DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF STATIC AND DYNAMIC BALANCING APPARATUS

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Power transmission in engineering is accomplished by the use of shafts bearings,
pulleys, belts, rollers, gears, couplings, etc. Most machine members are linked or
interconnected with one another before this power transmission can be effective.
Misalignment or out of balance of shafts or any of these machine members results
in excessive vibration which is transmitted to other members and down to the foundation
bolt and therefore in fatigue stress on the members. Fatigue, probably, is responsible for
over 70% of failure of engineering component in operation. Misalignment in shafts and
bearing causes excessive load. High speed bearing of aircrafts that may operate at over
20,000 rpm may become catastrophic if there be any unbalance of the members. Out of
balance of machine members creates serious problems on the functionality and durability
and machine members and on the machine in general.
It is therefore, with the understanding of the sensitivity of balancing in the design
of mechanical components and the need to put balancing into consideration in the
fabrication of our local machines, the view to determine the level of out of balance and
the subsequent balancing of these machine members that necessitated the idea of
designing and constructing a Basic Static and Dynamic Balancing Apparatus of this
nature.
A method had to be found to minimize the problem. The mass had to be evenly
distributed about the rotating center line so that the resultant vibration was at a minimum.
The high speed of engines and other machines is a common phenomenon now-a-days. It
is, therefore, very essential that all the rotating and reciprocating parts should be
completely balanced as far as possible. If these parts are not properly balanced, the
dynamic forces are set up. These forces not only increase the loads on bearings and
stresses in the various members, but also produce unpleasant and even dangerous
vibrations. In this chapter we shall discuss the balancing of unbalanced forces caused by
rotating masses, in order to minimize pressure on the main bearings when an engine is
running.
Rotating machinery is widely used in a variety of applications such as aerospace,
energy, machining equipment, or even household equipment such as washing machine or
CD player. One major problem in these devices is the vibration caused by its unbalanced
mass, which happens when the center of mass does not coincide with the axis of rotation.

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Moreover, this unbalanced mass is not necessarily constant but can also vary with time or
unknown, as we can clearly observe, for example, in the washing machine. Thus there is a
need to have a mechanism to conveniently balance out the varying unbalanced mass. An
active balancer, in which an added mass will be actuated by a control system to move to
the balancing position, can add much complexity, cost and weight to the original device.
In this project, we will attempt to build and test a passive balancer that can also achieve
self-balancing like the active balancer but in a much simpler and less expensive way. This
passive balancer eliminates the need of sensor, actuator and control system by taking
advantage of a physical phenomenon occurring when the machine is rotating at a speed
above its critical speed. This phenomenon will automatically move an added mass to a
position that cancels the eccentric mass of the machine. The passive balancer we will
investigate is a ball balancer, in which some number of balls is added into the machine
and they can freely move into balancing positions. This project will aim to design,
analyze, build and test this ball balancer.

1.1 Unbalanced Systems:

When an unbalanced system is rotating, periodic linear and/or torsional forces are
generated which are perpendicular to the axis of rotation. The periodic nature of these
forces is commonly experienced as vibration. These off-axis vibration forces may exceed
the design limits of individual machine elements, reducing the service life of these parts.
For instance, a bearing may be subjected to perpendicular torsion forces that would not
occur in a nominally balanced system, or the instantaneous linear forces may exceed the
limits of the bearing. Such excessive forces will cause failure in bearings in short time
periods. Shafts with unbalanced masses can be bent by the forces and experience fatigue
failure.
Under conditions where rotating speed is very high even though the mass is low,
as in gas turbines or jet engines, or under conditions where rotating speed is low but the
mass is high, as in ship propellers, balance of the rotating system should be highly
considered, because it may generate large vibrations and cause failure of the whole
system. The condition which exists in a rotor when vibratory force or motion is imparted
to its Bearings as a result of centrifugal forces are called unbalance or the uneven
distribution of mass about a rotor’s rotating centerline.

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Figure 1.1: Simple Rotating Body

The condition which exists in a rotor when vibratory force or motion is imparted
to its bearings as a result of centrifugal forces is called unbalance or the uneven
distribution of mass about a rotor's rotating center line.
Rotating Center Line: The rotating center line being defined as the axis about which the
rotor would rotate if not constrained by its bearings. (Also called the Principle Inertia
Axis or PIA).
Geometric Center Line: The geometric center line being the physical centerline of the
rotor. When the two center lines are coincident, then the rotor will be in a state of balance.
When they are apart, the rotor will be unbalanced.
Different types of unbalance can be defined by the relationship between the two
center lines. These include:
Static Unbalance: Where the PIA is displaced parallel to the geometric centerline.
(Shown above)
Couple Unbalance: Where the PIA intersects the geometric center line at the center of
gravity. (CG)
Dynamic Unbalance: Where the PIA and the geometric center line do not coincide or
touch. The most common of these is dynamic unbalance.

Why we need balancing of rotating masses?

When assessing a rotor, unbalance cannot be visually identified. An added weight
on a rotor may be there from an initial balancing of the rotor, not the cause of unbalance.
The only way to assess unbalance is via the vibration or the force it generates.
In maintenance and overhaul of rotating equipment, there are many cases when it is
impractical to attempt in-place balancing because weight corrections cannot be made.
This is true for many pumps and totally enclosed motors as well as turbines and some
centrifuges.

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Also, the process of repairing a rotor causes gross unbalance which requires
balancing prior to reassembling, thereby eliminating possible damage when starting up
the machine. A balancing machine is used to balance parts before re-installation, ensuring
smooth operation of the machine. A balancing machine can be an extremely valuable
asset to any maintenance department that repairs pumps, motors and other rotating
equipment. It can save costs due to delays by eliminating the need to send parts to
outside specialists to be balanced. Often the savings on one job alone can justify the
expense for a balancing machine.
Manufacturers of rotating mechanical equipment must have assurance that their
product will operate smoothly when installed at the final site. One of the prime concerns
is the balancing quality of the rotating components. Through experience, the
manufacturer can established a tolerable limit of unbalance which can be accepted in a
particular machine. The manufacturer knows that by exceeding this limit, customer
complaints and machinery downtime will reflect in the quality of his product. To meet
this situation, parts will be balanced at the time of manufacturer, in most instances, prior
to assembly and sometimes trim balanced as an assembly.

1. It will reduce the unwanted vibrations

2. It reduces the energy waste so it will increase the efficiency of the machine.
3. Vibrating parts wear quickly so balancing is so important to have a long life time for
the shafts.
4. When shaft is unbalanced it bends when it’s rotating so it is subjected to compression
and expansion alternatively so it fails easily.
5. Bearing wears due to large forces on them.

Causes of Unbalance:
In the design of rotating parts of a machine every care is taken to eliminate any
out of balance or couple, but there will be always some residual unbalance left in the
finished part because of
1. Slight variation in the density of the material or
2. Inaccuracies in the casting or
3. Inaccuracies in machining of the parts.

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Why balancing is so important?

1. A level of unbalance that is acceptable at a low speed is completely unacceptable at a
higher speed.
2. As machines get bigger and go faster, the effect of the unbalance is much more severe.
3. The force caused by unbalance increases by the square of the speed.
4. If the speed is doubled, the force quadruples; if the speed is tripled the force increases.

1.2 Balanced Systems:

Balancing is the technique of correcting or eliminating unwanted inertia forces or
moments in rotating or reciprocating masses and is achieved by changing the location of
the mass centers.
The objectives of balancing an engine are to ensure:
1. That the center of gravity of the system remains stationery during a complete
revolution of the crank shaft
2. That the couples involved in acceleration of the different moving parts balance each
other.

Types of Balancing:
So far we have considered the case of a wheel, which approximates to a simple
disc, having all its mass in or near one plane. If this is statically balanced in the way
described, it will run at any speed without vibration. But in a rotating body having a fairly
considerable axial length, such as a cylinder, it is important that any local unbalanced
mass should be balanced out by a mass as nearly in the same cross plane as possible.

 Static Balancing:
The static method of balancing, in this case, is not reliable because it gives no
indication of the position of the bias in relation to axial length. Thus the cylindrical rotor,
an armature shaft for instance, may be heavy at the point A, as indicated by a static
balancing test. If this unbalanced mass is counter acted by a weight applied at the point B,
the rotor will appear to be in correct balance; but when running at high speed, the effect
of the two unbalanced masses will cause local reactions R-R which tend to rock the shaft
along its length, or in other words to set up a "couple." In practice, the effect of this may

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be worse than that of a single unbalanced force which tends to vibrate the structure
bodily, and it is often much more difficult to detect and correct.
A system of rotating masses is said to be in static balance if the combined mass
center of the system lies on the axis of rotation. Static balance occurs when the centre of
gravity of an object is on the axis of rotation. The object can therefore remain stationary,
with the axis horizontal, without the application of any braking force. It has no tendency
to rotate due to the force of gravity. This is seen in bike wheels where the reflective plate
is placed opposite the valve to distribute the centre of mass to the centre of the wheel. For
example, Grind stones or Car wheels.

 Dynamic Balancing:
When several masses rotate in different planes, the centrifugal forces, in addition
to being out of balance, also form couples. A system of rotating masses is in dynamic
balance when there does not exist any resultant centrifugal force as well as resultant
couple.

Figure 1.2: Dynamic Rotating Body

Rotating shaft unbalanced by two identical attached weights, which causes a
counter clockwise centrifugal couple Cd that must be resisted by a clockwise couple Fℓ =
Cd exerted by the bearings. The figure is drawn from the viewpoint of a frame rotating
with the shaft, hence the centrifugal forces.
A rotating system of mass is in dynamic balance when the rotation does not
produce any resultant centrifugal force or couple. The system rotates without requiring
the application of any external force or couple, other than that required to support its
weight. If a system is initially unbalanced, to avoid the stress upon the bearings caused by
the centrifugal couple, counterbalancing weights must be added. This is seen when a
bicycle wheel gets buckled. The wheel will not rotate itself when stationary due to gravity
as it is still statically balanced, but will not rotate smoothly as the centre of mass is to the
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side of the centre bearing. The spokes on a bike wheel need to be tuned in order to stop
this and keep the wheel operating as efficiently as possible. The method usually employed
for dynamic balancing is to mount the shaft in bearings on a frame which is resiliently
mounted, usually by some form of spring suspension, so that it is capable of being
displaced in any plane by the effect of unbalanced forces. Means are provided for locking
the frame while the shaft is run up to a fair speed by any convenient means, after which it
is released and allowed to vibrate or oscillate under the effect of the unbalanced forces. In
modern dynamic balancing machines,
Indicating or recording devices are provided to show the position and extent of the
unbalanced masses. While it would not be impossible to construct a simple dynamic
balancing rig in the home workshop, most of the problems involved in small machines
can be dealt with by careful consideration of design, and accuracy in construction of
moving parts. It may be mentioned that even the balancing machine, unless of very
complex design, may leave certain important considerations out of account.

1.3 Balancing Of Rotating Masses:

We have already discussed, that whenever a certain mass is attached to a rotating
shaft, it exerts some centrifugal force, whose effect is to bend the shaft and to produce
vibrations in it. In order to prevent the effect of centrifugal force, another mass is attached
to the opposite side of the shaft, at such a position so as to balance the effect of the
centrifugal force of the first mass. This is done in such a way that the centrifugal force of
both the masses is made to be equal and opposite. Balancing is the technique of correcting
or eliminating unwanted inertia forces or moment sin rotating or reciprocating masses and
is achieved by changing the location of the mass centers.
The following cases are important from the subject point of view:
1. Balancing of a single rotating mass by a single mass rotating in the same plane.
2. Balancing of a single rotating mass by two masses rotating in different planes.
3. Balancing of different masses rotating in the same plane.
4. Balancing of different masses rotating in different planes.
A component of mass 'm' is rotating at an angular velocity at a distance 'r' from the
axis of rotation, then the component is subjected to force of mr2.The 'out of balance'
forces increase bearing loads, and introduce stresses in the rotor and framework of a
machine. These so called 'inertial forces' may introduce dangerous vibrations, structural
failure or unacceptable noise, and may limit the operating speed range of a machine. The
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magnitude of these forces may be reduced or eliminated in the design stage by 'balancing'
the effects of the various mass elements of the device. Additionally, extra balance masses
may deliberately added to a rotating system in order to cancel out the residual design
imbalance.
This experiment involves the balancing of a number of known out of balance masses on a
shaft.

Figure 1.3: Rotating Masses in a Plane

When a mass moves along a circular path, it experiences a centripetal acceleration
and a force is required to produce it. An equal and opposite force called centrifugal force
acts radially outwards and is a disturbing force on the axis of rotation. The magnitude of
this remains constant but the direction changes with the rotation of the mass.
In a revolving rotor, the centrifugal force remains balanced as long as the center of
the mass of rotor lies on the axis of rotation of the shaft. When this does not happen, there
is an eccentricity and an unbalance force is produced. This type of unbalance is common
in steam turbine rotors, engine crank shafts, rotors of compressors, centrifugal pumps etc.

1.4 Relevance of the Subject in Present Context:

Whether you’re building a stock engine, a high-revving performance engine or a
slow-turning diesel engine, you can’t overlook the importance of balance. Every time the
pistons in a reciprocating internal combustion engine change direction, they generate a
force. That force is created by the reciprocating and rotating mass of the piston and rod
assembly. If this force is not balanced by an equal and opposite force, it will create a
vibration.

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In a low revving engine, a little vibration may seem hardly noticeable. But over
many miles and millions of cycles, even a small vibration can take a toll on the crankshaft
and bearings.
In a high revving engine, any imbalance multiplies exponentially as the rpms go
up. A small imbalance at 1,000 rpm becomes a huge imbalance at 8,000 rpm. An
imbalance of only a few ounces can generate a force of over 200 lbs. at 8,000 rpm! That’s
a lot of shaking and stress on the engine’s bottom end.
Most race car drivers don’t care that much about NVH (noise, vibration and
harshness), but they do like to finish races. An engine with a severe imbalance can
literally shake itself to death. The forces generated by imbalance can cause fatigue cracks
in crankshafts and fretting in bearings. So if something breaks as a result of imbalanced
forces inside the engine, the race is over for our unfortunate competitor.
Passenger car and light truck owners do care about NVH, and they also want their
engine to last as many miles as possible. An engine that isn’t properly balanced can
produce annoying vibrations and harmonics that can be felt throughout the drivetrain and
chassis. And even though the engine may never be pushed that hard, the forces generated
by imbalance will, over time, shorten the life of the engine and other drivetrain
components (including the motor mounts).
With slow-turning diesel engines, balance may not seem that important. But most
diesels are hard-working engines, so even a small imbalance over a long period of time
can shorten the life of the crankshaft and bearings. Over-the-road truck drivers also
appreciate a smooth-running diesel engine with minimal NVH.
Balance not only reduces NVH for a smoother running engine, it also improves
engine reliability and durability by minimizing forces inside the engine that could do it
harm.

1.4.1 Minimizing Balance Problems:

The basic idea behind engine balancing is to equalize reciprocating forces as much
as possible, and to make sure all rotating mass (the crankshaft and the lower half of the
connecting rods) are in balance so the crank spins smoothly about its center axis.
When a rotating object such as a crankshaft, flywheel or tire is out of balance, it
wobbles because its center of mass does not align with its axis of rotation. The heavy spot
wants to pull the object off-center as it rotates.

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The centripetal force generated by the imbalance multiplies exponentially with the
speed of rotation (doubling the speed quadruples the force), creating a shake or vibration.
Balancing a rotating object requires placing it in a spin balancer so the heavy spot
can be pinpointed. In the case of a tire balancer, a weight equal to the imbalance is then
attached to the wheel rim opposite the heavy spot to equalize the forces.
With a crankshaft or flywheel, it’s much easier to lighten the heavy spot than it is
to add weight, so the balancer pinpoints the heavy spot so a hole or holes can be drilled
into the component to reduce the imbalance. It usually takes several spins and corrections
before balance is achieved.
The really tricky part is balancing the reciprocating forces inside a V6 or V8
engine. Unlike rotating forces that spin around an axis of rotation, reciprocating forces are
moving back and forth.
In a single-cylinder engine, there is nothing to counter these forces except the
counterweight on the crankshaft.
If the mass of the counterweight equals the weight of the upper half of the rod,
piston, wrist pin and rings, the forces will be balanced and the engine will run smoothly.
Some well-known engine builders have expressed that proper balancing can add
20 hp to an engine. If not, the engine will shake.

1.4.2 Balancing Various Engine Types:

With a horizontally opposed four-cylinder engine, two pistons are always moving
in when two pistons are moving out.
Consequently, the forces equal and opposite are essentially balanced provided the
weights of each piston and rod assembly are equal. Balancing these types of engines is
fairly simple because all you have to do is equalize the weights of the piston and rod
assemblies. With an inline four-cylinder engine, two pistons are moving up while two
pistons are moving down. The motions of the pistons offset each other, but because they
are not horizontally opposed, the crankshaft needs counterweights to offset the
reciprocating forces. Things get much more complicated when we start talking about V6
and V8 engines, because one bank of pistons is moving at an angle to the other bank of
pistons.
This creates force interactions that need to be offset by carefully positioned
counterweights on the crankshaft.

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In a 90-degree V6 or V8 engine, the mass of the counterweights should equal

100% of the rotating mass (lower half of the connecting rods and rod bearings), plus 50%
of the reciprocating mass (the upper half of the rod, piston, wrist pin and rings) times two
(because each rod journal has two connecting rods and pistons).
A few extra grams also need to be added to compensate for oil in the bearings and
clinging to the parts. The total mass you end up with is what the counterweights have to
equal to balance the engine.
For example, if each piston weighs 680 grams, the wrist pins weigh 190 grams, the ring
set weighs 60 grams and the small end of the rod weighs 290 grams, the total
reciprocating weight for each piston and upper rod assembly is 1,220 grams. Take half of
that amount (610 grams), then multiply by two and we end up with 1,220 grams of
reciprocating weight that needs to be offset by counterweights on the crankshaft. To that,
we have to add the rotating weight of the big end of each connecting rod and bearing (650
grams), also times two because there are two rods per journal. What we end up with is a
combined weight of 2,520 grams that the counterweights have to offset to balance the
engine. This is referred to as the “bob weight” to which the crankshaft is balanced using
bolt-on weights.
When a 90-degree V6 or V8 crankshaft is balanced, bob weights that equal 50%
of the reciprocating mass and 100% of the rotating mass are assembled and attached to
each rod journal on the crankshaft to simulate the rods and pistons. The crank is then
balanced to the bob weights, usually by drilling the counterweights to equalize the forces.
Counterweights can also be milled to remove weight for a cleaner, more
aerodynamic result, but this requires removing the crank from the balancer and removing
the bob weights so the crank can be milled, then carefully reinstalling the bob weights in
the exact same position as before and respinning the crank to see if additional corrections
are needed.
With 60-degree V6 engines, the angle between the pistons is less, so a different
value must be used when calculating the reciprocating mass for the bob weights. This will
vary depending on the application, and may range from 35% to 40 or 45%. The value
may also vary depending on whether or not the engine has balance shafts.
Balance between the crankshaft and its related components are critical to
providing a smooth, trouble-free power plant.
The balance shafts have offset weights that help counter both engine dynamic
vibrations and vibrations caused by uneven firing orders. Balance shafts must be correctly

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timed to the crankshaft; otherwise the forces won’t cancel each other, resulting in
unwanted vibrations.
In some cases, weight may have to be added to a crankshaft to offset heavier
pistons/rods. This can be done by drilling holes in the counterweights and installing heavy
metal tungsten (Mallory) plugs.
If the counterweights are not heavy enough to completely balance the engine
internally, additional weights can be added to the flywheel, flex plate and/or harmonic
balancer to offset any residual imbalance. This is called externally balancing the engine.
Externally balancing an engine requires mounting the flywheel, flex plate and/or
harmonic balancer on the crankshaft when it is spun in the balancing machine.
Engines that are externally balanced from the factory include older small block
Fords (302 and 351W) and Chevy 400. Chevy small blocks, most Chevy big blocks,
Chevy LS and late-model Ford V8s (4.6, 5.0L and 5.4L) are all internally balanced from
the factory.
Internal balance is always best because it keeps the offsetting weight closer to the
reciprocating forces that need to be balanced. Moving the weight out to either end of the
crankshaft can sometimes create additional dynamic forces that cause vibrations of their
own. Also, changing the index position of the flywheel or harmonic balancer on an
externally balanced engine (or replacing either component) will upset the balance.
On most V8 cranks, there are only six counterweights to save cost and reduce
weight. The counterweights are positioned in such a way that they offset not only the
piston and rod assemblies on their own journals, but also the adjacent journals. Some
racing cranks are available with eight counterweights (two for each pair of pistons),
which often helps reduce high rpm vibrations even better, especially on long stroke
cranks.
Crankshaft counterweights are typically made to a specific target bob weight. In
other words, the size, positioning and mass of the counterweights are designed to offset a
specific piston and rod weight (plus or minus a couple percentage points). With stock
cranks, the bob weight is more or less equal to the weight of the stock pistons and rods.
With performance cranks, various bob weights are available depending on the rod/piston
combination you want to use. If the rods and pistons are lighter than the crankshaft target
bob weight, the counterweights will have to be drilled or milled to balance the engine.
Likewise, if the pistons/rods are heavier than the target bob weight of the crank, heavy
metal and/or external balancing will be required to achieve proper balance.

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This is important information to keep in mind if you are using parts from different
suppliers, or are replacing one set of pistons or rods with a lighter set of pistons or rods.
You may end up with a mismatch that requires a lot of drilling or milling to achieve
proper balance.
Speaking of balance, most 90-degree V6 and V8 engines are “neutral” balanced,
meaning they are balanced using 100% of the rotating weight and 50% of the
reciprocating weight of the pistons and rods. Neutral balance works best in most
applications because all the forces are offset and equal. But in some high-revving
performance applications, such as NASCAR where an engine may be running at 8,000 to
9,500 rpm or higher for most of a race, this may not be enough. The side effects of
combustion at such speeds can create additional forces that may have to be offset by
“overbalancing” the engine.
Some engine builders say they have found additional horsepower and smoothness
at high rpm when they slightly overbalance an engine. Instead of using the standard 50%
reciprocating weight when calculating their bob weights, they use 51 or 52% or whatever
to achieve a certain overbalance.
This will obviously upset normal engine balance at lower rpms, but may provide
some performance advantages at high rpms. The only way to know for sure whether or
not overbalancing produces any significant gains is to test the engine on a dyno.
How close should an engine be balanced? It depends on the application, but the
closer you can get to neutral balance the better especially for high-revving engines.
Several crankshaft manufacturers we interviewed for this article said performance
cranks should be balanced to plus or minus 2 grams or less.
Many electronic crank balancers are accurate to 0.1 grams (0.004 oz.) so it is
possible to shoot for near zero balance. But the closer you get to near zero, the more spins
and corrections it takes to achieve such near perfect balance.
Realistically, an engine doesn’t have to be that close to be good enough. Most
stock street engines will run smooth enough if they are balanced to 1 oz. (28 grams),
although many late-model engines have much tighter factory specifications (as little as 4
to 6 grams). For a high-revving performance application, aim for the recommended 2
grams or less.
If you are buying a rotating assembly (crank, rods and pistons) from a supplier,
buying a pre-balanced assembly will save you time and trouble and ensure a smooth-
running engine.

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If you are buying a crank from one supplier, and pistons and rods from other
suppliers, find out the exact weights of the parts to determine the target bob weight for the
crank before you buy the crank.
This will simplify the balancing process and minimize the amount of drilling or
milling that needs to be done on the crank to balance the engine.
Suppliers of performance pistons and rods are doing a much better job these days
of accurately matching weights between parts. Even so, you should still weigh all the
parts, and equalize to the lightest in the set when calculating a target bob weight for the
crankshaft.

1.4.3 Balancing Tips:

If you are doing your own engine balancing, one of the keys to achieving reliable
repeatability is to make sure your equipment is accurately calibrated.
This includes not only the balancer, but also the scale you use to weigh individual
parts. You should also follow the same procedures consistently.
When you’re mounting bob weights on the crank, make sure the weights are
installed in the exact same position every time. Also, make sure the nuts that hold the bob
weights together are tight and don’t come loose while the crank is spinning.

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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
First, the self-balancing phenomenon using balls can be explained by Figure 1. In
case of no damping and the rotating speed of the disk is below resonant frequency, the
geometric center C will rotate in phase with the centrifugal force, so the phase angle is
zero and G is outside OC. Such situation is not of our interest. However, in case of no
damping, when the rotating speed of the disk is above resonant frequency, the vibration of
the geometric center C will be 180 degree out of phase with the centrifugal force, so the
mass center G will always be inside OC. This phenomenon is demonstrated by the plot in
Figure 7 in section II.2. We are interested in this situation because it is possible for self-
balancing to occur. If G is always inside OC and we have masses, such as balls, that can
freely move within the disk, the centrifugal force from the rotation of C around O will
keep the freely moving masses in the opposite side of G with respect to C and balance the
eccentric mass. In reality there will be damping and the phase angle will be smaller than
180 degree at a practical rotational speed.

Figure 2.1: Schematic of the Model for The Eccentric Disk With Ball Balancer. Rotation Speed Is Pre-
Resonant In the Left Image and Post-Resonant In the Right Image.
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Henry Martinson, 1870[1] developed a balancing machine as early as 1870. On

this balance machine the ‘heavy’ spot was marked by hand. At low speeds (sub-critical)
the ‘heavy’ spot would coincide with the ‘high’ spot of the whirl according to Jeffcott’s
analysis.
A. Föppl, 1895[2] formulated and solved the equations governing the response of a
single mass undamped rotor system. His analysis showed that at speeds significantly
higher that the critical speed the rotor would turn about its mass center; his undamped
analysis predicted infinite response at the critical speed and a transient response at the
critical speed frequency.
H.H. Jeffcott, 1919[3] analyzed the fundamental nature of the response of a single
mass flexible rotor to imbalance. Proper instrumentation to experimentally verify these
results would not exist for years.
S.H. Weaver, 1928[4] realized that the balance weights and imbalances act as
forces to the system. Weaver was aware that the forces at the bearing locations for a rigid
rotor changed with the magnitude and and phase of the imbalance weights. Later
balancers would develop the notion of influence coefficients, though at first they would
not use this name.
Rieger, 1930[5] references electronic and stroboscopic measurements first
developed in 1930. Even before Jeffcott explained the fundamental response of rotor
systems, balancing machines were in use.
Blekhman, 1988[6] was studied the ball balancer analytically. He showed the
equations of motion for the rotor with n-ball balancer and proved that for the case n=2 the
steady-state positions of the balls in post-resonance speed are stable.
Green et al., 2008[7] and Chung et al., 2003 also obtain the same equations of
motion, despite in different form, using Lagrange approach. Green et al. have put the
equations of motion into dimensionless matrix form.
Herein is a literature review of the balancing of rotating masses with the aim of
establishing the prevalent knowledge in the subject and so fostering research and
advancement of finding the solution to vibration problems. Typically, a system of rotating
mass is said to be dynamically balanced when it is ascertained that it produces no resultant
couple or centrifugal force. The application of rotational machinery is considerably
important as it is widely used in various applications but not limited to fields such as
aerospace, auto machines, machining pieces of equipment, and even household machines

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such as washing machines. Amid such significant usage is there is a problem of vibrations
that is often a consequence of unbalanced masses which occurs when the center of mass
fails to coincide with the axis of rotation. Besides, this unbalanced weight is often not
automatically constant but continually vary with time from one position to the other.
Therefore, if a system is originally unbalanced, to avoid stress build up resultant of a
centrifugal couple, a counterbalancing mass must be added.
Taking manufacturing of rotors as the case in point, production tolerances are
adjusted as intimately as possible to avoid running up the manufacturing costs. In simple
terms, it is economically feasible to produce machinery part that are not quite true and
then later on subject them to a balancing operation rather than striving to produce perfect
parts that need no correction. Archetypal exemplars of such machinery are crankshafts,
flywheels, turbo-machinery, printing rollers, electric armatures, centrifuges, and gear
wheels. Some universal causes of irregularity during production are the machining error,
tolerances, cumulative assembly, Distortions due to heat treatment, inclusions or blow
holes or in castings, and the non-homogeneity of most materials. As a result of these
irregularities, the axis of rotation fails to coincide with any of the principal axes of the
body leading to the production of disturbing forces that at the end causes vibrations.
In order to get rid of these vibrations and set up proper action, balancing of the
rotating mass becomes necessary. Trends on the methods of alleviating vibration problems
continue to evolve from time to time perhaps due to the continued demand for increased
operational speeds of various manipulating machines. Procedures are almost similar
despite applying various technologies to remove the imbalance.

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CHAPTER 3
PROBLEM DEFINITION
3.1 How to Solve a Problem or Formula's To Solve Problems
Question: Explain the method of balancing a number of masses rotating in one plane
by another mass rotating in the same plane.
Answer:
Let us consider four masses m1,m2, m3 and m4 attached rigidly to the shaft
rotating at angular speed ω rad/s as shown in Fig. (a). Let r1, r2, r3 and r4 are the
distances of m1, m2, m3 and m4 from the axis of rotating shaft.θ1, θ2, θ3 and θ4 are the
angles of masses m1,m2,m3 and m4 with the X-axis.
The centrifugal force for each mass is proportional to the product of mass and its
radius of rotation as ω2 is same for each mass. All these forces are acting radially outwards
and form a system of concurrent coplanar forces at point O i.e. on the axis of rotation. The
resultant of all such forces can be found by the following two methods:
1. Analytical method
2. Graphical Method

Consider a rigid rotor revolving with a constant angular velocity ω rad/s. A

number of masses say, four are depicted by point masses at different radii in the same
transverse plane.
If m1, m2, m3 and m4 are the masses revolving at radii r1, r2, r3 and r4 respectively in
the same plane, The centrifugal forces exerted by each of the masses are Fc 1, Fc2, Fc3 and
Fc4 respectively. Let F be the vector sum of these forces. i.e.,
F=FC1+FC2+FC3+FC4+FC5
F=m1 ω2 r1+ m2 ω2 r2+ m3 ω2 r3+ m4 ω2 r4---------(1)

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The rotor is said to be statically balanced if the vector sum F is zero. If the vector
sum F is not zero, i.e. the rotor is unbalanced, then introduce a counterweight ( balance
weight) of mass ‘m’ at radius ‘r’ to balance the rotor so that,
m1 ω2 r1+ m2 ω2 r2+ m3 ω2 r3+ m4 ω2 r4+m ω2r=0----------(2)
m1 r1+ m2 r2+ m3 r3+ m4 r4+mr=0----------------------(3)
The magnitude of either ‘m’ or ‘r’ may be selected and the other can be calculated.
In general, if ∑mi ri is the vector sum of m1 r1+ m2 r2+ m3 r3+ m4 r4 etc. then,
∑mi ri + mr =0-------------------------- (4)
The above equation can be solved either analytically or graphically.

(a) Space Diagram (b) Vector Diagram

Figure 3.1: Balancing of a Number of Masses Rotating in One Plane by another Mass Rotating in the
Same Plane

1. Analytical Method:
Step 1: Find out the centrifugal force or the product of mass and its radius of rotation
exerted by each of masses on the rotating shaft, since 2 ω is same for each mass, therefore
the magnitude of the centrifugal force for each mass is proportional to the product of the
respective mass and its radius of rotation.
Step 2: Resolve these forces into their horizontal and vertical components and find their
sums. i.e.,
Sum of the horizontal components

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Sum of the vertical components

Step 3: Determine the magnitude of the resultant centrifugal force

Step 4: If θ is the angle, which resultant force makes with the horizontal, then

tanθ =

Step 5: The balancing force is then equal to the resultant force, but in opposite direction.
Step 6: Now find out the magnitude of the balancing mass, such that
R= mr
Where, m = balancing mass and r = its radius of rotation 2.
2. Graphical Method:
Step 1: Draw the space diagram with the positions of the several masses, as shown.
Step 2: Find out the centrifugal forces or product of the mass and radius of rotation
exerted by each mass.
Step 3: Now draw the vector diagram with the obtained centrifugal forces or product of
the masses and radii of rotation. To draw vector diagram take a suitable scale. Let ab, bc,
cd, de represents the forces Fc1, Fc2, Fc3 and Fc4 on the vector diagram. Draw ‘ab’
parallel to force Fc1 of the space diagram, at ‘b’ draw a line parallel to force Fc2.
Similarly draw lines cd, de parallel to Fc3 and Fc4 respectively.
Step 4: As per polygon law of forces, the closing side ‘ae’ represents the resultant force
in magnitude and direction as shown in vector diagram.
Step 5: The balancing force is then, equal and opposite to the resultant force.

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CHAPTER 4
BASIC COMPONENTS
The total dimensions of machine divided into several parts like,
1. C-channel: It is used for base of the machine as T frame with dimensions 2 feet, 3 feet

Figure 3.2: C-Channel

The structural channel, also known as a C-beam or Parallel Flange Channel (PFC),
is a type of (usually structural steel) beam, used primarily in building construction and
civil engineering. Its cross section consists of a wide "web", usually but not always
oriented vertically, and two "flanges" at the top and bottom of the web, only sticking out
on one side of the web. It is distinguished from I-beam or H-beam or W-beam type steel
cross sections in that those have flanges on both sides of the web.

2. L-channel: It is used for top of the machine as T frame with dimensions 2 feet, 3 feet

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Figure 3.3: L-Channel

In plane geometry, an angle is the figure formed by two rays, called the sides of
the angle, sharing a common end point, called the vertex of the angle. Angles formed by
two rays lie in a plane, but this plane does not have to be a Euclidean plane. Angles are
also formed by the intersection of two planes in Euclidean and other spaces. These are
called dihedral angles. Angles formed by the intersection of two curves in a plane are
defined as the angle determined by the tangent rays at the point of intersection. Similar
statements hold in space, for example, the spherical angle formed by two great circles on
a sphere is the dihedral angle between the planes determined by the great circles.

3. Hollow Pipes: Base and top are connected by hollow 3 pipes at 3 ends of length 3 feet
each, 20mm outer diameter with thickness 2mm.

Figure 3.4: Hollow CI Pipe

A hollow structural section (HSS) is a type of metal profile with a hollow
tubular cross section. The term is used predominantly in the United States, or other
countries which follow US construction or engineering terminology.

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HSS members can be circular, square, or rectangular sections, although other

shapes such as elliptical are also available. HSS is only composed of structural steel per
code.
HSS is sometimes mistakenly referenced as hollow structural steel. Rectangular
and square HSS are also commonly called tube steel or structural tubing. Circular HSS
are sometimes mistakenly called steel pipe, although true steel pipe is actually
dimensioned and classed differently from HSS. (HSS dimensions are based on exterior
dimensions of the profile; pipes are also manufactured to an exterior tolerance, albeit to a
different standard.) The corners of HSS are heavily rounded, having a radius which is
approximately twice the wall thickness. The wall thickness is uniform around the section.

4. Motor: Specification:

a) Motor maximum speed 6000rpm

b) Motor capacity 1/11 HP
c) Simple weight of masses 200, 210

Figure 3.5: Motor

An electric motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical
energy into mechanical energy. The reverse of this is the conversion of mechanical energy
into electrical energy and is done by an electric generator, which has much in common
with a motor. Most electric motors operate through the interaction between an electric
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motor's magnetic field and winding currents to generate force. In certain applications,
such as in regenerative braking with traction motors in the transportation industry, electric
motors can also be used in reverse as generators to convert mechanical energy into
electric power.
Found in applications as diverse as industrial fans, blowers and pumps, machine
tools, household appliances, power tools, and disk drives, electric motors can be powered
by direct current (DC) sources, such as from batteries, motor vehicles or rectifiers, or
by alternating current (AC) sources, such as from the power grid, inverters or generators.
Small motors may be found in electric watches. General-purpose motors with highly
standardized dimensions and characteristics provide convenient mechanical power for
industrial use. The largest of electric motors are used for ship propulsion, pipeline
compression and pumped-storage applications with ratings reaching 100 megawatts.
Electric motors may be classified by electric power source type, internal construction,
application, type of motion output, and so on.
5. Bearing:

Figure 3.6: Bearing

A bearing is a machine element that constrains relative motion to only the desired
motion, and reduces friction between moving parts. The design of the bearing may, for
example, provide for free linear movement of the moving part or for free rotation around
a fixed axis; or, it may prevent a motion by controlling the vectors of normal forces that
bear on the moving parts. Most bearings facilitate the desired motion by minimizing
friction. Bearings are classified broadly according to the type of operation, the motions
allowed, or to the directions of the loads (forces) applied to the parts.
Rotary bearings hold rotating components such as shafts or axles within
mechanical systems, and transfer axial and radial loads from the source of the load to the
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structure supporting it. The simplest form of bearing, the plain bearing, consists of a shaft
rotating in a hole. Lubrication is often used to reduce friction. In the ball
bearing and roller bearing, to prevent sliding friction, rolling elements such as rollers or
balls with a circular cross-section are located between the races or journals of the bearing
assembly. A wide variety of bearing designs exists to allow the demands of the
application to be correctly met for maximum efficiency, reliability, durability and
performance.
The term "bearing" is derived from the verb "to bear"; a bearing being a machine
element that allows one part to bear (i.e., to support) another. The simplest bearings
are bearing surfaces, cut or formed into a part, with varying degrees of control over the
form, size, roughness and location of the surface. Other bearings are separate devices
installed into a machine or machine part. The most sophisticated bearings for the most
demanding applications are very precise devices; their manufacture requires some of the
highest standards of current technology.

CHAPTER 5
METHODOLOGY
A long time ago, it was essential for a balancing technician to be able to perform all
of the balancing calculations, and human error was a potential contributing factor in all
balancing situations. Now, everything is automated. When using IRD® Balancing's soft
bearing balancing machines, one simply follows the instructions on the screen, step by
step. These steps are as follows:
1. Choose the rotary setup
Our Balancing Instruments are set up to handle the 9 different rotor
configurations. Once you choose the rotor configuration, you are instructed to spin the
rotor and take a measurement reading and then stop the rotor.

2. Calibration of machine with rotor

The Balancing Instrument will then instruct the user to add a known weight to the
first correcting location on the left hand side, enter the illustrated required dimensions,
spin up the rotor and take a measurement, stop the rotor, then remove the left hand weight
and place it in the right hand correction plane and repeat. Stop the rotor and remove the
known weight. The instrument then uses these measurements to calibrate itself.

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3. Balancing the rotor

The Balancing Instrument now displays both the left and right hand correction
amounts and the angular location of the correction weights for the addition or subtraction
(user specified) of material.
Along with the design of the testing device, there are some recommendations to be
made for the experimentation of the device. The first involves the damping fluid: the fluid
properties were not parameterized. If it was, the effect of viscosity on the damping of the
ball bearings in 53 the race could be analyzed and the effects of different viscosity fluids
could be predicted.
This is important for optimization of the system for applications. Second, the
device was tested with the rotor in the horizontal plane. This was done so that the force of
gravity could be neglected in calculations. Even though in rotation machinery the force
due to gravity is miniscule compared to the forces generated by the machine, running the
device in a variety of orientations would prove that the system was robust and suitable for
a wider range of applications, not just those constrained to the horizontal plane. Third, it
was observed that providing an impulse to the system while in operation would cause the
balls to move, often to a more balanced position. The exact mechanism for this was not
examined. Creating a repeatable impulse generator would allow this effect to be examined
more closely, possibly leading to more reliable and satisfactory results. Fourth, a circular
protractor should have been added underneath the lid to allow easier measurement of the
balls’ angular positions during testing. Finally, in the experiment the rotor was only spun
in the counter-clockwise direction. Since the balls do not fall into place symmetrically, the
effect of rotating the rotor in the opposite direction should also be observed.

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CHAPTER 6
ADVANTAGES
 Increases quality of operation.
 Minimize vibration.
 Minimize audible and signal noises.
 Minimize structural fatigue stresses.
 Minimize operator annoyance and fatigue.
 Increases bearing life.
 Minimize power loss.

6.1 Applications:
The purpose of this project was to research self-balancing in rotating machinery
and to create a proof of concept from the principles learned. As such, the device created
was for testing purposes only. However, the concept of a rotor with ball bearing balancers
is readily applicable to industry. It is best applied to rotating machinery where the
position and amount of mass unbalance is unknown or is not constant. One example is a
centrifuge, such as those used in the medical industry to isolate suspensions. The
centrifuge is loaded by the user and the mass of the samples can differ. Typically,
balancing is a task left to the user, who must load the samples such that the centrifuge is

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correctly balanced before the device is spun by using balance tubes. The principle of self-
balancing studied here can be applied to such a machine. One recommendation to help
bridge the gap between research and application would be to increase the modularity of
the system so that it can be fit to other devices. Another recommendation would be
to test the effect that scaling the system has on performance. The rotor used in this design
was about 9.5” in diameter. To be used on larger machines, a larger rotor would be needed
to accommodate a larger mass unbalances. Smaller machines would require a smaller
system for packaging considerations.
Before it can be used for industrial applications, many aspects of the self-
balancing rotor will have to be optimized. The goal of optimization is to reduce the time
the system spends in an unbalanced state and to make the system more robust in a variety
of applications. Reducing time spent outside of steady-state operation means ensuring that
the ball balancers reach their correct positions as quickly and reliably as possible. One
variable that affects this is the damping fluid. In testing, only a few types of lubricating
fluids were tested and the differences in their effects were not closely analyzed. Also, the
amount of fluid used was not optimized. Using too little fluid resulted in insufficient
damping, making it difficult for the ball bearings to come to the correct position; they
would move around in the race too freely. Too much fluid would have the opposite effect,
and as the frequency of the system increased the balls would not have enough tangential
force to counteract the damping force. Another variable that was not examined was the
starting position of the balls when the test began. Does placing the balls near their balance
point’s decrease the time elapsed until the system is balanced? Also, what effect would
hold the balls until the system passed through resonance have? Both of these variables
could have positive effects on the system and should be investigated.
Finally, to ensure that system can be used in a wide range of applications, the
range of mass unbalance that can be compensated for should be maximized. By
increasing the number of balls used in the race, this range is increased, but using many
balls has deleterious effects. Since rotor only self-balances above the natural frequency,
the vibration below the natural frequency increases due to the increased mass of the
system. The time elapsed until the system reaches the steady-state balance condition also
increases as more balls are added to the race. The best compromise between mass, sub-
critical speed vibration, vibration in steady-state, and time elapsed before the balancing
condition is reached should be found. This compromise may change depending on the
application.

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CHAPTER 7
PROBLEM DEFINITION AND CALCULATION
7.1 Example:
Three rotating masses M1, M2 and M3, are to be balanced by 2 balancing masses
in planes A and B as shows in the figure. Plane B coincides with the plane of rotation of
M3. Determine the magnitude and angular position of masses in planes A and B.

Solution:

Figure 7.1: Given Diagram

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Figure 7.2: Space Diagram

Given:
M1= 600 g; M2= 4500 g; M3=400 g.

1 = 300; 2= 2700; 3= 1500.

r1 = r2 = r3 = rA = rB =75mm = r (say)

Table 7.1: Tabular Column

Plane Mass M Radius Force+ ω2 r Dist. from Couple+ ω2 r
(gms) ‘r’ mm Ref. plane A
M1 600 r 600 -0.1 -0.600
A MA r MA 0 0
M2 450 r 450 0.125 0.5625
M3 400 r 400 0.275 1.1
B MB r MB 0.275 0.275 MB

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Figure 7.3: Couple Polygon Figure 7.4: Force Polygon

Construction:
The position of planes and angular position of masses are as shown in Figure 7.1
& Figure 7.2 respectively. Assume the plane A as the reference plane.
Tabulate the forces and couples as shown in tabular column 7.1.
Couple Polygon:
Draw the couple polygon for the data given in tabular column as shown figure 7.3.
1. Draw oa = 0.6 parallel to OM, in the opposite direction to that of mass M1
2. From a draw ab = 0.5625, parallel to OM2
3. From b draw bc = 1.1, parallel to OM3
4. Join c to o. now, oc x scale = 0.275MB
i.e., 18 x (1/12) = 0.275 MB
Therefore MB = 545 gm
5. The angle B =120 w.r.t R (ccw) can be measured as shown in figure 7.3.

Force Polygon:
Draw the force polygon for the data given in tabular column shown in figure 7.4.
1. Draw oa = 6, parallel to OM1
2. From a draw ab = 4.5, parallel to OM2
3. From b draw bc = 4, parallel to OM3
4. From c draw cd = 5.455, parallel to co of couple polygon
5. Join d to o. Now od x scale = MA
i.e., 740 x 1 = MA

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Therefore MA = 740 gm
6. The angle A = 1920 w.r.t R (ccw) can be measured as shown in figure 7.4.

7.2 List of Material with Cost:

Sl. No Parts Qty. Material Amount (Rs)

1. Frame stand 80 kg x 52 Mild steel 4160

2. Motor 1 1/11 HP 2000

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3. Bearing 2 Chrome Steel 800

4. Shaft 1 M.S. 1200

5. Masses 5 M.S. 3700

6. Belt 1 Rubber 200

7. Pulley 2 C.I. 500

8. Bearing bush 2 C.I. 700

9. Dimmer stat & connection 1 - 900

10. Painting with primer - Oil Paint 1500

11. Labour fees - - 5500

12. Miscellaneous - - 2100

Total Cost 23,260 /-

CONCLUSION
The self-balancing effect using ball balancers has been achieved, but not
consistently. Through our tests we observe that the results are more consistent if the motor
is speed up to higher speed, preferably 2.5 times the natural frequency or above. We also
identify three main problems in real application of this device. First, the severe vibration
when the resonant speed is passed should be reduced. A clamping mechanism that can
change the resonant frequency of the system instantly is a possible solution. Second, the
balls need to find their stable positions as fast as possible. We have shown that adding
damping fluid can solve this problem. Third, the stable positions of the balls are often not
ideal positions. This problem can be due to over-damping in the groove. Imperfection in
manufacturing can cause unpredictable vibration and worsen the above problems.

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REFERENCES
[1].Henry Martinson, “Improvement in the Mode of Balancing Shafts”,1870, Patent
no 110-259,
[2].A. Foppl, "Das problem der lavalschen turbinenwelle" Der Civilingenieur 4, 1985,
pp. 335-342.
[3].H. H. Jeffcott, "The lateral vibration of loaded shafts in the neighborhood of a
whirling speed the effect of want of balance," Philosophical Magazine 37, pp.
304-319, 1919.
[4].S.H. Weaver, Balancing of rotors in factory and at installation, General Electric
Review 31(10) (1928), 542-545.

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 DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF STATIC AND DYNAMIC BALANCING APPARATUS

[5].Rieger, "Balancing of rigid and flexible rotors," The Shock and Vibration
information Center, Naval research laboratory, Washington, DC, 1986.
[6].Blekhman, I., “Synchronization in science and technology”, ASME Press
Translation, 1988.
[7].Green K, Champneys A.R, Friswell M.I and Munoz A.M. “Investigation of a
multi-ball, automatic dynamic balancing mechanism for eccentric rotors”. Phil.
Trans. R. Soc. A 2008.
[8].Theory of Machines by S .S. Rattan, Third Edition, Tata McGraw Hill Education
Private Limited.
[9].Kinematics and Dynamics of Machinery by R.L. Norton, First Edition in SI units,
Tata McGrawHill Education Private Limited.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, AGMRCET, VARUR 35

 SOLAR POWERED AUTO CHARGING GRINDING MACHINE

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