TRANSFORMERS

Transformers are electrical devices consisting of two or more coils of

wire used to transfer electrical energy by means of a changing
magnetic field. One of the main reasons that we use alternating AC
voltages and currents in our homes and workplace’s is that AC
supplies can be easily generated at a convenient voltage, transformed
(hence the name transformer) into much higher voltages and then
distributed around the country using a national grid of pylons and
cables over very long distances.

The difference in voltage between the primary and the secondary

windings is achieved by changing the number of coil turns in the
primary winding ( NP ) compared to the number of coil turns on the
secondary winding ( NS ).
Transformer Action

We have seen that the number of coil turns on the secondary winding
compared to the primary winding, the turns ratio, affects the amount
of voltage available from the secondary coil. But if the two windings
are electrically isolated from each other, how is this secondary voltage
produced?

We have said previously that a transformer basically consists of two

coils wound around a common soft iron core. When an alternating
voltage ( VP ) is applied to the primary coil, current flows through the
coil which in turn sets up a magnetic field around itself, called mutual
inductance, by this current flow according to Faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction. The strength of the magnetic field builds
up as the current flow rises from zero to its maximum value which is
given as dΦ/dt.

As the magnetic lines of force setup by this electromagnet expand

outward from the coil the soft iron core forms a path for and
concentrates the magnetic flux. This magnetic flux links the turns of
both windings as it increases and decreases in opposite directions
under the influence of the AC supply.

However, the strength of the magnetic field induced into the soft iron
core depends upon the amount of current and the number of turns in
the winding. When current is reduced, the magnetic field strength
reduces.

When the magnetic lines of flux flow around the core, they pass
through the turns of the secondary winding, causing a voltage to be
induced into the secondary coil. The amount of voltage induced will
be determined by: N*dΦ/dt (Faraday’s Law), where N is the number
of coil turns. Also this induced voltage has the same frequency as the
primary winding voltage.

Then we can see that the same voltage is induced in each coil turn of
both windings because the same magnetic flux links the turns of both
the windings together. As a result, the total induced voltage in each
winding is directly proportional to the number of turns in that
winding. However, the peak amplitude of the output voltage available
on the secondary winding will be reduced if the magnetic losses of the
core are high.

If we want the primary coil to produce a stronger magnetic field to

overcome the cores magnetic losses, we can either send a larger
current through the coil, or keep the same current flowing, and instead
increase the number of coil turns ( NP ) of the winding. The product of
amperes times turns is called the “ampere-turns”, which determines
the magnetising force of the coil.

So assuming we have a transformer with a single turn in the primary,

and only one turn in the secondary. If one volt is applied to the one
turn of the primary coil, assuming no losses, enough current must
 flow and enough magnetic flux generated to induce one volt in the
single turn of the secondary. That is, each winding supports the same
number of volts per turn.

Types of Transformers and its applications

 Step-Up-Transformer.
 Step-Down-Transformer.
 Air-Core-Transformer.
 Iron core transformer.
 Auto Transformer.
 Power transformer.
 Distribution transformer.
 Potential-transformer.

The above mentioned types are some of the most widely used classes
of transformers for various applications. Compared to all other types
and classes, it is the high load transformer which is available for a
greater use.

Transformers based on voltage levels:

The transformers are classified as step-up and step-down transformers

as the voltage ratios from primary to secondary. These are widely
used transformer types for all the applications. Here the important
thing to remember is that there will not be any difference in primary
power and secondary power. I.e. if the voltage is high at secondary
side then the current drawn from the secondary will low so that the
power will be same. Same as in the reverse case when the voltage is
low the current drawn will be high.

Step-up transformer:
As the name specifies the secondary voltage is stepped up with a ratio
compared to primary voltage. This is achieved by increasing the
number of coil turns in the secondary .In power plant this transformer
is used as connecting transformer of Generator to Grid. I.e. the
Generated to low voltage should be suitably stepped up to connect to
high voltage grid.

Step-down transformer :

In this transformer the voltage is stepped down at the secondary from

high voltage primary so that it is called as step-down transformer. The
winding turns will be high at primary side where as it is less at
secondary side. In power plant the use of this transformer are very
high where the grid power supply stepped down and given to
corresponding plant auxiliaries during starting of the power plant.
Once the plant has started then the voltage stepping down is necessary
where the plant auxiliaries will operate at low voltage compared to its
generated voltage. In distribution also the step down transformer is
widely used to convert the high grid voltage to the low voltage which
can be used at house purposes.

Transformer based on the core medium used :

The transformers are divided as Air core and iron core under this
classification. I.e. the medium placed between the primary and
secondary air in air core type transformer and iron in iron core type
transformer.

Air core transformer:

The primary and secondary windings wounded on non magnetic strip

where the flux linkage between primary and secondary is through the
air. The mutual inductance effect is less in air core compared to iron
core i.e. the reluctance offered to the generated flux is high in the air
medium where as in the iron core it is less. But the hysteresis and
eddy current losses which are dominant in iron core type are less or
completely eliminated in air core type transformer.

Iron core transformer :

The two windings are wounded on iron plates which provide a perfect
linkage path to the generated flux. Due to the conductive or magnetic
property of the iron it offers less reluctance to the linkage flux. These
are widely used transformers in which is efficiency is high compared
to air core type transformer.

Transformer based on winding arrangements

Auto Transformer:

Normal transformers have two windings placed on two different sides

i.e. primary and secondary but in auto transformer, the both the
windings that is primary and secondary windings are connected to
each other both physically and magnetically. There is one common
winding which forms both primary and secondary winding in which
voltage is varied by changing the position of secondary tapping on the
body of the coil.

Transformer based on usage:

The transformers are used to do many functions according to the

necessarily. These are classified as power transformer, measuring
transformer, protection transformer and distribution transformer.
Power Transformer:
The power transformers are big in size and used for high power
transfer applications, where the transmission voltage is greater than
33KV. It used in generating station and Transmission substation .high
insulation level.

Distribution transformer:
It is used for the distribution of electrical energy at low voltage as less
than 33KV in industrial purpose and 440v-220v in domestic purpose.
It work at low efficiency at 50-70%, small size, easy in installation,
having low magnetic losses & it is not always fully loaded.

Measurement Transformer:
These are used to measure the some electrical quantity like voltage,
current etc. As their name specifies these are classified as potential
transformers, current transformers etc.

Protection transformers:

These types of transformers are used in component protections. The

major difference between measuring and protection transformers is
the accuracy i.e. the protection transformers should be more accurate
compared to measuring transformers.

Transformers based on the place of use:

These are classified as indoor and outdoor transformers. Indoor

transformers are covered with proper roof like as in the process
industry. The outdoor transformers are distribution type which is
placed in substations etc.

Transformer Cooling System and Methods

For accelerating cooling different transformer cooling methods are

used depending upon their size and ratings.

ONAN Cooling of Transformer

This is the simplest transformer cooling system. The full form of

ONAN is “Oil Natural Air Natural”. Here natural convectional flow
of hot oil is utilized for cooling. In convectional circulation of oil, the
hot oil flows to the upper portion of the transformer tank and the
vacant place is occupied by cold oil. This hot oil which comes to
upper side will dissipate heat in the atmosphere by natural conduction,
convection and radiation in air and will become cold. In this way the
oil in the transformer tank continually circulate when the transformer
put into load.

ONAF Cooling of Transformer

Heat dissipation can obviously be increased, if dissipating surface is

increased but it can be make further faster by applying forced air flow
on that dissipating surface. Fans blowing air on cooling surface is
employed. Forced air takes away the heat from the surface of radiator
and provides better cooling than natural air. The full form of ONAF is
“Oil Natural Air Forced”. As the heat dissipation rate is faster and
more in ONAF transformer cooling method than ONAN cooling
system, electrical power transformer can be put into more load
without crossing the permissible temperature limits.

OFAF Cooling of Transformer

In oil forced air natural cooling system of transformer, the heat

dissipation is accelerated by using forced air on the dissipating
surface but circulation of the hot oil in transformer tank is natural
convectional flow.
OFWF Cooling of Transformer

We know that ambient temperature of water is much less than the

atmospheric air in same weather condition. So water may be used as
better heat exchanger media than air. In OFWF cooling system of
transformer, the hot oil is sent to a oil to water heat exchanger by
means of oil pump and there the oil is cooled by applying sowers of
cold water on the heat exchanger’s oil pipes. OFWF means “Oil
Forced Water Forced” cooling in transformer.

ODAF Cooling of Transformer

ODAF or oil directed air forced cooling of transformer can be

considered as the improved version of OFAF. Here forced circulation
of oil directed to flow through predetermined paths in transformer
winding. The cool oil entering the transformer tank from cooler or
radiator is passed through the winding where gaps for oil flow or pre-
decided oil flowing paths between insulated conductors are provided
for ensuring faster rate of heat transfer. ODAF or oil directed air
forced cooling of transformer is generally used in very high rating
transformer.
 ELECTRIC MOTORS

Electric motor, any of a class of devices that convert electrical energy

to mechanical energy, usually by employing electromagnetic
phenomena. Most electric motors develop their mechanical torque by
the interaction of conductors carrying current in a direction at right
angles to a magnetic field. The various types of electric motor differ
in the ways in which the conductors and the field are arranged and
also in the control that can be exercised over mechanical output
torque, speed, and position.

In the simple motor shown above the current in the rotating coil is
reversed every half-turn by an automatic switching arrangement
consisting of a split metal ring called a commutator. The rotating part
of the motor is called the armature and consists of a coil with many
turns of wire. The armature is mounted on an axis between two fixed
magnetic poles. Each end of the armature is attached to one end of the
commutator (see red arrows). Current enters the commutator via one
brush connected to a battery. Current leaves the armature via the
second brush which is in contact with the other half of the
commutator. Since the brushes are fixed when the commutator
rotates, each brush is in contact with one half of the commutator
 during one half-turn and with the opposite half or the commutator
during the second half-turn. As a result, the current in the armature
reverses its direction every half turn and provides the conditions
necessary to keep the armature rotating.

Types of Electric Motors

 AC Brushless Motors. AC brushless motors are some of the most

popular in motion control

 DC Brushed Motors. In a DC brushed motor, brush orientation on the

stator determines current flow
 DC Brushless Motors

 Direct Drive

 Linear Motors

 Servo Motors

 Stepper Motors

AC Brushless Motors

AC brushless motors are some of the most popular in motion control.

They use induction of a rotating magnetic field, generated in the
stator, to turn both the stator and rotor at a synchronous rate. They
rely on permanent electromagnets to operate.

DC Brushed Motors
In a DC brushed motor, brush orientation on the stator determines
current flow. In some models, the brush’s orientation relative to the
rotor bar segments is decisive instead. The commutator is especially
important in any DC brushed motor design.

DC Brushless Motors

DC brushless motors were first developed to achieve higher

performance in a smaller space than DC brushed motors, and they are
smaller than comparable AC models. An embedded controller is used
to facilitate operation in the absence of a slip ring or commutator.

Direct Drive

Direct drive is a high-efficiency, low-wear technology

implementation that replaces conventional servo motors and their
accompanying transmissions. In addition to being far easier to
maintain over a longer period of time, these motors accelerate more
quickly.

Linear Motors

These electric motors feature an unrolled stator and motor, producing

linear force along the device’s length. In contrast to cylindrical
models, they have a flat active section featuring two ends. They are
typically faster and more accurate than rotatory motors.

Servo Motors

A servo motor is any motor coupled with a feedback sensor to

facilitate positioning; thus, servo motors are the backbone of robotics.
Both rotary and linear actuators are used. Low-cost brushed DC
motors are common, but are being superseded by brushless AC
motors for high-performance applications.

Stepper Motors

Stepper motors use an internal rotor, electronically manipulated by

external magnets. The rotor can be made with permanent magnets or a
soft metal. As windings are energized, the rotor teeth align with the
magnetic field. This allows them to move from point to point in fixed
increments.

An induction motor or asynchronous motor is an AC electric motor in

which the electric current in the rotor needed to produce torque is
obtained by electromagnetic induction from the magnetic field of the
stator winding.

A synchronous motor is one in which the rotor normally rotates at the

same speed as the revolving field in the machine. The stator is similar
to that of an induction machine consisting of a cylindrical iron frame
with windings, usually three-phase, located in slots around the inner
periphery.
 RECTIFIERS

Half-Wave Rectification

For most power applications, half-wave rectification is insufficient

for the task. The harmonic content of the rectifier’s output waveform
is very large and consequently difficult to filter. Furthermore, the
AC power source only supplies power to the load one half every full
cycle, meaning that half of its capacity is unused. Half-wave
rectification is, however, a very simple way to reduce power to a
resistive load. Some two-position lamp dimmer switches apply full
AC power to the lamp filament for “full” brightness and then half-
wave rectify it for a lesser light output.

Half-wave rectifier application: Two level lamp dimmer.

In the “Dim” switch position, the incandescent lamp receives

approximately one-half the power it would normally receive
operating on full-wave AC. Because the half-wave rectified power
pulses far more rapidly than the filament has time to heat up and
cool down, the lamp does not blink. Instead, its filament merely
operates at a lesser temperature than normal, providing less light
output. This principle of “pulsing” power rapidly to a slow-
responding load device to control the electrical power sent to it is
common in the world of industrial electronics. Since the controlling
device (the diode, in this case) is either fully conducting or fully
nonconducting at any given time, it dissipates little heat energy
while controlling load power, making this method of power control
very energy-efficient. This circuit is perhaps the crudest possible
method of pulsing power to a load, but it suffices as a proof-of-
concept application.

Full-Wave Rectifiers

If we need to rectify AC power to obtain the full use of both half-

cycles of the sine wave, a different rectifier circuit configuration
must be used. Such a circuit is called a full wave rectifier. One kind
of full-wave rectifier, called the center tap design, uses a transformer
with a center-tapped secondary winding and two diodes.

Full-wave rectifier, center-tapped design.

This circuit’s operation is easily understood one half-cycle at a time.

Consider the first half-cycle, when the source voltage polarity is
positive (+) on top and negative (-) on bottom. At this time, only the
top diode is conducting; the bottom diode is blocking current, and
the load “sees” the first half of the sine wave, positive on top and
negative on bottom. Only the top half of the transformer’s secondary
winding carries current during this half-cycle .

Full-wave center-tap rectifier: Top half of secondary winding conducts during positive half-cycle of input,
delivering positive half-cycle to load..

During the next half-cycle, the AC polarity reverses. Now, the other
diode and the other half of the transformer’s secondary winding
carry current while the portions of the circuit formerly carrying
current during the last half-cycle sit idle. The load still “sees” half of
a sine wave, of the same polarity as before: positive on top and
negative on bottom.

Full-wave center-tap rectifier: During negative input half-cycle, bottom half of secondary winding conducts,
delivering a positive half-cycle to the load.

One disadvantage of this full-wave rectifier design is the necessity of

a transformer with a center-tapped secondary winding. If the circuit
in question is one of high power, the size and expense of a suitable
transformer is significant. Consequently, the center-tap rectifier
design is only seen in low-power applications.
The full-wave center-tapped rectifier polarity at the load may be
reversed by changing the direction of the diodes. Furthermore, the
reversed diodes can be paralleled with an existing positive-output
rectifier. The result is dual-polarity full-wave center-tapped rectifier.
Note that the connectivity of the diodes themselves is the same
configuration as a bridge.

Dual polarity full-wave center tap rectifier

Full-Wave Bridge Rectifiers

Another, more popular full-wave rectifier design exists, and it is
built around a four-diode bridge configuration. For obvious reasons,
this design is called a full wave bridge.

Full-wave bridge rectifier.

Regardless of the polarity of the input, the current flows in the same
direction through the load. That is, the negative half-cycle of source
is a positive half-cycle at the load. The current flow is through two
diodes in series for both polarities. Thus, two diode drops of the
source voltage are lost (0.7·2=1.4 V for Si) in the diodes. This is a
disadvantage compared with a full-wave center-tap design. This
disadvantage is only a problem in very low voltage power supplies.

Full-wave bridge rectifier: Electron flow for positive half-cycles.

Full-wave bridge rectifier: Electron flow for negative half=cycles.

Remembering the proper layout of diodes in a full-wave bridge

rectifier circuit can often be frustrating to the new student of
electronics. I’ve found that an alternative representation of this
circuit is easier both to remember and to comprehend. It’s the exact
same circuit, except all diodes are drawn in a horizontal attitude, all
“pointing” the same direction.
Alternative layout style for Full-wave bridge rectifier.

One advantage of remembering this layout for a bridge rectifier

circuit is that it expands easily into a polyphase version

Three-phase full-wave bridge rectifier circuit.

Each three-phase line connects between a pair of diodes: one to route

power to the positive (+) side of the load, and the other to route
power to the negative (-) side of the load. Polyphase systems with
more than three phases are easily accommodated into a bridge
rectifier scheme. Take for instance the six-phase bridge rectifier
circuit .
Six-phase full-wave bridge rectifier circuit.

When polyphase AC is rectified, the phase-shifted pulses overlap

each other to produce a DC output that is much “smoother” (has less
AC content) than that produced by the rectification of single-phase
AC. This is a decided advantage in high-power rectifier circuits,
where the sheer physical size of filtering components would be
prohibitive but low-noise DC power must be obtained.

Three-phase AC and 3-phase full-wave rectifier output.

Ripple Voltage
In any case of rectification—single-phase or polyphase—the amount
of AC voltage mixed with the rectifier’s DC output is called ripple
voltage. In most cases, since “pure” DC is the desired goal, ripple
voltage is undesirable. If the power levels are not too great, filtering
networks may be employed to reduce the amount of ripple in the
output voltage.

High-power rectifiers, such as those used in high-voltage direct

current power transmission, employ silicon semiconductor devices
of various types. These are thyristors or other controlled switching
solid-state switches, which effectively function as diodes to pass
current in only one direction.