pneumatic mix-in-place 138
packers 191 principles of 137
placers 189 pre-mix 138
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in techniques 137–138
fly ash 40–44 strength 131
Portland cement 30–31, 63, 81, 82, 136 Special bonding materials 243–244
hydration products of 78 Sprayed concrete with pulverised fuel
Pozzolana 63, 77 ash 105
ultrafine 22–23 Standards for fly ash in concrete 67-86
Pozzolanic Steam 5
activity 84, 87 Stockpiled fly ash 14–16
cements 63 Strength, standard deviations of 72
reaction 9–10, 136 Sulfate
and concrete 77-80 content 141
Pressure losses in pipelines and in the resistance 97-98
ground 193 Sulfates 180
Pulverised fuel ash 155, 221–222, see Sulfur
also Fly ash emissions 4
Pulverising coal 6 injection 8–9
Pump maintenance 189
Pumping of grout 188–189 Temperature 89, 90
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Index

Tensar SR2 geogrid 131 Washing 1–2

Tensile strain capacity 91-92 Waste labelling 36
Thaumasite 98-99 Water filters 209
Thermal conductivity 225 Weather 143
Toxic equivalent (TEQ) 45 Wet fly ash 242–243
Tube pumps 189 Workability 86
World Energy Conference Report 54
UK health and safety requirements
56–59

Vehicle arrestor beds 209

Void filling properties 177–178

261