COLLEGE OF PHARMACY

PART II
GROUP PROPERTIES

ELEMENTS OF GROUP ZERO (0) - VIIIA

 All the elements of group zero except radon occur in the atmosphere.
 The inert gases are monoatomic and are colorless, odourless gases under ordinary conditions of
temperature and pressure.
 Helium, because of its low density and low solubility in blood is used to prepare synthetic airs
 As light source in lasers and electric discharge lamps
 A low temperature refrigerant
 Argon is the by-product of the fractionation of liquid air for the production of oxygen and nitrogen
 Used an inert atmosphere for industrial processes in which Nitrogen, the usual inert atmosphere, reacts
with the materials present.
 Krypton and Xenon have been investigates for possible uses as anesthetics
 Xenon - used for diagnostic studies both by inhalation and intravenous injection
 Xenon – the only noble gas that forms significant range of compounds with fluorine and oxygen
 Radon is used instead of radium in the treatment of certain cancer.
 Both radon and radium emit alpha particles in the first radioactive decay

ELEMENTS OF GROUP I-A and I-B

 These elements are characterized by having only ONE valence electron.

 These elements are strong metallic, giving rise to CATIONS
 Group I-B have higher POSITIVE OXIDATION STATES than I-A

GROUP I-A

 Comprises of the MOST REACTIVE of all the metallic elements and the activity INCREASES with the ATOMIC
NUMBER. The CATIONS of these elements are STABLE CHEMICALLY; the free elements are not found in
nature. The single positive charge of the nucleus has little or no polarizing effect on anions and molecules
and therefore DO NOT FORM COMPLEXES.
 The hydroxides give alkaline solutions, ALKALINITY increasing with atomic number. Alkali metal salts of
common inorganic and organic acids are IONIC, are USUALLY COLORLESS, with few exceptions, and are
READILTY SOLUBLE in water.
 AQUEOUS solutions of the salts are NEUTRAL to STRONGLY BASIC, depending on the strength of the anion as
Bronsted base.
 The color formed is attributed to the presence ofanions.
 CATIONS HYDRATE in aqueous media – the degree of solvation decreases with increasing atomic number
 ONLY LITHIUM and SODIUM (in crystalline states) regularly form HYDRATES.
 POTASSIUM and AMMONIUM SALTS rarely are hydrated, if hydrated, the water usually associated with
ANION

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Elements:
 SODIUM and POTASSIUM
 Remarkably similar
 Sodium salts are selected more frequently for use on economic basis
 Potassium salt is MORE SOLUBLE in NONPOLAR solvents. Potassium salts generally are LESS
DELIQUESCENT than the corresponding sodium salt. (ex. Potassium permanganate vs Sodium
Permanganate)
 SODIUM – Cation of the EXTRACELLULAR FLUID; POTASSIUM – Cation of the INTRACELLULAR FLUID
 Sodium compounds are used widely in pharmacy and medicine. It is commonly the CATION OF CHOICE
to optimize the pharmaceutical utility of organic medicinals (ex. Methiodal sodium, Phenobarbital
sodium, or sodium citrate)
 Sodium promotes water retention – used with caution in the treatment of CARDIAC and RENAL
CONDITIONS in which edema is a problem.
 Potassium supplements (KCl; K gluconate) – given to patients taking drugs that promote elimination of
the said ion (HYDROCHLOROTHIAZIDES – also cause excretion of MAGNESIUM IONS)
o Potassium ion has DIURETIC EFFECT
 FLAME TEST
o Non-luminous flame
 Na – Persistent golden yellow
 K – Nil
o Under cobalt glass
 Na – Violet
 K – Crimson

 LITHIUM
 Being a bridge element, the behaviour of Lithium and its compounds often is decidedly different from
that of the other members of the alkali family. At room temperature, the free metal is less much
reactive in water, in burning it forms normal oxides rather than peroxides.
 Lithium carbonates and phosphates are only slight soluble. Its chloride is soluble in organic solvents.
Lithium salts are highly hydrated.
 LITHIUM RESEMBLES MAGNESIUM and to some extent calcium, more closely than sodium.
 It has no normal physiological role
 Lithium Carbonate USP and Lithium Citrate USP -> treatment of Hypomanic and manic states
 Blood lithium levels must be monitored closely because of its toxicity.

 AMMONIA and AMMONIUM COMPOUNDS

 Ammonia coordinates readily with a proton to form of ammonium ion. This ion displays many of the
properties of alkali metal ions. It salts resemble potassium and rubidium salt.
 Ammonium hydroxide (mainly a solution of ammonia molecules in water) is feebly basic.
 Solutions of ammonium salts are acidic rather than basic.
 Ammonium salts used therapeutically
o Carbonate – expectorant preparations ingredient
o Chloride – expectorant preparations ingredient
o Bromide – central depressant

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 In an aqueous solution, ammonia is used in pharmacy as mild alkalizer.
 The ammonia in household use contains 10% NH3 and is known as 16° ammonia (degrees Baume, a
concentration term)

GROUP I-B

 Family name – COINAGE METAL

 They occur in the freer metallic state, are relatively easily to recover from their ores, and they are very
malleable.
 All readily act as the central unit of complexes

Elements:
 COPPER
 Most frequently used – MONOVALENT COMPOUNDS
o Copper (I) Oxide – Cu2O
o Copper (I) Chloride – Cu2Cl2
 Important cupric salts
o Cupric Oxide – CuO
o Cupric Sulfate – CuSO4-5H2O
 It is an ESSENTIAL trace element. Small quantities enhance the physiological utilization of iron. It occurs
in the respiratory pigment Hemocyanin, in many enzymes, and is widely distributed in foods.
 Medicinal Applications
o Copper Gluconate
o Cupric Chloride dehydrate
o Cupric Sulfate pentahydrate (Fehling’s and Benedict’s reagents)
o 64Cu (radioactive) – employed in mineral metabolism studies
 SILVER
 Has the ability to precipitate protein and chloride in the affected tissue
 Silver compounds such as Silver Nitrate are employed to provide local germicidal action.
 Silver Sulfadiazine – topical GERMICIDE
 Cosmetic problems – discoloration due to PHOTOSENSITIVITY of silver ions (Must be stored in light-
resistant containers)
 READILY UNDERGO REDUCTION – giving elemental silver
 GOLD
 Two series of gold compounds
o Gold (I) – AuCl (Aurous Chloride)
o Gold (III) – AuCl3 (Auric Chloride)
 Gold readily acts as the center for the formation of complexes
 Gold salts are characterized by instability to HEAT, LIGHT, and even very MILD REDUCING AGENTS.
 Simple gold (I) salts can undergo AUTOXIDATION, giving rise to finely divided metal and corresponding
gold (III) compounds.
 Complexation improves Gold’s stability.
 Because of ease of reduction, gold compounds must be handles with exceptional care and, if possible,
dispensed separately.

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 AUROTHIOGLUCOSE and GOLD SODIUM THIOMALATE USP
o Treatment of Lupus Erythematosus
o Treatment of Rheumatoid Arthritis
 198Au – Radioisotope
o Used in the treatment of certain MALIGNANCIES (Cancer)

ELEMENTS OF GROUP II-A AND GROUPII-B

GROUP II – A

 It is called the ALKALINE EARTH METAL

 All the elements are STRICTLY METALLIC, EXCEPT for amphoteric BERYLLIUM
 Like Alkali metals, Alkaline Earth Metals do not occur free in nature.
 Striking similarities between Calcium, Strontium, and Barium.
o They readily react with water to form HYDROXIDES with the simultaneous evolution of Hydrogen
o Hydroxides give strongly basic solutions and are less soluble
 Magnesium reacts only at high temperatures
o Beryllium and Magnesium Hydroxide  INSOLUBLE
Elements:
 BERYLLIUM
 Amphoteric, appears as both simple salts and berylates
 It is a BRIDGE ELEMENT
o It resembles Aluminum in its behaviour
o Both elements acts as Lewis Acids and give rise to ALUMS
 Beryllium compounds are EXTREMELY TOXIC when ingested, inhaled, or absorbed through the skin.
 NONE of its compounds are employed as therapeutic agents
 MAGNESIUM
 Second most plentiful CATION inside the cell (Intracellular Cation)
 A natural calcium channel blocker
 Relatively abundant and chemically active
 Cation Mg2+ - stable under all conditions
 Many of its insoluble compounds are used as GASTRIC ANTACIDS.
 Magnesium Hydroxides and Sulfates are used a CATHARTICS
 Magnesium Sulfate is also used as an ANTICONVULSANT
 Magnesium Toxicity
o ANTIDOTE: Calcium Gluconate
 Magnesium Stearate – used as a LUBRICANT in the preparation of compressed tablets
 27Mg – radioisotope employed in research involving photosynthesis
 STRONTIUM
 Behaviour is very similar to calcium
 BARIUM
 Chemically it is the MOST ACTIVE of GROUP II-A
 Its cation is stable under all conditions
 All barium compounds that are soluble in water and dilute acids are POISONOUS

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 Antidote: MAGNESIUM SULFATE (aka. EPSOM SALT)
 Barium Sulfate – Radiopaque
 Barium hydroxide lime – employed as a carbon dioxide absorber

GROUP II-B

 Zinc, Cadmium and Mercury have low melting points, hence they are frequently referred to as VOLATILE
METALS
 These elements readily complex with most ligands and concentrated solutions exhibit AUTOCOMPLEXATION
 ONLY Zinc is sufficiently AMPHOTERIC to form stable oxygen complex, ZnO2, the ZINCATE ION.

Elements:
 ZINC
 All soluble zinc salts show some degree of hydrolysis, THUS, ALLZINC SALTS of weak Bronsted bases
show an acid reaction.
 Present in all living organisms
 It is an essential trace elements
 An essential component of CARBONIC ANHYDRASE and many other enzymes
 Therapeutic application
o Treatment of various external surfaces of the body
o Wound healing
o Taste acuity
o Various ophthalmic problems (macular degeneration)
 Strong Zinc Sulfate solution is used as an EMETIC (rapid effect, little to no zinc is absorbed)
 Toxicity:
o Zinc compounds that are soluble in water and in gastric acid may be POISONOUS
o ANTIDOTE: Sodium bicarbonate (Baking soda)
 CADMIUM
 Intermediate in properties to Zinc and Mercury
 Two salts:
o Mercurius salts (Hg-I)
o Mercuric salts (Hg-III)
 Soluble cadmium compounds are ASTRINGENTS
 Cadmium Sulfate (CdSO4) – used as a TOPICAL ASTRINGENT and for EYE INFECTIONS
 Cadmium Sulfide (CdS) – treatment of SEBORRHEIC DERMATITIS
 Itai Itai disease (Japan) – drinking water contaminated with Cadmium
 MERCURY
 It is a TRUE METAL. Mercury and its compounds are extremely TOXIC.
 It has low boiling point and has an appreciable vapour pressure even at room temperature
 Mercury Poisoning:
o ANTIDOTE: Sodium Formaldehyde Sulfoxylate NF
o Egg albumin may be used in an emergency if the poisoning is discovered shortly after ingestion
 The white of one egg should be administered for each 250mg of Mercuric Chloride ingested.
 Emesis should be induced promptly

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o Mercury that falls into cracks is removed best by covering with POWDERED SULFUR, allowing
several days for conversion to SULFIDE, then vacuuming.

ELEMENTS OF GROUP III

 Includes 36 elements
 Group III-A – 5 Elements
 Group III-B – 31 Elements
o Transitions Elements
o Inner Transition Elements - Lanthanides [14 elements] and Actinides [14 elements]

GROUP III-A

 +3 OXIDATION STATES appears in all the elements of the family.

 Increasing with atomic number the +3 state become more electrovalent
 Members of this family give rise to an interesting series of double salts, the ALUMS.

Elements:
 BORON
 +3 oxidation state
 Non-metal and a BRIDGE ELEMENT
 Metaboric acid – (HBO2)n
 Orthoboric acid – (H3BO3)n
 Boric acid is soluble in polyhydorxy compounds such as glycerol
 As a BRIDGE ELEMENT, it resembles the properties of those of SILICON
o Boron hydrides and Boranes resemble the Silanes
 Boron and its compounds are toxic, both by ingestion and by absorption through broken or inflamed
skin.
o Fatalities in infants as a result of the use of dusting powders containing boric acid
 Boric acid in various dosage forms is employed as a TOPICAL ANTI-INFECTIVE
o In solution it is used as an EYE WASH
o SODIUM BORATE is BACTERIOSTATIC and is a frequent ingredient of COLD CREAMS, EYE WASHES,
and MOUTHWASHES.
o SODIUM PERBORATE – an oxidizing type of local anti-infective
 Incompatibility – precipitation of insoluble borates from neutral or alkaline buffers
 Preparations:
o Boric Acid NF
o Sodium Borate NF – aka BORAX
 ALUMINUM
 The MOST ABUNDANT of the METALS
 The THIRD MOST ABUNDANT ELEMENT
 The metal and its hydroxides are AMPHOTERIC
 Forms COMPLEX readily
 USES:

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o Gastric Antacids
o Astringent – soluble Aluminum salts are used for various skin conditions and in
ANTIPERSPIRANTS and DEODORANTS
o KAOLIN – used as an ABSORBENT and DEMULCENT
o BENTONITE – Suspending agent
o Elemental Aluminum is employed TOPICALLY as PROTECTIVE
 GALLIUM, INDIUM, and THALLIUM
 67Ga, 111In, 113In and 201Tl – Radioactive Isotopes as DIAGNOSTIC AIDS
 Thalium – Ant poison
o Tahlium (II) - Similar in beahaviour to Al (III) and Gold (III)
 Gallium
o Gallium (III) – very similar properties to Iron (III)
o Binds to transferrin, an iron transport protein
o Useful in the treating cancer-related heypercalcemia

GROUP III-B

 Scandium – smallesta nd has the greatest polarizing power and most readily forms complexes

ELEMENTS OF GROUP IV

 4 valence electrons
 +4 oxidation state

GROUP IV-A

 Carbon and Silicon – non-metallic character and property of CATENATION

 CATENATION - capacity of its atoms to bond to each other yielding longer chains
 Boron, with which silicon forms a bridge element pair, is quite similar to silicon
 Maximum coordination number – ability to form bonds
 Carbon – 4
 Silicon, Germanium, Tin, Lead – 6
 Carbon is exclusively non-metallic
 The oxides of carbon and silicon are acidic, whereas those of the other elements of the group are
amphoteric.

Elements:
 CARBON – widely distributed in nature (free and combined states)
 Organic Chemistry – study of carbon containing compounds
 Activated Charcoal – prepared from Ligneous materials by CARBONIZATION in the absence of air
followed by heat of chemical treatment to increase surface area and porosity
o Available in two forms:
 Finely powdered (300 – 350 mesh) for use in liquid media

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o Official in the USP
o Used as an ADSORBENT in the treatment of DIARRHEA
 Coarse, hard, porous particles for gas absorption
 Some Carbon Containing Compounds (Carbonates) and their uses
o Sodium Bicarbonate and Slightly soluble CARBONATES or basic CARBONATES of Calcium,
Magnesium and Aluminum are used as GASTRIC ANTACIDS
o Potassium Bicarbonate is used as a source of POTASSIUM IONS in electrolyte replenishers
o Bismuth Subcarbonate is an ASTRINGENT and PROTECTIVE
o Ammonium Carbonate is an effective REFLEX STIMULANT and EXPECTORANT
 SILICON
 Second most abundant element on earth
 It does not appear free in nature
 It forms an INERT OXIDE, SILICON DIOXIDE (aka SILICA), which occurs abundantly in nature in both
amorphous and crystalline states such as sand, quartz, opal, or siliceous earths.
 SILICEOUS EARTTH (aka Diatomaceous Earth, Fuller’s Earth, Kieselguhr, Celite) and INFUSORIAL EARTH
– act as excellent, inert, nonadsorbent filter aids. They are used as abrasives.
o Purified Siliceous Earth NF – Official Preparation
 Two Synthetic Amorphous Silicas
o SILICA FUME – prepared by CONDENSATION of silica from its vapour phase
o SILICA GEL – prepared by hydrolysis of inorganic or organic orthosilicates
 Uses and Applications of Amorphous Silicas
o Gas adsorbents
o Desiccants
o Carriers
o Fillers
o Thickeners
o Abrasives
 Preparations
o Colloidal Silicon Dioxide (Fumed Form) NF
o Silicon Dioxide – provide for both forms of SiO2, silica gel and precipitated silica
 SILICOSIS – lung condition resembling chronic Tuberculosis, develops after long exposure (7 years or
more) to respirable duct (silica particles 5 um or less mean diameter)
 INSOLUBLE SILICATES
o Chain Silicates – unidimensional arrangements of silicate tetrahedral
 These crystals cleave readilty to give rise to the typical fibrous structure of ASBESTOS, such as
Serpentine Asbestos - (HO)6Mg6(Si4O11)-H2O
 ASBESTOSIS – a pulmonary condition similar to silicosis
o Attapulgite – Mg5(Si8O20)(OH)2-8H2O
 Is a double chain structure with rather large open spaced between the chains. These spaces are
occupied by water molecules, which provide hydrogen binding to hold the chains together
 It has ADSORPTIVE PROPERTIES similar to Kaolin
o Talc (aka Talcum, Soapstone) – Mg3(OH)2Si4O10
 Is the softest mineral known

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 There are no cementing cations or molecules between silicate layers; they are held together by
Van der Waals forces
 Talc adheres readily to the skin, is chemically inert, and has very low adsorptive powers.
 USES
 Used in dusting powders as protective and lubricant, to prevent irritation due to friction
 It is also used in medicated dusts and used widely in cosmetic applications
 Talc MUST NOT BE USED in broken skin, wounds, or surgical incisions
 Useful filter aids (only particles that passed by No 80 sieve but retained by No 100 sieve)
o Mica – Al2[(OH)2(Si3O10)]K and Chlorite – Mg3[(OH)2(Si4O10)]
 Neither has pharmaceutical applications
o Clays Minerals
Are layer structures built of alternating layers of aluminum oxide (Hydrargillite) and silicates
 MONTMORILLONITE (aka , Bentonite, Smectite) – Al4[(OH)4(Si8O20)]-3nH2O
 Have higher SiO2-Al2O3 ratios with much more isomorphous replacement of aluminum
 Distinguishing feature – insertion of up to three distinct layers of hydrogen-bridged water
molecules between the aluminumsilicate layers
 BETONITE CLAYS are known as SWELLING CLAYS
 Have gelling properties that make them useful SUSPENDING AGENTS, as well as ION-
EXCHANGE properties and DETERGENT properties
 BENTONITE and BENTONITE MAGMA are official in the NF, as is PURIFIED BENTONITE,
a colloidal montmorillonite
 KAOLINITE – [(OH)6Al4][(OH)2(Si4O10)]
 Always found in the form of microcrystals of colloidal dimensions
 Somewhat similar to bentonite
 USES
 Clarifying agents
 Good excipients for inorganic salts
 Intestinal adsorbents
 Protectives
 Externally – dusting powders
 Kaolin USP – official preparation
o THREE-DIMENSIONAL or LATTICE SILICATES
 Feldspars – KalSi3O8
 The most common rock, the large cations are trapped in enlarged cavities within the
aluminusilicate networks
 Zeolites – CaAl2Si4O12-6H2O
 The cations in these cavities are free to move about within the crystals and may be
exchanged with external cations
USES (LATTICE SILICATES)
 Ion exchangers
 Desiccants
 Carriers for catalysts
 Separation of organic gases
o Pumice

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 Porous rock of volcanic origin
 Usually found in the vitreous state
 Three dimensionally linked sodium aluminosilicate – hard, chemically inert, non-adsorptive
material
 Used as a filter medium and dispersing agent
 Found in dental preparations as abrasive
o Magnesium Trisilicate
 Prepared by precipitation, using soluble silicate and a soluble magnesium salt
 Mixture of Magnesium Hydroxide, Hydrated Magnesium Oxide, and Silica gel
 Insoluble magnesium compounds are responsible for the antacid action
 Silica gel acts as Protective
 Employed as a SUSPENDING AGENT
 GLASS – is a generic term used to identify vitreous silicate materials prepared by fusing base, such as
Na2CO3 and CaCO3, with pure SILICA
o Manganese dioxide – hides the blue-green color of the iron usually present in silica
o Borates – reduces the coefficient of expansion
o Potassium ions – give brown and light-resistant glass
 SILANES and SILOXANES
o These are analogs of carbon and carbon compounds in which silicon functions in place of one or
more the carbon atoms
o SIMETHICONE USP – a polymeric dimethylsiloxane
 an ANTI-FOAMING agent
 ANTIFLATULENT in gastric bloating and in postoperative gaseous distention in the
gastrointestinal tract
 GERMANIUM
 Properties intermediate to those of silicon and tin
 Purported to have immune system enhancing and antitumor effects
 Remarkable electrical properties – valuable in the manufacture of semiconductors and other
microelectronic parts
 TIN
 Forms compounds in both +2 (electrostatic) and +4 (largely covalent) oxidation states
 Both oxides are AMPHOTERIC, giving rise to:
o Stannate (II) (Stannite) – [SnO2]2-
o Stannate (IV) (Stannate) – [SnO3]2-
 Official Preparation
o Stannous Fluoride – Tin (II) Fluoride
 Applied topically as a DENTAL PROPHYLACTIC
o Tin Dioxide – Tin (IV) Oxide
 Externally used as GERMICIDAL, especially against STAPHYLOCOCCAL ORGANISMS that are often
resistant to other germicides
 LEAD
 The MOST metallic element of the group
 Highly toxic nature as a CUMULATIVE POISON
 Absorbed readily in the intestinal tract and broken skin

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 Deposited in the bone

ELEMENTS OF GROUP IV-B

 All the members of the group occur in nature only in the combined state
 All members of the group possess amphoteric properties and their cations readily form complexes

Elements:
 TITANIUM
 Forms three OXIDES
o TiO
o Ti2O3
o TiO2
 The soluble salts of divalent and trivalent titanium are VIOLET or RED and are POWERFUL REDUCING
AGENTS
 The most important compound is TiO2 (official in the USP)
o used as a solar protective
o powerful ingredient in various LOTIONS and CREAMS for the prevention of sunburn due to its high
covering power as a WHITE PIGMENT as a consequence of the its high refractive index
 ZIRCONIUM and HAFNIUM
 Zirconium compounds contain varying amounts or percentages of hafnium
 Zirconium as Hydrous Oxide or Carbonate has been used as a LOTION or CREAM for CONTACT
DERMATITIS
 Aluminum-Zirconium compounds – antiperspirants
 Zirconium – prohibited to be used in aerosols

ELEMENTS OF GROUP V

GROUP V-A

 Nitrogen – exclusive non-metallic

 Bismuth – almost exclusively metallic
 Oxides of Nitrogen and Phosphorus are acidic
 Oxides of Arsenic and Antimony are amphoteric, but are sufficiently acidic for the elements to be classified
as non-metals
 The common oxide of bismuth is Bi2O3 is basic  metallic property

Elements:
 NITROGEN
 Occurs free in the atmosphere (78%) and combined in nitrates and organic compounds
 Colorless, tasteless, and odorless inert gas
 It is non-flammable and does not support combustion
 Has STABLE TRIPLE-BOND STRUCTUE  N2 show little reactivity with other elements
 The FREE NITROGEN atom is very reactive

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 It is prepared primarily by FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION of LIQUID AIR
 At the temperature of the electric arc, it combines with Oxygen to form NITROGEN (V) OXIDE, which is
converted into NITRIC ACID
 In the presence of a catalyst and at great pressure and elevated temperature, it combines with
Hydrogen to form AMMONIA
 ELEMENTAL NITROGAN NF
o Therapeutically inactive
o Employed as an INERT ATMOSPHERE in ampules and other containers of substances that would be
affected adversely by air (O2)
 NITROGEN (I) OXIDE – Nitrous Oxide USP
o An INHALATORY GENERAL ANESTHETICS
 SODIUM NITRITE USP
o Is an ANTIDOTE to CYANIDE POISONING
o Also a VASODILATOR
 NITRIC OXIDE (NO)
o Causes vasodilation, hence nitrates are used as vasodilators
 NITRITE ION is TOXIC
o It reacts with hemoglobin to form METHEMOGLOBIN (methemoglobinemia)
o They can form N-nitroso derivatives of amines and amides which may be carcinogenic
o NOTE: NITRATE IONS are reducible to NITRITE in the intestines and may cause methemoglobinemia
 PHOSPHORUS
 Exists in two common allotropic forms: YELLOW and RED
 Yellow Phosphorus – (white phosphorus) has a distinctive, ozone-like odor
o On exposure to air, or when heated at about 50°, it ignites spontaneously - FLAMMABLE
o It is almost insoluble in water, but is soluble in chloroform, benzene, or carbon disulphide
o It is POISONOUS, and on the skin it causes severe, slow to heal burns
o COPPER (II) SULFATE – is used as an ANTIDOTE
 Red Phosphorus – (Brown to Red Phosphorus)
o It is NON-POISONOUS and NON FLAMMABLE in the air, except at high temperature
o It is insoluble in any common solvent
 Application and Uses:
o Tribasic Calcium, Magnesium and Aluminum Phosphates  Gastric antacids
o Monobasic alkali phosphates  urinary acidifiers
o Dibasic Sodium Phosphates active ingredient in various saline CATHARTICS and ENEMAS
 Official Preparations:
o Phosphoric Acid NF – used to form soluble salts of insoluble medicinal bases
o Dihydrogen Phospahte-Monohydrogen Phosphate system – valuable buffer system in physiological
ranges
o Hypophosphorus Acid NF  an ANTIOXIDANT; Used primarily with IODIDE and IRON (II) slalts
o 32P – Radioactive Isotope
 HYDORXYAPATITE – complex of Basic Calcium Phosphate
o Main inorganic component of bones and teeth
 ARSENIC


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 No official compounds
 Potassium Arsenite Solution – aka Fowler’s Solution; was formerly used as anti-LEUKEMIC agent
 Arsenic Trioxide – used to treat Promyelocytic leukemia
o Side effects: ECG abnormalities
 Sodium Arsenate – used as a diagnostic agent
 NOTE: Arsenic compounds are POISONOUS
o ANTIDOTES:
 If they are still in the GIT (not yet absorbed), a freshly prepared mixture of IRON (III) and
Magnesium Hydroxides is administered ORALLY
 If already absorbed, DIMERCAPROL by IM injection is given
 ANTIMONY
 Physiological reactions similar to arsenic
 Compounds potentially TOXIC, EXCEPT:
o ANTIMONY POTASSIUM TARTRATE UP (Antimonyl Potassium Tartrate, aka TARTAR EMETIC)
o ANTIMONY SODIUM TARTRATE USP
 BOTH are used in the treatment of SCHISTOSOMIASIS (Fluke infection- parasite)
 BISMUTH
 Bismuth Subcarbonate, Bismuth Subgallate, Bismuth Sudnitrate – employed for their ASTRINGENT,
MILDLY GERMICIDAL, and ANTACID properties
 Official Preparations:
o Bismuth Subnitrate USP
o Bismuth Subgallate USP
o Milk of Bismuth USP – antacid properties due to the presence of hydroxyl and carbonate ions
 Colloidal Bismuth Subcitrate – clinically in the treatment of PEPTIC ULCER disease
 NOTE: Gives BLACK STOOL
o Rationale: Reaction of hydrogen sulphide from the breakdown of proteins with bismuthyl ions
forming INSOLUBLE, DRAL BROWN Bismuth (III) Sulfide  DARK STOOL
 Soluble Bismuth compounds are POISONOUS
o ANTIDOTE: DIMERCAPROL

ELEMENTS OF GROUP V-B

 These element s are of little pharmaceutical importance

 Only TANTALUM metal is employed pharmaceutically
 It is used in sheet form for the SURGICAL REPAIR of BONES

ELEMENTS OF GROUP VI

GROUP VI-A

 Aka CHALCOGENS
 Oxygen is non-metallic in character
 Polonium is metallic; distinguished by its NATURAL RADIOACTIVITY
 Other members show both characteristics

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 SULFUR-SELENIUM-TELLURIUM TRIAD - display strong family relartionships

Elements:
 OXYGEN
 The most abundant element on earth
 Preparation of oxygen – Fractional distillation of Liquid air
 OXYGEN USP – employed as a THERAPEUTIC GAS in the treatment of conditions involving HYPOXIA
 Ozone (O3) – an allotropic form of oxygen, is a powerful oxidizing agent
o Ozonized air is used in various DISINFECTING and BLEACHING Operations
 Oxygen is VERY REACTIVE
o Combine directly with all elements EXCEPT Mercury, Silver, Glod, and members of the PLATINUM
Family.
o Oxidation Number (-2)
 Hydrogen Peroxides (and the peroxides)
o In which Oxygen has an oxidation number of (-1)
o Valuable Oxidizing agents and Reducing Agents
o Prepared by ELECTROLYSIS of a concentrated solutions of either SULFURIC acid and AMMONIUM
SULFATE. After electrolysis, the analyte is reacted with water and the hydrogen peroxide formed is
separated by DISTILLATION under reduced pressure
o Acetanilid is used as PRESERVATIVE to stabilized H2O2
o Available concentrations:
 3%
 6%
 30%
 10%
 90%
o Concentration is expressed as VOLUME STRENGTH
 The volume of oxygen gas released from one volume of solution
 Ex. 10 volume is 3%
o HYDROGEN PEROXIDE CONCENTRATION USP – 30% solution
 Powerful Oxidant and MUST NOT be used on SKIN
o HYDROGEN PEROXIDE TOPICAL SOLUTION USP – 3% solution
 Mild, fast acting, oxidizing germicide that will destroy most pathogenic bacteria
o HYDROGEN PEROXIDE 6%
 Common bleach mild enough for use on hair
o Hydrogen peroxide is available as a solution in anhydrous GLYCERINE (15%) and as UREA PEROXIDE,
a stable crystalline 1:1 compound, usually in 4 to 10% solution in anhydrous glycerine
o CARBAMIDE PEROXIDES and CARBAMIDE PEROXIDE TOPICAL SOLUTION USP
 Preferable to hydrogen peroxide in treatment of oral and ear infections
o ZINC PEROXIDE and SODIUM PERBORATE (a compound that has a hydrogen peroxide molecule in
its hydration complement)
 SULFUR
 Exists in several allotropic forms
 α-SULFUR – Rhombic sulfur at room temperature

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o COMMERCIAL SUBLIMED SULFUR USP
 Used as CATHARTICS
o PRECIPITATED SULFUR USP
 Has smaller particles and is MORE reactive that sublimed sulfur
 As an OINTMENT, it is used as SCABICIDE
 Sulfur Ointments and Lotions are used as KERATOLYTICS. Elemental Sulfur also has FUNGICIDAL
action
 β-SULFUR – Monoclinic Sulfur at the equilibrium point
 SULFURATED POTASH – consists largely of potassium polysulfides, sulphate, and thiosulfate
o Prepared by careful heating of a mixture of POTASSIUM CARBONATE and SUBLIMED SULFUR
o used in the form of lotions, ointments and aqueous solutions for the treatment of PSORIASIS and
other chronic skin conditions and has PARASITICIDAL activity
o must be stored in a tightly sealed container to prevent the reaction with CARBON DIOXIDE and
OXYGEN
 WHITE LOTION USP
o Sulfurated Potash + Zinc Sulfate solution
o Used as ASTRINGENT and PROTECTIVE
 SELENIUM SULFIDE (and Lotion) USP
o 2.5% suspension – Topical treatment of SEBORRHEIC DERMATITS (Dandruff)
o Avoid contact to the eyes and mount
o Hand must be washed thoroughly after using – SELENIUM is TOXIC
 CADMIUM SULFIDE
o Also used in the treatment of SEBORRHEIC DERMATITIS
o Less irritating
 SULFUR DIOXIDE NF
o Prepared by burning sulfur
o It is the acid anhydride of sulphurous acid ad its salts, the sulphites
o Used as ANTIOXIDANTS and PRESERVATIVES
 SODIUM METABISULFITE NF and POTASSIUM METABISULFITE
o Used as an ANTIOXIDANT
 SODIUM THIOSULFATE USP
o Prepare from sulphite by the reaction with sulfur
o Used as an ANTIDOTE for CYANIDE POISONING
o A valuable analytical reagent for the determining of IODINE
 SODIUM SULFATE is a saline cathartic
 SELENIUM and TELLURIUM
 Analogous to those of sulfur
 Selenium in large doses is toxic – prolonged exposure causes CONTACT DERMATITIS
 However, it is an important trace element
 SELENOMETHIONINE Se75 INJECTION USP – used in the diagnosis of PANCREATIC TUMORS and
GROWTHS
 Tellurium has no medicinal application at this time

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ELEMENTS OF GROUP VI-B

 Metallic in behaviour
 Lower oxidation states – basic
 Higher oxidation states – acidic
 Chromates
 Molybdates
 Tungstates
 CHROMIUM and MOLYBDENUM – essential trace elements
 51Cr – radioactive isotope employed as a biological tracer in certain haematological procedures

ELEMENTS OF GROUP VII

 Aka HALOGENS – non-metallic in character

 Free halogens are colored, but almost all their compounds are not

GROUP VII-A

 OXIDATION STATES: -1, +1, +3, +5 and +7

 FLUORINE – the most electronegative element; readily reacts as a ligand
 ONLY CHLORINE forms compounds in all FIVE oxidation states
 All HALOGENS unite with HYDROGEN to form covalent gaseous HYDROGEN HALIDES – extremely soluble in
water giving rise to strong acids
 FLUORINE is the STRONGEST OXIDIZING AGENT; the WEAKEST REDUCING AGENT
 IODINE – the WEAKEST oxidizing agent; the STRONGEST REDUCING AGENT

Elements:
 FLUORINE
 The MOST REACTIVE of the electronegative elements
 It attacks all metals except Gold and Platinum
 It combines directly with all non-metals
 It is an ESSENTIAL ELEMENT and is present in the teeth and bones
 USP PREPARATIONS:
o Sodium Fluoride
o Sodium Fluoride Tablets
o Sodium Fluoride Oral solution
o Stannous Fluoride – Tin (II) Fluoride
o Stannous Fluoride Gel
o Sodium Fluoride and Phosphoric Acid Gel
o Sodium Fluoride and Phosphoric Acid Topical Solution
o Sodium Monofluorophosphate
 STANNOUS FLUORIDE
o Dental prophylactic

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o Solutions of this slat must be prepared FRESHLY at the time of use to prevent oxidation to Tin (IV)
rendering the compound ineffective
 Oxidation is manifested by cloudiness of the solution as a result of precipitation of Tin (IV) ions
 FLUORIDES are also used in the treatment of OSTEOPOROSIS, however, it is considered questionable
 CHLORINE
 A very reactive non-metallic element
 Most common chlorides are water soluble except:
o AgCl,
o Hg2Cl2,
o Cu2Cl2
 HCl NF
o Is a pharmaceutical necessity for purposes such as neutralizing, stabilizing or solubilizing other
substances
o In diluted form, it is a gastric acidifier
 Sodium, Potassium and Calcium Chlorides – electrolyte replenishers
 Ammonium Chloride – Expectorant and systemic acidifying agent
 CHLORIDE IONS
o Carrier of choice for other metal cations such as Zinc, Aluminum and Mercury
 Sodium Hypochlorite Solution USP (aka DAKIN’S SOLUTION)
o An effective GERMICIDE, VIRICIDE, and DEODORANT
o Mechanism of action: Oxidizing power of Hypochlorous acid
 Sodium hypochlorite Topical Solution
o Contains 0.025% sodium hypochlorite, has a pH of 8 (close to plasma pH of 7.4)
o Use:
 Regenerate tissues (healing burnt skin)
 Antiviral and Antimicrobial
 Bleaching powder – aka Calcium Hypochlorite
o One of the most effective and least expensive disinfectant
o Prepared by passing chlorine gas over moist, slaked lime
 Potassium Chlorate
o Present in mouthwash, vaginal douches and local cleansing preparations
o Weak antiseptic value
 BROMINE
 Dark reddish brown, fuming liquid with suffocating odor
 Fumes are highly irritating to the mucous membranes and they burn and blister the skin
 Resembles chlorine
 It is a powerful CAUSTIC and GERMICIDE
 It is a COMMON CHEMICAL REAGENT
 Exposed skin must be washed IMMEDIATELY with a solution of SODIUM BICARBONATE and treated with
GLYCERINE
 CAUTION: Bromine containers should be opened only after only after they have been cooled thoroughly
 IODINE
 Except for astatine, Iodine is the MOST metallic of halogen
 It is an effective ANTIMICROBIAL

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 Iodine solutions include Potassium and Sodium Iodide to ENHANC the solubility of iodine in solutions
 USP Preparations:
o Iodine
o Potassium Iodide
o Sodium Iodide
o Povidone-Iodine
 Povidone is a synthetic polymer that has special affinity for iodine molecules
 Advantages:
- REDUCED VOLATILITY of the IODINE
- Decreased irritation on application
 IODINE is essential for proper THYROID FUNCTIONING
o Utilized either in the elemental form or as potassium or sodium iodide
 IODIDE ions exert EXPECTORANT ACTION
o Hydrogen Iodide (as Hydriodic Acid Syrup)
o Potassium Iodide
 Radioactive Iodides – diagnostic and therapeutic applications
o 131I
o 125I
 ELEMENTAL IODINE  TOXIC
o Antidotes:
 Corn Starch
 Sodium Thiosulfate
 ASTATINE
 Is a synthetic radioactive element
 Resembles iodine but is MORE METALLIC
 No pharmaceutical application
 PSEUDOHALOGENS (HALOGENOIDS) – resemble halide ions
 Inorganic anions such as
o CN-
o CNO-
o CNS-
o N3-
o [Fe(CN)6]3

GROUP VII-B

 Compounds of these elements are COLORED (See Table 24-17)

Elements:
 MANGANESE
 Is the most important element of this group
 POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE USP
o Is a local anti-INFECTIVE of the OXIDIZING type
o Acts as an ASTRINGENT and a powerful deodorant and cleanser

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oDilute Permanganate solutions – used as ANTIDOTE for various alkaloid toxicity
oMANGANESE is an essential trace element
 Necessary for the activation of variety of ENZYMES such as PYRUVATE CARBOXYLASE
o USP Preparations:
 Manganese Chloride
 Manganese Gluconate
 Manganese Sulfate
 TECHNETIUM
 It was the first element produced artificially
 99Tc – Radioactive technetium used diagnostically
 RHENIUM
 Has been employed as a CATALYST for dehydration

ELEMENTS OF GROUP VIII

 The group consists of THREE ELEMENTS in each of the long rows

 1st Triad – Known as FERROUS METALS (Iron, Cobalt, Nickel), stable under most conditions
 Characterized by their STRONG FERROMAGNETISM
 2nd Triad – Ruthenium, Rhodium, Palladium (moderately stable) PLATINUM METALS – characterized by
 3rd Triad – Osmium, Iridium, Platinum (Unstable) extreme INERTNESS
 These elements are definitely metallic
 All participate readily in the formation of coordination complexes
 All form COLORED COMPOUNDS
 Platinum – used in chemotherapy as CISPLATIN and CARBOPLATIN

FIRST TRIAD
Elements:
 IRON
 Functions in DIVALENT and TRIVALENT states form
o IRON (II)- Ferrous
 Compound are usually GREEN in the HYDRATED state and WHITE in the ANHYDROUS state
 Aqueous solution of salts undergo SLIGHT HYDROLYSIS and are OXIDIZED easily in solutions
o IRON (III)- Ferric
 Compounds are usually YELLOW to BROWN in the HYDRATED state and VARY IN COLOR when
ANHYDROUS
 Aqueous solution of the salts HYDROLYZE STRONGLY to give ACID SOLUTIONS
 Readily forms soluble coordination complexes with ligands such as Phosphate, Citrate, Tartrate and
Amines
 IRON is as essential trace element.
 Important in the transport of oxygen by hemoglobin
 Functions in various cytochromes, which are essential oxidative enzymes of the cells
 FERRITIN – Iron storage protein
 Causes significant GASTROINTESTINA IRRITATION
 POORLY ABSORBED

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 USP PREPARATIONS:
o Ferrous Fumarate (Tablets, together with Docusate Sodium, Extended Release Tablets)
o Ferrous Gluconate (Tablets, Capsules and Elixir)
o Ferrous Sulfate (Oral Solution, Syrup, and Tablets)
o Dried Ferrous Sulfate
o IRON DEXTRAN INJECTION – a colloidal iron (III) hydroxide with partially hydrolysed dextran
o IRON SORBITEX INJECTION – a complex of iron with Sorbitol and Citric Acid
 Reduced Iron are used in the FORTIFICATION of foods
 IRON (III) are ASTRINGENT
 SODIUM NITROPRUSSIDE USP – Na2[Fe(CN)5(NO)]-2H2O is a vasodilator
 COBALT
 Cobalt salts of commerce – Cobalt (II)
 Most contain WATER of HYDRATION and are RED in color
 BLUE when ANHYDROUS
 ANHYDROUS COBALT (II) CHLORIDE – dehydrating agents for gases
 CYANOCOBALAMIN – Vit B12 is the only cobalt compound officially used medicinally
 57Co and 60Co = radioactive isotopes used diagnostically and therapeutically

 NICKEL
 Oxidation state – (+2)
 No medicinal importance

ADDITIONAL READINGS:
Remington
 WATERS
 NATURAL WATER
 PORTABLE WATERS
 PURIFIED WATER and OTHER WATERS USED IN PHARMACY
 HEAVY WATERS

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