Definition

Pile foundations are deep foundations. They are formed by long, slender, columnar
elements typically made from steel or reinforced concrete, or sometimes timber. A foundation is
described as 'piled' when its depth is more than three times its breadth.

The Pile foundation is the common type of deep foundations used to transmit structural
loads into the deeper layers of firm soil in such a way that the layers of soil or rock can sustain
the loads. When there is a layer of weak, soft or loose soil at the surface of the earth. Such soil is
incapable of upholding the weight of the structure. Hence the loads of the structure have to
bypass this layer and shift to the layer of stronger soil or rock which is below the weak layer.

The Pile foundations are capable of taking higher loads. The Pile foundation is one of the
oldest methods of providing a safe, sound and a dependable foundation. The pile foundation
ensures that the structure stands on the strong foundation and the pile is in the strongest part of
the soil or ground. The best example of pile foundation is ‘Ghat’ at Kashi – Varanasi raised on
the bank of Ganga.

When to Use Pile Foundation

Following are the situations when pile foundation is required:

 When the groundwater table is high.

 Heavy and un-uniform loads from superstructure are imposed.

 Other types of foundations are costlier or not feasible.

 When the soil at shallow depth is compressible.

 When there is the possibility of scouring, due to its location near the river bed or

seashore, etc.

 When there is a canal or deep drainage systems near the structure.

 When soil excavation is not possible up to the desired depth due to poor soil condition.
  When it becomes impossible to keep the foundation trenches dry by pumping or by any

other measure due to heavy inflow of seepage.

Types of Pile Foundation

Pile foundations can be classified based on function, materials and installation process,
etc. Followings are the types of pile foundation used in construction:

A. Based on Function or Use

1. Sheet Piles
2. Load Bearing Piles
3. End bearing Piles
4. Friction Piles
5. Soil Compactor Piles
B. Based on Materials and Construction Method
1. Timber Piles
2. Concrete Piles
3. Steel Piles
4. Composite Piles

Sheet Piles

This type of pile is mostly used to provide lateral support. Usually, they resist lateral
pressure from loose soil, the flow of water, etc. They are usually used for cofferdams, trench
sheeting, shore protection, etc. They are not used for providing vertical support to the structure.
They are usually used to serve the following purpose-

 Construction of retaining walls.

 Protection from river bank erosion.
 Retain the loose soil around foundation trenches.
 For isolation of foundation from adjacent soils.
 For confinement of soil and thus increase the bearing capacity of the soil.
Load Bearing Piles

This type of pile foundation is mainly used to transfer the vertical loads from the
structure to the soil. These foundations transmit loads through the soil with poor supporting
property onto a layer which is capable of bearing the load. Depending on the mechanism of load
transfer from pile to the soil, load-bearing piles can be further classified as flowed.

End Bearing Piles

In this type of pile, the loads pass through the lower tip of the pile. The bottom end of the
pile rests on a strong layer of soil or rock. Usually, the pile rests at a transition layer of a weak
and strong slayer. As a result, the pile acts as a column and safely transfers the load to the strong
layer.

The total capacity of end bearing pile can be calculated by multiplying the area of the tip
of the pile and the bearing capacity of at that particular depth of soil at which the pile rests.
Considering a reasonable factor of safety, the diameter of the pile is calculated.

Friction Pile

Friction pile transfers the load from the structure to the soil by the frictional force between the surface of
the pile and the soil surrounding the pile such as stiff clay, sandy soil, etc. Friction can be developed for
the entire length of the pile or a definite length of the pile, depending on the strata of the soil. In friction
pile, generally, the entire surface of the pile works to transfer the loads from the structure to the soil.

The surface area of the pile multiplied by the safe friction force developed per unit area determines the
capacity of the pile.

While designing skin friction pile, the skin friction to be developed at a pile surface should be sincerely
evaluated and a reasonable factor of safety should be considered. Besides this one can increase the pile
diameter, depth, number of piles and make pile surface rough to increase the capacity of friction pile.

Soil Compactor Piles

Sometimes piles are driven at placed closed intervals to increase the bearing capacity of soil by
compacting.

Classification of Piles Based on Materials and Construction Method

Primarily piles can be classified into two parts. Displacement piles and Non-displacement or Replacement
piles. Piles which causes the soil to be displaced vertically and radially as they are driven to the ground is
known as Displacement piles. In case of Replacement piles, the ground is bored and the soil is removed
and then the resulting hole is either filled with concrete or a pre-cast concrete pile is inserted. On the basis
of materials of pile construction and their installation process load-bearing piles can be classified as
follows:

Timber Piles

Untreated

Treated with Preservative

Concrete Piles

Pre-cast Piles

Cast-in-place Piles

Steel Piles

I-Section Piles

Hollow Piles

Composite Piles

Timber Piles

Timber piles are placed under the water level. They last for approximately about 30 years.
They can be rectangular or circular in shape. Their diameter or size can vary from 12 to 16
inches. The length of the pile is usually 20 times of the top width.

They are usually designed for 15 to 20 tons. Additional strength can be obtained by bolting
fish plates to the side of the piles.

Advantages of Timber Piles-

 Timber piles of regular size are available.

 Economical.
 Easy to install.
 Low possibility of damage.
 Timber piles can be cut off at any desired length after they are installed.
 If necessary, timber piles can be easily pulled out.
Disadvantages of Timber Piles-

 Piles of longer lengths are not always available.

 It is difficult to obtain straight piles if the length is short.
 It is difficult to drive the pile if the soil strata are very hard.
 Spicing of timber pile is difficult.
 Timber or wooden piles are not suitable to be used as end-bearing piles.
 For durability of timber piles, special measures have to be taken. For example- wooden
piles are often treated with preservative.

Concrete Piles

Pre-cast Concrete Pile

The precast pile is cast in pile bed in the horizontal form if they are rectangular in shape.
Usually, circular piles are cast in vertical forms. Precast piles are usually reinforced with steel to
prevent breakage during its mobilization from casting bed to the location of the foundation. After
the piles are cast, curing has to be performed as per specification. Generally curing period for
pre-cast piles is 21 to 28 days.

Advantages of Pre-cast Piles

 Provides high resistance to chemical and biological cracks.

 They are usually of high strength.
 To facilitate driving, a pipe may be installed along the center of the pile.
 If the piles are cast and ready to be driven before the installation phase is due, it can
increase the pace of work.
 The confinement of the reinforcement can be ensured.
 Quality of the pile can be controlled.
 f any fault is identified, it can be replaced before driving.
 Pre-cast piles can be driven under the water.
 The piles can be loaded immediately after it is driven up to the required length.
Disadvantages of Pre-cast Piles

 Once the length of the pile is decided, it is difficult to increase or decrease the length of
the pile afterward.
 They are difficult to mobilize.
 Needs heavy and expensive equipment to drive.
 As they are not available for readymade purchase, it can cause a delay in the project.
 There is a possibility of breakage or damage during handling and driving od piles.

Cast-in-Palace Concrete Piles

This type of pile is constructed by boring of soil up to the desired depth and then,
depositing freshly mixed concrete in that place and letting it cure there. This type of pile is
constructed either by driving a metallic shell to the ground and filling it with concrete and leave
the shell with the concrete or the shell is pulled out while concrete is poured.

Advantages of Cast-in-Place Concrete Piles

 The shells are light weighted, so they are easy to handle.

 Length of piles can be varied easily.
 The shells may be assembled at sight.
 No excess enforcement is required only to prevent damage from handling.
 No possibility of breaking during installation.
 Additional piles can be provided easily if required.

Disadvantages of Cast-in-Place Concrete Piles

 Installation requires careful supervision and quality control.

 Needs sufficient place on site for storage of the materials used for construction.
 It is difficult to construct cast in situ piles where the underground water flow is heavy.
 Bottom of the pile may not be symmetrical.
 If the pile is un-reinforced and uncased, the pile can fail in tension if there acts and
uplifting force
Steel Piles

Steel piles may be of I-section or hollow pipe. They are filled with concrete. The size may vary
from 10 inches to 24 inches in diameter and thickness is usually ¾ inches. Because of the small
sectional area, the piles are easy to drive. They are mostly used as end-bearing piles.

Advantages of Steel Piles

 They are easy to install.

 They can reach a greater depth comparing to any other type of pile.
 Can penetrate through the hard layer of soil due to the less cross-sectional area.
 It is easy to splice steel piles
 Can carry heavy loads.

Disadvantage of Steel Piles

 Prone to corrosion.
 Has a possibility of deviating while driving.
 Comparatively expensive.

Uses of Pile Foundation

There are different situations when a pile foundation is used. Followings are the main cases
where pile foundation use is desirable.

 If a high groundwater table exists beneath the structure.

 If the superstructure load is high and non-uniform.
 Pile foundation is economic than other proposed foundation types.
 If highly compressible soil is present at shallow depth.
 If the structure is located near the river bed or sea shore etc, pile foundation is suggested to secure
the structure form the possible scouring.
 If a canal or deep drainage systems pass near the structure, pile foundation is suggested.
 If soil condition is very poor and it is not possible to excavate the soil up to the desired depth.
 If it becomes impossible to keep the foundation trenches dry by any measure due to heavy inflow
of seepage.

Factors Affecting Selection of Pile Foundation Type

There are several types of pile foundation available to use for a particular project. Few factors
influence the selection of a particular type of pile foundation. These factors are noted below-

1. Type and loads from the superstructure.

2. Properties of soil.
3. The depth of the soil layer capable of supporting the piles.
4. Variations in length of pile required.
5. Availability of materials.
 6. Durability required.
7. Available equipment for pile driving.
8. Budget.
9. The depth of water level and intensity of underground water flow.
10. Types of surrounding structures.

11 Causes of Pile Foundation Failure

Pile foundation is one of the most popular choices for heavy loaded structures and in cases where
poor soil conditions are found at a shallow depth. But pile foundations may fail due to different
reasons. One must take proper precautions before designing pile foundations so that the
possibility of such failure reduces. Causes of failure of pile foundation are given below-

1. Load implied on the pile is greater than designed load.

2. Defecting workmanship.
3. Dislocation of reinforcement of pile.
4. End bearing pile resting on soft strata.
5. Faulty soil investigation.
6. Selecting the wrong type of pile.
7. Under-reinforcement of the pile.
8. A decay of piles. (like attack of insects, corrosion etc.)
9. Deformation of piles due to lateral loads.
10. Incorrect assessment of pile capacity.
11. Not considering lateral forces for designing of piles.

Pile Installation Methods

In pile foundations, Installation process and methods of installation are equally important as the
design process. During the design of piles, the installation method and equipment should be
carefully selected in order to avoid the damages to the pile.

Pile driving methods (displacement piles)

Dropping weight: A hammer with approximately the weight of the pile is raised to a suitable
height and is released to strike the pile head.

Vibration: The amplitude of vibration used here should be sufficient to break the skin friction
on sides of pile. This is bested suited for sandy or gravelly soils.

Jacking (only for micro piles): To install jacking piles, Hydraulic rams are used to push piles
into ground

Jetting: To aid the penetration of piles in to sand or sand gravel, water jetting can be employed.
Boring methods (non-displacement piles)

Continuous flight auger (CFA): If boring and pouring takes place simultaneously during pile
driving, then they are called CFA piles. Here the equipment comprises of a mobile base carrier
fitted with a hollow main flight auger which is rotated and driven into the ground to get the
required depth of piling. This method is especially effective on soft ground.

Continuous Flight Auger process

Underreaming: This is a special type of auger bored piles which is used to exploit the bearing
capacity of respective strata by providing an enlarged base. The soil should be capable of
standing open unsupported to employ this technique
Underrreaming tool open position

Negative skin friction

When a fill or load is placed on compressible soil deposit, consolidation takes place. When the
piles are driven through the soil deposit before consolidation is complete, the soil will move
downward relative to the pile. The downward movement of the soil develops skin friction
between the pile and the surrounding soil and it’s termed as negative skin friction. It can also be
developed from lowering the water level in compressible soils such as clay, mud and soft soil
and also due to increase in stress.
Negative skin friction

Suitability of Pile Foundation:

Pile foundations are used under the following conditions:

(i) When the soil near the ground surface or at a reasonable depth is too soft or loose.

(ii) When the loads are so high that there is not enough plan area to accommodate the size of
foundation required.

(iii) When large lateral loads act on the foundation.

(iv) Pile foundations are used when the structure is expected to carry large uplift loads in
transmission towers and underground structures below water table.

(v) Pile foundation is used when the foundation is subjected to inclined loads, eccentric loads and
moments.