Guide Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia

First published March 2008

CCAA T59

© Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia 2008

Except where the Copyright Act allows otherwise, no

part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system in any form or transmitted by any
means without prior permission in writing from
Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia.

The information provided in this publication is intended

for general guidance only and in no way replaces the
services of professional consultants on particular projects.
No liability can therefore be accepted by Cement
Concrete & Aggregates Australia for its use.

Design and layout Helen Rix Design

technical Illustration TechMedia Publishing Pty Ltd

ISBN 978-1-877023-24-8

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes i

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ii Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

Contents 4.11
4.12
Concrete
Colour control
67
69
4.13 Transporting 70
4.14 Placing 70
1 Introduction 2 4.14.1 General 70
4.14.2 Placing in hot and cold weather
2 Colouring
conditions 71
2.1 General 3
4.14.3 Cold joints 73
2.2 Concrete constituents 3
4.15 Compaction 74
2.2.1 Cements 3
4.16 Finishing 74
2.2.2 Aggregates 5
4.17 Curing 75
2.3 Pigments 5
4.18 Surface sealers 76
2.3.1 General 5
4.19 Joints 76
2.3.2 Integral colouring 8
4.19.1 Isolation joints 76
2.3.3 Dry-shake or 'dust-on' toppings 8
4.19.2 Expansion joints 77
2.4 Chemical stains 10
4.19.3 Control joints 77
2.5 Dyes and tints 12
4.19.4 Construction joints 80
2.6 Applied coatings 13
4.19.5 Joints near trees 80
3 surface finishes 4.19.6 Slab proportions 83
3.1 General 15 4.19.7 Joint spacing 83
3.2 Smooth finishes 15 4.19.8 Joint layout 83
3.2.1 General 15 4.19.9 Joint sealants 84
3.2.2 Trowelled 15 4.20 Toppings 84
3.2.3 Burnished 17 4.20.1 General 84
3.2.4 Honed (and polished) 18 4.20.2 Toppings placed during construction
3.3 Textured finishes 24 (monolithic toppings) 87
3.3.1 General 24 4.20.3 Toppings placed over existing
3.3.2 Floated 24 concrete slabs 87
3.3.3 Broomed 27 4.21 Drying of concrete slabs 88
3.3.4 Tined/grooved 27 4.22 Tolerances 88
3.3.5 Hessian drag 28 4.23 Skid and slip resistance 92
3.3.6 Textured rollers 28 4.23.1 General 92
3.3.7 Exposed aggregate 28 4.23.2 Skid resistance 92
3.3.8 Rock salt 40 4.23.3 Slip resistance 92
3.4 Patterned finishes 41 4.24 Curling 93
3.4.1 General 41 4.25 Protection of surfaces 93
3.4.2 Stencilled 41 4.25.1 General 93
3.4.3 Stamped 42 4.25.2 Weather conditions 95
3.4.4 Spray-on toppings 47 4.25.3 Construction activities 95
3.4.5 Sawcuts, inserts and joints 51 4.25.4 Early loading 95
3.5 Tooled finishes 51
5 Assessment of finishes 97
3.6 Sponge finishes 52
3.7 Combined finishes 52 6 Repairs 100
6.1 General 100
4 Construction
6.2 Physical defects 100
4.1 Requirements of state and
6.3 Other defects 101
local authorities 56
4.2 Codes and Standards 57 7 Maintenance 102
4.3 Test panels 59
4.4 Precast 59 8 Specification guidelines 106
4.5 Grades and levels 61
9 References 115
4.6 Subgrade preparation 61
4.7 Subbase 62 10 further information 117
4.8 Reducing friction under flatwork 62
Appendix A
4.9 Reinforcement and fixing 62
Physical defects and colour variations 118
4.10 Formwork 65

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 1

1 Introduction

Concrete flatwork (pavements and floors) has

become a key part of the built environment, providing
floor slabs and enhancing the appearance of the
streetscape or property by providing a range of
solutions involving a variety of colours, textures
and forms while adding to the value of adjoining
properties and buildings. The durability of concrete
flatwork provides a long service life with minimal
maintenance.
This guide covers various options for colouring
and finishing the concrete surface and related
construction issues. It collates information from
a range of other CCAA documents and various
research reports and publications relating to
concrete flatwork and the use of concrete materials
for these applications. The information is relevant
for suspended slabs as well as to those built on the
ground. It has been prepared to assist designers,
specifiers and contractors with the important aspects
of particular flatwork finishes and their detailing,
specification and construction to ensure that the
element provides a high level of performance and
serviceability during its design life.
The information provided in this guide does not cover
roads and streets (including intersection thresholds
and traffic control devices) required to carry heavy
vehicles on a daily basis. Pavements covered include
those for use by pedestrians and driveways for use
by vehicles up to 10 t gross mass and infrequent use
by heavier vehicles that do not exceed the statutory
limits for tyre, wheel and axle loads.

2 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

2 Colouring 2.2 Concrete Constituents
2.2.1 Cements
The colour of concrete is first of all influenced by
the colour of cement used in the mix: normal 'grey',
off-white or white.
The grey colour of cement is primarily due to its iron
content. By lowering the iron content, off-white and
white cements can be produced. Both 'grey' and
off-white cements are manufactured in Australia
to meet the requirements of AS 39721 for General
2.1 General purpose portland (Type GP), General purpose
The surface of concrete flatwork that is exposed blended (Type GB) or High early strength (Type HE)
to view is often coloured in conjunction either with cements.
basic finishing (eg trowelling, bullfloating) or with Grey cement is used for the majority of flatwork
any of the more elaborate patterning and texturing applications as colour control is seldom specified
techniques described in Section 3. Colour can be for external applications and general flooring
readily introduced to concrete in both the plastic and work. Off-white is, however, generally specified for
hardened state. architectural flatwork finishes as it tends to give a
In the plastic state, common methods include: more consistent colour when used alone Figure 2
and results in brighter colours when pigments are
> using different coloured cements in the concrete
incorporated.
mix;
> adding a mineral oxide pigment to the concrete
(for the slab itself or that for a topping);
> applying a dry-shake or 'dust-on' topping Toppings
(containing a pigment) to the surface;
Applying a topping (a thin layer of concrete on top
> adding a dye to the concrete mix;
of the main structural concrete slab or pavement)
> selecting special aggregates for exposed is one of the most common methods of providing a
aggregate finishes. decorative finish and/or colour to concrete flatwork.
Hardened concrete paving, both new and old, can be A damaged or worn concrete surface can also be
coloured by: revitalised by the application of a topping. Other
> chemically staining the surface; benefits of using toppings are that they:

> applying a dye, tint or other coating/sealer to the >> limit the amount of pigment required for integral
surface; colouring – particularly significant when using
expensive pigments (eg blue and green);
> exposing the aggregates within the concrete.
>> limit the amount of special aggregate required
Note that when applying any thin layer such as a
for exposed aggregate finishes;
tint, coating or sealer to the surface of the concrete,
reapplication may be needed to maintain its >> enable good colour consistency to be achieved
appearance over time. over a large area since it can be covered by a
single batch of concrete;
Which method is used depends on factors such
as the colour required and its consistency over the >> may provide a surface that will more readily
surface, the durability of the colour, whether patterns accept stains and dyes;
are required or whether the concrete surface is in >> are placed at the end of the project and
its plastic or hardened state. Two or more of these therefore reduce the risk of damage to the finish
methods may be combined to extend the colouring from construction activities;
options available.
>> allow special finishes to be achieved,
Coloured surfaces can assist with glare Figure 1, particularly those that require various materials
delineate specific features and areas, and to be embedded or set into the surface of the
complement other landscaping or streetscaping work. pavement;
>> can be used to correct surface levels in the
pavement.

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 3

Figure 1 Figure 2
Pigment used to reduce glare from concrete surface Colour consistency achieved
by use of off-white cement
(in concrete topping)

Figure 3
White quartz exposed aggregate paving using off-white cement and white titanium
oxide to brighten the finish and complement the colour of the concrete wall
National Emergency Services Memorial, Canberra

Figure 4 Figure 5
Coloured aggregates used to Part of the range of powdered
create patterns mineral oxide pigments

4 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

White cement is imported to Australia and this is > The colour of Type GB cements (eg slag and fly
reflected in the high cost. If a 'white' colour is required ash blends) will be different to Type GP cements.
for a particular architectural finish, an alternative is to Whatever the cement colour and type selected,
use off-white cement with a pigment (typically white all cement for a project should be from the same
titanium oxide). The pigment both brightens and gives source and of the same type if colour consistency
a more consistent colour to the finish. The availability is important.
of white cement, particularly if being considered
for premixed concrete, should be checked prior to 2.2.2 Aggregates
specifying its use. Once the aggregates within the concrete are
The following points should also be considered: exposed (by honing or by removing cement mortar
from the surface layer), they tend to provide the
> Off-white and white cements are not colour
dominant colour to the concrete surface. Similar
controlled (a common misconception). The colour
to pigments, most aggregates (both sand and
is more consistent simply due to the lower iron
stones) will not degrade or change colour over time
content which results in a lighter colour and hence
and, once exposed at the surface of the concrete,
less variation in the shade of colour between
provide a permanent colouring solution. The range
different batches of concrete.
of colours, however, will be limited by the available
> The actual cement colour within a generic aggregates Figure 4. Honed finishes are discussed
category may vary considerably depending on in Section 3.2.4 and exposed-aggregate finishes in
the source of raw materials and the manufacturing Section 3.3.7.
process. There are many different shades of grey,
off-white and white cement. If colour is critical
to the finish, then a sample panel should be 2.3 Pigments
constructed to ensure the colour is acceptable. 2.3.1 General
> Colour variations may also occur due to other The use of pigments is the most common method
materials within the mix, changes in materials over of provided a coloured finish to concrete flatwork.
time (particularly for larger projects), batching Pigments can be used to colour the entire volume
tolerances, water content and variations in placing, of concrete used for a slab or only that for a topping
compacting, finishing and curing procedures. If layer (integrally-coloured concrete). They may also be
colour and consistency of colour are important, broadcast onto the surface of pre-hardened concrete
the use of a pigment (see below) to mask possible as a dry-shake topping or applied to the hardened
colour variations is recommended. Refer also to surface in the form of a tint (see Section 2.6).
Section 4.12 Colour Control.
The most common pigments are mineral or inorganic
> To achieve more-vibrant colours from pigments, oxides. They are ultra-fine particles (a fraction of
off-white cement is usually required. Normal 'grey' the size of cement particles) which disperse as fine
cements tend to give the darker more earthy solids throughout the concrete matrix and become
colours when pigments are added. bound into the concrete in the same manner as the
> The availability of off-white cement should be other aggregates. Similar to exposed aggregate
checked with the concrete supplier prior to finishes where the predominant colour is that of the
specification as the majority of plants do not have aggregates, pigmented concrete takes on the colour
the capacity (additional silo) to stock off-white of these ultra-fine particles that are exposed at the
cement. Depending on the size of the project, the surface of the concrete and thus mask the colour of
option of stocking off-white cement in an existing the cement matrix.
silo within a concrete batching plant may be Pigments come in a wide range of colours Figure 5
available. and are available as either powders, granules or
> For finishes such as white quartz exposed aqueous slurries (liquids). Granular colour oxides may
aggregate where a 'white' surface is required, the be bound together with either an organic or inorganic
use of an off-white cement (and possibly white binder. The organic binder dissolves in the presence
pigment) to lighten the colour of the cement matrix of moisture during batching and disperses quickly,
will enhance the colour of the stones and hence whilst the inorganic binder relies on the shearing
the finish Figure 3. action of the aggregates to break down the granules.
Powders and granules are generally added into the
concrete truck in bags which dissolve during mixing.
Aqueous slurries are produced by mixing powdered

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 5

pigments in water with dispersants and stabilisers to range. Manufacturers can assist with determining
avoid settlement of the pigment particles. These are the correct pigment concentration for the proposed
often used at major batching plants as they avoid concrete mix, specification requirements and
dust and can be connected to automated batching method of dispersion through the concrete mix.
equipment for accurate measurement of quantities. For exposed aggregate finishes, because the
The majority of colours (reds, yellows, browns dominant colour is that of the aggregates, if the
and blacks) are oxides of iron. Most are now mortar between the stones is to be coloured,
manufactured, hence the name synthetic iron oxides. typically only 1 to 2% pigment is added so
The extensive colour range is made possible by also that the mortar complements the colour of the
using white titanium oxides plus green chrome and aggregates without dominating the finish.
blue cobalt oxides. > Cement colour. Grey cement will always take
Mineral or inorganic oxides are permanent and not the brilliance out of any colour, which is why the
affected by the sun’s ultraviolet (UV) rays. This is colour of concrete made with off-white and white
because oxides are materials in their most basic form cements will be brighter. However, much depends
and hence there is no mechanism for them to further on the desired effect and pigment colour. A
degrade or change. They are insoluble (prevents range of pleasing colours can be obtained using
leaching out), chemically inert (do not interfere with grey cement; there will be no difference with
the cement reaction), alkali resistant (suitable for black pigments, little difference with dark reds
concrete which has high alkalinity), harmless to the and browns, but a significant difference with the
environment, and once bound into the cement matrix lighter yellows and blues. With the lighter coloured
they provide a permanent colouring solution. pigments the use of off-white cement should be
Note that some colours such as blues and greens considered in preference to the more expensive
are considerably more expensive than the natural/ imported white cements. Note that variations in the
synthetic yellows, browns and blacks due to the colour of each type of cement can also influence
manufacturing process to produce these special the final colour of the pigmented concrete. The
metal-oxides. The use of off-white or white cement addition of supplementary cementitious materials
and light coloured aggregates enhances the may also impact on the colour.
brightness of former colours. > Concrete strength. Pigments added at the typical
The following should be considered when using concentration of 5% will not affect the strength
pigments: of the concrete. However, the introduction of
excessive amounts of fine material (pigment)
> Pigment concentration. The amount of pigment beyond the saturation concentration will increase
required is normally specified as a percentage of the water demand and hence water-cement ratio
the mass of cement within the concrete mix eg 5% and may affect the strength.
of the weight of cement. The percentage required
to produce different colours may vary depending Increasing the concrete strength usually means
on the pigment and its tinting ability, but generally increasing the cementitious content which in turn
lies in the range of 3 to 8%. increases the amount of pigment needed, possibly
causing colour variations. For projects requiring
Figure 6 gives the saturation points for various consistent colour and incorporating different
colours, beyond which no increase in the colour concrete strengths, test panels should be used to
intensity will occur. It also shows how various assess colours.
pigment concentrations affect the colour intensity.
A pigment concentration (or loading) of 5% > Weathering of pigments. Mineral oxide pigments
typically provides good colour intensity; lower do not change colour over time. However, there
concentrations may not give the colour intended; is a change in the base concrete colour which
while adding more than the saturation point is an may give the perception that they do. This can be
expensive way of simply adding more fine material seen in the concrete having no pigment loading
into the mix. With adequate pigment concentration, in Figure 7. With increasing pigment loading,
weathering will generally have little effect on the the change becomes masked. Little difference
colour Figure 7. is apparent at 5% pigment loading and beyond
the saturation point, no change is evident. The
Because the colour is affected by the pigment change in colour is less perceptible with dark
concentration and tinting strength of the pigment, pigments than it is with lighter ones.
it is generally preferable to specify colour by
selecting a particular colour from a manufacturer’s

6 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

 Line of saturation Black
Brown
Red
Yellow
Blue Black
Green
Brown

Red
COLOUR INTENSITY

Yellow

Blue
Green
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1% 3% 5% 7% 9%
PIGMENT LOADING (%)

Figure 6
Saturation points for various pigment colours [above left] and colour intensity and pigment loading [above right]

Figure 7 Figure 8
Effect of pigment concentration on weathering Efflorescence may give the
> top row unweathered appearance of fading/lightening
> bottom row weathered for 4 years of the colour
Reproduced with the permission of Betonwerk + Fertgeil-Technik

Figure 9
Effect of aggregate exposure – different types and percentages
Reproduced with the permission of Betonwerk + Fertgeil-Technik

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 7

> Efflorescence. The formation of efflorescence Figure 10. Also, separating areas from different
(a white coating on the surface) can appear to batches helps to mask any minor colour variations by
lighten the colour and give the impression that preventing direct comparison of colours (side by side)
the pigment has faded Figure 8. It will have less and gives the opportunity to form patterns Figure 11.
impact on light colours. Thinner toppings are often used to allow placement of
> Aggregate colour. Aggregates are usually covered larger areas from the same batch of concrete.
by a thin layer of coloured cement mortar (cement, If unacceptable differences in colour occur, correction
sand and pigment). However, if the aggregates with dyes may be possible. Mild-acid washes should
are not completely covered or become exposed be a last-resort method of trying to moderate the
through abrasion of the surface (wearing), colour intensity or colour variations and should be
weathering or even subsequent tooling of the attempted only by contractors experienced with the
surface, then the final colour will be affected by technique. Note that when using such chemicals,
the colour of the aggregates; the sand initially all mandatory safety and environmental protection
and then the coarser aggregates. Figure 9 shows measures should be strictly observed.
the change in colour once the aggregates are Minimising shrinkage cracking and maximising
exposed. The lighter the colour, the more influence surface strength are particularly important for
the aggregate colour will have. Thus the selection coloured surfaces. Cracks can affect the appearance
of appropriate aggregates and aggregate colours and a weak surface will be prone to dusting, abrasion
may be an important consideration. and chipping. Basic quality issues relating to the
For surfaces with subsequent treatments that compaction and curing of the concrete are often
highlight the aggregate colours, the pigment the simplest measures available to reduce the risk
concentration can be as low as 0.5 to 1.0% by of cracking. Note that inadequate compaction and
mass of cement, to complement the aggregate curing could result in the concrete at the surface
colour rather than as a source of colour. achieving only half its design strength.

2.3.2 Integral colouring 2.3.3 Dry-shake or 'dust-on' toppings

Integrally-coloured or colour-through concrete Dry-shake or 'dust-on' toppings are commercially
refers to the addition of pigments to the concrete available products containing cement, sand, and
or topping mix in order to colour the entire volume pigments, and (in some cases) special hardeners to
of concrete, therefore providing a coloured increase the strength of the finished surface; they are
surface on the top and sides of a concrete therefore sometimes referred to as 'coloured surface
element. Pigments are added at the batching hardeners'. They come as ready-to-use premixed
stage or to a concrete transit mixer on site, and products, are available in a wide range of colours
thoroughly dispersed through the concrete mix. and while often used in conjunction with stencilled
After placing, the concrete surface is screeded, and stamped pattern finishes, can be used to simply
floated and finished in the same way as ordinary provide colour to the surface of concrete paving
concrete. Particular care should be taken with curing Figure 12.
to produce the best finish (see Section 4.17). Dry-shake toppings can also be made on site from
For uniform colour, a consistent mixing procedure is similar materials. The usual blend is 1 part cement
crucial (whether it is done at the batching plant or in to 2 parts clean sand (by volume); plus pigment
the barrel of a premixed concrete truck) and every measured by weight in the ratio of 1 part pigment to
aspect of the concrete and its method of placement, 10 parts cement (ie 10% of the weight of cement in
finishing and curing should be consistent. Note the mix). The powdered pigment is first blended with
that variations in the curing procedure or use of an dry cement before combining with the sand.
inappropriate curing method may result in significant The manufacturers of coloured surface hardeners
colour variations (see Section 4.12). Test panels are claim that correct use of the products produces
useful to find the right mix and colour, confirm that 40- to 60-MPa surface strengths; considerably
construction methods will deliver the desired outcome increasing the abrasion resistance of the typical
and provide the basis for quality control. 20-MPa concrete specified for most flatwork
Because minor colour variations from batch to batch applications, including stencilled and stamped
are inevitable, borders of different colours or materials concrete finishes. Note that being cement-based
(eg pavers, tiles, timber) can be used to divide products, they must be finished and cured in the
large areas into smaller more manageable sections same way as concrete to achieve optimum strengths.
which can be placed from a single batch of concrete

8 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

 Figure 10 Figure 11
Panels of coloured concrete Floor placed in chequerboard pattern to conceal colour
divided by borders of dark brown variations between concrete batches (unbonded integrally
coloured concrete coloured topping over existing timber floor)

Figure 12 Figure 13 Figure 14

Dry-shake toppings used to Dry-shake topping being applied Adjacent surfaces (slabs and
create surface colour walls) should be protected

Figure 15 Figure 16
Dark colours may require three applications of colour hardener Sealing the surface to prevent
to ensure uniform colour staining and to highlight the
colour

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 9

The addition of straight pigment to the surface is not second, which should be applied in a direction
recommended as either a weak, powdery surface or perpendicular to the first. For dark colours such
one that may 'flake' off can result. Also, it is difficult to as charcoal (black), it may be advisable to apply
obtain an even colour due to the difficulty of uniformly a third 'coat' to ensure a uniform colour Figure 15.
spreading such a fine powder by hand. Each 'coat' is thoroughly worked into the surface
Dry-shake toppings are cast by hand over the by trowelling and all edges and joints should be
surface (hence the term 'dry-shake') of the fresh tooled before and after each application.
concrete Figure 13 and worked into the surface A second colour (and third) can be added while
by trowelling to produce a coloured thin monolithic the surface is still plastic, to produce colour flecks
topping. All traces of bleedwater must be allowed or mottling.
to evaporate before applying the powder. Using the 4 Finish the surface. Common techniques can
powder to soak up bleedwater is bad practice, and be used to finish the surface including brooming,
invariably results in a much weaker surface, which steel trowelling, sponging, woodfloating, or
will wear quickly and may dust, delaminate or chip. dragging with hessian. Stencilled and stamped
A concrete mix with just enough water to make it patterns may also be used (see Section 3).
workable reduces the amount of bleedwater, allowing
earlier application of the dry-shake topping. Adding If a smooth finish is required, additional steel
polypropylene fibres also helps bind the mix and trowelling of the surface will increase the
reduce bleeding. hardness (advisable in commercial or industrial
applications).
Because the bleedwater must evaporate first,
dry-shake toppings are normally applied towards the 5 Cure the surface. Take particular care with
end of the concrete setting process and there may be curing to ensure strength and colour consistency.
insufficient time to provide the required steel trowel Coloured surface hardeners will not produce
finish over large areas, limiting the area that can high surface strengths unless the concrete is
be finished. Also, the steel trowel finish is normally cured adequately. Plastic sheeting and curing
done by hand to avoid the risk of the heavier power compounds provide the most practical methods
trowelling machines mixing the topping with too much but for some special finishes the use of same-day
of the base concrete, resulting in the possible loss of sealers may provide adequate curing. Methods
the majority of the colour. Note that some trowelling such as hessian coverings, damp sand and
marks should be expected from hand finishing. ponding are generally not recommended for
decorative concrete finishes. The method of
The rate of application of a dry-shake topping for curing may also result in colour variations (see
flatwork will typically be a minimum of 2 kg/m2. Section 4.17).
The procedure for using dry-shake toppings is as 6 Seal the surface. The main reason for sealing the
follows: surface is to minimise surface staining Figure 16.
1 Protect adjoining surfaces. Before placing Cleaning stains from an unsealed surface, with
concrete, use plastic sheeting to protect adjoining cleaning compounds or solvents, may affect the
surfaces from splashes of concrete and colour colour. Sealing may also be used to highlight the
Figure 14. Pigments and cements are fine colours by imparting a 'wet' appearance to the
powders that can be easily carried by breezes concrete surface.
and may be difficult to remove from adjacent To assist curing an initial same-day sealer is often
finishes applied to coloured concrete surfaces immediately
2 Place the concrete slab. Place, screed and after finishing of the surface. This is followed by
float the concrete to its finished level. During the application of the final sealer coat(s) following
hot weather, the use of an evaporative retardant curing (see Section 4.18).
or surface set retarder prolongs the plastic
(workable) state of the surface, which may
2.4 Chemical Stains
otherwise harden prematurely and reduce the time
available to finish the work. Chemical stains react with the excess calcium in
the concrete to produce products that permanently
3 Apply dry-shake topping. Evenly broadcast the
colour the concrete. As the reactions between the
dry-shake topping (coloured surface hardener)
stain and concrete constituents (which create the
over the surface in two stages to ensure uniform
colour) depend on the stain penetrating into the
colour and thickness. Usually two thirds is
concrete surface, a mottled finish rather than a
applied in the first 'coat', and one third in the
uniform coloured surface is produced due to the

10 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

 Figure 17 Figure 18 Figure 19
Mottled finish from chemical Stain penetration into the base Mottled finish typical of chemically
staining with dark lines resulting slab can be variable depending stained concrete (pattern has
from application method on concrete consistency been stamped into surface)

a b

Figure 20 Figure 21
Surface coloured by chemical Examples of chemical stains applied to thin specialist toppings
staining of thin topping layer
used to provide more consistent
colours over large areas

Figure 22 Figure 23
Chemical staining by brush Chemical stains can be ponded
should be limited to small or on flat surfaces to allow good
other areas where brush marks penetration
are acceptable

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 11

variable penetration (particularly when used on an > Surfaces should be free of contamination. Release
existing slab that has been in service for some time) agents and debonding compounds used when
Figures 17 and 18. Two or more colours are often casting tilt-up concrete panels on floor slabs (to
used to produce mottled finishes resembling stone, prevent them adhering to the floor slab) will affect
create patterns or provide an antique appearance to the penetration of the stain into the concrete
the concrete Figure 19. surface, and should not be used if the concrete
Various colours are available and suppliers’ samples is to be chemically stained. Curing compounds
should be inspected when selecting colours. For which are intended to form a film on the surface of
large areas, test panels should also be made to the concrete may also affect the rate at which the
ensure the final appearance is acceptable. Often a stain will penetrate into the concrete surface and
non-critical area of the actual floor can be used and thus the end result.
may provide a more representative sample of the > Chemical stains are mildly acidic to assist with
work to be coloured. penetration of the stain into the surface. Once
Colouring concrete by the use of chemical stains may stained, the pH of the surface must be neutralised.
appear simple, but in fact requires careful planning > A sealer is usually applied to protect the finish and
and a level of experience and skill in its application enhance the colour.
to achieve a good result. Often it may be better to
place a thin bonded topping (see Section 4.20) over
2.5 Dyes and Tints
the existing slab and apply the stain to this as the
topping and hence coloured finish from the stain will Dyes and tints are often grouped together by the
be more consistent Figure 20. Specialist toppings decorative concrete industry and sometimes even
generally accept stains well and therefore produce confused with stains. However, dyes and tints differ
more intense colours Figure 21. The use of a topping from stains both in makeup and how they colour the
also avoids having to protect the surface/finish during concrete surface.
the course of normal construction activities. Dyes and tints both contain coloured particles in
Staining of small areas, particularly those containing either a water or solvent solution and can produce
patterns can be achieved by hand, using brushes colours that are not available with chemical stains,
or rollers Figure 22. Stains can be applied quickly eg the red in Figure 24.
enough to allow consistency over small areas without Dyes (or dye stuffs as they are often referred to) are
leaving brush or roller marks. Larger areas and extremely fine coloured particles in a powder form.
those with flat or smooth finishes are best carried out While normally used to colour fibres such as hair and
using spray equipment to avoid brush or roller marks fabrics they can also be used to colour concrete. The
Figure 17. Note that coarser textured finishes such variety of vivid colours possible extend the colour
as stamped surfaces Figure 21b will tend to conceal palette available for colouring concrete, providing a
brush and roller marks. vast range of colouring solutions for both large and
The use of chemical stains suits flatwork construction small projects. Note that unlike stains, dyes can be
as the product can be ponded on the surface to allow mixed to produce specific colours.
good penetration into the concrete Figure 23. For most applications, dyes are made into liquids
Some further items to consider include: using either a water or solvent base. The water or
solvent base transports the dye into the concrete by
> As chemical stains react with the concrete
absorption, producing a translucent finish. Similar
constituents, they should not be applied until the
to chemical stains, they are dependent upon the
concrete has achieved its design strength.
material penetrating the concrete surface and
> Concretes incorporating blended cements therefore may produce a mottled finish. However,
or with a low cement content (low-strength colours tend to be more consistent than those
concretes) have lower calcium levels, produced by chemical stains as the colour is not
resulting in less intense colours. dependent on a chemical reaction and the extreme
> Concrete strengths in excess of 32 MPa may fineness of the dye stuff means that the water or
prevent adequate penetration of the stains due to solvent can transport the coloured particles more
their lower permeability. readily into the concrete surface. For this reason they
> Stains can be acrylic or solvent based. Solvent- are often used in conjunction with stains to correct
based stains will dry faster, allowing a number of areas where the colour from the stain is 'patchy'
applications in a single day and earlier finishing of (darker or lighter) or the colour not as intense as
the surface. expected.

12 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

 a b c

Figure 24
Dyes and tints produce strong vibrant colours not possible with stains – red, yellow and orange
[a] Chemical stain used for mottled green background and patterned border
[b] Original artwork by Christy Shaffer (courtesy of Dover Publications) and dyed image on floor by Gerald Taylor
(www.imagesinconcrete.com)
[c] Artist: Dana Boyer of ConcretiZen

To ensure that the concrete surface is porous enough concrete and form opaque rather than translucent
to allow penetration of the dye, the concrete strength colours; the flowers in Figure 24 are an example of
should generally be no more than 32 MPa. Dyes the opaque finish achieved. Also, because mineral
generally do not work if the concrete strength is oxide type pigments are UV resistant, tints can be
greater than 50 MPa. An alternative may be to add used externally.
the dye to the plastic concrete prior to placement, Tints do not react with the concrete, and because
ensuring that it is thoroughly dispersed through the they do not rely on penetrating the concrete surface,
concrete. the colours and results are more predictable and
Solvent-based dyes have the advantage of spraying less dependent on the consistency of the concrete
well, allowing better control of the work to be or the weather conditions. They must be protected
achieved. They are fast drying, allowing multiple by a surface sealer to prevent removal by wear or
coats to be applied and the floor to be coloured and abrasion.
sealed the same day. Water-based dyes take longer If products are referred to by a combination of terms
to dry and generally can not be recoated or sealed such as 'dye stains' the supplier should be contacted
on the same day. With solvent- or water-based dyes, to determine the exact nature of the product and
unlike chemical stains, no neutralisation of the pH is hence properties such as UV resistance and
required, further reducing the time and labour costs. requirements for sealers.
Dyes are organic materials and as such typically
have low UV resistance and hence tend to fade over
2.6 Applied Coatings
time. For external applications, and even internal
applications near window/door openings that allow Coatings range from various paint systems and
sunlight on the floor, the dyed surface could be concrete 'sealers' to formulated coloured cementitious
coated with a UV resistant sealer. The UV resistance, materials that provide similar results to integrally
ability to use the product externally and precautions coloured concrete but with improved colour uniformity.
that need to be taken should be established with the Cementitious coatings which are usually applied
supplier of the dye beforehand. thicker than normal paving paints are often referred
to as micro-screeds/toppings and may be applied
Tints are totally different products to dyes but
by brush, roller or trowel depending on the thickness
because dyes and tints are often used together,
required Figure 25.
they tend to be treated as similar products. Tints
are pigmented coatings generally in a water base. Compared with the variable colour inherent with the
The pigments used in tints are mineral oxides (see use of 'dry-shake' toppings or the use of stains and
Section 2.3) rather than dye stuffs. Tints are applied dyes, coatings provide a uniform colour over the
to the surface rather than mixed into the concrete. entire surface. However, as with any product applied
As the pigment particles are much larger than dye to a trafficked surface, they are subject to wear and
particles, they tend to remain on the surface of the will therefore need to be re-applied from time to time.

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 13

 a b

Figure 25
[a] Dark blue areas are a coloured cement-based micro-topping approximately 1 mm thick trowelled onto the surface
(light blue colour is from dye washed over surface)
[b] Coloured cementitious paint coating used to create designs Photo courtesy of Ability Building Chemicals

Figure 26 Figure 27
Coatings can serve multiple Worn areas apparent on surface
functions – provide uniform colour, coating
delineate areas, protect surface and
facilitate cleaning

Reasons for their use may include colour variations Applied to the surface of a concrete pavement any
being unacceptable, to simplify the creation of coating/paint product will be subject to UV radiation,
patterns, provide duo or multi-coloured effects weathering and abrasive wear. Some coatings,
Figure 25b, achieve particular colours, protect the especially those bound with the organic resins
surface from abrasion and/or staining and assist with derived from crude oil, will need to be re-applied at
cleaning Figure 26. With adequate thickness they regular intervals to reinstate their original appearance
will conceal the substrate and, depending on the Figure 27.
type of product used, may provide a moisture and/or
degrading chemical-solution barrier to the concrete.
According to their properties and the number of coats
or layers applied, this may extend the design life of
the concrete element.
If a combination of coats of different paints/coatings
and/or sealer are required, manufacturers should
be consulted to ensure that a compatible paint or
coating/sealer system is specified.

14 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

3 Surface finishes resistance properties. The skid resistance of
'smooth' finishes may improve with trafficking
due to wearing of the surface causing increased
roughness. (See Section 4.23).
> Environmental factors. The procedure for
achieving some finishes may impact on the
surrounding environment, eg water-washed
finishes may require silt traps to filter runoff prior
to entering the stormwater system.
> Cleaning. For pavements subject to spills
3.1 General (eg barbeque, outdoor kitchen and eating areas),
the ability to adequately clean the surface may be
After the concrete has been placed and compacted
a factor. Smooth finishes are the most appropriate
(see Section 4), finishing of the surface is undertaken.
since they are easy to clean and maintain. Use
The initial stage in achieving any finish is to screed
of a surface sealer can prevent staining of the
the surface to the required level/profile and flatness
concrete and facilitate cleaning.
Figure 28. A bullfloat Figure 29 is then typically
used to close and fill any holes in the surface and > Glare. Adding a pigment to the concrete to darken
eliminate lines from the screeding operation, leaving the colour will reduce the amount of glare and
the surface relatively smooth. Also, hand floating improve the appearance Figure 1.
the edges, corners and around penetrations may Surfaces finishes for concrete flatwork can be divided
be carried out to level off screed marks and to into two general categories: smooth and textured
consolidate loose material Figure 30. The concrete is finishes.
then left until all the bleedwater has evaporated. The
final stage of finishing generally involves trowelling the
3.2 Smooth Finishes
surface Figure 31 and, if required, applying one of a
large variety of treatments to create different textures 3.2.1 General
and patterns, and maybe colouring. Smooth concrete finishes are often referred to as
Factors to be considered when selecting and polished concrete finishes. Polished concrete is
specifying a surface finish include: a generic term covering a range of options which
leave the concrete surface exposed as the final floor
> Grade of pavement. Steep pavements generally
finish. Often, some form of surface sealer or coating
require a coarse surface texture to provide skid
is applied which may impart a gloss appearance
and slip resistance, especially if a surface sealer is
to the surface. There are three basic methods of
applied. Depending on the grade, steel trowelled,
producing smooth finishes on either a concrete floor
polished, stamped and smooth aggregate type
or on a topping over an existing concrete floor: steel
finishes may be unsuitable. Coarse broomed,
trowelling, burnishing and honing.
tined, dragged and stencilled finishes would be
more suitable. Also, exposed aggregate finishes 3.2.2 Trowelled
may require an angular (crushed) stone rather
This is the most basic flat, smooth finish possible
than a smooth rounded stone.
and achieved by simply steel trowelling the concrete
> Slip resistance. Some surface texture is generally surface either by hand or with a power trowelling
required to provide slip resistance, particularly machine Figure 32.
in wet conditions and for steep grades. Note
Hand trowelling might be considered for confined
that if the pavement is subject to barefoot traffic
or small areas or where adjacent finishes must be
(ie around a pool) the texture should not be too
protected from possible damage caused by the use
coarse. Suitable finishes for these applications
of trowelling machines. Pointed trowels Figure 33a
include honed, wood float, light broom and
with a flat, broad steel blade are generally used for
pebblecrete (see Section 4.23).
slabs as the curve of the blade end reduces trowel
> Skid resistance. Where pavements are to be used marks. Square edged trowels Figure 33b are used for
by vehicular traffic, adequate skid resistance must smaller areas such as stairs and kerb-and-gutter work
also be provided. Caution should be exercised for which pointed trowels are not suitable. Special
in using generic products such as stamped and tools for forming grooves in steps and ramps are also
stencilled finishes since their heterogeneous available to improve slip resistance Figure 34 or allow
nature could lead to wide variations in skid insertion of slip-resistant materials.

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 15

 Figure 28 Figure 29
Screeding concrete surface to Bullfloating concrete surface
level/profile

Figure 30 Figure 31
Hand floating edges to match levels, fill hollows, compact Power trowelling concrete surface
concrete and round edges to reduce spalling

a b

Figure 32 Figure 33
Power trowelling used for large Common steel trowels
areas and hand trowelling for [a] Pointed steel trowel
corners and edges [b] Square steel trowel

16 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

 a b

Figure 34 Figure 35
Special steel trowels Hand steel trowelled floor free of
[a] Non-slip, groove-forming tool trowelling marks
[b] Grooves trowelled into stair tread

While hand trowelling can produce finishes free of abrasion resistance of the surface can be affected
trowel marks Figure 35, it is easier to achieve such a and dusting problems result. The preferred solution is
finish by using a power trowelling machine due to the to ensure that the concrete and finishing conditions
ease with which additional trowelling can be provided, (sun/shade, doors allowing draft/winds over certain
especially for larger areas. areas, etc) are as consistent as possible.
Machine trowelling (power trowel or 'helicopter') is
3.2.3 Burnished
a common method for all applications. The machine
generally consists of four steel blades rotated by a Burnishing is the term applied to the finishing of
motor and guided by a handle Figures 31 and 32. concrete surfaces to provide a smooth, hard-wearing,
Double- and triple-head ride-on trowelling machines durable finish having a surface lustre. It is usually
Figure 36 are also available to enable larger areas produced by steel trowelling the surface until the
such as factory floors to be trowelled. concrete surface takes on a polished or glossy
appearance of its own Figure 41. Alternatively,
Some minor trowel marks may still be present after
products such as floor waxes, liquid polishes and
machine trowelling depending on the duration of
resin-based coatings can be applied to the surface
trowelling or finish required Figure 37. The extra work
and burnished using polishing equipment Figures 38
required to ensure no trowelling marks remain will
and 42. In this case, a minimum steel trowelled finish
necessitate a near burnished finish Figure 38. Late
free of trowelling marks should be specified to ensure
and repeated steel trowelling of the surface with a
a good appearance.
trowelling machine can produce a burnished finish
Figure 39 (see Section 3.2.3). A burnished concrete finish achieved by trowelling
is often specified where a surface free of trowelling
The reflective nature of steel trowelled surfaces tends
marks is required. However, the additional time and
to highlight any undulations in the surface Figures 38
expense involved in achieving such a high level
and 40. As the flatness of the surface may be critical
of surface finish may not be necessary if all that is
to the overall appearance of these types of finishes,
required is the absence of trowelling marks. The
an appropriate tolerance for the surface should be
specification should state what surface appearance is
specified (see Section 4.22).
required.
Some sections of the floor may dry more rapidly than
Steel trowel burnishing can be achieved by either
others resulting in the trowel having to be passed
hand or machine trowelling. The additional trowelling
over previously completed areas in order to reach
for large areas is best achieved with a team of
those that still need to be finished. This can affect
power trowelling machines which may be single-,
surface tolerances as 'wet' material can be trowelled
dual- or triple-head devices Figure 36 and 41. Hand
over previously-completed work. Also, to assist with
burnished floors on the other hand (depending on
moving the trowel over completed areas, water is
the area) may require either an increased number
sometimes sprinkled over the surface (known as
of workers, or the floor being divided into sections
'wet wiping'). This practice should be avoided as the

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 17

of a manageable area. Note the difference in gloss 3.2.4 Honed (and polished)
levels between the hand-burnished floor in Figure 35 Honed finishes are achieved by grinding the concrete
and the machine-burnished floor in Figure 41. This surface using abrasive grit heads/pads to produce
is mainly due to the ease with which additional a smooth surface that may vary from a matt finish
trowelling can be provided by machine. For toppings Figure 43a to a highly polished finish where the
placed after the walls are built, the inability to surface takes on a glossiness/lustre of its own
machine finish up against walls may mean that a Figure 43b. Honed finishes are generally used to
uniform finish is not possible over the entire floor area. expose the aggregates within the concrete Figure 44,
Trowelling is best carried out prior to the walls being but may also be used to expose decorative inserts
constructed as the entire floor area is accessible within the concrete Figures 45 and 46 or improve
for power trowelling. Note that this will necessitate the surface of existing slabs by removing high spots,
the protection of the finish during subsequent slight surface imperfections and marks, plus traces of
construction (see Section 4.25.3). adhesives from previous floor coverings Figure 47.
Extended machine trowelling of the surface may Depending on the reason for grinding, the depth
cause some 'burning' or darkening of the surface as of grinding should be specified; commonly by the
the trowel must be passed over the surface while the outcome required, eg to remove the top third (or other
concrete is quite 'dry'. The resulting friction generates depth) of the coarse aggregate particles and achieve
heat which in turn can affect the colour by causing a uniform exposure of the aggregates
dark areas or 'burn' marks. The concrete strength
would typically be at least 32 MPa for burnished Removing the surface layer of concrete by grinding
finishes and stringent control of slump, compaction, to expose the aggregates produces one of the most
finishing techniques and curing are needed. durable, low-maintenance finishes available. The hard
aggregates normally used in concrete mixes provide
A similar burnished finish may also be achieved a surface finish with excellent abrasion resistance.
by applying products such as floor waxes, liquid
polishes or resin-based coatings to the concrete The initial grinding is carried out with coarse abrasives
surface and burnishing with polishing equipment. The typically in the range of 60 to 100 grit. Some marks or
degree of lustre achieved is dependent on the quality scratches from these coarse abrasives will generally
of the concrete finish, product used and burnishing be visible on the surface, particularly on the cut face
technique. of aggregates. If glass aggregates are incorporated
to provide a surface feature, finer abrasives
Products can vary from those that penetrate into the (eg 200 grit) should be used for the initial grinding as
concrete surface and result in a matt appearance, the glass is more brittle than other aggregates.
to those that form a film on the surface and provide
higher gloss levels. With some products all that may 'Polished' finishes are achieved by grinding with
be required to achieve a gloss finish is the correct progressively finer abrasives until the surface takes
method of application to ensure a finish free of brush/ on a lustre of its own. Abrasives as fine as 1600 grit
roller marks. With polishes and waxes, buffing after are required to produce the type of finish shown in
application will be required to produce a gloss finish, Figure 43b.
with perhaps a number of coats needed to fill any fine For most flatwork applications, to reduce the cost of
surface texture and give a consistent finish over the grinding and because sealers are generally applied
entire floor. to minimise staining, polished appearances are
If a good gloss appearance is required using achieved by a combination of honing to about a
coatings, the concrete surface should be specified as 300 grit and applying a surface sealer to provide the
being free of trowelling marks as thin surface coatings lustre or required gloss level.
are generally incapable of concealing them. The equipment used for grinding and polishing
Because burnished finishes are highly reflective and the surface is essentially the same as that used
will therefore highlight any undulations in the surface, for terrazzo (the name traditionally used for honed
stringent control of tolerances will be required. concrete incorporating marble aggregate but now
often used to cover that containing other aggregates).
Utilised primarily in industrial buildings, carparks Both wet and dry grinding processes are available
and warehouses, burnished finishes are increasingly with typical equipment shown in Figures 48 and 49.
being used in residential and commercial buildings The wet process uses water to control the dust
Figures 37 to 42. Further information can be found in while dry processes typically have vacuum systems
The Specification of Burnished Concrete Finish 2. connected to extract the dust produced. If there is
a risk that existing finishes could be damaged by

18 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

 Figure 36 Figure 37 Figure 38
Double head ride-on trowelling Power trowelled floor finish with Steel trowelled finish free of
machine some trowelling marks (surface trowelling marks
sealer applied)

Figure 39 Figure 40 Figure 41

Burnished finish with no Undulations in steel trowelled Burnishing the concrete by
trowelling marks surface extended trowelling (areas with
gloss appearance completed)

a b

Figure 42 Figure 43
Burnished finish achieved Comparison of matt and gloss finishes
through application of bees wax [a] Typical matt finish from honing at 80 to 100 grit
to the surface of the slab [b] Highly polished finish with surface lustre (300+ grit)

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 19

 a b

Figure 44 Figure 45
Honed finish exposing white quartz aggregate (concrete coloured with 'cherry Stainless steel inserts exposed by
red' pigment which dominates colour as more matrix than stone exposed) grinding the concrete surface
[a] Honed finish
[b] More cement matrix than aggregate exposed

a b c

Figure 46
Various finishes in Bourke Street Mall, Melbourne (Artist: David Humphries)
[a] Coloured aggregates seeded onto surface
[b] Honed finish
[c] Sea shell inserts

a b

Figure 47 Figure 48
Surface lightly honed to improve Wet process grinding machines
finish (aggregates in some areas [a] Typically used for terrazzo work
exposed – high spots) [b] Honing small areas/correcting tolerances

20 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

 a b

Figure 49 Figure 50
Dry process grinding machines/tools Honed stair risers to match
[a] Grinding large areas floor finish
[b] Hand tools for edges, corners, steps

a b

Figure 51 Figure 52
Stone pattern cut into concrete surface and areas between 'stones' ground Patterns formed in honed surface
with hand tools to recess 'joints' and expose concrete colour/aggregates with various aggregate colours
below for contrast (surface coloured by chemical staining) and pigments
[a] Diamond cutting disc (yellow) used to cut pattern and abrasive disc to
grind areas between stones and [b] Close-up of stone pattern

a b c

Figure 53
Seeded aggregates
[a] Seeding the surface with white quartz aggregate
[b] Finish after honing with 1% green pigment added to concrete
[c] Honed surface seeded with larger decorative aggregate.

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 21

the slurry produced with the wet process, then a dry > A minimum concrete grade of S32 is typically
grinding process should be specified. Smaller hand used to ensure sufficient bond strength to retain
tools Figure 49b allow areas such as stairs and other the aggregate during the grinding process.
vertical surfaces to be ground Figure 50. > While normal concrete mixes can be used, if the
With the range of grinding equipment available, a aggregates are to be exposed they will have a
honed finish can be applied to almost any concrete more significant influence on the final colour and
element. For example, the stone pattern in Figure 51 appearance than the matrix. It is the aggregate
was achieved by first scribing the pattern into the rather than the matrix which holds the polish. Hard
concrete surface using a 100-mm-diameter diamond aggregates such as quartz and igneous rocks
cutting blade and then grinding the areas between (eg granite) are preferred as they polish well and
the stone shapes with small abrasive disks to recess provide excellent wear characteristics.
the 'joints' and expose the colour of the concrete > Aggregate colours, types (round or crushed),
mortar/aggregates below the stained surface. Both sizes, mineral content, etc can all be selected and
the cutting wheel and abrasive disc are shown at the blended to produce a variety of finishes including
bottom left of Figure 51a. polished granite-type (reconstituted stone)
Patterns can be formed in the surface by using finishes. The cost of special aggregates for large
different aggregate colours and also pigments to areas can be reduced by using them in a thinner
colour the cement paste between the stones. Brass, topping or by seeding them into the surface of the
zinc or timber strips, tiles, pavers and construction structural slab or topping Figure 53. For smaller
joints are some of the things that can be used to areas, it may be more economical and/or better to
separate the different colours Figure 52. simply use the selected aggregate throughout the
Some points to consider concerning honed finishes concrete or topping mix.
include: > A uniformly distributed aggregate is important,
> The aggregates used in terrazzo work are particularly with seeded surfaces, because if
generally marble chips, glass or plastic, all the aggregate density is not uniform, a patchy
of which are far easier to grind than the hard, appearance to the final finish will result, due to
durable aggregates used in decorative concrete some areas having more stone exposed than
mixes. While the increased wear-and-tear on the others.
grinding pads will generally increase the cost of > The colours of the coarse aggregate and the
pads required, fewer grades of pads (coarse to matrix are generally perceived in equal measure.
fine) are required to produce a polished finish on This is because there is usually a high proportion
a concrete slab. Combined with the contribution of aggregate in the mix and the matrix is coloured
of sealers to the final appearance, grinding should with only 1 to 2% of pigment in order to blend with
still produce an economical finish. the aggregate colour (see Section 2.3). However,
> Grinding a new concrete floor (as opposed to an depending on the proportion, either may provide
existing) is easier before the walls are built, when the dominant colour Figure 44.
the grinding machine can pass over the edges > Glass aggregates can be used to give a
and corners. This will avoid the need for smaller translucent appearance to the honed surface,
specialised equipment and/or hand grinding. but some precautions should be taken to ensure
However, the surface will need to be protected that adverse reactions between the silica in the
during construction (see Section 4.25) to avoid glass and the alkalies in the concrete do not affect
damage and staining. A comparison of the cost the finish (see Exposed Aggregate Finishes for
to protect the surface versus the cost of grinding Flatwork 3).
the edges with smaller hand-held equipment may > With so many variables, it is recommended
determine when the process is undertaken. that either one of the specialist concrete mixes
> Honing may expose small blow holes (air holes) developed for this type of finish be used (test
in the surface. A subsequent light grind with a samples or examples are already available) or that
cement slurry applied to the surface may be test samples be produced to allow the finish to be
required to fill these. The colour of the cement assessed prior to work commencing.
slurry should match the original concrete used. > Further information on honed and polished finishes
Note that adequate compaction (or removal of can be found in The Specification of Honed
entrapped air) of concrete to be honed/polished is Concrete Finish 4 and Polished Concrete Floors 5.
an important consideration to ensure that no large
blow holes are present (see Section 4.15).

22 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

 a b

Figure 54 Figure 55
Hand floating to embed aggregates or other special items Minor indentation indicates
into the surface surface is ready for final floating
[a] Decorative aggregates
[a] Sea shells

a b c

Figure 56
Hand tools for floating
[a] Wood float
[b] Magnesium float with curved blade
[c] Steel (coving) trowel

Figure 57 Figure 58
Rotary finishing machine fitted Wide bullfloat or 'bump cutter' used to level out any longer undulations
with floats in the surface from screeding and produce flatter finishes (vibrating
beam screed plus two hand screed beams also shown)
Photo courtesy of Taylor Thomson Whitting

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 23

3.3 Textured Finishes Bullfloating involves working a large float on a long
3.3.1 General handle back and forth on the concrete in a direction
parallel to the ridges formed by screeding Figure 29.
Textured finishes have traditionally been used to
The blade is typically aluminium or magnesium
create a decorative surface or to provide slip and/or
but may also be wood. The blade and handle are
skid resistance. Finishes may vary from light textures
usually pivoted so that the angle of the blade can be
such as those from nylon brooms or wood floats
changed depending on whether the stroke is forward
to heavier textures produced using tools such as
or backward. Bullfloating should be completed before
hard bristle brooms, hessian drags over the surface
bleedwater appears on the surface. To minimise the
or metal rakes. Providing texture by exposing the
number of ridge marks left at the edge of the blade,
aggregate or creating voids in the surface can also
bullfloat passes should not overlap by more than
deliver a decorative as well as functional finish. Similar
50 mm. Care should be taken not to overwork the
to other types of finishes, pigments can be used to
surface if bullfloating is required more than once.
reduce glare and further enhance the appearance.
To improve the flatness of the surface, a wide bullfloat
The coarseness of the texture should suit the
(sometimes referred to as 'bump cutter') can be
application. For example, if the foot traffic in public
used to remove not only the transverse ridges from
areas includes people wearing stiletto heals, coarse
screeding, but also the longer transverse undulations
textures such as exposed aggregate and deeply
in the surface that may be present following the
grooved surfaces may not be appropriate. Around
screeding operation Figure 58.
swimming pools or other areas intended for barefoot
use, coarse textures are generally inappropriate Floating by hand normally involves the use of a
and finer textured finishes providing a compromise wooden, magnesium, resin or steel float Figure 56.
between slip resistance and comfort should be Hand floats are held flat on the surface and moved
specified. in a sweeping arc to embed the aggregate, compact
the concrete, and remove minor imperfections and
3.3.2 Floated cracks. Wooden floats require skilled operators and
The purpose of floating a concrete surface is to timing is important. If used too early, they stick, dig in,
produce a relatively even but still open texture. and can tear the surface. Used too late, they roll the
Floating may be used to: coarser particles of fine aggregate out of the surface.

> embed large aggregate particles or special items Magnesium floats require less effort and will not roll
that have been seeded into the surface of the coarse particles out of the surface. They can be
plastic concrete Figure 54; used after wood or power floating to give a more
uniform swirl finish, which is not quite so rough in
> remove slight imperfections and produce a
texture as that produced by a wooden float. Well-worn
surface closer to the true plane;
magnesium floats should be discarded. They develop
> compact the concrete and consolidate the mortar an edge almost as sharp as that of a steel trowel, and
at the surface in preparation for other finishing use of them risks closing the surface too soon.
operations;
Resin floats have resin-impregnated canvas surfaces.
> close minor surface cracks which might appear as They last longer than wooden floats, produce a finish
the surface dries smoother than wooden but rougher than magnesium
Floating is a two-stage process. Once concrete has floats and can also be used after wood or power
been placed and screeded to level, a wide bullfloat floating.
is typically used to smooth and close any holes in the Sometimes, the surface may be floated a second
concrete surface. time to impart the final desired texture to the concrete,
Final floating by hand or machine should not eg wood float finish. After the initial wood floating the
commence until all bleedwater has evaporated from surface is allowed to harden further and then should
the surface (or has been removed with a hessian drag) be worked over several times with hand or machine
and the concrete has begun to harden to the point steel trowelling to adequately compact the surface
where walking on it will leave only minor indentations layer. The use of a wooden, composite or sponge
in the surface Figure 55. Such indentations will, in float will have the tendency to open the surface
fact, be removed by the floating operation. matrix if adequate compaction has not been provided.
Floating to provide texture should in fact only score
Final floating is carried out by working the surface of
the surface.
the concrete with hand floats Figure 56, or by rotary
finishing machines Figure 57 fitted with appropriate
floats or shoes.

24 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

Figure 59
Pattern formed by hand floating with a steel float

Figure 60
Wood float finish

a b

Figure 61
Floated finish used for stencilled driveway and path
[a] Coloured surface hardener worked into concrete surface by floating/trowelling
[b] Fine aggregate floated into surface of driveway to increase texture and improve skid resistance

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 25

 Figure 62
Light broom texture can provide a functional and attractive finish

Figure 63 Figure 64
Broomed finish to provide slip Medium to coarse broomed texture suited to industrial applications
and skid resistance

a b

Figure 65 Figure 66
Tined finish on roadway – note set pattern in spacing of grooves Grooves formed in steep ramps
[a] Tining operation for drainage
[a] Tined finish

26 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

As well as providing texture, patterns can be created broom used only to provide texture by scoring the
by systematically floating the surface in a particular surface.
direction or manner Figures 59 and 60. Work should Although typically used to provide a straight pattern,
be broken up into small, manageable areas by the curved lines, wavy finishes and sawtooth patterns
use of joints. Floating is typically used for stencilled are also possible. Finishes such as checkerboard
and stamped finishes as it allows the final texture to are achieved by brooming at 90° to adjacent panels.
be controlled Figure 61. Intricate textures or graphic brushing to incorporate
Steel floats (often called coving trowels because of borders or variegated textures are best achieved
the curved edges) produce a textured finish smoother using small brushes. Achieving broomed finishes that
than wooden floats and are suited to most outdoor include border tessellation are specialist applications
paving applications Figure 59. They have a long life and should be undertaken only by experienced
and the curved edges make these floats suited to contractors. These may require hand brooming with
working in the coloured surface hardeners used for specific brushes to achieve the desired texture.
stencilled and stamped finishes. The timing of brooming, angle at which the broom
To achieve a consistent texture with any method is held and pressure applied will all affect the
(eg float, broom, stippled, hessian) the surface appearance, and should therefore be consistent. An
should be uniform. In situations where parts of the extension handle is usually fitted so that the broom
surface are shaded and therefore often cooler, the can be pulled right across the surface in one motion.
evaporation of bleedwater and possibly setting/ After each traverse of the concrete, the broom
hardening of the concrete will be slower. This can head should be tapped or cleaned to prevent an
make it difficult to achieve consistent finishes; accumulation of mortar in the bristles Figure 63.
planning should allow for such factors. Surfaces to be broomed should be uniform in order
Floating by machine uses normal trowelling to achieve consistent finishes. Where parts of the
machines fitted with 'floating' blades Figure 57. surface are shaded during finishing, brooming of
These are wider than trowel blades and turned up these moister sections may cause 'balling' of loose
along the edges to prevent them digging into the matrix material which will crust or wear away under
surfaces whilst in the flat position. For this reason, traffic loads.
floating with a trowelling machine equipped with Where a broomed texture is used and traffic is
normal trowel blades should not be attempted. Note heavier than domestic or light commercial traffic, the
that combination blades which can be used for both texture should be deeper. Lightly broomed textures
floating and trowelling are available. look attractive when first done but wear quickly in
The power float should be operated over the concrete industrial situations, whereas a medium or coarse
in a regular pattern to produce a matt finish. Concrete broom texture should provide a good, skid-resistance
close to obstructions, or in slab corners, that cannot surface over the design life of the floor or pavement
be reached with a power float should be manually Figure 64.
floated before power trowelling is commenced. To improve slip and skid resistance (see Section 4.23)
The use of water sprays or other means of wetting the for applications such as driveway and sidewalk
surface to facilitate the movement of the trowelling construction, the surface should be broomed at 90° to
machine over the surface should not be allowed as the intended direction of the traffic.
such practices may reduce abrasion resistance and
cause dusting of the slab at a later date. 3.3.4 Tined/grooved
Tined finishes Figure 65b provide a coarse texture
3.3.3 Broomed by forming a series of grooves that are achieved
Brooms of varying degrees of stiffness can produce by dragging steel tines across the concrete surface
finishes that are both functional and attractive Figure 65a. They are typically used on road
Figure 62. Polypropylene and horsehair bristles will surfaces to provide the required macro texture for
produce light textures, poly fibre bristles are used skid resistance at higher speeds and to assist with
for medium and coarse textures, while special long drainage of the surface. They may also be used to
soft plastic bristles are used for texturing over long improve skid resistance on steep grades.
distances to reduce the risk of mortar being dragged While tined finishes are typically used for major road
across the surface or clogging the bristles. projects, smaller hand-held tools (known as flat wire
As for wood float finishes, the surface should be brooms) are available for smaller projects. The main
adequately compacted by steel trowelling and the difference between the equipment used for roads and

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 27

hand-held tools is the spacing of the tines. For roads, the surface. There are a number of techniques for
the spacing varies in a set pattern to reduce vibration producing exposed-aggregate finishes including
and noise, whereas the hand tools have the tines at a water washing, abrasive blasting, acid etching and
uniform spacing: typically 13, 16, 19, 22 or 25 mm. honing: each creating a different and distinctive
An alternative for ramps (as well as steps) may be to appearance.
use a non-slip groove-forming tool/trowel to provide Concrete mixes are often 'modified' for exposed
corrugations in the surface of the plastic concrete. aggregate finishes by increasing the proportion and
These small hand tools should be considered only for the size of aggregates which are to be featured.
small areas as access over the concrete surface and Because the predominant colour comes from the
the required time to finish large areas may prohibit aggregates, these types of finishes tend to conceal
their use Figure 66. staining of the surface and generally do not require a
No minimum concrete strength is required for tined surface sealer to be applied. The cement mortar can
finishes, with strength governed by the application. also be coloured, usually to complement the colour of
Concrete should be placed and compacted with the the selected aggregates.
surface floated or steel trowelled prior to tining. Sample panels (see Section 4.3) are recommended
to assess techniques, surface finish, distribution
3.3.5 Hessian drag of stones and, if applicable, consistency of colour.
Hessian drag finishes involve dragging hessian These finishes should be done under the supervision
across the surface to create a textured finish of a paviour experienced in these techniques.
Figure 67. Used mainly for road surfaces, it is This section considers some issues relating to the
applied following compaction, screeding and aggregates and a number of techniques used to
finishing (steel trowelling) of the surface. Applying expose the aggregate for flatwork applications.
the finish after trowelling of the surface also assists in Further information on exposed aggregate finishes
preventing the hessian from clogging with otherwise can be found in Exposed Aggregate Finishes for
loose/wet material from the concrete surface. Flatwork 3.

3.3.6 Textured rollers Selecting aggregates

An assortment of rollers can be used to texture the Aggregates come in a variety of colours, sizes,
surface of concrete. Larger rollers with specially shapes, textures and materials. Because the majority
textured surfaces for imprinting concrete are often of the surface characteristics of exposed aggregate
used for stamped concrete work (see Section 3.4.3). finishes come from the aggregates themselves,
However, a range of smaller rollers are also available an understanding of some of these properties is
for producing finishes such as stippled surfaces beneficial when making selections.
Figure 68. Colour Both fine and coarse aggregates come in
The common fault with this texturing method is its use a wide range of colours Figure 69, although the
on surfaces which have been only lightly trowelled, choice may be limited by the availability at any
typically by 'stick trowelling'. Stick trowelling with a particular location. For lightly abraded surfaces
telescopic pole reduces the direct pressure on the the predominant colour will be that of the fine
surface and can dramatically reduce the surface aggregates; where the coarse aggregates are
compaction achieved. exposed, these will usually provide the dominant
colour to the finish Figure 70. For large projects,
Indications of insufficient surface compaction
sufficient quantities of both the coarse and fine
include leaving a trailing edge line when the roller is
aggregates should be stockpiled if consistency of
passed over the surface and wave caps produced
colour is important.
in the uncompacted and plastic surface layer. An
inadequately compacted surface layer will generally Size Aggregates can range from 3- and 6-mm
be subject to excessive wear. 'pebbles' to large stones placed into the surface
of the concrete: often referred to as 'plumbs'
3.3.7 Exposed aggregate Figure 71. For water-washed finishes, the size
of the aggregate should be appropriate for the
General
application. For barefoot use, 3- and 6-mm
Exposed-aggregate finishes by definition, have the
pebbles are ideal with 10 mm about the maximum
aggregates (the stones and/or sands) within the
size recommended Figure 72. Public areas
concrete which would normally be concealed by
generally do not have aggregates larger than
a thin surface layer of cement mortar, exposed at
about 20 mm.

28 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

 Fine aggregates for concrete are defined in Glass is generally seeded onto the surface to
AS 2758.16 as less than 5 mm in size and coarse reduce material usage and cost. Minimising the
aggregates as 5 mm or larger. usage is also beneficial in reducing the possibility
Grading Grading refers to the distribution of of an alkali-silica reaction between the alkalis in
particle sizes in a batch of aggregates. Typical the concrete and silica in the glass. For internal,
concrete mixes have an even distribution of sizes dry applications the reaction can be minimised,
ranging from fine through to coarse to balance if not prevented by keeping the concrete dry.
the demands for workability, cohesiveness, Thus it is important to maintain the surface sealer
strength and durability. Continuously graded to prevent the ingress of any moisture. Further
aggregates will generally result in less of the information on glass aggregates and precautions
coarse aggregates being exposed at the surface concerning their use can be found in Exposed
Figure 73. To achieve a greater density of Aggregate Finishes for Flatwork3.
coarse aggregate at the surface the intermediate Adding aggregates
aggregate sizes are often omitted in what is called
Selected aggregates can be added to the concrete in
a gap-graded mix Figure 69. With gap grading,
a number of ways: they can be incorporated integrally
a larger percentage of coarse aggregate and a
throughout the entire concrete mix, contained in a
small percentage of fine aggregate (sufficient of
topping mix, seeded onto and then embedded into
workability) are combined.
the surface of the concrete, or set into the surface at
Shape Flat and elongated aggregates, referred particular positions.
to as misshapen particles Figure 74, reduce
Incorporating into the mix Special mixes (for
workability and may also have an adverse effect
either the whole slab or for a topping) can be
on strength because of their tendency to selective
ordered from premixed concrete suppliers. Most
orientation and bridging, resulting in air pockets. A
suppliers carry a range of aggregates that can
good mix design will limit the percentage of these
be selected and used in varying proportions to
particles. If a flaky, elongated aggregate has been
achieve the desired colour or appearance.
selected, consideration should be given to using
a topping mix or seeding the surface with the Alternatively concrete for toppings can be mixed
aggregate, see Adding aggregates below. on-site in the typical proportions (by volume)
of 1 cement : 1.5 sand : 3 parts aggregate (and
For barefoot applications the use of rounded
pigments if required) and just enough water
river gravel instead of a crushed and angular
for workability. Bagged topping mixes are also
aggregate is recommended. Where the surface is
available. However, these incorporate standard
honed to expose the aggregate, the shape (and
aggregates (usually dark grey) the colour of
size) is irrelevant in terms of usage as a smooth
which may not be suitable. Test panels are
surface is produced.
recommended to ensure the finished result meets
Surface texture Surface texture can be expectations.
classified as glassy, smooth, granular, rough,
Seeding onto the surface Hand-casting or
crystalline or honeycombed. For exposed
seeding selected aggregates onto the surface is
aggregate surfaces, the surface texture or micro-
an economical way to incorporate decorative (and
texture of the aggregates will influence the slip
typically more costly) stones into the concrete
and skid resistance of the surface. Glassy and
surface. This technique is also adopted when
smooth aggregates may not be suitable for
the concrete is to be pumped and the size of the
sloping paths and driveways, or those in exterior
selected aggregate unsuitable for this method of
environments that can be contaminated by
placement Figures 46, 53 and 77.
water, thereby increasing the risk of slipping and
skidding Figure 75 (see Section 4.23). Specifying the appropriate coverage rate to
achieve the desired outcome could be difficult
Glass aggregates Glass aggregates provide
without the construction of test panels or prior
a translucent appearance to the finish and are
experience. In most cases, uniformity of coverage
available in a wide range of colours Figure 76.
will be at least as important as the actual rate
They may be exposed in the same way as other
of coverage, particularly when two or more
aggregates; however, for most applications,
aggregates are used. This can be assessed only
honing the surface will be necessary to ensure
visually.
that sharp edges are not exposed.
Concrete is placed and screeded generally to the
finished level, although depending on the size and

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 29

 Figure 67 Figure 68
Hessian being dragged across Stippled surface finish produced by using a textured roller
the concrete surface

Figure 69
A variety of coloured aggregates are available (note that the predominant
colour comes from the aggregates)

Figure 70
White quartz aggregate provides predominant colour to finish (white titanium
oxide pigment added to the cement matrix to lighten the colour)

30 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

 a b c

Figure 71
Aggregates may vary considerably in size
[a] 6-mm pebblecrete
[b] 20-mm aggregate
[c] Large stones or 'plumbs'

a b

Figure 72
Exposed aggregates for barefoot use
[a] 6 mm pebblecrete
[b] Exposed aggregate with 10 mm stones

a b

Figure 73
Abrasive blasted finish to 'normal' concrete mix – fine aggregates and mortar colour
can be more critical to the final appearance than the coarse aggregate

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 31

 Misshapen particle

a b

Figure 74
[a] Large river gravel (nominal 50 mm) containing misshapen particles seeded onto surface
[b] 10-mm crushed aggregate mix

a b

Figure 75
The exposed aggregates should provide slip and skid resistance appropriate for the application
[a] Local roads
[b] Residential streets and public areas

Figure 76
Glass aggregates provide translucent feature in artistic terrazzo design
Star City Casino, Sydney
Artist: David Humphries

32 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

Figure 77
Surface seeded with large decorative white quartz aggregate as a feature
within concrete mix containing smaller dark grey aggregates
Mt Keira Summit Park, NSW

Figure 78
Hand-casting selected aggregates over the surface and bullfloating into the
concrete prior to bleeding

a b

Figure 79 Figure 80
Embedding aggregates by rolling Coloured aggregates set into surface to form patterns
[a] Aggregates set into cement mortar topping
[b] Aggregates set into concrete path to create spiral design

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 33

 a b c

Figure 81
Pebble mosaic formed from setting aggregates into smaller precast elements and assembling these on site
[a] Completed work
[b] Installing precast sections
[c] Individual precast section
Parterre Garden, Queens Park, Toowoomba. Artist: Naomi Hatt

Figure 82 Figure 83
Freeform patterns can be Examples of patterns formed using exposed aggregate segmental pavers
incorporated by placing
in sections

a b c

Figure 84
Surface mortar is removed with a stiff-bristled broom followed by brushing and flushing with a water spray
[a] Typical water-wash method
[b] Specialist tools
[c] Hand washing of smaller areas using a sponge may be more practical than using a broom

34 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

 quantity to be added, the initial surface level may Exposing aggregates
need to be slightly lower than the finished level. A number of methods are available to expose
Table 1 provides some guidance on the depth to the aggregates including removal of the cement
be allowed for the addition of aggregate. Selected mortar from the surface layer by water washing
aggregate(s) can be hand-cast or seeded onto (most common), abrasive/water blasting, acid
the surface immediately after screeding and then etching, and removal of the surface layer of
bullfloated into the surface prior to bleedwater concrete by honing. Work should be done under the
appearing Figure 78, or applied to the surface supervision of experienced contractors. Test panels
once all the bleedwater has evaporated Figure 46 are recommended to assess techniques, surface
and fully embedded by either tamping and finish, distribution of aggregates and, if applicable,
repeatedly working the surface with wood floats consistency of colour.
Figure 54 or rollers Figure 79.
Note that rounded aggregates such as river gravels
An aggregate size of 8–12 mm is recommended will generally give a better exposed aggregate
for ease of application, although sizes up to finish than crushed aggregates having a cubical or
20 mm can be embedded without difficulty. irregular shape. This is because crushed aggregates
tend to roll in the plastic mix during screeding and
Table 1 Recommended depth allowance for leave edges and corners exposed when the mortar
seeded aggregates is removed rather than the flat faces of the stones.
This may result in a greater proportion of the mortar
Aggregate size Depth allowance between the stones being exposed and affect the
(mm) (mm) colour, uniform appearance of the surface and
comfort for barefoot use.
9.5 3
Water wash-off technique The water wash-off
12 5
technique is the most common method of
19 6
removing the cement mortar at the surface of
25 8
the slab and involves brushing and flushing the
>25 10
surface with water soon after the concrete has
stiffened. Examples of the finish are shown in
Figures 69 to 72, 74, 75, 77, 82 and 83.
Setting into the surface To have aggregates
orientated in a specific direction and/or at The process is shown in Figure 84 for various
particular locations within the concrete/topping aggregate sizes; it can be started when the
to create patterns Figures 80 and 81, they are surface can bear the weight of the paviour without
generally hand set into the surface of the concrete making surface impressions deeper than 2–3 mm
or topping. and it can be broomed without dislodging the
aggregates. A medium-bristle broom, together
The aggregate size must be appropriate to define
with a continuous fine water spray, is used to
the pattern, details and different colours Figure 80.
wash away some of the cement mortar. Brushing
To allow sufficient time to place aggregates over
and washing continues only until the water runs
large areas, they may be placed into a dry mortar
clear and there is no noticeable cement film on
bed which is then watered. Alternatively, set
the aggregate. Note that excessive brooming
retarders can be added to the concrete to allow
may dislodge aggregates. Trowelling the surface
more time to embed the stones. Large areas can
to ensure stones are embedded adequately and
also be divided into smaller, more manageable
to improve the aggregate density is often carried
sections.
out between periods of washing. If washing large
Large areas can also be constructed by setting areas, water runoff should not be allowed to build
aggregates into smaller precast sections which to the point where stones are either washed out or
can be assembled on site Figure 81. This method exposed more than one third of their depth.
has the advantage of highly controlled off-site
For large areas the use of water-based surface
fabrication and reduced installation time.
set-retarders could also be considered. Those
Larger stones can be set into the surface developed especially for this technique slow
Figure 71c, but, strictly speaking, this process the setting time of the surface of the slab to a
falls outside the definition of exposed aggregate. predetermined depth without affecting the set of
the mass of the concrete. A consistent depth of
exposure will be obtained with uniform application

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 35

 of the product. They are very useful when drying There are four general grades of abrasion. Each
weather conditions would otherwise limit the one produces a matt finish, with textures varying
time available for aggregate exposure. Careful from those resembling sandpaper where no
compaction (vibration) is necessary to provide coarse aggregate is exposed (brush blasting)
a consistent depth of penetration of the retarder, to more coarse textures ranging from exposure
and hence exposure of the aggregates. of the sand particles with occasional exposure
The shape and surface texture of the aggregates of coarse aggregate (light blasting), through
are unaffected by the water wash-off process, coarse aggregates being exposed by up to 6 mm
unlike abrasive blasting and honing (grinding) (medium blasting) up to a rugged and uneven
which affect the texture and, in the case of honing, surface where the maximum of one-third of the
the shape of the aggregates. coarse aggregate is exposed (heavy blasting)
Figure 87. For this reason it is important that the
Following curing (7 days recommended) an depth of removal be specified. Where the removal
acid-wash treatment (1 hydrochloric acid : of a considerable depth is required, the use of a
10–20 parts water) is usually necessary to brighten surface set retarder may reduce the work involved.
up the stones by removing the fine cement film
from the surface. The surface should first be The greater the aggregate exposure, the more
thoroughly wetted to prevent acid soaking into the the colour will be dominated by the aggregate
concrete and weakening the bond to the exposed colour. Initially the colour of the cement matrix will
aggregates. The surface should afterwards be dominate (brush blasting), then the sand colour
rinsed with clean water to remove all residual acid. (light blasting) and then progressively more by
A surface sealer may be applied if desired. the coarse aggregates for medium and heavy
blasting. Note that medium and heavy blast
The water wash-off technique is also commonly applications generally require a higher proportion
used for many precast products including pavers of coarse aggregate in the concrete mix to
for flatwork. The process is the same, but the achieve uniformity, while the aggregate should be
smaller units allow exposed aggregate patterns hard enough to resist extended blasting without
to be readily achieved and reduce concerns with significant erosion. Aggregate particles maintain
slurry runoff and acid washing in environmentally their general shape but the surfaces may be
sensitive areas Figure 83. dulled by the abrasion.
Abrasive blasting Abrasive blasting (commonly The timing of the abrasive blasting roughly relates
called sand blasting or grit blasting) is used to to how much material is to be removed. Brush
expose the aggregates within hardened concrete blasting can be done any time after seven days,
by eroding the cement matrix in the surface light blasting between 7 and 45 days, medium
layer. Typical equipment is shown in Figure 85a blasting within 7 days, while heavy blasting
but variations that allow for recycling of the sand/ should be done within 24 hours (ie prior to any
grit are available Figure 85c as well as smaller significant strength gain) to reduce the work
hand-held equipment Figure 85d for detailed involved. Water blasting is typically commenced
work. As the process is applied to hardened when the concrete strength has reached about
concrete the opportunity to trowel the aggregates 10 MPa, but caution must be exercised to obtain
to improve the appearance is not available and the desired amount of exposure without loosening
typically a mixture of fine and coarse aggregates the aggregate.
will be exposed Figure 73b.
Abrasive blasting can be used to produce highly
Abrasive mediums (air borne or water borne) decorative finishes Figures 88 and 89. Stencils to
include materials such as sand, slag, silicon protect the surface during the blasting operation
carbide, glass beads and crushed glass. The can be cut from plate steel Figure 85a or, more
choice of medium and equipment will be based recently, from vinyl and rubber materials Figure 88
on the specified finish, availability of the medium, which enable intricate patterns to be cut.
site location and sometimes occupational health
issues. The choice is generally best left to the Acid etching The acid-etching process for
contractor. Water blasting (with or without grit removing the surface cement matrix and exposing
added to the water Figure 86) eliminates dust the aggregates is typically carried out under
problems Figure 85a, can make cleanup easier factory controlled conditions Figure 90a, but may
in some situations or may be preferred for the also be used on site, albeit that compliance with
location and environmental reasons. OH&S and environmental requirements may be
difficult. As with abrasive blasting, the depth of

36 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

 a b c

Figure 85
Abrasive blasting techniques and finished surface – stencils in [a] are specially cut thin steel plates
[a] Air-borne grit blasting
[b] Finished surface seen in [a]
[c] Equipment allowing recycling of grit
[d] Small equipment for detailed work (shown below)

Figure 85d Figure 86

Water blasting (with or without grit)

a b c

Figure 87
Grades of abrasive blasting
[a] Light abrasive blast with larger particles of fine aggregate and some coarse aggregate exposed
[b] Medium abrasive blast with top of coarse aggregate exposed
[c] Heavy abrasive blast exposing coarse aggregate

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 37

 a b c

Figure 88
Patterns/pictures can be formed by either masking the object and [a] abrading the surrounding surface
or masking the surrounding area and abrasive blasting the actual object/pattern [b] and [c]

Figure 89
Shell pattern formed by abrasive blasting over a specially cut stencil – stencil material was
a vinyl sheet with a thin rubber backing

a b

Figure 90
[a] Acid etching of precast paving panels and
[b] Installed panels

38 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

 a b c

Figure 91
Levels of acid etching
[a] Light acid etch with fine aggregate and some coarse aggregate exposed
[b] Medium acid etch with top of coarse aggregate exposed
[c] Heavy acid etch exposing honed top of coarse aggregate

Figure 92 Figure 93
Rock salt texture resembling travertine finish to foreshore walkway – Fine rock salt texture produced
note expansion joints are sealed to exclude incompressible material using small granules of rock salt
(sand) which may render these joints ineffective

Figure 94
Coarse rock salt texture to walkway provides texture that blends with surroundings
Taronga Park Zoo, Sydney

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 39

 a b c

Figure 95
Examples of rock salt finishes in commercial applications
[a] Shopping centre
[b] Plaza area
[c] Public entertainment area

Figure 96
Rock salt texture produced using
special rollers

etching should be specified as this may vary from with water offer an alternative. Because the acid is
light to heavy Figure 91. Acid etching (or light contained within a gel it can be controlled far more
abrasive blasting) is commonly used to slightly successfully than liquid acid; it is therefore suitable for
roughen the surface to improve slip resistance, highly detailed work or patterns. Gels are left in place
rather than expose the coarse aggregates as for 5 to 15 minutes and generally do not react with the
shown in Figure 91c. stencils used to form patterns.
The procedure is the same as for the water-wash
3.3.8 Rock Salt
treatment (see Water Wash-off Technique above).
The use of concentrations higher than 1 hydrochloric Rock salt finishes produce a decorative texture
acid : 10 water should be avoided as secondary characterised by holes in the surface. Depending
reactions with the concrete constituents may result in on the size and quantity of rock salt applied to the
the formation of insoluble white compounds on the surface, the appearance may range from travertine
surface which are difficult to remove. type textures Figure 92 to a slightly pitted surface
Figure 93.
For environmental reasons, if the surface of hardened
concrete must be removed on site, water wash-off, They are ideal for a wide range of footwear and
abrasive blasting or honing are the preferred methods. commercial applications where shopping trolleys and
However, etching gels which can be neutralised strollers are used Figures 94 and 95. They are also

40 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

suitable for barefoot use as the texture is formed by 3.4 Patterned Finishes
depressions rather than by projections. 3.4.1 General
Rock salt finishes are typically produced by placing Stiff-bristle brooms, wood floats and sponges have
and finishing the concrete slab to the desired base been used for many years to create surface textures
texture and colour (for appearance and factors such and patterns. More recently, cardboard stencils and
as slip resistance), uniformly seeding the surface purpose-made rubber moulds and metal dies have
with granular salt particles, trowelling these into the been developed to provide patterns in the concrete
surface so that the top of the salt is exposed, curing surface. Colouring by the use of coloured surface
the surface and then washing to remove the salt hardeners is typically undertaken in conjunction with
particles. These textures can also be formed by using such patterning.
rollers Figure 96 and special stamping mats.
The techniques are simple, but must be well planned
Matters to consider include: to take advantage of the short period for which
The rock salt is readily available as coarse sodium concrete is workable. Good curing practice is crucial
chloride. Typically the particles would permit 100% to the appearance, and to the service of the slab or
to pass a standard 9.5-mm sieve and 85% to be pavement.
retained on a 2.8-mm sieve. A coarser grading may Patterns can also be provided by the use of spray-on
be specified to obtain a higher percentage of larger toppings and by sawcutting.
holes. However, holes larger than 6 mm are not
recommended for foot traffic. 3.4.2 Stencilled
Application rates vary from about 0.2 kg/m2
(typical) Stencilled patterns are made by manipulating the
to 0.6 kg/m2. The higher rates produce heavy textures surface of the concrete pavement after the concrete
that resemble travertine Figure 92. has stiffened, but before it has hardened. Using
Salt particles are applied after finishing of the standard stencils, patterns resembling tiles, pavers,
concrete surface, when the concrete has stiffened brickwork, stone or random paving can be produced
sufficiently to prevent particles from being completely Figure 97. Special stencils can also be made to
embedded into the concrete, but still plastic enough allow motifs, pictures and custom designs to be
to allow them to be pressed into the surface. If they incorporated into the surface Figure 98. The surface
are covered by cement mortar, the salt is difficult to texture can also be varied, eg by brooming, to
remove at a later stage and the required texture will produce coarser textures for improved slip resistance
not be obtained. on steep grades.

Salt particles are normally pressed into the surface Stencilled finishes involve laying cardboard stencils on
using a 20- to 40-kg roller Figure 79, but smaller hand the surface of the pre-hardened concrete Figure 99
tools such as trowels may be used for smaller jobs. to mask the surface from the subsequent application
of the coloured surface hardener Figure 100. When
The surface should be cured for 7 days, generally
the concrete stiffens the stencil is removed Figure 101
with plastic sheeting or other impermeable membrane
producing a coloured pattern with grey joints (the
(see Section 4.17). Curing compounds will make
colour of the base concrete).
later removal of salt difficult, while moist curing will
prematurely dissolve the salt. The process for stencilling is relatively simple. However,
the timing of each stage is critical to the success and
If reinforcement is present, sufficient additional cover
durability of the finish. The procedure is as follows:
to the reinforcement/mesh should be provided to allow
for the depth of texture (and effects of the salt if rock 1 Protect adjoining surfaces. Stains caused by fine
salt is used to achieve the texture). oxides and cement are difficult to remove. Use
protective plastic sheeting to stop splashing of
Rock salt finishes are not recommended for use
adjoining surfaces, glass, aluminium or timber
in locations where freezing conditions may occur;
joinery during placement Figure 99b.
water trapped in the holes may freeze and cause
deterioration/spalling of the surface. 2 Place the concrete slab. Place, screed, bullfloat
and trowel concrete to its final level.
Further information on rock salt finishes can be found
in Rock Salt Texturing7. 3 Lay the stencils. Points to note include:
> Wait until all bleedwater has evaporated before
placing stencils.
> Features such as rosettes or motifs are
normally placed first, followed by borders and

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 41

 finally the main stencilled area is placed and leaf blower can be attached to a long pole for
cut in around other items Figure 99a. greater reach.
> Carefully work the stencil into the surface with 7 Cure and seal the concrete surface. Curing
a suitable roller or a trowel Figure 99b. (see Section 4.17) is required to ensure that the
> Stencils placed on concrete that is too wet potential strength and performance of the coloured
may become embedded too deeply and will surface hardener is achieved and the risk of
be difficult to remove, resulting in uneven 'joint' cracking is minimised. Sealers (see Section 4.18)
depths. are applied mainly to protect the surface from
> Stencils that have not been adequately contaminants such as oil spills and thereby reduce
embedded or are not well bonded to concrete staining. Stains may be difficult to remove and
will tend to adhere to the applied colour, some of the cleaning compounds and solvents
leaving ragged outlines when removed. The required could affect the colour.
colour may also creep underneath the stencil
3.4.3 Stamped
and stain the 'joint' lines. Evaporative retarders
such as aliphatic alcohols can be used to help Many of the available stamped finishes resemble
keep the surface of the concrete plastic during natural stone paving, from relatively smooth slate-
drying conditions and thereby increase the like patterns having shallow impressions to coarser
working time available. cobblestone and rock textures having deep
> When placing and aligning stencils it is good impressions Figure 103. Special features can also be
practice to lift them, rather than drag them into stamped into the surface of the concrete Figure 104.
position. Where very fine details are required to be reproduced
in the surface, stamping into a mortar topping may be
> Shrinkage control joints (see Section 4.19) in
necessary to avoid coarse aggregates interfering with
stencilled concrete can be 'wet-formed' such
the profiling of the surface Figure 105.
as tooled joints (grooves) or 'hard-formed'
such as sawn joints. Wet-formed joints are After the application of colour, the pattern is stamped
best placed under a stencil 'joint' line so that into the surface with metal moulds or rubber mats. To
they are not repeatedly trowelled over; hard- better resemble natural stone, patterned concrete
formed joints should be located to suit the produced by stamping often combines two or more
pattern where possible. Note that the stencil is colours.
generally laid to suit the location of joints that The procedure for stamping is similar to that for
have already been formed in the pavement. stencilling. After placing and screeding the concrete
4 Apply coloured surface hardener. Evenly broadcast it is left to stiffen, and the bleedwater is allowed to
the coloured surface hardener over the surface evaporate before the application of any dry-shake
in two stages Figure 100. Highlight or flecking toppings.
colours must be applied while the surface is still The procedure for stamping concrete is as follows:
plastic to ensure bonding. For dark colours such
1 Protect adjoining surfaces. Similar to stencilling,
as charcoal it is advisable to apply a third coat for
adjoining surfaces should be protected as the
more even colour distribution and to avoid mottling
stains caused by fine oxides and cement are
(see Section 2.3.3).
difficult to remove.
5 Apply surface texture. While the surface is still
2 Place the concrete slab. Place, screed, bull float
plastic it can be lightly textured by brooming,
and trowel concrete to its final level. Note that
wood floating, sponging, or by use of a hessian-
the thickness of a stamped concrete slab is
drag to give a more slip resistant finish Figure 101.
measured from the bottom of the impression to
6 Remove the stencils. The stencil can be removed the underside of the slab. This is important as the
once the concrete surface has stiffened sufficiently strength or load-carrying capability of the paving
Figure 102. Note that this phase of stiffening depends on the minimum concrete thickness and
or setting is 'drying', rather than curing. The not the average thickness. For example, if the
appropriate time for lifting the stencil is very slab thickness needs to be 100 mm, and a 15-mm
dependent on the weather conditions. deep stamp is used, the formwork will need to be
After the stencil has been removed, clean off any set at 115 mm to ensure the minimum thickness is
debris with a leaf blower rather than with high achieved. This will also ensure sufficient cover and
pressure air and avoid walking on the concrete protection for any reinforcement.
with heavy or industrial footwear. If necessary the

42 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

 a b c d

Figure 97
Some of the many standard stencilled patterns
[a] European fan pattern Photo courtesy of Concrete Colour Systems
[b] Flanders weave pattern
[c] Flagstone pattern Photo courtesy of Concrete Technologies
[d] Mediterranean tile pattern Photo courtesy of Concrete Technologies

Figure 98
Examples of special motifs/stencils

a b

Figure 99 Figure 100

Placing and embedding the stencil into the 'wet' concrete Broadcasting coloured surface
[a] Border placed first hardener over stencil
[b] Trowel/roll stencil into surface – note plastic sheeting to protect
adjoining surfaces

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 43

Figure 101 Figure 102
Various surface textures can Stencil being removed
be applied to improve slip/skid Photo (left) courtesy of Concrete Technologies
resistance

a b c

d e f

Figure 103
Some of the many stamped patterns and textures available
[a] Random blue stone (stamped) Photo courtesy of Concrete Colour Systems
[b] Flagstone Photo courtesy of Concrete Technologies
[c] Large diamond tile Photo courtesy of Concrete Technologies
[d] Seamless Photo courtesy of Concrete Technologies
[e] Rock texture [f] Slate texture

44 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

 Points to consider in relation to joints (see > Evaporative retarders have an added benefit
Section 4.19) within the pavement include: of reducing the incidence of plastic shrinkage
> Wherever possible, joints should coincide with cracking. They should be re-applied each time
the grooves in the pattern Figure 103a. The the surface is worked and during conditions
sawn joint in the foreground of Figure 105a causing extreme drying, see Section 4.14.2.
should have been aligned with the pattern, They should not affect the colour, and will
similar to the joint in the background. generally aid in the finishing operation.

> Wet-formed control joints can be tooled after > When large areas are to be finished, access
stamping is finished, while the surface is still to the areas beyond reach should be provided
plastic; although this is difficult if the stamping by laying planks over the work Figure 107. It
makes deep impressions. is important that the entire surface is able to
be given the same attention with respect to
> Form key joints before placement. Key joints
the application of colour hardener and release
may interfere with stamping of deeper patterns.
agent.
> Install isolation joints against abutting
> Where slip resistance is required (eg a steep
structures before placement. Installing them
driveway) a surface can be textured at this
after will probably damage the finish.
stage with special rollers or stiff bristle brooms
3 Apply coloured surface hardener. Similar to Figure 108.
stencilling, after all bleedwater has evaporated,
4 Apply surface release agent. After the application
evenly broadcast the coloured surface hardener
of the base colours, a coloured release coat is
over the surface in two stages as described under
applied Figure 109. The surface release agent has
Dry-shake Toppings Section 2.3.3.
two purposes:
The use of integrally-coloured concrete may
> It prevents concrete adhering to the stamping
give the paviour more time to apply highlight
mould and ruining the appearance of the
colours, and stamp the surface, which is helpful in
pattern.
conditions that cause rapid drying.
> It serves as a highlight colour, creating a variety
Concrete mixes for stamped finishes contain a
of two-tone effects.
finer grade of sand than those for stencilling in
order to better reflect the texture of the stamping Release agents come in a range of colours to
moulds. Consequently, the coloured powders match the surface hardener colour. Stamping with
need to be carefully worked into the surface, with sufficient pressure will ensure an adequate bond
trowels, for even application. of the colour release agent to the base coats,
which is why the highlight effect generally occurs
Some items to note include:
in deeper joints and impressions. Note that the
> When two or more colours need to be applied, surface release agent is not a curing agent.
a low-bleed mix may be necessary to reduce
A thin film of clear polythene plastic can be used
the time required for bleeding and hence
as an alternative bond breaker but may interfere
commencement of application of the coloured
with the stamping of some textures. It is placed
surface hardener. Being able to apply the
over the prepared concrete before stamping,
colour sooner allows more working time to
preventing the concrete sticking to the moulds
place subsequent colours and trowel them into
Figure 110.
the surface prior to the concrete hardening.
A further alternative is the use of liquid release
> In hot, dry or windy conditions evaporative
agents which are generally sprayed onto the
retarders should be applied to the surface to
surface of both the concrete and mould. These
increase the working time. Without their use
may be coloured and obviate the need to remove
the surface may dry prematurely causing a
a powdered release agent from the surface prior to
'crust' to develop on the surface of the slab.
sealing. Sealing must be delayed (a few days) until
When deforming the surface of the concrete
the solvents in the release agent have evaporated.
during the stamping operation, such a crust
may result in cracking around the edges, 5 Stamp the surface. It is always necessary to plan
particularly with deep profiles, this is known as the stamping sequence to produce a good result
crusting Figure 106. where the pattern meets walls and fixtures and
extends over joints Figure 111. In many cases
hand pads and hand-held jointing or ironing tools
will be required to complete the edges.

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 45

 a b c

Figure 104
Many other objects can be used to stamp patterns into the surface
[a] Chemically stained surface
[b] Integrally coloured with pigment
[c] Integrally coloured with pigment

a b

Figure 105 Figure 106

Finishes requiring reproduction of fine details stamped into a mortar topping Crusting around edges of
[a] Timber pattern stamped pattern due to drying of
[b] Artistic pattern – colour from chemical staining the surface prior to stamping

Figure 107 Figure 108 Figure 109

Plank used to ensure uniform Surface textured prior to stamping Applying release agent to surface
application and trowelling of dry-shake to provide slip resistance
topping Photo courtesy of Concrete
Technologies

46 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

 Textures can vary from shallow Figures 103 2 Repair the substrate. Most sprayed finishes are
and 111 to coarse Figures 106, 110 and 112, and applied to existing concrete surfaces to improve
can be formed by a variety of methods including the appearance. Any defects within the existing
mats, rollers Figure 113 and open-grid metal slab that may detract from the appearance should
moulds Figure 114. 'Seamless' stamping mats that either be repaired or if satisfactory repairs are not
provide a continuous textured surface without a possible, they should be incorporated into the new
defined pattern are also available Figure 103d. pattern or design. As a last resort, some sections
6 Cure the concrete. Curing (see Section 4.17) is of the existing pavement may need to be replaced
required to ensure that the potential strength and to achieve a satisfactory outcome. Note that
performance of the coloured surface hardener is matching finishes and colours between replaced
achieved and the risk of cracking is minimised. sections and the existing slab is generally not an
issue as the spray-on topping normally includes a
7 Remove the release agent. If powdered release base coat that will conceal the entire substrate. For
agents have been used, these must be removed patterned finishes where joint/grout lines are left
prior to sealing. They are normally removed exposed and no base coat is applied, the colour
using high-pressure water or by scrubbing with a consistency of the concrete substrate may be
detergent-based wash as soon as the concrete more important.
is hard enough to allow removal without damage
to the surface finish Figure 115. If left to the end Defects that may need to be repaired prior to
of the curing period they may become partially spraying a topping include cracks, differences in
bonded to the surface and difficult to remove. level, broken corners, joints, spalling and minor
surface defects. Information on appropriate
8 Seal the surface. Sealers (see Section 4.18) procedures can be found in Section 6.
are applied mainly to protect the surface from
contaminants such as oil spills and thereby reduce 3 Provide joints. As a general rule, joints in a new
staining. Stains may be difficult to remove and topping or coating should correspond with existing
some of the cleaning compounds and solvents joints (see Section 4.19). This is because joints
required could affect the colour. are used to allow or control movement in the
slab. If they are filled and sealed over, continued
3.4.4 Spray-on toppings movement of the pavement could cause the joint
to rupture and the topping to spall.
Patterned finishes can be provided to existing slabs
by spraying the surface with coloured and textured The location of existing joints may govern the
finishes which vary in thickness from 3–5 mm direction of any surface patterns. If any new joints
Figure 116. Spray-on toppings are available as are cut into the existing pavement (existing joints
cementitious or acrylic-based materials. They can too far apart or not able to adequately control
look similar but their life expectancy may vary. The movement) these should, if possible, be located to
supplier should be consulted about suitability and suit the new pattern.
performance of these toppings for a particular In certain situations, isolation joints may need to
application. be provided or re-established around structures
The procedure for applying spray-on concrete (posts and walls) adjoining the slab to relieve
toppings is as follows: stresses.

1 Prepare the surface of the substrate. The success 4 Protect adjoining structures. Protect adjoining
of any topping depends on the bond to the surfaces from over spray or splatter. Staining by
substrate. Clean the existing slab to remove grit, fine oxides and topping powders stain is difficult to
paint, oil, and other substances that will affect remove.
the bond and finish. Use high-pressure water 5 Apply bonding products. Bonding products can be
cleaning or acid etching (a mild solution of 1 part used to increase the strength of the bond of the
hydrochloric acid to 25 parts water). Where severe topping to the existing substrate. They are usually
surface deterioration has occurred, grinding supplied with the application kit or incorporated
or dustless shot blasting may be necessary to into the spray material. Products should be applied
produce a clean, even and sound substrate. in strict accordance with the manufacturer’s
Take care when preparing acid solutions. Use recommendations as incorrectly used bonding
appropriate safety equipment and always add the agents can have a de-bonding effect.
acid to the water, never the reverse.

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 47

 Figure 110 Figure 111 Figure 112
Plastic sheeting used to prevent Stamping with textured rubber Coarse textured rock finish
concrete sticking to the mould – mats – slate texture aligned
cobblestone texture with joints

a b

Figure 113 Figure 114

Stamping with a purpose-made Stamping with open-grid metal moulds
roller (a) Large grid
(b) Small grid

Figure 115
Removing the release agent
with high-pressure water – note
that adjacent finishes should be
protected

48 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

 a b c

d e

Figure 116
Examples of sprayed-on toppings over existing concrete slabs
[a] Random blue stone (stencilled) Photo courtesy of Concrete Technologies
[b] Tile Photo courtesy of Concrete Colour Systems [c] Large flag Photo courtesy of Concrete Colour Systems
[d] Special designs are easily achieved Photo courtesy of Concrete Colour Systems
[e] Large flag pattern to existing balcony

Figure 117
Scale provided by saw cutting insitu paving to resemble large format pavers

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 49

Figure 118
Guides should be used to ensure lines are straight or uniformly curved

Figure 119
Brass and zinc strips used to create lines and define areas

a b c

Figure 120
Joints used to delineate different finishes and colours
[a] Alternate panels of exposed aggregate and broom finish
[b] Sections of exposed aggregate with different matrix colours
[c] Exposed aggregate contrasting with grey concrete broom finish

50 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

6 Apply base coats. A base (or primary) colour 3.4.5 Sawcuts, inserts and joints
coat is applied over the bonding agent (where Patterns can be created in both smooth and textured
required); this becomes the colour of the 'joints' in surfaces by methods such as:
stencilled patterns.
> Sawcutting 'pattern' lines into the surface
Base coats are fairly workable and can be levelled after hardening of the concrete Figures 117.
with trowels, broad floats or squeegees. The Sawcutting can be carried out with tools ranging
condition of the slab, existing falls and depths from hand‑held and guided angle grinders
of any depressions will, however, influence the Figure 118 to larger concrete saws. Shallow
choice of slump. sawcuts (about 5 mm deep) are often used with
After the base coat has dried (a period specified patterned, chemically stained surfaces to prevent
by the manufacturer) smooth the surface with the stain from spreading to adjacent differently
fine sanding, light grinding or rubbing over with coloured areas Figures 20 and 21. If sawcuts are
open-mesh rubbing blocks to remove minor being relied on to provide crack control they must
imperfections. Fill any minor holes. Remove dust be installed at an appropriate time and be of the
and grindings from the immediate area so it is not correct depth (see Section 4.19.3). Sawcuts can
walked onto, or blown back onto, the pavement. also range in width (depending on the appearance
required) and be grouted to provide contrasting
7 Apply stencil to the surface. If required, stencils
coloured strips between sections.
are placed over the base coat. They are usually
self-adhesive for fixing directly to the base coat > Providing inserts in the plastic concrete to define
or prepared surface. They are available in a wide areas Figure 119. Inserts are typically brass or
range of patterns, similar to those available for zinc strips and may be full depth similar to those
standard stencil applications. Stencils with special used in terrazzo finishes or partial depth and act
patterns can be made to order. as crack inducers. Alternate materials may include
rigid plastics/PVC.
8 Apply topping coats. The final coloured coat
is mixed according to the manufacturer’s > Use of joints. Because of the normal spacing
recommendations. This may include additives of joints they are generally used to define areas
sold with the application kit. Varying the slump and create patterns on a larger scale Figure 120,
and viscosity of the topping can produce different although they can be incorporated into more-
textures. A more fluid topping (with a high detailed patterns Figure 21b.
slump) will produce a smooth finish; a drier mix
(lower slump) is used to produce rough textures. 3.5 Tooled Finishes
Increase the slump by adding both fluid and Mechanical tooling removes the surface by fracturing
binding materials; not only fluid. Watering down of both the concrete and aggregates. For stained/
any product will weaken the mix. coloured decorative finishes, fine details and features
The colour can be applied through a dual-line can be incorporated by using needle-point scabbling
feeder or hand-held hopper with a gravity feeder. equipment Figure 121 to remove only the surface
An even application is crucial. A number of coats, layer of cement mortar to reveal the contrasting colour
including highlight coats (with an iron-oxide of the concrete below. Templates are generally cut
fleck for example) can be applied and allowed into a rubber or vinyl sheet to define the pattern and
to dry in accordance with the manufacturer’s control the area scabbled.
recommendations. Coarser textures can be achieved by bush hammering
After the surface is set, the stencils are removed or point tooling the surface but these are labour
and the residue is blown off. intensive and generally unsuitable for surfaces used
by pedestrians.
9 Cure the concrete. As with any cementitious
product, curing is essential in order to produce Tooling of the surface should be kept 25 to 50 mm
optimum results see (Section 4.17). clear of edges and corners to avoid them being
fractured and/or broken off.
10 Sealing. A same-day sealer can be applied for
immediate protection. Once the surface has
achieved its design strength, two coats of a
high‑quality sealer are recommended to ensure
the lasting serviceability of spray-on surface
finishes (see Section 4.18).

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 51

3.6 Sponge Finishes applications) or other curing method. A two-coat
Sponges can be used to provide a good slip-resistant sealer can be applied after curing to brighten the
finish to flatwork. The surface is either dabbed with a finish and prevent staining.
sponge or sponge float to roughen the surface and > Stamping and rock salt The success of this
provide a fine even texture. Alternatively the sponge combination depends on the stamping operation.
can be wiped over the surface to provide textures If stamping with rubber mats or metal grills, if salt
resembling more-traditional wood float finishes is used, it must be applied to the surface after
Figure 122. stamping to avoid being completely embedded
Similar to float finishes, the surface should be into the surface of the concrete. At this stage, it
compacted by several passes with a steel trowel and may be difficult to embed the salt into the surface
the sponge used to impart texture only to the surface. with rollers without affecting the stamped pattern.
Used on an uncompacted surface the sponge may However, where special features are placed on
draw up the cement and sand matrix which, once the surface and can be rolled into the surface
exposed, is easily worn away under traffic. Note that along with the salt particles allowing control over
finishes similar to render may not be possible on the embedment, a successful outcome is possible
flatwork due to the coarser sand used in concrete mixes. Figure 125.
For fine sand-like textures a dry-shake or other form of > Stamping and tooling the surface An example of
topping containing finer materials may be required. this can be seen in Figure 121b where the surface
has first been stamped and chemically stained to
provide colour, the border has then been scabbled
3.7 Combined finishes
using needle point scabbling equipment. This
Many surface treatments can be combined to further method can be used to produce very fine details
increase the range of decorative finishes available. in the surface of the concrete Figure 126.
Some combinations include the following:
> Honing and acid etching The typical smooth
> Stamping and exposed aggregate Exposed- surface resulting from honing can be textured by
aggregate surfaces can also be stamped with an removing the mortar from between the stones. This
impressed pattern Figure 123. The finish can leaves the aggregates with a flat surface having a
provide the appearance of segmental paving but dull to polished finish depending on the fineness of
with reduced risk of step-faulting from variations in the abrasives used, but also provides some texture
level. The finish is often provided on road surfaces for slip resistance.
to provide an audible warning to drivers of a change
One method of achieving this is to acid etch the
of surface, thus alerting them to the need for caution
surface Figure 127. As for acid etched finishes, it
in residential areas and at pedestrian crossings.
is important to specify the depth of removal of the
After the surface mortar has been washed away, a mortar.
thin film of clear plastic is placed over the surface
> Honing and setting aggregates into surface Similar
to prevent the concrete adhering to the mould, and
to setting aggregates into the surface, in this case
the surface is stamped with metal moulds usually
the pieces of aggregate have been polished to
consisting of an open grid in a metal frame with a
highlight the colour and provide a flat surface that
driving shaft Figures 110 and 114.
is easy to walk over Figure 128.
Stamping must be done while the surface is still
> Chemical staining and abrasive blasting Once
plastic. To avoid premature setting, the concrete
colour and texture have been added to the
should be placed and finished in manageable
concrete surface, the surface can be lightly
sections. If conditions are hot, dry or windy,
blasted to retain some of the colour but change
applying an evaporation retarder and/or surface
the texture in order to produce subtle decorative
set-retarders to the surface will extend the time
features Figure 129a or blasted to remove all the
available to stamp the surface and avoid crusting
colour in specific areas to provide greater contrast
problems Figure 106.
and hence form a decorative pattern/feature
Surface set retarders can also be used to retard Figure 129b. The latter eliminates the need to
certain areas within stamped patterns, enabling sawcut the borders in order to prevent spreading
the selective exposure of aggregates to provide a of the stain and achieve clearly defined edges/
feature within the pattern Figure 124. lines. Machine-cut rubber or vinyl stencils (to mask
The concrete should be cured for a minimum of areas not to be abraded) can be used to produce
3 or 7 days (7 days is preferred) with polythene a higher quality and more consistent finish for
sheeting (clear or light coloured for external repetitive items such as borders.

52 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

 a b

Figure 121
Fine details can be produced by tooling the surface through stencils
using needle point scabbling equipment

a b c

Figure 122
Sponge finish textures
[a] Foam/sponge float
[b] Fine even texture
[c] Texture similar to wood float

Figure 123
Stamped and exposed-aggregate finish combined

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 53

 Figure 124
Pattern is stamped and set retarder applied to surface to allow selective
exposure of aggregates

Figure 125 Figure 126

Rock salt texture with stamped pattern Fine details can be tooled into
the coloured concrete surface

a b

Figure 127
Sydney Opera House precast concrete paving panels
[a] General view
[b] Closeup showing flat surface of aggregates from honing/polishing and texture from subsequent acid etching

54 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

 Figure 128
Granite pieces with polished surface set in coloured mortar pavement
Parliament House forecourt

a b

Figure 129
[a] Light abrasive blasting to alter texture and
[b] All surface colour removed by blasting

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 55

4 Construction 4.1 Requirements of State and Local
Authorities
Concrete flatwork between the kerb-and-gutter and
a property boundary will generally have to comply
with the requirements of the Local Authority in
respect of levels, grades and specification (thickness,
reinforcement and concrete strength). Special
requirements in these areas are often imposed to
provide safe access for pedestrians and to allow use
by occasional maintenance vehicles, equipment for
repair/replacement of in-ground services and delivery
To ensure that the specified surface finish is achieved
vehicles. Requirements should be determined initially,
and that it performs satisfactorily many aspects
as they may affect the grades of adjacent paving
of the concrete and related construction practices
on the property. For driveway pavements requiring
must be considered. This section gives guidance
steep slopes, maximum grades and the need for
on the aspects of concrete construction that relate
possible transition zones may also be affected by the
specifically to flatwork.
requirements outside the property boundary.
The elements of a typical concrete floor or pavement
Where Government authorities have produced guides
are shown in Figure 130. Note that some elements
for the standards and tolerances required for building
may not be present depending on the application and
works, the provisions within such guides relating to
whether the floor is on the ground or suspended. In
the finished floor levels, levelness of concrete floors,
this guide the key terms are defined as follows:
cracking and other related items should be checked.
> Wearing surface. The trafficked surface or top For example, Guide to Standards and Tolerances 9
surface of the floor or pavement. states that 'Except where documented otherwise,
> Concrete floor or pavement. The main structural new floors are defective if within the first 24 months
element of concrete flatwork. they differ in level by more than 10 mm in any room
or area, or more than 4 mm in any 2-m length. The
> Reinforcement. If required, reinforcing bars
overall deviation of floor level to entire building
or mesh complying with AS/NZS 4671 Steel
footprint shall not exceed 20 mm.' This highlights the
Reinforcing Materials8.
importance of specifying in the project documentation
> Subbase. If required, the layer of selected material items such as the acceptable tolerances for the
placed on the subgrade. finished concrete surface (see Section 4.22). Also,
> Subgrade. The natural or prepared formation on depending on the reactivity of the soil, ground
which the floor or pavement is constructed. movements (long-term and seasonal) following the
construction of a floor or pavement could easily cause
the concrete surface to fail to meet the tolerances
Wearing surface stated above. Thus the cause of any deviations
Reinforcement (if required) must be determined in assessing compliance with
Concrete floor or pavement requirements.

Sand layer and/or plastic Finishes such as water washed, acid etched and
membrane under slab (if present) abrasive blasted may result in contaminants that
Subbase (if required) affect the surrounding environment, particularly if
runoff is allowed to enter the stormwater drainage
Subgrade or natural ground system without the appropriate precautions being
taken. Most State Government Environmental
Figure 130 Protection Authorities have specific requirements
Cross section of typical floor or pavement relating to the collection, filtration and disposal of a
range of waste materials from building sites. One
example from the Environmental Protection Authority
in NSW is Environmental Best Management Practice
Guideline for Concreting Contractors10.

56 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

While each State has its own requirements, Volume 2 Housing Provisions contains
preventative measures that can be taken to contain performance requirements for ramps (eg 'have
waste products (runoff) include: slip-resistant walking surfaces on ramps') but
> Sand barriers can be used as filters to contain unlike Volume 1 does not directly or indirectly
sediment from runoff which is then removed from cite AS/NZS 2890.113 (see below) or give any
site. deemed-to-satisfy provisions in this regard. The
grades and details of pavements (eg driveways)
> Hessian wraps or excavated channels can be
for Class 1 and 10 buildings should therefore
used to divert runoff to surface catchment areas or
be specified to ensure compliance with the
into excavated silt traps. Overflow from silt traps
performance requirements.
(if clean) can be diverted back into the stormwater
system or contained within a secondary trap to Note that AS 2890.1 is a secondary reference from
allow further settlement of particles. Any acidic within AS 1428 Design for access and mobility but
solutions should be neutralised prior to discharge applies only to buildings covered by Volume 1.
from the silt trap. > AS 3610 The formwork code contains
> Drainage inlets can be temporarily capped. requirements only for the formed surfaces of
concrete elements (ie formed edges of floors
> Raised formwork can be used to control sediment
and pavements). If the finish of formed surfaces
run-off.
is critical to the appearance, then a suitable
> Where practicable, the residue from one section
Class of finish (Class 1 to 5) should be specified.
of pavement can be washed onto an adjacent
Unformed surfaces such as the tops of concrete
area that is to be subsequently covered by an
floors and pavements are not covered by AS 3610;
adjoining section of paving.
the finishes and tolerances should therefore also
> Runoff can be recovered by using wet vacuum be specified in the project documentation.
systems.
> AS 360014 The concrete structures code contains
concrete durability requirements (ie strength
4.2 Codes and Standards and cover) for a range of situations such as
A number of Codes and Standards cover construction exposure environment (location), abrasion (from
of concrete flatwork. It is important to understand traffic loading) and freezing and thawing. While
what aspects of flatwork are covered in order to know tolerances for concrete surfaces are given,
what information should be incorporated into the these are for structural performance criteria and
project documentation and what can be specified by should not be used to specificy the quality of an
reference to these documents. The main ones are: unformed surface, ie top of a floor or pavement.
> Building Code of Australia11 The BCA contains > AS 287015 The residential slabs and footings
performance requirements and a number code provides deemed-to-satisfy provisions for
of deemed-to-satisfy provisions for building the construction of house slabs/footings. It does
structures. For house slabs and footings, these not nominate a class (from AS 3610) for formed
include deemed-to-satisfy provisions for general surfaces and does not include tolerances for
items such as excavation of footings, foundations, unformed surfaces. Specifications for these
filling under slabs, support, membranes under should be included in the project documentation.
slabs, concrete strength and shrinkage control. In > AS/NZS 2890.1 The parking facilities code (Part 1
terms of the actual construction of the floor slab, Off-street car parking) provides deemed-to-satisfy
no requirements are included for the formwork solutions for the width and grades of domestic
(edges of slabs) or the surface finishes and driveways and general circulation roadways and
tolerances. These should therefore be included in ramps. While not cited in BCA Volume 2 Housing
the project documentation. provisions, it does contain information on domestic
If Australian Standards are referenced in the BCA, driveways. If problems with access to residential
the requirements contained within those Standards buildings does occur and the details do not
become deemed-to-satisfy requirements as comply with the provisions of AS 2890.1, then
though they were contained in the BCA itself. The even though the provisions have no legal standing
formwork standard AS 361012 (see below) is not for housing, it could be difficult to demonstrate
cited in either Volume 1 or 2 of the BCA but is compliance with the performance requirements.
indirectly cited by virtue of its citing in AS 3600.
Thus the class of formwork finish for formed
surfaces needs to be specified if this aspect of
the flatwork construction is critical to the finish.

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 57

 Figure 131
Coloured concrete test panel with various surface textures and sealers
awaiting slip-resistance testing

Figure 132
1000 x 1000 mm test panels to trial colours/designs and the finished floor

Figure 133
Precast paving units range from small segmental units to large panels

58 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

4.3 Test Panels high resolution images could be incorporated into the
Test panels are typically used to assess the specification to assist in achieving the desired finish.
contractor’s ability to produce the specified finish Small laboratory-prepared samples of finishes (say
and quality of workmanship on site using the same 300 x 300 mm) should not be confused with test
techniques and materials intended to be used in panels as they are unable to replicate the placement
the actual work. They are also used to trial colours, and finishing of concrete pavements under actual
combinations of products and to test properties such site conditions. They may, however, provide some
as slip resistance prior to the construction of large initial guidance regarding a number of aspects of
areas. Depending on the results, materials and/or a proposed finish (eg colour, special aggregates,
methods of construction can be adjusted until the surface treatments and texture) and give an
desired outcome is achieved. The approved test indication of the finished effect of applied sealers
panels become the benchmark for the remainder of and/or coatings. They may also be used to assess
the project Figure 131. properties such as slip resistance. This may assist in
The construction of test panels is generally not developing a realistic specification and to reduce the
warranted for projects involving 'standard' finishes costs of producing larger test panels and full-scale
such as steel trowelled, floated and broomed or sample pavements that do not meet the specified
even stencilled/stamped finishes where patterns criteria, and which may therefore require rectification
and colours are chosen from a manufacturer’s or demolition.
range. There are usually enough examples of these
Assessment and rejection criteria
finishes to allow comparison with existing work and
for contractors to have demonstrated their ability Test panels should be assessed on the same basis as
to produce them. Suppliers of decorative products the actual work as they are representative of what is
will often have a display from which finishes can be to be achieved.
selected.
Repairs
However, test panels are an essential component of
paving projects incorporating specific requirements If repairs should be necessary, procedures should
such as special features and surface treatments, first be carried out on test panels to allow an
more-stringent tolerances, higher-quality finishes and assessment of the contractor’s ability to undertake the
colour control. repair work and, more importantly, to match existing
finishes. Repair procedures should be approved on
To minimise the expense of providing test panels,
test panels prior to any actual repairs on finished
there will sometimes be non-critical parts of a project
sections of the pavement.
that can be placed first and treated as test panels.
The first section of concrete placed on any project is
often viewed as a form of test panel. 4.4 Precast
Insitu flatwork is constructed on site and generally
Preparation of test panels
allows large areas to be placed as continuous
The size of test panels is largely determined by what elements (incorporating joints), whereas precast
needs to be tested. A reasonable minimum size elements for flatwork are constructed remote from
to allow the proper evaluation of finishes, surface their final location and placed or set into position.
textures and surface characteristics would be Precast elements may vary from small segmental type
1000 x 1000 mm Figure 132. For some patterns units to large paving panels and may be placed side
and designs, larger areas may be necessary; the by side to form a larger area or separated by other
maximum size is usually 2400 x 2400 mm. To evaluate materials to form 'stepping stone' type pavements
the ability to achieve stringent tolerances over large Figure 133. Depending on the application and design
areas, large test panels may be uneconomical and requirements, either one may provide an appropriate
the first concrete placement would generally be cost-effective solution.
regarded as a test panel. Larger test panels may also
Precast elements provide a practical solution over
be required if other aspects of the pavement such as
water where forming up for insitu work is difficult and
penetrations, joint details and ability to incorporate
may create OH&S issues Figure 134. Some other
reinforcement, dowels, spacers and other fixings,
advantages of precast include:
edge angles and hardware need to be assessed.
> Off-site construction reduces congestion on site.
When specifying a textured surface, it is beneficial to
> Manufacture is in a quality-controlled factory
nominate a reference or sample finish. Alternatively,
environment.

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 59

 Figure 134
Precast paving units allow easier construction over water

Figure 135
Precast paving units allow abrasive blast finish without risk of
damage to surrounding Class 1 concrete finishes
Parliament House, Canberra

Street Transition Pavement grade Transition Garage

2 m min 2 m min
Property boundary

Grade 0%
Grade

Grade = 12.5% + 0%
2
12.5% say = 6.25%
Grade* Grade (1 in 8)
5% say = 5% + 12.5%
2
= 8.75%

* The advice of the Local Authority should be sought to obtain grade

requirements for the area between the street and property boundary.

Figure 136
Transition zones to prevent vehicles scraping on ramps

60 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

> The production of some finishes such as water Where driveways and pavements are constructed
washed, honed/polished, acid etched and adjacent to houses and other structures, a number of
abrasive blasted have less environmental impact items may need to be considered:
due to the controlled conditions which allow > Termite barriers. It is important not to construct the
recovery and reuse of materials such as acid, pavement at a level that will obstruct any required
water and grit. visual termite inspection zone.
> May allow special finishes to be provided in > Finished levels. The BCA requires paved areas
situations where onsite construction would be that have a slope away from the building of at
difficult or would risk damage to surrounding least 50 mm (25 mm in South Australia) over the
finishes Figure 135. first 1 m from the building to be at least 50 mm
> Approval of finishes prior to delivery. (75 mm in South Australia) below the finished
> Allows tactile pavers to be easily incorporated. surface of any adjacent slab-on-ground. This
minimum height may need to be increased if: the
> Pavers are cured prior to delivery and have
required slope can not be provided; there is a
gained sufficient strength to allow immediate use
possibility of flooding; local plumbing regulations
once installed. This may reduce disruption to
require specific heights between the overflow relief
businesses and access for pedestrians.
gully and drainage fittings and ground/paving level.
> No control or expansion joints need to be
> Flashings and damp-proofing courses. The BCA
provided within the pavement.
requires that the height of a damp-proofing course
> Access to in-ground services as pavers may be or flashing serving as a damp-proofing course be
lifted and re-installed. at least 75 mm above the finished surface level of
> The ease with which scale can be provided to the paving adjacent to the wall.
large areas through the use of borders, patterns > Sub-floor ventilation openings. If any existing
and changing textures/colours. sub-floor ventilation openings are covered by the
Further information on detailing and construction paving, the BCA requires new openings to be
with segmental paving is available from the Concrete provided to reinstate the required ventilation area.
Masonry Association of Australia16. > Ground movement. In clay soils, the moisture
content of the soil beneath large areas of
paving may change over time, possibly causing
4.5 Grades and Levels
movement of the soil and consequent changes
AS 2890.1 contains the requirements for acceptable to the paving and adjacent building levels. The
pavement grades. Briefly, the minimum gradient or possible effects of this movement on the drainage
crossfall required for an exterior concrete pavement and adjacent walls should be considered.
to allow adequate drainage of the surface is generally
> Drainage. Where a pavement can not be graded
1 in 100 (1%), or 10 mm per metre.
away from a building (eg driveways that slope
Pedestrian areas will generally have a slope between towards the house), a suitable drain should
1 in 100 and 1 in 40. Slopes steeper than 1 in 20 are be provided adjacent to the building to divert
classified as ramps, with the BCA allowing slopes up stormwater runoff.
to 1 in 14 where disabled access is required and up
to 1 in 8 in other cases.
4.6 Subgrade Preparation
The maximum grade should not exceed 1 in 20 (5%)
in the footpath area or 1 in 4 (25%) within the property Normal subgrade preparation involves removal of all
boundary. Note that as the actual requirements may topsoil and vegetable matter to remove weak and
vary from these limits, especially in hilly areas, it is degradable material and avoid settlement of the
always advisable to check with the relevant Local paving, cutting or filling to required levels and
Authority. compaction. The subgrade should provide a uniform
layer on which to commence pavement construction.
Where grades at or near the maximum gradients are
All soft material should be removed and replaced
necessary for driveways, a transition zone at either
with suitable material from, or imported to, the site.
end of the steep section may be required to prevent
A common misconception is that rigid concrete
vehicles from scraping or 'bottoming' on the driveway
pavements can span over poor subgrades Figure 137.
Figure 136.
For residential work, the pavement is often
placed directly on the prepared subgrade with
no compaction of the surface undertaken. If the

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 61

pavement is to be used by vehicles heavier than Even for residential floors and lightly loaded
3 tonnes the subgrade should be compacted and, pavements a subbase is recommended, particularly
depending on the weight and frequency of use, a on highly expansive clay subgrades. The significant
subbase may also be needed to distribute loads on volume changes that can occur in these types of
to the lower-strength subgrade. soils may result in non-uniform support of the slab,
Regarding compaction, the fill can either be rolled and subsequently lead to early slab failure. The
or controlled. Rolled material is satisfactory for subbase or cover layer of low-volume-change (non
lightly loaded applications; AS 2870 defines this granular) soil minimises moisture migration under
as consisting of 'material compacted in layers by the pavement, and hence changes in the moisture
repeated rolling with an excavator'. It goes on to content and volume of the underlying expansive
state: 'Rolled fill shall not exceed 0.6 m compacted in soil. It also provides more-uniform slab support by
layers not more than 0.3 m thick for sand material or reducing the impact of any minor subgrade defects.
0.3 m compacted in layers not more than 0.15 m thick The appropriate thickness of the non-expansive
for other material.' For heavier loads and increased subbase layer depends on the site conditions and
thicknesses, controlled fill is required. Controlled fill local experience. In the majority of cases, a 100-mm
should be placed and compacted in accordance thickness is recommended.
with AS 379817 which is cited directly in Volume 2 of Alternatives to using a subbase material such as
the BCA and indirectly in Volume 1. The guidance 'roadbase' include stabilising (generally with lime or
given in AS 3798 concerning suitable and unsuitable cement) a layer of the subgrade soil to enhance its
material, compaction of soils, fill construction (layers, stability under conditions of alternate wetting and
moisture control and compaction) and testing drying, or designing the floor/pavement to allow for
requirements should therefore be followed. such movement.
AS 3798 also covers the correct backfilling and
compaction of trenches required for, say, services 4.8 Reducing Friction Under
beneath the floor or pavement. It states that 'it is Flatwork
important that rapid lateral changes in the engineering
Providing polyethylene sheeting or a 20-mm-thick
properties of the ground in such areas (as service
layer of sand beneath the pavement is an effective
trenches) should not occur. Compaction of backfill to
way of reducing the friction between the slab and
trenches to a comparable condition to that of the
subgrade/subbase. Compared to placing the
surrounding ground, therefore, is important and should
concrete directly on a plastic soil such as clay, the
be clearly specified in terms of the relative compaction
frictional force – and hence restraint of the slab –
and should be controlled. The practice of flooding
can be more than halved Figure 140. This allows
sands to achieve compaction of backfill is insufficient
the concrete slab to move more freely as a result of
and should only be used in conjunction with other
factors such as drying shrinkage and thermal volume
compaction methods.' The inadequate backfilling and
changes, thereby reducing the risk of unplanned
compaction of service trenches is a common problem
cracking.
that can result in failure of a pavement, safety issues
and expensive repairs Figure 138. If using sand, it is important that the percentage
of fine material such as silt and clay be limited to
about 5%, so that the material does not bind together,
4.7 Subbase
thereby restricting movement of the slab. Also, the
The subbase is the layer of selected material placed sand layer should not be able to wash out from
on the subgrade. Its functions include: under the slab, nor act as a layer enabling water to
> providing uniform support to the concrete base; gain access and/or pond under the slab and cause
> assisting with load transfer at joints; increased ground movements on reactive clay soils.
> reducing deflection and stepping at joints
Figure 139; 4.9 Reinforcement and Fixing
> assisting to control volume changes in moderately
The main function of reinforcement in a pavement
to highly expansive soils;
is to hold tightly closed any cracks that may form.
> eliminating erosion and pumping of the subgrade Reinforcement or mesh does not increase the
(especially at joints) as a potential failure mode load capacity of a pavement, nor does it reduce
(generally for heavily trafficked pavements); the required thickness. In general, the amount of
> providing a stable working platform for pavement reinforcement required to provide the appropriate
base construction. degree of crack control will depend on the thickness

62 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

 Figure 137 Figure 138
Rigid concrete pavements are unable to span over areas of poor subgrade Subsidence of paving above
(eg softened by water saturation) inadequately backfilled and
compacted service trench

Figure 139
Stepping at joint due to settlement of subgrade

Plastic soil First movement

Average subsequent
Blended washed sand and gravel movement

Granular subbase

Sand layer

Polyethylene sheeting

0 1 2 3
Coefficient of friction

Figure 140 Figure 141

Variation in values of coefficient of friction for 125-mm-thick slabs SL81 mesh used to control
constructed on different materials (from Timms18) cracking where the surface of the
slab will be exposed (polished
concrete finish)

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 63

of the slab and the joint spacing Table 2. Calculating Steel fibres are an alternative type of reinforcement
the reinforcement required is not necessary for the that can be substituted for mesh in flatwork
types of applications covered by this table. Figure 143. They will generally also improve the
Where the concrete surface provides the final finish, abrasion resistance of the surface, minimise plastic
minimising the risk of cracking and (if cracking shrinkage and settlement cracking and are ideal for
does occur) controlling crack widths is critical to odd shaped slabs that may be difficult to reinforce
the success of any floor or pavement. Methods to using mesh. Note that polypropylene fibres provide
reduce/control cracking include appropriate joint some tensile strength to the concrete in its plastic
spacing (see Section 4.19.7), increasing the amount state to assist in minimising plastic shrinkage and
of reinforcement or reducing the friction under the settlement cracking but should not be used as a
slab (see Section 4.8). Depending on the application, substitute for mesh. Further information can be
a combination of all of these measures may be found in Current Practice Note 3519. As fibres vary in
warranted. length, thickness and end details, the manufacturer’s
recommendations for specific applications should be
For example, in residential slabs where reliance is followed.
placed on the reinforcement for crack control (ie
no joints), AS 2870 requires that the mesh size be Concrete reinforced with steel fibres can be placed,
increased by two sizes where brittle floor finishes screeded and finished in the same way as normal
are to be installed, and that heavier meshes be used concrete. For some finishes and applications,
for longer slabs. The same reasoning applies to particularly those for barefoot use, the possibility of
polished concrete floors Figure 141 or decorative fine steel fibres protruding from the surface must
paving finishes where wide cracks may detract from be considered. For example, broomed and most
the appearance. Note that for stiffened raft floor slabs exposed aggregate finishes will be unsuitable for
the reinforcement also contributes to the structural barefoot use as they can leave the ends of the fibres
performance of the footing system. exposed. Generally, only finishes such as steel
trowelled that embed fibres into the concrete are
Where step-faulting of the footpath or pavement suitable for these applications. Some corrosion of the
is likely to occur (this may be due to nearby large fibres may also occur at the surface of the concrete
trees or shrubs) Figure 142, reinforcing mesh may and affect the appearance Figure 144.
help maintain slab-to-slab alignment at control joints.
However, with the likelihood of wires eventually rusting Reinforcement for pavements (usually mesh) should
at the joint locations, alternatives such as proprietary be located within the top half of the pavement, and
key joints and other shear-connection forming devices have a minimum 30 mm of concrete cover to the top
may provide better long-term solutions. Dowels of the slab and 40 mm to the sides and any joints. It
should be provided at expansion joints. The method should be fixed in position using suitable supports or
used will determine the minimum slab thicknesses. bar chairs to prevent movement during concrete

Table 2 Typical concrete pavement specification for residential applications

Alternative 1 Alternative 2
Unreinforced Reinforced
Minimum Minimum
slab concrete Maximum Minimum Maximum Minimum
thickness grade control joint reinforcing control joint reinforcing
Traffic (mm) (MPa) spacing (m) mesh spacing (m) mesh

Foot and bicycle 75 20 2 – 2 SL52

Light – Gross mass

not exceeding 3 tonnes 100 20 3 – 3 SL62

Medium – Gross mass

not exceeding 10 tonnes 150 25 3 – 4.5 SL82

Note: For decorative finishes mesh sizes should be increased (see Section 4.19.7)

64 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

placement. Typically, a maximum spacing of 800-mm The requirements for formwork are provided in
centres should be sufficient to prevent sagging of AS 3610. A Class 4 finish in accordance with AS 3610
the mesh Figure 145. Note that for light meshes, the will provide satisfactory alignment and finish for
spacing may need to be reduced to prevent sagging. the majority of flatwork applications. Where edges
Mesh should not be walked into position or lifted to are exposed or form joints for subsequent work, a
height using a hook during concrete placement. Nor Class 3 finish is generally adequate, but Class 2
should the concrete truck be driven over it to gain may be specified if the edge can be viewed in detail,
access for concrete discharge. eg exposed slab edge for residential house slab used
Bar chairs which could puncture vapour barriers as part of the termite barrier system.
or damp-proofing membranes (where provided) For specific applications such as warehousing,
during placing operations should be avoided, or more-stringent tolerances on the formwork may be
be supported on purpose-made bar chair bases or required to ensure that the unformed surface of
'saucers' (flat galvanised metal plates). the concrete can be constructed within tolerance
Where sheets of mesh are joined, they should have (formwork is often used to control surface levels
a minimum overlap of two cross wires (ie the two by supporting screeding and finishing equipment).
outermost cross wires of each sheet are overlapped) Any specific requirements should be detailed in the
and be secured by tying at, say, every third wire and project documentation.
with the tying off line staggered. Common formwork materials for flatwork include
Trucks should not be allowed to drive over timber and steel. Timber is readily available,
reinforcement and mud should be prevented from easily worked with conventional tools, has good
being walked onto the reinforcement. Materials should load-carrying capacity and some species of timber
be stored on skids off the ground. are relatively light in weight, eg oregon. Steel sections
are strong and robust and capable of multiple
For toppings less than 40 mm thick no reinforcement re-uses but require a measure of standardisation to
is generally required. A light mesh may be considered warrant their additional cost. Steel and timber may be
for 50-mm-thick toppings. Unbonded toppings should combined as shown in Figure 146 to make use of the
be designed and reinforced as for new slabs. strength of steel and the workability of timber.
Further information on formwork materials and
4.10 Formwork requirements can be found in Guide to Concrete
Formwork is the temporary structure which moulds Construction20 and on basic ground forms, deep
concrete into the desired shape, and holds it in the edge forms and edge forms with rebates for house
correct position until it has hardened sufficiently slabs in Guide to Concrete for Housing21.
and/or is able to support the loads imposed on it. Formwork should be coated with a form release
Formwork should have sufficient: agent to aid in the removal of the formwork and thus
> strength to resist the pressure of the fluid concrete minimise possible damage to the concrete face from
without damage or excessive deflection (and the the stripping operation. There are two basic types
ability to support equipment such as vibrating of release agent: barrier products which simply
screeds); separate the concrete from the formwork, and the
more common reactive products which react with the
> stiffness to avoid bows, bulges and deflections
concrete constituents to form soap-like products that
outside the tolerances specified for the work;
prevent the concrete from adhering to the formwork.
> accuracy of construction to ensure correct surface
A release agent suitable for the type of formwork and
levels and dimensions/shape;
finish required should be selected.
> watertightness to prevent the loss of cement
Formwork is left in place, primarily, to protect the
paste and/or matrix from the concrete (this can
edges of the slab from mechanical damage during
cause ragged edges, hydration staining and
site works (while the concrete is hardening), and to
honeycombing, which in turn can affect strength,
avoid damage from the premature removal of the
durability and result in poor off-form finishes);
formwork itself. Formwork is also an effective means
> robustness to allow repeated stripping, storing of curing when it is left in place. If the formwork is
and erection. stripped before 3 days have elapsed, it is advisable
to continue curing exposed surfaces by one of the
methods described in Section 4.17.

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 65

 Figure 142 Figure 143
Step-faulting at joints due to Steel fibre reinforced concrete can be screeded and
movement caused by tree finished in the same way as normal concrete

Figure 144 Figure 145

Staining from corrosion of fibres at the surface may Reinforcement supported
affect the appearance on bar chairs

Figure 146 Figure 147

Formwork (steel with timber top rail) used to support screeding Reinforcement must have
and finishing equipment and thus control surface levels – increased cover to allow for
timber top rail allows fine adjustment of levels removal of surface layer and
exposure of aggregates

66 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

4.11 Concrete surface treatments such as abrasive blasting or
A number of items must be considered when when the floor/pavement is in service. Pavements
determining the appropriate concrete to be specified that are to have saw-cut joints installed at an
for a flatwork application. These include: early age will also benefit from higher strength
concrete as higher early-age concrete strengths
Concrete strength will improve the bond of the aggregate particles
into the concrete and minimise dislodgement or
General issues relating to the strength of the concrete
fretting during the sawing operation.
are crucial to the performance of all floors and
pavements, but particularly for finished surfaces > Abrasion resistance. The ability of the concrete
designed to be seen. A weak surface or one having an surface to resist wear is directly related to
inappropriate concrete strength will be prone to dusting, the strength of the concrete and also strongly
abrasion and chipping. The requirements will vary influenced by curing and the surface finish.
depending on the application of the floor or pavement AS 3600 stipulates minimum concrete strengths
and may be dependent on various factors including: for abrasion depending on the member and/or
traffic Table 3. An N20 concrete is satisfactory for
> Loading. N20 concrete is generally acceptable
most residential paving applications, including
for residential floor slabs as gross vehicle loads
typical driveways. For use by heavier pneumatic-
in garage areas are typically less than 3 t.
tyred vehicles up to 3 t, an N25 concrete is
Commercial floors, and particularly industrial
recommended and for vehicles over 3 t an N32
floors and pavements that may be subject to
concrete is recommended.
non-traffic loading and loading from forklifts, must
be designed to carry the imposed loads (see > Freezing and thawing. AS 3600 requires a
Industrial Floors and Pavements 22 and Abrasion minimum N32 concrete if the pavement is
resistance below). subjected to occasional exposure to freezing, and
an N40 concrete where 25 or more freezing cycles
> Special floor finishes. Burnished floor finishes
occur each year. Also, a percentage of entrained
require N32 minimum. The additional cement
air (dependent on the aggregate size) is required
provided in the higher strength concrete allows
in the concrete mix. Note that the concrete will be
the surface trowelling to produce a smooth, dense
classified as a 'Special' class concrete (ie S32 or
and lustrous finish. Honed finishes also require
S40) if the entrained air percentage is above 5%.
the use of a higher strength concrete (typically
S32 minimum) to ensure aggregate particles are > Salinity. If salts are present in the soil or
not dislodged during the grinding process and groundwater, increasing the concrete strength to
the matrix is able to be reasonably polished if provide improved durability is advisable23. N25
required. For finishes where the cement matrix concrete is recommended for moderately saline
is removed from around the aggregate particles, soils, N32 for very saline soils and N40 for highly
a higher strength concrete will provide greater saline soils. Also, a plastic membrane should be
bond between the concrete and the aggregate, provided under the pavement to reduce the risk of
reducing the risk of aggregate particles being a white deposit of salts (efflorescence) developing
dislodged from the surface, either during initial on the surface.

Table 3 Concrete strength requirements for abrasion (after AS 3600)

Minimum concrete strength

of the surface, f'c
Member and/or traffic (MPa)

Footpaths and residential driveways 20

Commercial and industrial floors not subject to vehicular traffic 25

Pavements or floors subject to:

(a) Light pneumatic-tyred traffic/vehicles up to 3 t gross mass 25
(b) Medium or heavy pneumatic-tyred traffic/vehicles over 3 t gross mass 32
(c) Non-pneumatic-tyred traffic 40
(d) Steel-wheeled traffic To be assessed but
not less than 40

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 67

> Durability. AS 3600 provides combinations > Ordering 'low-bleed' concrete shortens the
of minimum concrete strength and cover to waiting time for bleedwater to rise to the
reinforcement to ensure the achievement of surface and evaporate, in effect giving more
the design life of concrete elements in various time for finishing. This is important for finishes
exposure classifications. such as stencilled and stamped where time for
subsequent processes is required. The addition of
Concrete thickness polypropylene fibres, which can help bind a mix
> The following concrete thicknesses are typically and reduce bleeding could also be considered.
used: > Admixtures can be used to provide greater
— 75 mm for foot and bicycle traffic working time (set retarding) in hot weather
— 100 mm for light traffic having a gross mass conditions or allow finishing in a reasonable time
not exceeding 3 tonnes in colder weather conditions (set accelerators). For
stamped finishes caution should be used with set
— 150 mm for medium traffic having a gross
retarding admixtures to avoid crusting problems
mass not exceeding 10 tonnes
due to possible rapid drying of the surface during
> Residential slabs are generally 100 mm thick. hot and windy conditions. Admixtures to improve
> The thickness of commercial floor slabs and workability (plasticisers) are also available; they
industrial floors and pavements should be eliminate the need for the addition of excess water
determined for the proposed loading and ground on site. In freezing conditions, an air entraining
support conditions. admixture should be specified. By providing
minute air pockets within the concrete, the
> For finishes such as abrasive blasted, acid etched,
concrete is able to accommodate some expansion
honed and water-washed exposed aggregate
of the water within the concrete as it freezes
which involve the removal of the surface layer
thereby reducing the risk of surface spalling.
of concrete or mortar, the thickness should be
increased to allow for the depth removed and thus > An alternative to the use of admixtures to improve
ensure that the required minimum slab thickness workability is to order concrete with a slump that
and cover are provided Figure 147. For stamped provides adequate workability; a 100-mm slump
finishes the depth is measured from the bottom of is generally suitable. This should eliminate the
the impression to the underside of the slab. If a temptation to add excess water on site to increase
100-mm-thick slab is required and a 15-mm-deep the workability and thereby risk increasing the
stamp is used the formwork will need to be set drying shrinkage and the possibility of cracking.
at 115 mm to ensure the minimum thickness is Lower slump concretes can be ordered, but
achieved. placing and finishing becomes progressively more
difficult without the use of special admixtures to
Concrete mix increase the workability.
> Most concrete for decorative finishes will be a > For exposed aggregate finishes, a gap-graded
special class concrete due to requirements such mix should be specified to provide a good
as cement colour, aggregates used, gap grading, aggregate density at the surface. Aggregate
low bleed and pigments. colours, shapes, textures and proportions should
> Concrete should be manufactured and supplied in also be selected to achieve the desired result.
accordance with AS 137924. > Special concrete mixes are available to construct
> When products such as pigments or fibres are permeable (or porous) pavements (see below).
added on site, concrete should be adequately > If hand mixing concrete for slabs or toppings,
remixed. adequate mixing and consistency between batches
> The water in the mix should be the minimum should be ensured.
necessary for workability; no excess water should
No-fines concrete
be added on site in an attempt to increase the
No-fines concrete (also known as percolating
workability. Excess water will increase the drying
concrete and porous paving) is a porous,
shrinkage and risk of cracking.
open-texture concrete that contains little or no fine
aggregate. It is suitable for parking lots, sporting
facilities, residential streets and levelling courses
Figure 148. Because it is characterised by uniformly
distributed voids, it is not suitable for reinforced or
prestressed concrete construction.

68 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

The coarse aggregate should preferably be a Ways of minimising colour variations include:
single-size material (nominal maximum sizes 10 and > Keep materials consistent. The cement and
20 mm being the most common). However, blended source of cement and of any supplementary
aggregates (10 and 7 mm; and 20 and 14 mm) have cementitious materials should not be changed.
been found to perform satisfactorily. Changes in the sand will also affect the colour. For
For pavements, construction with portland or blended large projects on which work is carried out over
cement, 10-mm aggregate, a water-cement ratio of an extended period of time, attention should be
0.3–0.4, and an aggregate to cement ratio of 4–4.5 given to matters such as the effect of the different
results in compressive strengths of 5–13 MPa and admixtures used under various climatic conditions
required design thicknesses slightly greater than (ie summer and winter admixtures) and changes
traditional concrete pavements. A small amount of in raw materials over time. One method of keeping
sand (10–20% of total aggregate) improves strength materials consistent for exposed aggregate
characteristics. Strength increases with a rise in finishes (where the predominant colour comes
compaction energy and a decrease in aggregate- from the aggregates) is to stockpile sufficient
cement ratio. Shrinkage reinforcement is not required quantities of both the fine and coarse aggregate
since the drying shrinkage is approximately 1/3 to 1/2 for the entire project.
of conventional concrete (in the order of 200–300 > Ensure accurate mix proportions. The quantity
microstrain). of materials (including pigments) in each batch
Further information can be found in Permeable should be as consistent as possible. The water
Concrete Pavements 25. content in particular must be kept very consistent
as variations can lead to significant colour
variations. This may involve checking the moisture
4.12 Colour Control content of raw materials more frequently, while
Unlike off-form concrete finishes, colour control over adding excess water on site should be avoided.
large areas of 'grey' concrete flatwork is generally > Use off-white cement. Off-white cement is more
not specified. Horizontal surfaces can not generally consistent in colour than grey cement and will
be viewed as a 'whole' in the same way as elements reduce the impact of colour variations.
such as building facades; colour variations are
therefore less obvious. Surface weathering, wear and > Use single batch of concrete. As the colour within
contamination will also impact on the colour, as will each batch will be consistent, placing the entire
the provision of surface textures. Finishes such as area from a single batch will minimise colour
wood float and brooming will change the perception variations Figure 150. Placing the concrete as
of colour and tend to conceal any minor colour a thinner topping will enable larger areas to be
variations Figures 149. covered from the same batch of concrete. Trying
to cover larger areas with a series of small
Colour control or consistency is difficult to achieve, hand-mixed batches is not recommended if colour
particularly with smooth finishes such as steel consistency is important.
trowelled floor slabs where there is little or no surface
texture to mask any slight variations in colour. The > Incorporate borders. For large areas, consider
principle adopted in AS 3610 where acceptable incorporating borders of different colours
colour variations are governed by a grey scale and/or materials such as concrete pavers to
may provide some assistance in specifying the avoid side-by-side comparisons to be made.
consistency of colour if required. Borders also divide large areas into smaller,
more-manageable sections which can be placed
The key to colour consistency is to keep all aspects from a single batch. Any slight variations which do
of the concrete and concreting as consistent as occur are usually seen as a pattern rather than a
possible. In reality, each truckload of concrete that variation.
goes into a project will be slightly different due to
factors such as batching tolerances, differences in > Use proprietary topping mixes. Proprietary mixes
mixing and supply times, changes in temperature provide a thin topping (less than 10 mm thick)
and minor variations in how the concrete is placed, over the entire area. Premixed and bagged
compacted, finished and cured on site. products generally give good consistency and
water for mixing can be accurately measured.
> Cure carefully. Concrete must be cured carefully
to produce uniform colour; colour variations will
result if different areas cure at different rates. The

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 69

 curing method must maintain uniform moisture Further information on transporting concrete can
content across the surface (see Section 4.17). be found in Guide to Concrete Construction20.
> Avoid excessive trowelling. For burnished or > When pumping concrete, plan delivery schedules
highly trowelled concrete surfaces, the extended with enough time between loads to avoid delaying
trowelling over drier surfaces may lead to 'burn' trucks.
marks or darker areas on the surface due to the > Consider using a pump if the weather is
heat generated from the friction between the unpredictable. Overnight rain can limit access
trowelling blades and the concrete surface. While to the site and reduce the amount of time for
the effects are less noticeable when off-white placement.
cement is used, it can still result in minor colour > When access through a neighbouring property
variations. is necessary, ensure authorised passage
Since some colour variation is often unavoidable, beforehand to prevent delays arising from
acceptance criteria should be specified. Colour misunderstandings.
variations for off-form 'grey' concrete can be > Check that all underground services have
specified in accordance with AS 3610 as allowable adequate loadbearing cover to prevent damage
tonal variations depending on the class of finish. from trucks and the need for subsequent
For unformed surfaces, and in particular coloured rectification work.
finishes, colour variations can be assessed by
> Where trucks must be driven over trenches,
reference to test panels (see Section 4.3).
provide strong bridging to carry a fully laden
vehicle. A loaded concrete truck bogged in a
4.13 Transporting trench will cause long delays.

When water is added to cement it triggers hydration, > If the bearing capacity of the soil is in doubt, do
setting begins and the concrete begins to lose not bring trucks onto the site; use pumps.
workability. Delays in deliveries from the batching
plant, on the road and on the site, should therefore 4.14 Placing
be avoided. Delays reduce the amount of time to
place concrete while it is still workable. Additional 4.14.1 General
mixing of the concrete may be necessary on site, Common placement methods for flatwork include by
further delaying placement. Note that AS 1379 chute, pumping, barrowing the concrete into position
requires discharge of the concrete within 90 minutes and manual shovelling. If barrowing concrete over
from the commencement of mixing, or before proper reinforcement, displacement of the reinforcement
placement and compaction of the concrete can no should be prevented by providing supported
longer be achieved, whichever comes first. running boards on blocks above the reinforcement. If
The setting process is also accelerated in high pumping, the maximum aggregate size will be limited.
temperatures. To avoid premature setting and difficult Thus for exposed-aggregate finishes requiring larger
placement, the following procedures should be aggregates, seeding of the aggregates onto the
adopted: surface may be necessary.

> Select a premixed concrete supplier close to the It is important not to over-handle the concrete as this
site to reduce travelling time. can lead to segregation of materials (ie an uneven
distribution of fine and coarse aggregates in the
> Provide good access for trucks to enter, and clear
concrete) and result in poor finishes.
space for turning and manoeuvring, to allow for
the quick discharge of their loads. To minimise the risk of segregation, concrete should
> Ensure that adequate labour is on hand to be placed vertically and as near as possible to its
minimise the unloading time. final position. When it must be moved, it should be
shovelled into position and not be left to flow into
> Complete the placement of reinforcement, erection
position.
of formwork and site inspections at least 24 hours
before concrete deliveries are due. Other techniques for avoiding segregation during
placement depend on the type of element being
> Check that all mechanical appliances (eg vibrators,
constructed and on the type of distribution equipment
screeds) are in working order the day before
being used. For flatwork and slabs incorporating ribs
placement to allow time for replacement or repair
and beams (shallow forms) the techniques shown in
if needed.
Figure 151 should be adopted.
> Have all tools, equipment and materials at hand to
avoid disruption.

70 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

Table 4 Effect of weather conditions on concrete properties

Weather conditions

Property Hot Cold Dry/windy

Slump Decreased Nil Decreased

Setting time Reduced Increased Nil

Strength gain
Short term Increased Decreased Nil
Long term May be decreased Increased Nil

Workability Decreased Nil Decreased

Risk of plastic shrinkage cracking Increased May be increased Increased

Risk of drying shrinkage cracking Increased Nil Increased

Risk of cold joints Increased Decreased Increased

Period required prior to removal of formwork Reduced Increased Nil

The subbase or subgrade will often be moistened When the final finish does not meet expectations, the
prior to placement to minimise the initial water loss product (concrete) is often wrongly blamed; the most
from the concrete, or it may be wet from earlier likely cause is a failure to adopt concreting practices
rainfall. Any ponded water should be removed suitable to the conditions. By considering appropriate
and not mixed into the concrete as this may delay concreting practices in both hot and cold weather, the
finishing of the slab and affect the concrete’s water- risks involved with placing in these conditions should
cement ratio, and hence properties such as strength be reduced and the construction of good quality
and permeability. concrete made possible.
Further information on placing concrete can be found The effect of weather conditions on concrete
in Guide to Concrete Construction20. properties is summarised in Table 4.

4.14.2 Placing in hot and cold weather Placing in hot weather

conditions Precautions to be taken when placing in hot weather
In Australia, weather conditions can vary from conditions include:
freezing cold to very hot. Experienced paviours are > Plan the job to avoid delays once placement of
always aware of the effects that ambient temperature the concrete has started. Delays reduce the time
can have on concrete. Low workability, early available for working and finishing the surface.
setting times or plastic shrinkage cracking are not
> Place concrete during the coolest time of the day.
symptomatic of hot weather conditions alone but
> Provide sunshades and wind breaks to work areas
can occur at any time of the year. Neither do low
Figure 152.
temperatures occur only during the winter months,
but can be experienced throughout the year in some > For interior slabs, ensure that the building is
locations. enclosed

Water is very important for hydration of cement. > Protect the surface of concrete slabs at all stages
Maintaining the correct amount of water and against excessive evaporation and premature
workability of concrete in all weather conditions is drying by using an evaporation retarder such as
important to allow proper placement, compaction aliphatic alcohol. These products reduce the rate
and finishing of the concrete and full hydration of the of evaporation and control the premature drying
cement to achieve, ultimately, the properties of good of the surface, while allowing bleedwater to rise
concrete. to the surface of the concrete. Note that these
products are not curing compounds.

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 71

Figure 148 Figure 149
Permeable pavement constructed with no-fines concrete Surface texture can mask colour
Photos courtesy of Florida Concrete and Products Association variations and staining

Figure 150 Figure 152

Floor placed from single batch of Examples of wind breaks for industrial projects
concrete for colour consistency

Figure 153 Figure 154

Inconsistent compaction may Streaks caused by tamping the surface during screeding
cause uneven exposure of the
coarse aggregate

72 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

 > Dampen the subbase/subgrade before placement
of concrete (but do not leave surface water). Also
dampen side forms for slabs and walls.

CORRECT INCORRECT > Use a set-retarding admixture.

Commence placing at one corner Random placing can result in > Commence curing as soon as possible and
of the formwork and progress away segregation and cold joints, and
from the completed work makes it more difficult to achieve continue for a minimum of 3 days; 7 days is
correct levels preferable. If plastic sheeting is used for curing, it
should be clear or light coloured, not black.
> Note that the Building Code of Australia (Volume 2
Housing Provisions: Clause 3.2.3.1d) states
that 'In hot (above 30°C) and windy conditions
concrete must be cured by covering with plastic
sheeting, spraying with a liquid membrane curing
CORRECT INCORRECT compound or ponding of water on the top surface'.
If either the final surface or the Placing commenced from the highest
Further information on placing concrete in hot-weather
soffit is sloping, commence point makes it more difficult to
placing at the lowest point achieve correct levels and can lead to conditions can be found in Hot-weather Concreting 26.
segregation as the concrete tends to
settle down the slope
Placing in cold weather
Precautions to be taken when placing in cold weather
include:
Baffle > Protect the concrete from the cold, including cold/
and
drop
frozen ground, winds and frosts. Concrete should
never be placed on frozen ground.
> Insulate formwork and/or cover the surface with
insulation for the first 24 hours. Hydrating cement
CORRECT INCORRECT
generates a significant amount of heat which, if
If placing on a sloping surface The velocity from a free-end chute
with a chute, always use a baffle tends to carry the concrete down the retained within the concrete, will protect it from
and drop at the end of the chute slope, separating the aggregate, freezing.
which goes to the bottom of the slope
> Delay stripping of formwork as long as possible to
protect concrete from frost.
> Use a suitable method of curing as moist or water
curing is generally inappropriate during freezing
conditions. The concrete should be kept warm
during curing where this is practicable.
CORRECT INCORRECT > The temperature of surfaces should always be
Regardless of the distribution Depositing concrete away from the
method, always deposit concrete face of that already placed can cause allowed to fall slowly to avoid thermal cracking
into the face of that already placed poor intermixing and segregation due to temperature differences between the cold
exterior and warm interior of the concrete.
Further information on placing concrete in cold
weather conditions can be found in Cold-weather
Drop Greater
Concreting 27.
chute than
2000
4.14.3 Cold joints
Placing concrete in a continuous pour, if practicable,
CORRECT INCORRECT avoids the formation of cold joints. Cold joints are
Use a drop chute if concrete has Allowing concrete to free-fall more
to fall more than two metres than two metres can displace rein-
formed when fresh concrete is placed against the
forcement, damage formwork and face of concrete that is about to set. The cracks
cause concrete to segregate resulting from cold joints will pass through the full
depth of the slab.
Figure 151
Placing techniques for flatwork Cold joints can be avoided by working new concrete
into existing. When cold joints could occur (eg due
to hot or windy weather, or delays) it is good practice

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 73

to blend the faces by re-vibrating the concrete or to surface Figure 154. If this occurs, additional honing
compact the joint with a shovel in a tossing motion to will normally be required to expose the coarse
re-blend the faces. aggregate that has settled further from the surface.
Note that adequate compaction of slabs and
4.15 Compaction toppings up to 100-mm-thick can generally be
achieved through the placing, screeding and finishing
Compaction of concrete is undertaken to improve
operations. Further information on compaction can
its overall performance. It is the process that expels
be found in Compaction of Concrete 28, Guide to
entrapped air from freshly placed concrete thus
Concrete Construction20 and Compaction of Concrete
increasing its density. As each 1% of entrapped air
Road Pavements 29.
can reduce the strength by up to 5% it is important
that compaction continue until no further air bubbles
can be seen emerging from the surface of the 4.16 Finishing
concrete. Due to the transport, mixing and placing The purpose of finishing concrete flatwork is to
operations, concrete (excluding that with a very low achieve the desired level or profile, flatness and
or high slump) will typically contain between 5% and surface density and texture. Finishing involves
20% by volume of entrapped air when first placed in screeding the surface (levelling), floating, trowelling,
the forms. edging and possibly applying other surface
Adequate compaction of concrete will: treatments.
> significantly increase its strength and density and Compacting and finishing are generally two separate
thus allow the design strength to be achieved; operations, but for flatwork they can often be part
> increase the abrasion resistance of the surface of the one operation if a vibrating screed is used. In
and thus reduce wear from vehicles, etc; these cases it is essential that adequate compaction
is achieved along with the surface finish.
> increase the general durability and thus provide
longer life; Screeding is the operation of levelling the concrete
> enhance the bond to mesh and bar reinforcement after it is placed in the forms and roughly distributed
plus any cast-in features/inserts; with shovels. It is done by hand, vibrating-beam
screeds or machine-mounted screeds and should
> decrease the permeability and thus limit
be completed prior to bleedwater appearing on the
penetration of water and other aggressive
surface.
substances (both air-borne and contained in
ground water); Floating is a two-stage process that leaves the
concrete surface even and open in texture, ready
> minimise the risk of plastic settlement cracking
for the final stage of finishing. Immediately after
over mesh/bar reinforcement (plus other restraints
screeding a bullfloat is used to smooth and close any
within the concrete);
holes in the concrete surface, with hand floats used
> reduce the incidence of drying shrinkage
along edges. After the bleedwater has evaporated
cracking;
and the concrete has stiffened sufficiently, the surface
> improve the quality of off-form finishes at edges by is floated again either with machines or hand floats.
ensuring concrete completely fills the forms and The floating process (when specified as the final
blow holes in the surface are minimised. finish) is covered in detail in Section 3.3.2.
The most common form of compaction for flatwork is Trowelling is carried out some time after floating. The
vibration, undertaken with immersion (poker) vibrators delay is to allow some stiffening to take place so that
or surface vibrators such as vibrating screeds. Note aggregate particles are not torn out of the surface.
that for honed finishes care is required to compact Generally, compaction of the surface by trowelling is
consistently over the entire area to ensure uniform required prior to the application of surface textures
exposure of the aggregate Figure 153. such as wood float and broomed finishes.
Tamping with the screed board on thin ground slabs Further information on finishing can be found in
is an effective method of compaction. In certain Guide to Concrete Construction20.
situations, tamping with wood floats and surface
working closes up some types of cracking.
For honed finishes, tamping may locally settle the
coarse aggregate resulting in 'sand' streaks or lines
where less aggregate is exposed in the finished

74 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

4.17 Curing process and this should either be delayed until
Curing is the retention of moisture within the concrete the curing compound has degraded/worn off or
to allow cement hydration which occurs when water carried out prior to the curing compound being
and cement are combined to form cement paste. applied. If the later is chosen, curing by plastic
sheeting should be provided until the curing
The most common methods are the use of curing compound is applied. Note that any colour
compounds or plastic sheeting. Since the hydration variations in the cement mortar caused by the
of cement takes some time (days, and even weeks uneven contact of the plastic sheeting are usually
rather than hours) curing must be undertaken for a acceptable in exposed aggregate finishes as
reasonable period of time if the concrete is to achieve the aggregate colour is unaffected and generally
its potential strength and durability. Curing will: dominates the finish.
> improve compressive strength; Curing compounds can not be used on stamped
> reduce the incidence of drying shrinkage finishes having a release agent on the surface
cracking; as this will prevent the curing compound from
> reduce surface dusting; bonding to the concrete surface.
> improve durability and hence the protection of > Covering the surface with plastic sheeting is
reinforcement; not generally recommended where a uniformly
> improve the hardness of the surface, and coloured surface is required, regardless of the
consequently its resistance to abrasion; finish. Uneven contact caused by wrinkles and
folds can result in colour variations. If using
> improve the bonding of aggregates into the
plastic, the sheeting should either be lifted each
surface for exposed aggregate finishes.
day after placement and the surface saturated
The minimum curing period required for concrete by with water to reduce variations in moisture, or the
AS 3600 is 3 days unless curing is by accelerated sheeting should be suspended just above the
methods such as steam curing. Depending on the surface (while ensuring that supports do not stain
environmental exposure (eg near the coast and/or the surface).
exposed to salts), continuous curing for a minimum of
> The use of a same-day sealer which is applied
7 days may be required.
immediately after the surface has been finished
For decorative finishes such as exposed aggregate, a may provide an acceptable solution. They are
minimum of 7 days curing is recommended to ensure not as effective as curing compounds or other
good surface strength, bonding of aggregates into conventional curing methods but they generally
the surface and durability. Fourteen days for polished provide a satisfactory solution for decorative
concrete work is preferable, to minimise the potential and coloured concrete finishes and allow the
for cracking and produce a hard surface that can be application of the final sealer coat without
honed and polished. adhesion problems.
Curing should begin as soon as possible but no more > For stamped concrete finishes where surface
than 3 hours after finishing, or the benefits will be release agents have been applied to prevent the
markedly reduced. moulds from adhering to the concrete surface, the
application of same-day sealers is not an option.
Without any curing regime the concrete surface
Powdered release agents are usually removed
strength achieved could be as much as 30% below
the next day, the surface is allowed to dry, and
its potential strength.
a sealer then applied. Note that some loss of
Decorative (and coloured) finishes must be cured strength at the surface will occur due to the lack
carefully as colour variations will result if uniform of initial curing. With liquid release agents, a few
moisture conditions are not maintained over of the days may be necessary to allow the solvents to
surface. Some points to note include: evaporate prior to applying the sealer. The surface
> Curing compounds are generally not used as should be cured until the sealer is applied.
they are designed to degrade over time and may With two-tone finishes, minor variations in colour
interfere with the adhesion of the surface sealer resulting from the use of plastic sheeting are
which is typically applied to these finishes to less noticeable and the surface could be cured
prevent staining. If no sealer is proposed, curing for a minimum of three days (seven days is
compounds provide the best solution. preferred) using plastic sheeting. Note that to
For exposed-aggregate finishes, curing prevent powder type release agents bonding to
compounds can interfere with the acid washing the concrete surface during the curing process,

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 75

 they should be removed as soon as the surface 4.19 Joints
is sufficiently hard to avoid damage from the Joints are typically used in flatwork to divide large
removal process, ie from high-pressure water areas into smaller more manageable sections, and to
blasting. reduce the risk and minimise the impact of random
> The majority of decorative concrete product long-term drying-shrinkage cracks by controlling
suppliers have a range of curing products and the locations at which they occur. Joints fall into two
same-day sealers and/or final sealers that are broad categories:
specifically intended for these types of finishes > Those that allow movement (isolation and
and ensure compatibility between products. expansion joints).
Advice from manufacturers/suppliers should be
> Those that control cracking of the concrete
sought regarding available products, performance,
(control or contraction joints).
compatibility between products and suitability for
subsequent finishes. A further type, construction joints, are used when
> Duration and temperature of curing. To minimise there is a break in the concrete placement for reasons
colour variations, the duration of curing and such as plant breakdowns, to divide large areas
curing temperature should be consistent. Higher (having no expansion or control joints) into smaller
temperatures generally produce a surface having more manageable ones and to allow more efficient
a lighter appearance. The difference between programming of work on large projects. They are rarely
summer and winter curing temperatures (for larger required in residential work because of the smaller slab
projects) may be sufficient to cause slight colour sizes and/or distances between formed joints, but are
variations. often used in larger commercial/industrial floors.

Further information on curing and its affect on For residential slab-on-ground footings, joints
concrete properties can be found in Curing of of any type are rarely needed and generally not
Concrete 30 and Guide to Concrete Construction 20. recommended as the slab is typically designed
as one structural element to resist movement from
reactive soils. Reinforcement is added both for
4.18 Surface Sealers structural reasons and to control cracking, with
On decorative finishes, sealers are used to protect provision for heavier reinforcement in areas where
the surface from staining by contaminants such as oil random cracking is unacceptable, or for longer slab
because such staining is difficult to remove without lengths. The longer the slab (up to 30 m), the more
the cleaning compounds or solvents affecting the reinforcement is required in order to control the
colour. They can also facilitate cleaning of the surface tensile stresses caused by the drying shrinkage of
and prevent microbial contamination (especially in the concrete. The standard designs in AS 2870 are
food-preparation areas), reduce the occurrence of intended to control shrinkage cracking so that the
efflorescence and provide water resistance. They majority of slabs will have either no cracking or only
can also contribute to the finish/colour through very fine hairline cracks (< 0.3 mm in width – see
highlighting colours or tinting, improve the durability Section 4.19.7).
of the concrete by protecting it from aggressive/ Joints are not appropriate in some slab types; indeed,
corrosive substances and provide a wearing layer on providing joints in a house slab without expert advice
the surface. can cause structural problems that may be expensive
Sealers work by sealing the pores within the to fix. If joints are provided in house slabs, both the
concrete near the surface that allow the movement slab and other elements should be designed to allow
of substances either into or out of the concrete. Thus movement at these locations.
materials that could potentially stain the concrete
4.19.1 Isolation joints
are either prevented from penetrating the surface, or
find it more difficult to become entrapped within the Isolation joints are used to separate the concrete
pores/texture of the concrete surface layer. This also slab from any abutting buildings, existing slabs,
enables easier cleaning of the surface. Reducing or rigid structures such as drainage pits, access
or preventing the movement of water through holes and columns which may cause restraint of
the concrete surface also assists in controlling the slab and thereby increase the risk of cracking
efflorescence (the deposition of lime/salts on the Figure 155. They should allow the slab to move
surface) and the growth of moss. vertically, horizontally and to rotate. While movement
from concrete drying shrinkage will normally cause
Further information on sealers can be found in
the joint to open with time, temperature changes may
Sealers for Exposed Concrete Flatwork31.
cause the joint to close.

76 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

Compressible, cellular materials are commonly used As for isolation joints, expansion joints need to be
to fill these joints and they must be sealed to prevent sealed to prevent dirt entering and problems such as
dirt entering the joint and reducing its effectiveness. edge spalling Figure 160, slabs riding up and joint
Silicone and polyurethane sealants are commonly peaking, all of which are detrimental to performance
used for isolation and expansion joints. and appearance. Preformed strips at the top of joints
The filler materials should be installed before concrete should not be relied on to provide an adequate seal
placement to allow edges to be finished correctly and as shrinkage can open up a gap which can then fill
avoid damaging surface finishes. with dirt and cause problems Figure 161. Any gaps
that do occur should be sealed.
Bitumen impregnated fibreboard fillers in joints are
Height to allow clearance to Abutting structure or
common but may not have sufficient compression
weep holes, flashings, other pavement
damp-proofing course, and can detract from the appearance if squeezed
termite barriers etc out of the joint Figure 162. Self-expanding cork and
high-density foam materials generally provide a better
Suitable silicon or
30 mm cover to mesh polyurethane sealant solution and are recommended.
(top and sides) to prevent
ingress of dirt 4.19.3 Control joints

10-mm thick compressible Control joints Figure 163 typically form a weakened

40 mm
end cover filler material for full depth plane at which concrete will crack. Without them,
of pavement drying shrinkage would result in random cracking.
They should be provided at maximum 3-m centres, at
any changes in shape (eg a narrow path attached to
Figure 155 a driveway), at any changes in direction (eg around
Typical isolation joint detail corners), and at any rigid structures that may
prevent movement and increase the risk of cracking
Figure 164.
Control joints can be made by:
4.19.2 Expansion joints
> inserting a pre-moulded (plastic or metal) strip into
Expansion joints Figure 156 are used in large the concrete as it is being placed;
areas of paving to allow concrete to expand without
> use of a grooving tool immediately after the
damaging adjacent sections of paving, mainly due to
concrete has been placed;
high temperatures in hot weather, but also changes
in the moisture content. They should be provided at > sawing a groove when the concrete has hardened
maximum 15-m centres. For narrow sections of paving sufficiently to prevent ravelling;
such as footpaths the spacing is generally reduced to > using a proprietary pressed-metal key joint.
minimise joint peaking: a common problem if joints are Note that:
not adequately constructed or maintained Figure 156.
> Both isolation and expansion joints can be used
Expansion joints typically have dowel bars connecting as control joints.
the slabs to provide load transfer across the joint and
> If joints are saw cut, this should be done before
avoid changes in the levels from one slab to another
shrinkage cracking occurs Figure 165. Once
(known as stepping). As a guide, for 100-mm-thick
cracking has occurred, saw cutting will generally
slabs intended for vehicles less than 3 t gross mass
not induce another crack at the saw cut location
(eg typical cars) 12-mm-diameter dowels at maximum
or prevent the initial drying shrinkage crack from
400-mm centres would be satisfactory. For more
widening with time. As a guide, saw cuts should
heavily loaded pavements, research32 suggesting
be made not more than 12 hours after finishing
that dowels transfer only between 15% and 30% of
of the slab if temperatures exceed 25°C, and not
the load across a joint (because of the differential
more than 16 to 18 hours after finishing of the
movement that occurs across joints) may provide
slab for lower temperatures. The surface is hard
some guidance for their design. There are many
enough for sawing when it does not chip, spall and
proprietary jointing systems Figure 157 that allow
collapse on the cutting blade (sometimes referred
easy installation and continuous concrete placement
to as ravelling). To avoid delays, early-age saw
across these types of joints. Proper placement
cutting is possible with specialised equipment.
and alignment of dowels is critical to allow the
The surface should be thoroughly cleaned after
joint to move and prevent cracking near the joint
cutting to remove cement paste from the surface,
Figures 158 and 159.
especially for decorative work.

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 77

 0.5 L Suitable silicon or
polyurethane sealant (top and
Dowel sides) to prevent ingress of dirt
(length, L)
40
30 mm cover to mesh

t
0.5t Bond-breaking
25 compound

10-mm minimum thickness Cap required

compressible filler material for expansion
b
for full depth of pavement

Figure 156
Typical expansion joint detail
[b] Joint peaking in narrow section of paving

Figure 157 Figure 158

Example of proprietary expansion joint Dowels bars must be positioned and aligned to prevent
to allow accurate dowel placement, lockup of joint and cracking
continuity of concrete placement and
minimisation of problems

Figure 159 Figure 160

Dowels should be accurately All movement joints should be sealed to prevent ingress
located, especially in thin of debris causing spalling of edges
pavements

78 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

Figure 161
Preformed cover strips along tops of joints provide a neat joint but do not guarantee the exclusion
of dirt and edge spalling problems

Figure 162
Bitumen impregnated fibreboard fillers can detract from the appearance

Figure 164
Access pit creates a weak point by reducing width of pavement

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 79

 Saw cut, insert or tooled joint > While reinforcing mesh will normally stop 50 mm
(no sealant required)
from control joints, it may extend across the joint
50 50
to provide better control of movement on, say,
highly expansive clays. In this case, 50% of the
0.25 to 0.33 t 30 mm cover to mesh mesh should be cut to assist in the formation
of a plane of weakness at the joint location. To
t allow some tolerance in the location of the saw
Induced crack cut, crack inducer or tooled joint, the ends of the
cut wires should be at least 50 mm clear of the
proposed joint location. Figure 169.
(a) CRACK-INDUCED JOINT (SAW CUT, INSERT OR TOOLED)
> Joints can be incorporated into pavements with
various materials that complement an exposed-
aggregate finish Figure 170.
Optional coloured cover strip
(no sealant required) > Control joints do not need to be sealed, but often
40 40 are to improve the appearance.

4.19.4 Construction joints

30 mm cover to mesh
Construction joints Figure 171 are concrete-to-
concrete joints that prevent any relative movement
Propriety pressed-metal across the joint. They are commonly used when
key joint to suit slab thickness there is discontinuous placement of concrete and
successive placements are allowed to harden beyond
(b) KEY JOINT (PRESSED-METAL OR FORMED) the initial set; or at the end of the working day. They
may also be necessary if unforseen circumstances
Figure 163 (for example delays in delivery, pump breakdown or
Typical control joint details bad weather) interrupt a placement.
Most house slabs are placed and finished in the course
of a day, obviating the need for construction joints.
With water wash-off exposed aggregate finishes
the aggregate particles are not bonded into 4.19.5 Joints near trees
the concrete for their full depth and at such an The presence of trees may cause considerable
early age may tend to dislodge during cutting movement and cracking of adjacent concrete
Figure 166. The use of other types of control joints flatwork: either by causing ground movement in
such as crack inducers and pre-formed metal expansive soils, or more directly, by tree roots
joints should be considered Figure 167. finding their way under the floor or pavement and
> If joints are wet-formed by scoring the plastic lifting sections of the slab. Removal of trees can be
concrete with an edging tool, care should be taken just as damaging since the moisture content within
to ensure that the joint does not fill with cement expansive soils will generally increase causing them
slurry/mortar, making the joint less effective. to swell and lift the slab. Further information can be
For stamped finishes, wet-formed control joints found in BTF1833.
can be tooled after stamping is completed, while If ground movement is likely, measures to prevent
the surface is still plastic, although this is difficult if damage to floors and pavements, particularly
the stamping makes deep impressions. stepping at joints in pavements needs to be
> If joints are formed with pressed-metal keys, considered. Expansion joints should be provided with
the keys should be fixed in position to maintain dowels and if cracking at control joints could result in
straight lines. Note that key joints may interfere the loss of aggregate interlock at the joint, measures
with stamping of deeper patterns. Also, pressed to control differential movement (stepping) of
metal key joints (and other crack inducing strips) adjoining slabs should be considered. Some options
should be flush with the surface to avoid an to minimise stepping at joints include continuing
irregular crack that allows sections to break off reinforcement across the joint and the use of devices
Figure 168. such as keyed joints that form an interlocking joint
Figure 172.

80 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

 Saw cut

Figure 165
Saw cuts must be installed prior to the formation of drying shrinkage cracks

Figure 166 Figure 167

Aggregate particles in exposed Crack inducer (zinc strip) used to avoid saw cutting
aggregate finish dislodged exposed aggregate finish at an early age
during sawcutting

200-mm length
of wire removed
to allow tolerance
in joint location

Figure 168 Figure 169

Crack inducer or pressed metal Reinforcement fixed in position and mesh being cut at control joint locations –
joint not flush with surface 200 mm length of wire removed to allow tolerance in joint location
resulting in random cracking and
spalling at surface

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 81

 a b c

d e

Figure 170
Use of various materials to form/conceal joints
[a] timber, [b] and [c] tiles, [d] and [e] expansion joint at paved border

Reinforcing mesh Stop board to form joint and

continuous across joint allow compaction of concrete

30 mm cover to mesh

Roughened first-cast face

Figure 171 Figure 172

Typical construction joint detail The use of mesh and proprietary
jointing products will assist to
minimise stepping at joints
(note that mesh should be
supported on bar chairs)

82 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

4.19.6 Slab proportions for a given control joint spacing in a slab on
Concrete slab sections bounded by joints should be grade, concludes that 'reinforcement provides
as near to square as possible; the rule of thumb is only a marginal increase in control joint spacing if
that the length of the longer side should be no more cracking cannot be tolerated.' Thus joints must be
than 1.5 times the length of the shorter side. spaced as though the pavement was unreinforced
in order to minimise cracking. This is consistent with
Acute angles should be avoided as these are difficult observations that cracks in reinforced pavements
to reinforce and increase the risk of cracking and/ generally occur only 0.5 to 1 m further apart than the
or of the tapered section of concrete breaking off, recommended limit for unreinforced pavements.
even under light loads. With all joint types, the angle
formed at edges and intersections of joints should Therefore, to minimise cracking in a plain or
not be too acute. A good detail in these situations reinforced 100-mm-thick concrete pavement, joints
is to keep at least 500 mm of the joint at more than should be spaced 3 m apart and in a 150-mm-thick
75° (and preferably at right angles) to the slab edge pavement, 4.5 m apart. As the formation of cracks is
Figure 173. not only dependent on the joint spacing, but on many
other variables such as concrete strength, subgrade
4.19.7 Joint spacing condition and preparation, provision of subbase,
expansiveness of the soil, joint detailing, compaction
The main issues that should be addressed in
and curing, it is recommended that reinforcement
determining an appropriate joint spacing for flatwork
also be provided. Increasing the required mesh given
applications are the acceptability of random cracking
in Table 2 by two sizes for decorative finishes will
(ie cracking at other than joint locations) in the
further assist to ensure that any cracks that may form
surface and whether it is a plain (unreinforced) or
will be tightly held together and not become visually
reinforced concrete slab.
unacceptable.
Most standards around the world nominate a
For applications such as carparks and cycleways
maximum 0.3-mm wide crack as being acceptable
having basic finishes and not subject to close scrutiny,
based on durability and aesthetic considerations.
cracks tend not to detract from the finish or function. In
The new Euro code34 states that where the crack
these situations a wider joint spacing (up to 6 m) can
width has no influence on durability, a 0.4-mm crack
be specified with reinforcement used to control crack
width is visually acceptable. Narrower widths may be
widths. Concerning wider cracks, ACI 224.3R-2136
required for durability depending on the exposure
recommends aggregate interlock is effective only
environment. Note that cracks wider than 0.3–0.4 mm
for cracks less than about 0.9 mm in width.
may be acceptable aesthetically depending on the
type of finish, eg water-washed exposed aggregate For residential slabs and footings, joints are generally
finishes which tend to conceal cracks between the not recommended and the reinforcement required
aggregate particles. by the standard designs in AS 2870 is intended to
control cracking so that the majority of slabs will
To minimise cracking in unreinforced slabs and
have cracking within category 0, ie less than 0.3 mm
pavements, a rule of thumb is that joints should be
(Table C1 in AS 2870). Research37 confirming this
spaced at no more than 30 times the slab thickness
indicates that about one third of house slabs have no
and, as mentioned above, so as to divide the slab into
cracking, one third have cracks no more than 0.3 mm
panels in which that the longer dimension is no more
in width and the majority of others do not have cracks
than 1.5 times the shorter dimension. For example:
exceeding 0.6 mm in width. Note that the Victorian
75-mm-thick paths should have transverse control
Building Commission’s Guide to Standards and
joints spaced no more than 30 x 75 = 2250 mm apart.
Tolerances 2007 9 states that only cracks (shrinkage,
However, if the path is only 900 mm wide, the spacing
flexural or a combination) greater than 2 mm in width
of control joints is limited to 900 x 1.5 = 1350 mm to
are to be considered as defects.
control the shape and minimise the risk of cracking.
Even if the slab was 100-mm-thick, the 1350 mm 4.19.8 Joint layout
length would still govern the joint spacing.
The layout of joints is very important and should,
For reinforced pavements where the joint spacing wherever possible, be planned. While this is done for
is greater than 30 times the slab thickness, the larger commercial and industrial projects, it is often
reinforcement is designed to control the width of overlooked for smaller projects. However, it is just
any cracks that may form, not prevent them from as important to the success and performance of the
occurring. Work by Miltenberger and Attiogbe35 pavement. An example of a typical joint layout for a
to develop a rational basis for determining the residential driveway is given in Residential Concrete
appropriate concrete performance characteristics Driveways and Paths38.

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 83

For decorative concrete finishes, the joint layout > Joint preparation. The faces of the joint should
should be coordinated with the pattern to conceal the be clean, dry and primed if necessary. Applying
required joints wherever possible Figure 174. sealants to 'green' concrete can result in bubbling
Joints should be continuous across the pavement. and loss of adhesion between the sealant and
As joints are intended to allow movement or control concrete Figure 179. The surface temperature
the location at which cracking occurs, if they are not should be above 5°C.
continuous any cracking that develops at the joint will > Backing systems. To behave correctly when the
tend to continue into adjoining sections even though pavement moves, sealants should adhere only
they may be separated by another joint Figure 175. to the sides of the joint. With a cork or foam
compressible filler in the joint this requirement is
4.19.9 Joint sealants normally satisfied.
The function of the joint sealant is to prevent the > Joint geometry. For typical joints, the cross-
ingress of dirt (or other incompressible material) sectional depth of the sealant should be at least
which will restrict the movement available and may one half of the width, and never greater than the
render the joint ineffective or cause spalling of the width Figure 180. This enables the sealant to
slab edges Figures 160 and 161. If joints are used expand and contract as designed with movement
for drainage and therefore remain unsealed, they of the floor or paving. Greater sealant depths
must be kept clean Figure 176. reduce the material’s capacity to either expand or
There are many different types of sealants on the contract.
market. For pavements, high-performance sealants > Setting time. The setting time of the sealant
such as polyurethane or silicone should be used. determines when it can be brought into service,
They can be purchased in cartridges for easy use or the pavement used. Polyurethane sealants will
with a caulking gun, come in a range of colours to cure at a rate of about 2–3 mm of depth per day in
suit various decorative finishes Figure 177 and are temperatures over 5°C. Fast-curing and two-part
UV light resistant. products will be marginally faster. Silicones skin
The performance of the sealant depends on a number quickly but have a slower cure-through-depth rate.
of factors; attention to the following will allow the If cover strips are used, the joints may still need to be
performance of the sealant to be optimised and the sealed to prevent dirt entering and making the joint
life of the joint prolonged: ineffective Figure 181.
> Joint width. The joint spacing, drying shrinkage of
concrete and temperature movement (expansion
and contraction) of the pavement will determine 4.20 Toppings
the movement to be accommodated at the joint. 4.20.1 General
As different sealants have different capacities for Toppings can be divided broadly into two categories:
expansion and contraction, the width of sealant in those placed during construction of the slab
the joint (and hence joint width) must be sufficient (monolithic toppings) and those placed over an
to allow for the expected movement Figure 178. existing concrete slab (bonded or unbonded). To limit
> Application. The performance of joint sealants is the need for protection from other building activities,
often affected by the timing of their application. the latter are the more common type when the
Sealing of joints when the pavement is new and at finishes covered by this guide are to be provided.
the point of maximum expansion of the paving It is crucial to consider the locations of joints in a
(eg mid afternoon in summer) means that the topping to avoid cracking. Joint locations largely
sealant must have sufficient extension capacity to depend on whether it is a bonded or unbonded
accommodate both the total concrete drying topping. If bonded, joints are placed to correspond
shrinkage as well as the maximum temperature with existing joints in the slab. If unbonded, joints
movement (ie from hot summer conditions to cold should also correspond to existing joints
winter mornings). The timing must reflect the design supplemented if necessary to comply with the
assumptions but as a general guide sealant recommendations for maximum joint spacing in new
application should be delayed until the majority of concrete slabs (ie 30 times the topping thickness) to
drying shrinkage has occurred and should not be reduce the risk of cracking. Practically, the area
carried out in high temperatures. This enables the enclosed by joints should be limited to 15 m2 to allow
sealant’s ability to both extend and compress to time to place and finish the concrete.
be utilised and the joint width to be minimised.

84 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

 Saw cut

Figure 173 Figure 174

Joint perpendicular to slab edge Control joints saw cut along
pattern but leaving acute angles
at edges

Figure 175
Joints should be continuous to avoid random cracking from the end of the joint or cracks
initiating in adjoining section.

Figure 176 Figure 177

Open joints can be used for Joints sealed to prevent ingress of dirt, sand and other
drainage but must be kept non-compressible material (detritus) in colour to match the finish
free of detritus
Sydney Opera House

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 85

 Width

Depth Sealant
≥ 0.5 x width
≤ width

Filler

Figure 178 Figure 179 Figure 180

Expansion capacity of sealant Loss of adhesion due to Joint geometry is critical to allow
exceeded inadequate preparation sealant to expand and contract
within the manufacturer’s limits

Figure 181
Bronze strip, sealed both sides to prevent dirt entry

Figure 182 Figure 183

Patterned 10-mm-thick topping Coloured mortar topping (about 5-mm-thick) applied as
designed to conceal cracking in monolithic topping to structural suspended slab
substrate St Mary’s Cathedral, Sydney

86 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

The maximum aggregate size should not exceed one > Use a surface set retarder on large jobs (or in
third of the topping thickness – one quarter is recom- drying conditions) to allow more time to place and
mended, particularly where reinforcement is present. finish the topping.
For monolithic and bonded toppings, consideration > Wait until the surface bleedwater has evaporated
should be given to increasing the reinforcing mesh in from the base slab before placing the topping.
the slab by at least two sizes to control any cracking > Screed and float to ensure consolidation and
that may occur and possibly reflect through the complete bonding.
topping. It may sometimes be possible to provide > Follow the steps for exposing the aggregate and
a pattern in the topping to conceal existing crack curing in Section 3.3.7.
locations in the base slab Figure 182.
New concrete toppings may show fine surface cracks 4.20.3 Toppings placed over existing concrete
because of drying at the surface of the topping, and slabs
the bond of the topping to the existing base. There are two types of toppings that can be placed
After curing, the topping can be used by foot traffic. over existing concrete slabs: bonded and unbonded.
However, heavier loads should be deferred for 28 days. Bonded toppings are relatively thin layers of material
that are bonded to, and rely on, the existing slab for
4.20.2 Toppings placed during construction their integrity, eg resistance to drying shrinkage and
(monolithic toppings) cracking. Unbonded toppings are separated from
Monolithic toppings are surface layers which are the existing slab, contain reinforcement and act as
applied after the base or structural concrete slab individual thin slabs.
has been placed, and while the concrete is still in its
Bonded toppings
'plastic' or workable state. This allows bonding of the
two layers as they set and harden together, effectively Bonded toppings can be classified according to
producing a single or monolithic element. their thickness. Ultra-thin toppings up to a few
millimetres in thickness (eg spray-on toppings)
Dry shake toppings are the most common type
and thin toppings up to about 10 mm in thickness
of monolithic topping used to provide a coloured
(eg trowel-on toppings) consist of mortar-type mixes,
surface (see Section 2.3.3). An alternative to casting
generally incorporating polymers and bonding
dry powder over the surface is to apply a thin layer of
agents. Pigments can also be added, or the surface
mortar to the surface Figure 183, either be trowelled
chemically stained after hardening similar to any other
or sprayed on.
cementitious material.
A surface layer of coloured concrete can also be
Thicker toppings in the range of 20 to 40 mm consist
placed as a monolithic topping. Because concrete
of concrete mixes containing coarse aggregates
surface layers/toppings have similar properties to the
to better control drying shrinkage – the thickness
concrete below, there is no limit to the thickness of
being a function of the aggregate size used. Typical
a concrete surface layer. Practically, the thickness is
hand mixes range from 1:1:2 (heavy duty) to 1:2:4
kept to a minimum to reduce pigment costs, with the
(lightly trafficked) cement:sand:aggregate. These are
minimum thickness usually governed by the maximum
mixed with a minimal quantity of water necessary for
aggregate size used.
workability.
For exposed aggregate finishes where expensive
The usual maximum thickness for unreinforced bonded
aggregates are required, placing the mix as a topping
toppings is about 50 mm. Beyond this, the topping
will usually be more economical than using it for the
will behave more like a thin slab and achieving an
whole slab. The procedure for placing such a 20- to
adequate bond to the existing slab becomes even
40-mm exposed-aggregate topping that allows a
more important to guard against delamination due to
water-washed finish is as follows:
factors such as shrinkage and curling.
> Place the base slab and screed it to a level 20- to
40-mm below the finished level. Toppings are placed on a rough surface, which is
clean and sound. Old concrete surfaces, which are
> Prepare a topping mix in the proportions (by
dusting or spalling, should have all loose material
volume) 1 part cement: 1.5 parts sand: 3 parts
removed until a sound surface is obtained. Smooth
aggregate (and pigments if required) and just
concrete should have the surface roughened to
enough water for workability. Alternatively, order a
provide a key for the new topping. Water blasting
special premixed concrete.
or captive shot blasting is preferable to scabbling,
because scabbling tends to produce a weak base

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 87

layer. On a prepared surface the coarse aggregate Because unbonded toppings do not rely on the
should be visible. Note that any paint on the surface substrate to control shrinkage and hence cracking,
should also be removed as this could affect the bond. a layer of reinforcing mesh (typically SL62) should
The surface should be hosed and scrubbed with be provided for crack control. Note that durability
a stiff broom to remove all dust and foreign matter requirements may govern the concrete strength
(eg grease, oil) before placing the new concrete. A (minimum N32 with a 100-mm slump recommended)
suitable bonding compound should be used. These and minimum topping thickness. The topping should
range from cement slurries, acrylic latex products, be cured for a minimum of 3 days, preferably 7 days.
styrene-butadiene products to epoxy bonding agents. Joints should be provided as recommended in
Common PVA- or water-based bonding products Section 4.19.
should not be used externally as they may break
down over time with exposure to moisture.
4.21 Drying of Concrete Slabs
Generally, reinforcement is not used when the
An important but often overlooked aspect of
topping thickness does not exceed 50 mm. However,
flatwork construction where moisture-sensitive
depending on the thickness, SL42 mesh can be
sealers and coatings are to be applied to the
positioned 20 mm from the top of the slab (supported
concrete surface, is allowing the concrete to dry
on bar chairs) to help control shrinkage cracking.
sufficiently prior to their application. Adequate
Polypropylene or steel fibre reinforcement may also
drying may take months not weeks, and the
be used.
construction schedule must allow for this.
Levelling compounds are a form of bonded topping
Depending on the type of sealer or coating and
typically less than 10 mm in thickness. They are
its permeability, the timing of the application may
mixed with water and screeded onto the concrete
be critical to its performance. This is because the
surface. They can be applied in thicknesses as little
moisture level within the concrete may affect the initial
as 1 mm. Some self-levelling products require little
bond to the concrete and result in blistering either
finishing. It is essential to follow the manufacturer’s
initially or over the longer term.
recommendations about the product’s application.
Further information on moisture within concrete slabs
All joints in the original slab should be duplicated in
including sources, the drying process and time
the topping slab to maintain movement control.
required, reducing drying times, various test methods
The topping should be cured for a minimum of 3 days, and the effects of moisture on various floor finishes
preferably 7 days. and coatings can be found in Moisture in Concrete39.

Unbonded toppings
4.22 Tolerances
If toppings greater than 50 mm in thickness are
required, then a separate unbonded reinforced A common misconception is that specifying the
topping should be considered. In reality, unbonded flatwork to be in accordance with AS 3610 and
toppings are essentially thin new slabs but referred AS 3600 guarantees that reasonable tolerances will
to as toppings because they are placed over existing be achieved for the surface of the slab. However,
concrete. since neither of these standards covers the quality of
unformed surfaces, if surface levels and flatness are
While these toppings are typically used for
important, tolerances for these must be specified in
waterproofing applications by allowing the installation
the project documentation.
of a polythene sheet or other waterproof membrane,
they also provide a useful means of topping existing Flatwork can not be constructed perfectly flat or
timber or concrete floors. The greater thickness allows level. Neither can the formwork used for edges and
the use of up to 14-mm aggregate. steps be located exactly in the required position or
at the exact level required. The tolerances specified
A plastic membrane is typically used as a
define the acceptable variations from the specified
bond-breaker to separate or 'unbond' the new
values or performance levels. They are provided to
topping from the old or existing concrete. To allow
ensure that the finished concrete surface is suitable
cover to the reinforcement and minimise curling
for the application and/or intended function while
problems a thickness of about 70 to 75 mm is
acknowledging that some degree of variation is
recommended. Toppings that exceed 75 mm in
inherent in all building work. Tolerances must be
thickness should be regarded as new concrete slabs
specific for the application and be reasonable, ie both
and designed and reinforced accordingly.
achievable and able to be checked in the field using
the available techniques and at an acceptable cost.

88 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

The method of specifying and assessing tolerances Compliance with flatness and levelness tolerances
for a concrete surface will depend on whether it is a should be checked within 72 hours and prior to
formed or unformed surface. activities such as stressing, formwork stripping and
Formed surfaces are those which use formwork to application of surface finishes such as abrasive
provide shape and texture/finish to the concrete. For blasting that may affect the levels and/or flatness
flatwork, formed surfaces are typically vertical edges achieved.
required to retain the plastic concrete. Examples A performance approach, where the class of surface
include slab edges, joints, setdowns, upstands, finish for formed surfaces and actual acceptable
steps between levels and openings/penetrations for variations for flatness and levelness are stated should
services, stairs, lifts, etc. be adopted for the specification of tolerances. How
The required quality of a formed surface can be these are achieved is a matter for the contractor.
easily specified by nominating one of five classes of However, the more stringent the tolerances specified,
formwork finish detailed in AS 3610. For each class the more critical will be good communication between
tolerances are given for a range of physical and all parties so that suitable construction methods and
aesthetic surface finish properties. The appropriate procedures can be adopted to achieve the outcome
class depends on the application. For exposed required.
edges a Class 3 surface finish would generally be Realistic tolerances for the majority of flatwork are:
specified, with the higher Class 2 specified only for > Formed surfaces. Class 3 finish in accordance
more aesthetically demanding situations. Class 1 with AS 3610.
finishes (the highest quality) are typically never
> Flatness. Maximum deviation from a 3-m straight-
specified in relation to flatwork construction because
edge placed anywhere on the surface: 12 mm.
of the difficulty in achieving them with this form of
construction. If the edge is concealed (eg by soil or > Levelness. Surface level to be within ±10 mm of
finishes) a Class 4 surface finish may suffice. Class the specified level.
5 should not be specified for slab edges as AS 3610 More-stringent tolerances may be required for
contains no minimum requirements for the quality some applications such as polished concrete floors
of the surface. Further information on the various where the reflection from the surface may highlight
classes of surface finish, the applications for which undulations in the finish, and warehouse slabs
each apply, required tolerances and checking the for high-bay storage where flatter finishes may be
off-form concrete surface finish for compliance can required for efficient operation of special fork lift trucks.
be found in AS 3610.
Note that more stringent tolerances may be recom-
Unformed surfaces are those that do not require mended within some industry guides. In the Guide to
formwork to provide either shape or finish to the Standards and Tolerances9 the following guidance is
surface, eg the top surface of slabs or pavements. given: 'Except where documented otherwise, new
The two properties that should be specified are the floors are defective if within the first 24 months they
flatness and levelness of the surface. differ in level by more than 10 mm in any room or
The flatness is the deviation of the surface from a area, or more than 4 mm in any 2-m length. The
straight line joining two points on the surface. It is overall deviation of floor level to entire building
commonly measured using a 3-m straightedge which footprint shall not exceed 20 mm.' Further, that;
can be placed anywhere on the slab in any direction. 'Finished Floor Levels (FFL) or Reduced Levels (RL)
The deviation is the maximum gap between the are defective where they depart from the documented
straightedge and the concrete surface Figure 184. RL or FFL by more than 40 mm.' This highlights the
For larger areas specialist measuring equipment such need to specify what tolerances are acceptable within
as F-Meters Figure 185 can be used to reduce the the project documents, and if not documented,
time and cost of compliance checking. ensuring that those responsible for achieving the
Levelness (elevation tolerance) is the permitted finish are aware of the assessment criteria.
vertical variation of the surface from a fixed external Further information on tolerances including
reference point or datum. It is normally checked with recommendations for reasonable tolerance limits,
an optical 'level', but equipment such as F-Meters measurement, specification, achievement and
can also be used for larger areas. rectification can be found in Tolerances for Concrete
Note that the tolerances within AS 3600 are to ensure Surfaces 40.
only structural performance and will not ensure the
quality or appearance of the concrete surface.

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 89

 3-m straightedge

Maximum deviation measured

Figure 184
Testing of surface for compliance using a straightedge

Figure 185
F-Meter in use to check levelness

Figure 186
Honed and sealed concrete road pavement provides sufficient micro-texture
for adequate skid resistance at low speeds

90 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

Figure 187
Stencilled finish with fine aggregate trowelled into surface for skid and slip resistance

Figure 188
Stamped finish provided with sufficient surface texture to prevent skidding and slipping
on steep driveway

Figure 189
Honed concrete at 300 grit with penetrating type sealer applied.
Mean BPN achieved of 52 complied with Class W finish (required BPN of 45–54)

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 91

4.23 Skid and Slip Resistance For further information on the factors affecting skid
4.23.1 General resistance, measurement and details of the research
work by the CCAA refer to Skid Resistance of
Concrete flatwork is generally constructed for vehicle Decorative Concrete Paving 41.
and/or pedestrian use and must provide a surface
that is safe for the intended application. For vehicles, 4.23.3 Slip resistance
the surface must have sufficient skid resistance to
Most pavements will require both adequate skid
allow safe movement and access over often quite
and slip resistance. Slip resistance of floors and
steep driveways. For pedestrians, the concrete
pavements is a measure of the ability of the surface
surface must provide adequate slip resistance to
to resist accidental slipping by pedestrians – in
reduce the risk of slipping to an acceptable level
dry or wet conditions. While many factors such as
– particularly in wet conditions. For the types of
lighting conditions, fatigue, age and impaired vision
pavement covered in this guide, slip resistance will
may contribute to the risk of slipping and must be
typically be the more important consideration.
considered, the following information relates only to
4.23.2 Skid resistance the specification and construction of the concrete
flatwork surface.
Skid resistance relates to vehicles and is usually
described as the ability of a surface to provide friction It is important to consider the slip resistance offered
to a reference tyre or slider (usually measured wet) by the combination of finish, texture and sealer (if
and is dependent upon the pavement’s macro- and present). To provide some guidance on achieving
micro-texture. satisfactory slip resistance, numerous case studies
have been investigated (refer to Slip Resistance of
Micro-texture has greater influence on friction at
Polished Concrete Surfaces42) to determine what effect
the low speeds encountered in residential streets
variations in the surface finish, texture and sealer have
and driveways and is typically provided by the fine
on the slip resistance. Major findings include:
surface texture, ie the sand in the mortar content of
> Rougher textures generally provide higher slip
the concrete Figure 186.
resistance results.
To provide guidance on achieving the required skid
> Honed finishes up to a 300 grit generally comply
resistance, research carried out by the Cement
with a Class W finish in accordance with the wet
and Concrete Association of Australia on various
pendulum test provided a penetrating type sealer
decorative concrete pavements typically used
is used Figure 189.
for street and driveway applications suggests the
following: > Sealers that fill the surface texture/roughness
and form a film on the surface generally give
> Stippled, broom, wood float and exposed
unsatisfactory results if the surface is wet. The
aggregate finishes provided sufficient skid
use of a slip resistant additive in the sealer
resistance. Note that for driveways steeper than
is recommended if the surface can become
1 in 20 and up to the maximum 1 in 4 allowed
contaminated.
in AS/NZS 289013 the required BPN should be
calculated and compared to the results in the > Stamped and broom finishes give similar slip
report in order to select an appropriate surface resistance results as only the micro-roughness of
finish. the surface contributes to slip resistance.

> Caution should be exercised in using generic > Abrasive blast finishes can provide variable
products or descriptions such as stamped or results due to uneven removal of surface mortar.
stencilled finishes since their heterogeneous > Broom finishes provide greater slip resistance
nature could lead to wide variations in skid across the grain than along it. This type of finish
resistance properties. should therefore be provided normal to the
> Stamped slate and cobblestone finishes with a direction of movement if possible.
'smooth' surface did not provide adequate skid > The more textured stippled, broom, wood float
resistance. When using these types of finishes and exposed aggregate finishes all satisfied a
it is necessary to add more texture or greater Class W slip resistance. When using stamped and
roughness to the surface in order to provide the stencilled finishes, sufficient surface texture must
required skid resistance. Note that techniques be provided to ensure adequate slip resistance is
are available with both stamped and stencilled achieved Figures 187 and 188.
finishes to improve the surface texture or > Use of colour pigments in the concrete does not
roughness Figures 187 and 188. affect the slip resistance.

92 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

> Caution should be exercised with ramps and > Reinforcement. Locate reinforcement in the top
steep driveways as the slope may preclude the third of the slab to assist in controlling curling
use of particular types of finishes which may have moments.
low slip resistance when wet. > Plastic membrane. This will prevent drying from
Further information on the factors affecting slip the base of the slab and therefore increase the
resistance, specification, measurement, achievement, moisture gradient. Rapid drying of the surface
maintenance and improvement of slip resistance can should be avoided by commencing curing as
be found in Slip Resistance of Polished Concrete early as practicable and application of surface
Surfaces 42. coating or sealer should be considered to
maintain more-uniform moisture conditions within
the slab.
4.24 Curling
For critical applications such as very flat warehouse
Curling occurs to some extent in the majority of floors, factors causing curling should be addressed to
concrete flatwork and may cause problems if the ensure compliance with specified tolerances.
movement is excessive. An awareness of why curling
occurs, the factors influencing the extent of curling In assessing the need to rectify curled slabs, it is
and hence what steps can be taken to minimise important to realise that if moisture and temperature
curling when constructing concrete flatwork can gradients stabilise over time the extent of curling
assist to ensure the adequate performance of the will reduce, especially as creep of the concrete also
pavement. occurs with time. Thus, if time permits, reassessing
the situation in say six to twelve months may avoid the
The upward or downward movement of a slab’s need for repairs and possible disruption to operations.
corners or edges due to moisture and/or temperature Repairs should be considered only if the curling
gradients between the top and bottom surfaces of affects the performance of the slab in some way.
a concrete slab is known as 'curling' or 'warping'
Figure 190. The slab edges curl upwards when the More information on curling, the factors influencing its
top surface is either drier (shrinks more) or cooler magnitude, assessing the need for rectification, repair
(contracts more) than the bottom of the slab, and the methods and recommendations to minimise curling
curling moment induced by the differential moisture or can be found in Curling of Concrete Slabs 43.
temperature gradient is greater than can be resisted
by the weight of the slab plus any applied loads 4.25 Protection of Surfaces
Figure 191.
4.25.1 General
Generally occurring some time after placement, the
extent of movement is usually minimal (up to only Flatwork is often constructed in exterior environments
a few millimeters) and within the surface tolerance as part of larger projects and as such is often
allowed for most slabs. In severe cases it can be as exposed to the prevailing weather conditions both
much as 20–25 mm and slab edges and corners may during and after construction. Also, depending on
lift off the ground and stepping between adjacent the construction programme, completed flatwork
slab panels may occur. The areas typically affected may be used to provide access to the site and
are those within 600 to1500 mm of the free edges of for continuing construction activities. The need for
the slab. early use or loading of completed work can have an
adverse impact on both its appearance at the end of
Factors that can influence the extent of curling include: the project and its long-term performance. To ensure
> Slab thickness. Curling is reduced as the slab that concrete flatwork elements perform satisfactorily
thickness increases. Minimum 100 mm thickness and have a good appearance at the completion
is recommended. of construction works, protection from a variety of
> Concrete drying shrinkage. Avoid adding excess different sources that may result in damage may be
water on site which will increase the drying necessary. The three main areas are:
shrinkage and tendency to curl. > Weather conditions

> Wet subbase/subgrade. Moist environments > Construction activities

not only prevent drying, but may cause slight > Early loading.
expansion of the concrete thus increasing the
moisture gradient and curling moment/deflection.

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 93

 Drying shrinkage of surface Induced curling moment
layer causes tensile force
Slab weight
Lever arm

Compressive force induced Curling

in saturated concrete layer
resisting shrinkage

Figure 190 Figure 191

Curled slab edge of industrial Curling of slabs due to differential drying shrinkage
pavement

Figure 192 Figure 193

Protection of polished concrete floor using felt and plywood sheeting Cracking and spalling at
anchorages of post-tensioned
warehouse slab due to premature
stressing of the slab tendons

94 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

4.25.2 Weather conditions necessary to ensure that a suitable base is provided
The main factors affecting flatwork are rain, high and for the topping.
low temperatures and wind. If flatwork finishes are installed prior to completion
Heavy rain during concrete placement may increase of other work, the surface should be protected
the water-cement ratio resulting in problems such from damage and/or staining during subsequent
as lower strengths, higher permeability, long-term construction. Particularly with vehicles during wet
drying shrinkage and dusting surfaces. During or weather, staining from mud and clay tracked onto
immediately following finishing, rain may also affect completed slabs may be difficult to avoid. In this
the surface finish in a number of ways from causing instance limiting access during wet weather or
a stippled texture on the surface from the impact of providing suitable ground cover such as a gravel
large rain drops to washing away of the finish and/or layer to prevent pick up of clay and dirt may be
colour by runoff over the surface. options.

If rain is likely, the placement of concrete should With decorative finishes such as polished concrete,
be delayed. However concrete placement and protection from any subsequent construction activities
finishing usually occurs over many hours and weather is particularly important. The degree of protection
conditions can often change rapidly. The simplest will vary depending on the scale of building work
way to protect the concrete is to cover it (generally to be completed over the floor or pavement and
with plastic) and divert runoff away from the area. the likelihood of damage occurring. Methods may
Depending on the surface finish, the covering include covering with a soft material such as felt
may need to be suspended above the surface to carpet underlay or old carpet, rigid materials such as
prevent damage or discolouration of the surface (see plywood or a combination of methods Figure 192.
Section 4.17). Re-trowelling the surface after light rain The possibility that staining may occur from the
is usually sufficient to correct any minor damage that materials used to protect the surface must also
may have occurred. Note that if the surface appears be considered. A layer of plastic can be provided
wet (similar to bleeding) the water should be removed directly over the concrete surface to prevent staining
and not trowelled into the concrete surface, possibly from wet plywood (which should be softwood based)
causing abrasion, dusting and shrinkage problems. or other materials. Note that if the plastic is not fully in
Rainwater will often need to be removed from the contact with the surface, this may itself cause staining
surface to allow continuation of finishing, as the by providing non-uniform curing conditions for the
extra drying time may be too long to allow the proper concrete (see Section 4.17).
finishing of the already setting concrete. Typically a Consideration should be given to constructing
lightweight flexible hose dragged over the surface or flatwork at a stage where the risk of damage is
a squeegee will remove the majority of the water. The minimised. The trend towards the use of thin toppings
practice of hand-casting dry cement over the surface applied at the end of construction addresses issues
to soak up the excess water should be avoided. This such as the added expense of providing protection
leads to a surface layer that is substantially different during construction (and which may not completely
from the underlying concrete and as a result may eliminate damage) and the possibility that the
cause problems such as flaking and dusting surfaces. protection method used may interfere with the
If unforeseeable weather conditions occur after construction activities.
completion of work and the surface is either not
4.25.4 Early loading
protected or re-trowelled and as a result becomes
rain damaged, then rectification of the hardened Early loading may also result in damage to the
surface will be required. concrete surface. As a general rule, the concrete
should not be subjected to its design load until
Information on protecting concrete in hot and cold
it has reached its design strength. Lesser loads
weather conditions can be found in Hot-weather
may often be applied to the concrete after the
Concreting 26 and Cold-weather Concreting 27
minimum curing period but care should be taken
respectively.
not to damage the concrete surface, finish or
4.25.3 Construction activities cause cracking by actions such as transporting
heavy plant and materials over the surface, or
As noted earlier, providing the specified finish to a continued construction activities. Some examples
topping (placed late in the construction programme) of early loading include stacking and erection of
rather than to the slab itself minimises protection framing/formwork materials, stacking of pallets of
requirements. Even then, some protection may be bricks, blocks and other heavy materials on slabs,

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 95

traversing over newly placed slabs with equipment
such as backhoes, cranes and heavy trucks.
Early loading may also include actions such
as stripping of formwork and backpropping of
suspended slabs. Deflection under the dead load
of the slab plus any stacked materials may result
in increased deformations and possible cracking,
especially when factors such as the greater creep
deflection of lower strength concrete are taken into
account. AS 3610 provides guidance on allowable
stripping times for suspended concrete slabs.
Pavements often incorporate joints having dowels
and keys. If these are subjected to excessive loads
before the design strength of the concrete has been
reached, cracking and damage to the thinner slab
sections above such elements could occur.
Applications incorporating post-tensioning must also
be monitored carefully as premature stressing may
cause cracking around anchorages Figure 193.
Each specific situation should be discussed with the
design engineer to assess the impact of such actions
on the performance of the concrete, both in the short
and long term.

96 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

5 Assessment of > Off-form finishes. Typically checked for
compliance with the requirements in AS 3610 for
finishes the specific class of formwork specified. Aspects
of the finish which may require assessment
include blowholes, form-face deflection, face
steps, surface undulations, flatness and out
of plumb, along with any of the items from
Table 3.4.1 (in AS 3610) that have been included
in the project documentation.
> Honeycombing, grout loss and misalignment.
As these items are related to the appearance
Flatwork finishes can be assessed objectively only
of formed surfaces, AS 3610 requires that
if the project documentation makes it clear what is
for Class 1, 2 and 3 finishes such defects be
expected. Documentation should include 'Assessment
repaired in accordance with the requirements of
and Rejection Criteria' outlining what properties
Clause 5.6.5 (in AS 3610).
will be checked for compliance, the method of
assessment and the allowable variation from what > Surface tolerances. Both the flatness and
has been specified. This is usually achieved by levelness of unformed surfaces should comply
nominating specific items (type of finish, colour, etc) with the requirements specified in the project
directly, and the general matters (tolerances, etc) documentation (recommended) or, if not specified,
by reference to other documents (eg Standards). As any State or Local Authority requirements that may
noted in Section 4.1, if assessment and rejection apply. Most flatwork can be assessed using a
criteria are not specified, other (and possibly 3-m straightedge for flatness and an optical level
more-stringent) requirements may govern. for comparison with a fixed datum for levelness.
While larger areas such as warehouse floors can
Approved test panels, reference projects and
also be checked in the same way, the use of an
sometimes samples with a documented and/or
F-Meter to check both flatness and levelness
agreed level of variation can provide the basis for
is recommended to reduce the time and cost
approval of subsequent work. The construction and
involved. It will also enable a better assessment
approval of test panels is also usually specified – and
to be made of the more-stringent tolerances often
is highly recommended. If using a reference project,
specified for these types of applications. For
the effects of age (particularly on colour) should be
roads and larger paved areas not having smooth
recognised.
surfaces, the use of specialist equipment such as
When assessing finishes, consideration should a 'walking profiler' can considerably reduce the
be given to how concrete finishes may change work involved in compliance checking.
with time (especially for larger projects) and their
Tolerances should be checked within the first
sensitivity to variations in placing, finishing and
72 hours and prior to any subsequent surface
curing. All final work should be placed, finished and
treatments such as abrasive blasting and activities
cured in exactly the same manner as the test panel
such as formwork stripping and post-tensioning
if a realistic comparison is to be made. Also, the
that may affect the flatness and levelness. If using
timing of assessment is critical. If new work is being
an F-Meter for compliance checking of large areas
compared to a test panel made several months earlier,
or long slabs, it should be carried out prior to saw
continuing cement reactions, exposure and moisture
cutting joints.
may influence the appearance. This is particularly
relevant for coloured finishes where many variables > Grades and crossfalls. The maximum and
can influence the final colour. minimum grades of surfaces such as ramps,
driveways and parking areas should be checked
Once a mutual understanding of what is expected
for compliance with the requirements of the
has been established, the assessment of what has
Building Code of Australia, relevant Standards
been provided is relatively straightforward. On a
and project documentation in order to provide
typical project, the following aspects of surface
safe and, where required, disabled access. Any
quality may need to be assessed and any need for
drainage requirements should also be checked.
rectification of physical defects established.
Where slip and skid resistance requirements
have been specified, the grade of the pavement
should not exceed the value used to establish the
appropriate slip resistance class.

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 97

 Crossfalls (perpendicular to the direction of the The following guidance may assist in assessing
grade) should comply with the maximum values the acceptability of cracking.
allowed, eg AS 2890.1 requires the maximum — For residential pavements the maximum
crossfall in parking areas to be 1 in 16 (6.25%). crack width should not exceed 1.5 mm.
> Stepping. A reasonable maximum limit for the — The majority of standards and publications
vertical step between adjacent concrete slabs to recommend that a 0.3- to 0.4-mm-wide crack
minimise the risk of tripping is 5 mm. is visually acceptable.
> Ponding. Compliance with minimum gradients — To provide durability in severe exposure
and maximum tolerances should ensure that an environments, acceptable crack widths may
unacceptable depth of ponding does not occur on need to be less than 0.3 mm: the extent
exterior surfaces. Generally, ponding deeper than depending on the exposure.
10 mm should not occur more than 15 minutes — For unreinforced pavements, aggregate
after cessation of rainfall. interlock across the joint is lost when the
> Crazing. Crazing describes the very fine cracks crack widths are greater than about 0.9 mm.
which appear on the surface of concrete after it — A maximum crack width of 2 mm (from all
has been exposed to the atmosphere for some causes) is allowed in residential slabs and
time. Crazing occurs in the top few millimetres of footings. Note that due to the large variability
the concrete element and as such generally does of soil conditions across Australia, the
not constitute a structural problem. It is usually standard designs provided in AS 2870 are
acceptable. based on the principle that most slabs will
> Cracks caused by formwork movement. If there exhibit either no cracking or only hairline
is movement of the formwork, whether deliberate cracking less than 0.3 mm in width (ie visually
or unintentional, after the concrete has started to acceptable cracking), some slabs will have
stiffen but before it has gained enough strength cracking up to 1 mm in width, but only a few
to support its own weight, cracks may form. Such slabs will have cracking approaching the
cracks have no set pattern. Their acceptability or maximum allowed.
otherwise will depend on their location and extent. Based not only on the crack width, but also its
> Cracking. Cracks may vary from those causing depth and location, plus exposure and application
aesthetic problems to those that require repair. of the concrete element, an assessment should be
Cracks may be caused by a large number made of the load-carrying capacity of the member,
of factors but fall into two basic categories: ability to perform its designed function and effects
prehardening cracks (plastic shrinkage, plastic on other finishes.
settlement, formwork movement) and cracks in > Surface finish. The surface finish will generally
hardened concrete (drying shrinkage, flexural). be assessed based on a test panel constructed
Prehardening cracks are usually related to quality on site, a test area of the actual pavement that
issues and poor workmanship at the time of has been approved, other project or perhaps a
placement, and will generally occur either during test panel within a supplier’s yard (eg decorative
finishing, or within eight hours of placement. The stamped/stencilled finish). Items to be assessed
new pavement should therefore be inspected for may include:
cracks the morning after placement to identify if — Colour. Ensure colour is correct and uniform
any prehardening cracks have occurred, and the (if required). For stencilled finishes, grout
concreter’s advice sought regarding any remedial lines should be uncontaminated by coloured
work that may be necessary. surface hardener.
Any cracks that occur in the hardened concrete — Pattern. Ensure correct pattern used and
(typically from drying shrinkage and temperature pattern lines are straight. Adjacent sections
variations) usually become evident some time of work should have the pattern aligned.
(perhaps three or more days) after placement. It — Texture. Ensure correct texture and depth
is important to determine whether they have been and that it is uniform over the surface. For
caused by quality issues and poor workmanship stamped finishes check that the pattern is
(ie joints not installed properly or at the required continuous. Exposed aggregate finishes
locations), in which case they may need to be should have uniform aggregate exposure and
repaired, or they are part of the design, eg flexural therefore texture.
cracks.

98 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

 — Trowelled finish. Check if the surface contains repairs may improve the floor’s performance but
trowelling marks and assess whether these not be cost-effective. Areas not subject to forklift
are acceptable. Burnished finishes should traffic or other heavy loads may be acceptable as
display a surface lustre and be free of any they can usually be easily corrected by providing
trowel marks. a topping.
— Honed finishes. Aggregate exposure should > Contamination, staining or discolouration of the
be uniform and surface flatness maintained surface. Any foreign material such as dirt and
during grinding. Unless required as a feature, grime or other discolouration of the concrete
any blowholes should have been filled. (eg pinto concrete) that affects the finished
— Joints. These should have been positioned appearance of the surface may need to be
to line up with the pattern and, wherever removed or treated.
possible, not cut across it. Correct detailing If colour control has been specified, formed surfaces
should be checked prior to concrete can be assessed against the provisions in AS 3610;
placement. Check correct joint sealant and unformed surfaces will generally be assessed by
installation. comparison to some form of test panel. Cutting a
— Sealer. Check for correct sealer and small section (say 600 x 600 mm) from an approved
adequate preparation and application. test panel (if available) for transport around the site
> Dusting and wearing surfaces. If the surface may assist with the comparison with the actual work.
exhibits rapid wear or dusting, either the concrete In the test panel shown in Figure 131, the preferred
strength is inadequate for the application or 'target' areas have been identified and cut out to
quality issues during construction have resulted facilitate portability. Note that smaller sections of
in a weak and/or powdery surface layer. If the the test panel should be carefully looked after in the
cause is not obvious, the concrete strength same way as the actual test panel to ensure that a
can be checked. Generally, weak surfaces are reasonable assessment can be made.
unacceptable as they affect both the appearance For 'grey' concrete finishes, once the acceptable
and performance of the surface and should be 'colour' has been established from the test panel, a
rectified. tonal range should be agreed. The chart in AS 3610
> Flaking and blistering. A sound concrete surface for formed surfaces may also be used for unformed
should not contain any areas where a thin layer surfaces provided the project documentation
(small or large) has delaminated and 'flaked' off specifies an appropriate tonal range; a range of
the surface. 5 or 6 tones would be reasonable for flatwork. Note
that the approved colour of a test panel does not
> Slip/skid resistance. The surface should provide automatically become the middle tone in a range
the required slip and skid resistance. This and it could in fact end up being either the lightest or
is typically measured on site using the wet darkest tone produced.
pendulum test.
For coloured concrete finishes, defining an acceptable
> Curling. Areas within 600 to 1500 mm from tonal range in the documentation is difficult. This is
free edges should be checked for curling. In because each colour will have variations and the
assessing the need to rectify curled slabs, it impact of those variations will differ depending on
is important to realise that if moisture and the colour. Generally, only the colour and/or type of
temperature gradients stabilise over time, the aggregate can be specified in the documentation.
extent of curling will reduce, especially as creep The acceptability can be realistically checked only by
of the concrete also occurs with time. Thus if time comparison with approved test panels.
permits, reassessing the situation in say six to
twelve months may avoid the need for repairs and When assessing colour, all surfaces should be clean
possible disruption to operations. and the assessment should be carried out at an
appropriate time. Note that colours generally lighten
Suprenant and Malisch44 report that for industrial following curing, and may be affected (lightened)
slabs subject to forklift loads, movements by the presence of efflorescence on the surface,
less than 0.25 mm indicates acceptable joint particularly with dark colours.
performance and tolerable curling. Movements
between 0.43 and 0.76 mm (or greater) are severe Colour variations and their possible causes are listed
enough to cause deterioration three to four times in Table A2 of Appendix A.
faster than normal, while between these limits
(0.25 to 0.43), the slab is in a grey area, where

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 99

6 Repairs contaminants that may affect the bond of the
repair material.
> If colour control has been specified, then trial
patches should be approved prior to any more
extensive areas being repaired. The mortar for
minor repairs should contain materials (sand and
cement) as used in the original concrete. If 'grey'
cement has been used, substituting up to about
40% of the cement with off-white cement should
assist in matching the colour of the repair mortar
to that of the original concrete. Repairs with the
6.1 General
original mix will almost inevitably result in a darker
Repairs may be necessary where a surface fails to colour; as does the tendency to use more cement
achieve the minimum requirements for the specified to ensure bonding to the substrate. For larger
finish, has been damaged during construction work or repairs requiring a concrete mix, the same coarse
develops defects whilst in service. aggregate should also be used.
AS 3610 requires that repairs to off-form > Extensive repairs may require an edge/corner to
concrete surfaces satisfy a number of criteria be formed up. Forms used in this situation should
including structural strength, durability, adhesion, be similar to the original formwork.
appropriateness of materials and appearance; ie the
> Bonding is typically achieved by the mixing water
repaired areas should deliver the same performance
drawing cement particles into the surface of the
as the original concrete. While repairs to unformed
substrate, where cement hydration creates a
surfaces are not covered by Standards, the same
chemical bond. Bonding agents may be used to
criteria are applicable.
ensure adhesion to the substrate, particularly to
Careful consideration should always be given to high-strength concrete. High-strength substrates
whether repairs and remedial work will improve are generally relatively impermeable; this hinders
or worsen the appearance of the concrete. the movement of water, cement particles and
While it is possible to repair most defective or hence bonding.
damaged concrete, and repair procedures are
Bonding agents should be suitable for the
fairly straightforward and standard, they are often
application. For high strength concrete
expensive, especially where access is difficult. If
substrates, SBRs (styrene butadiene rubbers),
extensive repairs are necessary, consideration should
acrylic polymers or EVA (ethylene vinyl
be given to complete replacement.
acetate) emulsions may be used. For exterior
situations and other applications where
6.2 Physical Defects the concrete may become wet, PVA-based
products are not recommended, as they
Table A1 in Appendix A lists options for the
tend to re-emulsify in such conditions.
repair (where possible) of various physical
defects. References to CCAA Data Sheets giving Bonding agents should be mixed with cement
more-comprehensive information are also provided. or cement/sand mixtures to form a slurry. They
should be applied immediately prior to the repair
Some general recommendations are:
mortar/concrete, so that the adhesive slurry
> Repairs should be carried out by skilled and is still wet when the repair material is applied.
experienced tradesmen. Manufacturers’ recommendations should always
> Repair techniques should be established early in be followed.
the construction programme, preferably using any > Where proprietary repair materials are used for
test panels that have been constructed, and an colour-controlled finishes, trial repairs should be
acceptable standard established. carried out to assess the colour match.
> Repair should be undertaken at the earliest
possible opportunity in order to ensure that the
repair and the concrete are given the same curing
and/or other treatments. Note that it is essential
that the surface to be repaired is cleaned of any
form oils, curing compounds, sealers or other

100 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

6.3 Other Defects evaporates. Repeated dry brushing as the
> Concrete discolouration. Correction is difficult and deposits appear is likely to be the most
the older the concrete, the less effective are any successful treatment.
of the treatments. To lighten darker areas and — Hard, white, scaly or crusted deposits. These
achieve a more consistent colour, the following cannot be removed by water washing. High
may assist: pressure water jet is effective, sometimes
augmented with the addition of fine sand to
— Immediately and thoroughly wash of the
the water. Light sand blasting, where it can
concrete surface with water.
be used with care may be quite effective.
— Apply pure vinegar and allow to stand for However, sand blasting may change the
30 minutes before rinsing off thoroughly. texture of the concrete and in the case
A second application may be necessary. of coloured concrete may cause colour
— Special chemical treatments suggested by variations. It may therefore be necessary to
Greening and Landgren45 include: treat the entire area.
Apply a 10% solution of sodium hydroxide The controlled application of diluted acid
(caustic soda) for a day or two and then is effective in most cases. In some cases
thoroughly wash to remove the caustic such as calcium carbonate efflorescence, it
solution. may be the only way. As washing with acid
Brush a 20% to 30% water solution of may alter the texture of the surface and/
di-ammonium citrate onto the dry concrete or cause discolouration, treatment of the
surface. Continuously and lightly brush the entire area may be required to avoid such
treated area to maintain a uniform film of effects. To assess the impact, a trial area in
clear liquid on the surface. About 5 minutes an inconspicuous location should be treated
after application, the liquid on the concrete initially. The acid usually recommended
surface will start to turn into a white gel. More is hydrochloric acid, diluted one part of
water must be applied so the gel does not acid to 10 or 20 parts of water. The normal
stiffen or dry. Continue to stir and brush this procedure is to saturate the concrete with
coating around on the concrete surface for water, then wash or brush the area affected
about 15 minutes after gelation. Thoroughly with a diluted acid followed by good rinsing
clean all the gel from the surface with water with water. For coloured concrete, a more
and vigorous brushing. A second treatment diluted acid solution may be required, 2%
may be applied once the concrete surface acid is suggested (1 part of acid to 50 parts
is dry. After treatment, alternate wetting and of water).
drying can further improve the uniformity of If the surface is to be coated/painted, it
the surface. should be neutralised by washing with a 10%
solution of ammonia or potassium hydroxide
> Colour variations. Correction with dyes may be
or allowed to weather for one month.
possible, Mild-acid washes should be a last-resort
method of moderating colour intensity or colour Further information can be found in
variations and should be attempted only by Efflorescence46.
contractors experienced with the techniques.
Note that when using such chemicals, all required
safety and environmental protection measures
should be strictly observed.
> Efflorescence.
— Soluble lime and salt deposits. Many of
these can be removed by stiff-bristled brush,
especially if this is undertaken soon after
deposition. Brushed-off material should
be totally removed by vacuum cleaning or
other means. If dry brushing is not effective,
washing with water in conjunction with
further brushing should be tried. However,
washing with water may result in salt deposits
appearing again as the washing water

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 101

7 Maintenance The new sealer should provide the same level of
slip resistance as that of the existing surface. With
a build-up of sealer on the surface over time, the
original surface texture that provided slip resistance
can become filled and it may be necessary to
incorporate a non-slip additive (usually fine silica
dust) into the new sealer to maintain the required
level of slip resistance, refer Section 4.23.

Floor Polishes
Flatwork surfaces should be regularly cleaned to The regular application of floor polish provides
maintain the finish and ensure that properties such a wearing layer over the concrete surface that
as slip resistance are not reduced by contamination protects the original finish and should eliminate the
of the surface. Maintenance of concrete flatwork may need for resealing. The original floor finish shown in
also involve polishing or resealing the surface. Over Figure 183 has been protected in this manner for
time, dirt will become trapped within most porous over 100 years.
concrete flatwork surfaces.
The regular application of floor polish will reduce
surface roughness and therefore the slip resistance,
Resealing particularly of polished finishes. The reduced slip
resistance may be satisfactory for interior floors
Penetrating sealers rely on the abrasion resistance
that are maintained in a dry condition (dry floors
of the concrete surface for protection and should
will provide adequate slip resistance), but in other
require little maintenance over the life of the
situations it is recommended that the surface simply
pavement/floor. Those that form a film on the surface
be coated with a durable sealer and maintained with
(eg polyurethanes used for high gloss levels in interior
regular sweeping and cleaning.
applications) will be subject to wear and require
regular resealing. Referring to Section 4.18, the
work involved with resealing depends largely on the Cleaning External Pavements
type of sealer that was originally used. Epoxy-based
Three common cleaning methods are available to
sealers will require the surface to be roughened to
remove dirt from concrete paving surfaces. Note that
allow mechanical bonding of the new to old sealer.
for new concrete surfaces, the concrete should be
Wax-based sealers may require removal of the
hard enough to prevent abrasion and damage of the
old wax material to avoid a thick build-up on the
surface by the cleaning process.
surface within which dirt may become embedded.
For textured finishes such as slate and other rock > Water washing. Using a water jet from a normal
type patterns it may not be possible to roughen the hose or high-pressure water blasting to loosen
surface to allow mechanical bonding of the new and flush dirt from the surface is the most
sealer, so the original sealer should be selected common method. As very high water pressures
to avoid the need for this later on. If silicon-based are available from modern equipment care should
sealers have been used, other than resealing with be taken not to damage the concrete surface. The
another silicon product, it will be impossible to adhere procedure can be supplemented by scrubbing
further surface sealers, coatings, toppings and the surface with a stiff-bristled brush or broom.
coverings to the surface. > Detergent water cleaning. As above, except that a
Surface sealers wear in high traffic areas, generally strong detergent solution is used, and the surface
changing the appearance of the surface, ie the is thoroughly rinsed afterwards.
original gloss finish may be lost over time. Where > Steam cleaning. This is one of the most effective
possible, a sealer that can be dissolved or methods of cleaning a variety of stains and dirt
re-liquefied by the solvents in the new sealer should from a concrete surface. High-pressure steam
be chosen. This has the advantage that the new and cleaning is used in conjunction with detergents
old sealer can be spread evenly over the surface, or non-solvent emulsifying agents suitable for use
eliminating a thick build-up in areas not subject to in high-pressure steam cleaners. The surface is
wear. Alternatively, it may be possible to remove the again thoroughly rinsed afterwards.
old sealer prior to application of the new one.

102 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

A wide range of proprietary products are available flat surfaces having no debris. With the variety of
to assist with cleaning the surface and removal of materials available for brushes and designs of
various stains. Products should always be tested on machines, final selection may depend on actual
an inconspicuous area to assess the affect on the field trials.
finish and colour prior to general use over the entire > Hose cleaning. High-pressure water is suitable for
surface. As cleaned areas may appear different to dusty or doughy contaminants, with detergents
non-cleaned ones, cleaning of more than isolated added for greasy/oily contamination. This method
stained areas may be necessary to produce a should be used only on surfaces with adequate
uniform appearance. slip resistance when wet. Alternatively, the
Surfaces should always be cleaned as soon as cleaned area should not be trafficked until dry.
possible after contamination to prevent the spread > Wet vacuum. While suitable for liquid spills, drying
of the contaminant, avoid surface penetration and of surface may also be required.
reduce the cleaning effort involved. For example,
> Dry vacuum. Suitable for dusty contaminants,
if mortar spills or splashes are promptly removed,
especially on rough surfaces.
washing the surface down with clean water may be
sufficient to prevent surface staining. Once mortar > Sweeping. May spread contaminants and be
has hardened, the use of a dilute acid solution is ineffective on rougher floors and is generally not
generally necessary. recommended, especially in areas where airborne
dust may cause health issues.
> Scouring pad. May increases removal of
Cleaning Floors
contaminant but cause wearing of any surface
Unlike paved areas which normally have a textured coatings or sealers.
surface to provide adequate slip resistance, floors
> Squeegee. May spread greasy/oily contaminants
generally have smooth, or at worst, very lightly
and leave rougher surfaces wet.
textured surfaces. While the same cleaning methods
can be used for pavements and floors, the options for > Detergent. Used for removal of greasy/oily
cleaning the smoother floor (or pavement) finishes are contaminants. Manufacturer’s recommendations
greater. should be followed.
Most level polished concrete floors will have The selection of appropriate cleaning procedures
adequate slip resistance if clean and dry, the issue of will depend on the surface roughness, likely
preventing contamination or, if contamination occurs, contaminants and the size of the areas to be cleaned.
limiting its spread and effects should be considered. The recommendations of product manufacturers may
also influence the cleaning methods.
The main methods of cleaning floors include:
Generally, food preparation areas require a daily
> Spot cleaning. Paper towel or rag used to clean
wet scrub with hot water and neutral detergent.
up minor water-based contamination and prevent
Disinfectant may also be required. Other areas may
spreading.
require only a damp mop and spot clean daily, a
> Mop. Generally suitable only for smooth floors more extensive weekly clean with a mop and water/
having surface roughness < 20 μm. Floors detergent solution, and periodic machine cleaning
should be left dry, and mops should themselves at intervals of one to three months depending on the
be cleaned regularly. Simple mopping may not nature of the contamination. Some textured finishes
remove all greasy/oily deposits. may not be appropriate in such areas Figure 194.
> Machine. Scrubber-driers come in three main While each application will require its own cleaning
categories: rotary action, contra-rotating (two procedure, case studies of various pavements42
brushes in opposite directions) and cylindrical. indicate that a suitable procedure for public areas
They are an effective way to clean large areas but that gives acceptable slip resistance results is as
the type of cleaner must suit the floor surface and follows:
all areas must be accessible. The squeegee must
be able to recover all water, so their suitability > Spot cleaning using mops. Note mops are not
for rough or highly profiled surfaces should be recommended for general cleaning as they tend
checked. Contra-rotating machines suit areas to spread contaminants over the surface.
having recessed joints, small amounts of debris, > Clean daily (typically by hosing at night after
high levels of dust and irregular features, while trading) and high-pressure clean every one to
cylindrical machines are best for very smooth and three months depending on level of contamination.

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 103

 Figure 194
Textured finishes may be difficult to clean in some applications

More-regular hosing may be required depending rinsing (repeated as necessary) should follow.
on frequency of contamination during the day. For High-pressure water cleaning can also be used
carparks a yearly degreaser scrub may also be to remove the fungal growth, with chlorine bleach
needed. then applied over the surface and rinsed off
> Preferred method of cleaning is with an auto thoroughly.
scrubber fitted with squeegee and vacuum > Mortar stains. Staining due to, say, mortar
system in order to pick up contaminants from splashes from bricklaying operations may
the surface. For applications such as shopping be treated with a dilute acid solution as for
centres this should be done nightly, with other efflorescence – noting the risk of etching and/or
floors/pavements such as building foyers on a changing the colour of the concrete. In terms of
weekly basis if possible. the colour, the acid dissolves the lighter coloured
> Use of manufacturer’s recommended chemical calcium at the surface of the concrete and thus
cleaners will generally provide more-efficient tends to change it. If an acid wash is used on
removal of contaminants and better slip resistance. finishes with light and dark patches, a more
uniform colour should result. Further information
For further information on cleaning of floors to can be found in Removal of Mortar 47.
maintain, reinstate or improve slip resistance, see
Slip Resistance of Polished Concrete Floors42. > Clay soil. Scrub the stained surface vigorously
with warm soapy water and then rinse with clean
water. Stubborn stains may require scrubbing with
Stain Removal chlorine bleach, in which case the surface should
Apart from dirt and various contaminants, concrete be wet prior to applying the bleach and rinsed off
surfaces may be subjected to a variety of stains that afterwards.
affect the appearance. Procedures for removing some > Oil and grease stains. Soak up as much of the
common stains are: spill as possible to prevent spreading and to
> Efflorescence (salt deposits). Information on limit the amount penetrating into the concrete. A
the removal of efflorescence can be found in proprietary engine degreaser should remove the
Section 6. Note that if treatment by acid washing majority of oil/grease from the surface. This can
is necessary, this may change the colour as well also be removed with absorbent material such
as etch the surface of the concrete so a trial area as paper towels or cloths. For difficult stains, and
should be treated initially to assess the effect on an alternative to engine degreaser, is to cover
the finish. the area with a poultice of 1 part lime to 2 parts
mineral turpentine. Cover the area to about 50 mm
> Fungal growth. Vigorous scrubbing with chlorine
past the edges of the stain with a 5-mm layer of
bleach is commonly used. Surfaces should be
the paste, cover with plastic sheeting and leave
wet prior to applying the bleach and thorough
for 24 hours. Remove the plastic and scrape

104 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

 off the powder. It may be necessary to repeat
the process to remove any deeply ingrained oil
or grease that sometimes continues to rise to
the surface. Scrub with warm water and laundry
detergent then rinse with clean water at the end of
the treatment.
> Chewing gum. Scrape off as much chewing
gum as possible and then remove the rest with
a solvent such as amyl acetate. Alternatively,
solidify the gum with ice cubes and scrape off
as much as possible. Then apply a poultice
(use cat litter or similar inert absorbent material)
saturated with methylated spirits. Apply the
poultice to the gum and leave until dry. This
should make the residual gum brittle, making
removal possible with a stiff bristle or wire
brush. Finish by washing affected area with
hot soapy water, then rinse with clean water.
> Rubber marks. Use proprietary rubber-removal
compounds available from hardware stores.
Follow manufacturer’s recommendations and test
the product on a small area to assess its affect on
the concrete finish.
> Rust stains. Remove excess rust with a stiff
brush then cover the stain with a poultice (use
cat litter or similar inert absorbent material)
impregnated with a solution of 1 part sodium
citrate (also known as sodium tricitrate,
available from chemical suppliers and some
grain stores) to 6 parts warm water. Remove
when dry. Scrape off residue then scrub with
warm soapy water. Rinse with clean water.
Note that while colour variations and stains may be
corrected by using particular chemical cleaning
products and methods, for external paving the
bleaching action of the sun over time can even out
the colour and remove stains.
For further information and removal of other common
stains refer to Removing Stains from Concrete48.

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 105

8 Specification Checklist
Items that may need to be borne in mind in preparing
guidelines the specification include:

> Design
— Formwork design should allow for concrete
pressures without excessive deflection of the
form face.
— Falls to prevent water ponding on surface.
— Joints types, details and locations.

There are three broad approaches to the specification — Sufficient cover to any reinforcement to allow
of surface finishes, viz: for subsequent treatments such as tooled
finishes if required and stamping depth.
> by performance;
— Grades for sloping surfaces.
> by prescription (method); and
— Slip and skid resistance – specify test
> by a combination of performance and prescription.
method(s) and classification(s) from AS 4586.
Performance specifications for off-form finishes
— The finished surface level of any pavement
(ie edges of flatwork) may be based on the provisions
abutting a wall should be below the wall
of AS 3610 and Supplement 1 to that Standard. Refer
damp-proofing course, should not obscure
to Guide to Off-form Concrete Finishes49.
any weep holes or drainage openings, and
Performance specifications are also used for the should be graded away from the building.
majority of unformed flatwork finishes, eg steel — Gradient. The minimum gradient to allow
trowelled finish free of trowelling marks, stamped adequate drainage of the pavement should
finish equal to (specify supplier's product sample and be 1 in 100 (1.0%) for exposed areas and
colour), light broomed finish with trowelled edges. 1 in 200 (0.5%) for covered areas. The
Prescriptive specifications describe the method or maximum gradients and need for transition
technique which is to be used to achieve the required zones should be in accordance with the BCA
finish. Such specifications need to be complete and and AS 2890.1.
unambiguous if satisfactory results are to be obtained.
> Colouring concrete
Good communication between all parties responsible
— Cement type – off-white or white (default will
for achieving the finish is also important, as they
be normal grey).
must have a clear understanding of what is required.
Prescriptive specifications must be used for off-form — Fine aggregate – for subsequent treatments
finishes that involve anything other than the standard such as light abrasive blast that will expose
plain finishes included in AS 3610, such as textured, the sand, the type and source.
tooled or abraded finishes. Prescriptive specifications — Coarse aggregate – for subsequent
may also be necessary for special unformed surface treatments such as water washing, heavy
finishes. abrasive blast or acid etching, bush
A combination of prescriptive and performance in the hammering or tooling that will expose the
one specification may work if there is some objective stone, the type and source.
standard, such as a test panel, against which to — Stains, dyes and tints – colour, method
measure performance. of application, timing, preparation. (Note
that experienced applicators should be
employed.)
— Coating – specify product.
— Coloured sealer – specify product.
— Pigment – manufacturer and colour (from
colour chart). Method of application (integral
or as dry-shake). If a special colour has
been developed for the project, specify
manufacturer and sufficient details to identify
colour. Approval to be based on test panel.

106 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

> Floated finishes — Seeded surface – aggregate and coverage
— Hand or machine floated. (kg/m2).

— Type of float – wood, sponge, magnesium. — Method of exposure – water washed,

abrasive blasted, acid etched, set retarder.
— Patterns.
— Depth of exposure – for water-washed
> Trowelled finishes finishes up to one third of the aggregate
— Hand or machine trowelled. size. For abrasive blast and acid etched
— Type of trowel – steel, coving. finishes either brush, light, medium or heavy
— Acceptability of trowelling marks in steel exposure. Alternatively specify depth of
trowelled finishes. exposure in mm.

— Required patterns, if any, with coving trowel — Acid wash – 1 part acid to 50 parts water to
finish. remove slurry from stones.

— Acceptability of 'burn' marks in burnished — Acid etch – 1 part acid to between 10 and
finishes. 20 parts water or etching gels.

— Concrete strength – 32 MPa minimum — Set retarder – manufacturer, application rate

recommended for burnished finishes. and removal procedure.
— Sealant – colour to match aggregates.
> Textured finishes
— Cover to reinforcement – increase by depth
— Application – steel trowel surface prior to
the cement matrix to be removed.
applying broomed, tined, hessian drag,
stippled or sponge finish. > Honed finishes
— Concrete strength – 32 MPa recommended — Aggregates – as for exposed aggregate
for tooled, abrasive blasted finishes. finishes.

> Patterned finishes — Pigments if required – colour and dosage

rate (typically 1 to 2%).
— Colour (manufacturer and colour – typically
from colour chart). — Depth of grinding – from light grind to
improve surface finish to removal of the top
— Pattern (typically from sample panel or
to uniformly expose the coarse aggregates.
existing work).
— Timing – before or after construction of walls.
— Surface texture. Note that the surface texture
should have slip resistance appropriate for — Protection of finishes.
the pavement slopes in accordance with — Test panels.
AS 4586. — Cover to reinforcement – increase by depth
— Release agent for stamped finishes – powder of surface removed.
or liquid, colour. — Care needed when finishing to avoid tamping
— Joint types to avoid interference with the surface during screeding and locally
stencilling and stamping. settling aggregate which may result in
— Joint locations to be sympathetic to pattern. streaks in surface.

— Curing methods (to avoid discolouration). > Rock salt texture

— Concrete strength – 20 MPa satisfactory. — Concrete strength – 32 MPa recommended.
— Cover to reinforcement – increase by depth — Method – rock salt, stamping mat, roller.
of stamping. For stamped and roller specify product.

> Exposed aggregate finishes — Steel trowel surface to compact.

— Concrete strength – 32 MPa recommended. — Size of rock salt – 9.5 mm maximum

recommended.
— Slump – 100 mm recommended.
— Application of rock salt – 0.2 to 0.6 kg/m2
— Types of joints – preferable to avoid saw
depending on appearance required.
cutting at early age.
— Embed into surface – trowel or use 20 kg
— Aggregates – type, colour, shape, size,
roller (typical method). Rock salt not to be
texture, grading (gap graded recommended),
covered by mortar.
proportions if more than one aggregate is
being used.

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 107

 — Removal of rock salt – after 3 days curing, — Abrasive blasted. Sand or shot blasting (if
apply water to dissolve rock salt. not critical specify abrasive blasting), depth
— Cover to reinforcement – increase by size of of exposure of fine or coarse aggregate
rock salt used. (maximum one third of coarse aggregate to
be exposed), timing of procedure.
> Tolerances
— Acid etched. Typically, acid etching is
— For formed surfaces, specify the class carried out under factory conditions by
(typically 2 or 3) in accordance with AS 3610. experienced personnel. For paving elements
The tolerances attached to specific classes in, say, a precast yard, all that is required
have been shown to provide satisfactory is a performance approach where only the
finishes. More-stringent tolerances can be process and depth of etching/exposure of
specified if required but are generally not the aggregates need be specified. If carried
required for flatwork construction. out on site, the same approach may be
— For unformed surfaces, specify both the taken regarding the finish, with prescriptive
flatness and levelness of the surface. clauses added concerning acid type
Flatness by reference to the maximum (usually hydrochloric), concentration of acid
deviation from a 3-m straightedge or the 'F' (usually in the range 1:10 to 1:20 acid:water),
number system (eg FF = 20) and levelness procedure (thoroughly wet surface prior to
by reference to a fixed datum (eg ± 10 mm application and rinse off after etching) and
from design level) or by using the 'F' number compliance with relevant environmental and
system (eg FL = 15). For residential work and safety requirements/standards.
other smaller projects use 3-m straightedge — Coatings – ensure concrete is dry enough.
method (maximum deviation of 12 mm Specify that the relative humidity of the
typical). More-stringent tolerances may concrete is not more than 70% (use
be required for commercial and industrial hygrometer test to confirm). Qualitative
flatwork depending on the application, while tests to determine relative humidity (eg
specification by the 'F' number method is impermeable material sealed around edges)
recommended for larger areas to facilitate can be used only as a guide or to determine
checking. the appropriate time for quantitative testing.
— Specifying that tolerances for concrete
> Subgrade
members be in accordance with AS 3600
will limit deviations for items such as slab — Local soft material/spots and topsoil
thickness (5 mm for slabs up to 1000 mm containing grass roots and other organic
thick) and position of reinforcement. material should be removed from the area.
— Backfill service trenches with site material
> Subsequent surface finishes
or other material equal in strength to site
This applies only if subsequent treatment of the material and adequately compact to provide
surface or off-form finish is required. In this case the levels of strength and stiffness equal to
specification would normally become a combination subgrade material.
of performance and prescriptive. Formed surfaces
— Compaction of fill material – for residential
can be specified by the class of finish in accordance
applications may specify rolled or controlled
with AS 3610 (performance) and subsequent
fill in accordance with AS 2870. For
treatment such as exposed aggregate (prescriptive).
commercial/industrial applications, specify
Similarly, unformed surfaces will be specified by the
in accordance with AS 1289.5.4.150 for
basic surface finish (eg steel trowelled) and surface
cohesive soils (95% standard compactive
tolerances and then by the treatment/finish which is to
effort) and AS 1289.5.6.151 for cohesionless
be applied. Approval is generally by reference to an
soils (minimum density index of 65%).
approved test panel. Some items which may need to
be specified include: — Cement or lime stabilisation to be used to
improve strength/stability if required.
— Tooled. Type of tool (eg chisel type), depth
to which surface is to be removed and when — Protect any existing services (stormwater
the treatment is to be applied eg after curing and sewer pipes) from damage during
for a minimum of 28 days, once the design preparation.
strength has been achieved. — Trim to within +0 and –25 mm of specified
level to achieve minimum slab thicknesses.

108 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

 — If the subgrade is to have concrete placed — Identify non-critical areas of the actual
directly onto it, it should be in a damp pavement that can be used as test panels –
condition at the time of concrete placement. this is essential for assessing items such as
Any ponding water on the surface should be tolerances and will cost less than providing
removed prior to concrete placement. separate test panels.

> Subbase — Test panels should be indicative of the

actual work. They should incorporate the
— Specify if required – typically on highly
same concrete mix and placing, compacting,
expansive sites and where subgrade strength
finishing and curing techniques specified for
inadequate
the concrete work and finish.
— Material – roadbase or other low volume
— Time of assessment. All work should be
change material
assessed at the same time after placement.
— Thickness – typically 100 mm for residential
— Assessment and rejection criteria. Outline the
applications, as required for more heavily
variations acceptable for different aspects of
loaded commercial and industrial applications
the construction and finish, eg alignment of
— Compaction. For granular subbases, the dowels, depth of brooming, straightness of
material should be compacted in accordance formwork, uniformity of aggregate exposure.
with AS 1289.5.4.1 (minimum density ratio
— Repairs. Where possible, repairs should be
of 95% standard compactive effort). Note
carried out on the test panels and approved
that where testing to confirm adequacy of
prior to work being undertaken on the
compaction is not specified or deemed
completed pavement.
necessary, satisfactory compaction should
be achieved when the subbase is compacted — Samples. If samples are required prior to the
in maximum 100-mm-thick layers with at least construction of test panels, the number and
three passes of a vibrating plate compactor details should be provided.
or equivalent. — Portability of test panels. If test panels are
— The surface of the subbase should be finished to be saw cut into smaller panels (say 600 x
to tolerances that will allow the specified 600 mm) to allow transport around the site
minimum slab thickness to be achieved. this should be stated.

— The surface of the subbase should be in — Protection/storage of test panels. Test panels
a damp condition at the time of concrete should be protected until all completed work
placement. Any ponding water on the has been accepted.
surface should be removed prior to concrete > Formwork
placement.
— The class of off-form finish (Class 2, 3 or 4 in
> Test panels accordance with AS 3610 – specify Class 2C
— Time of preparation of test panels – a period or 3C if colour control is required). Specify
of 28 days prior to the commencement Class 2X or 3X if tolerances other than those
of concrete placement on site should be contained in AS 3610 for the particular class
sufficient to allow approval and construction of finish are required, along with any new
of further test panels if necessary. limits. Note that Class 1 is not intended or
recommended for flatwork applications.
— Aspects of the finish/work to be included in
test panels, eg colour, texture, joints, edge — Items from Table 3.4.1 in AS 3610 that may
formwork, positioning of dowels, patterns, be relevant for the application include:
tolerances, sealer, aggregate colour. Test panels – mandatory for Class 1 and 2
— Any testing required on test panels or samples, finishes and for Class 3 if colour control or
eg slip resistance, abrasion resistance. subsequent treatments have been specified.

— The size of the test panels – minimum 1000 x Form face span and direction of span – for
1000 mm recommended but larger ones slab edges formed up with plywood, Class
may be required to reasonably demonstrate 1 or 2 finishes have the option of specifying
combination of concrete mix and placement which direction the outer ply spans, ie
techniques (maximum 2400 x 2400). To vertically or horizontally. Typically it should
assess achievement of surface tolerances span between supports as this provides
even larger areas may be required. greater strength and less deflection.

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 109

 Distance between face steps – optional to (d) 50 mm to weakened plane control
specify for Class 1, 2 or 3 finishes. This limits joints. Where the mesh is continuous
the possible use of small or randomly sized at weakened plane control joints, the
pieces of formwork. 50 mm is measured to the ends of the
Repairs – the option not to repair is available cut wires.
only for Class 1 finishes. — Ensure the height of spacers or chairs allows
— Treatment at edges and corners, eg fillets. for any subsequent removal of the surface
required for particular finishes.
— Inspection of formwork prior to placement
of concrete. AS 3610 requires that formwork — Reinforcement should be fixed in position
for insitu concrete be inspected prior to by bar chairs or other suitable means at
placement to ensure (among other things) maximum 800 mm centres. For meshes
that it 'has the potential to achieve the having smaller diameter wires, closer
required surface finish'. Many off-form finish centres may be required to prevent
defects could be avoided by ensuring that a excessive sagging of the reinforcement
simple check of the form face is carried out during concrete placement.
prior to placement. — Splicing of reinforcement to be in accordance
— Requirements for stripping. with AS 3600. Generally, mesh should be
lapped so that the two outermost wires of one
— Marking of formwork (generally not
sheet overlap the two outermost wires of the
permitted).
sheet being lapped.
— Form release agent – specify a particular
— Reinforcement should not be continuous
product, that it be applied by experienced
through control joints unless 50% of the wires
personnel and that the application be
are cut at the control joint location to assist
in accordance with the manufacturer’s
in creating a weakened plane within the
recommendations. Alternatively, if the choice
pavement.
of product is left to the contractor, that it be
appropriate for the type of formwork and — Where the pavement surrounds another
finish required, does not affect the colour or structure such as a drainage pit or has a
adhesion of subsequent surface treatments (if re-entrant corner, trimming reinforcement
colour control or further treatment specified), should be provided unless an isolation joint is
that no change to the product is made during provided. Trimming reinforcement should not
construction without approval. be less than one N12 bar at least 1 m long.
Note that at re-entrant corners in residential
— All debris and water to be removed from
slabs, AS 2870 requires two strips of 3-L8TM,
forms prior to concrete placement.
one strip of 3-L11TM or 3-N12 bars (minimum
> Reinforcement length 2 m) placed diagonally across a
— Reinforcement should be used if the slab/ potential crack.
panel is of irregular shape, the length is — Use appropriate chairs for durability
greater than 1.5 times the width, or the joint requirements. Plastic tipped wire and plastic
spacing is greater than that required for an bar chairs may not be suitable for marine
unreinforced pavement (ie 30 times the slab applications (wharfs) as the plastic tip may
thickness) provide insufficient cover and concrete does
— Reinforcement should be located in the top not bond to plastic chairs.
half of the pavement. — Provide suitable chairs or bases/plates to
— Reinforcement should be provided with a prevent damage to membranes.
minimum cover as follows: — Provide adequate lap and fixing of
(a) 20 mm to the top surface for internal reinforcement.
applications > Concrete supply
(b) 30 mm to the top surface for exterior
Many decisions here will reflect the importance of
applications
the concrete to the required finish. A performance
(c) 40 mm to the slab edge or a formed approach where the concrete strength and method
joint (isolation, expansion, keyed control of delivery are specified (ie N32 concrete to be
joints) pumped) is satisfactory for most 'grey' flatwork
applications. However, for decorative flatwork where

110 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

properties such as colour or colour control, special > Concrete placement
aggregates and low slump mixes are required, a — Pump priming material to be excluded from
special class concrete will generally be required. In placement in completed work. For coloured
this case, the concrete strength (eg S32) along with work, the priming material (cement slurry)
the requirements that make it a special mix must should also be coloured, or sufficient
be specified. Some of the properties which may be concrete discarded initially to ensure that
specified include: the concrete incorporated into the work is
— Concrete strength grade. Typically N20 for uniform in colour.
common residential applications (higher — Protect concrete surfaces from adverse
strengths may be required for heavier weather conditions including winds, rain,
loads or in saline soils), N32 minimum for freezing and hot-weather conditions.
burnished floors and honed finishes (higher
— Place concrete at a continuous rate and
strengths may be required for commercial
consistently for each section of the work.
and industrial floors), N32/N40 where subject
to freezing and thawing (specify 'S' grade if — If placement is in layers, it should occur in
air entraining agent > 5%), S32 for exposed uniform horizontal layers (300 – 400 mm
aggregate finishes, N32 or S32 maximum for thick) and the settlement in each layer should
stained, dyed and tinted finishes. be substantially complete before the next
layer is placed, taking care to avoid cold
— Manufactured and supplied in accordance
joints.
with AS 1379.
— Place concrete as near as possible to its final
— Slump. If not specified, 100-mm slump will be
position.
supplied for residential floors.
— Avoid damage to form face from concrete
— Colour control (if required).
placement.
— Cement colour – off-white or white.
— Concrete should not be moved horizontally
— Pigments – manufacturer, type, colour (from or made to flow by the use of vibration (to
colour chart) and addition (plant or site). reduce risk of segregation).
— Placement method – pump or chute. — Concrete should not be dropped from a
— Application – premixed concrete suppliers height exceeding 2 m (to reduce risk of
often have special mixes for applications segregation).
such as patterned finishes. — Requirements for hot- and cold-weather
— Aggregate types, quantities, proportions and placement. Use of evaporation retarders,
whether gap grading is required eg exposed wind breaks and protection from freezing
aggregate finishes. for first 24 hours. Take precautions if the
— Bleed characteristics, eg low bleed for temperature is below 5°C or above 30°C.
patterned finishes. Concrete temperature at point of delivery
must be within the range 5 to 35°C.
— Consistency, particular slump if colour control
Commence curing as soon as possible.
has been specified.
— Concrete truck to be adequately cleaned > Concrete thickness
prior to batching where pigments are to be — Increase to allow for particular finishes
added. such as stamped (depth of impression) and
— Discharge time – maximum 90 minutes after washed/honed (thickness of surface mortar or
batching. layer removed)
— No excess water to be added on site. — Thickness may need to be increased to allow
use of particular joint types.
— Slump testing on site to determine
consistency of concrete, particularly if colour — In accordance with AS 3600 tolerances, ie
control has been specified. deviation from specified cross-sectional
dimension shall not exceed 1/200 times the
— Concrete to be adequately mixed.
specified dimension or 5 mm, whichever is
— Admixtures – specify if particular ones
the greater.
required.

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 111

> Concrete compaction > Formwork stripping
— Compact concrete thoroughly to remove — Time of stripping – earlier is preferred to
entrapped air – insertion pattern and rate of minimise risk of damage to off-form surface
compaction (m3/h/vibrator) will depend on and uneven curing due to gaps between
the unit being used 28. For vibrating screeds, formwork and concrete.
the rate of movement will be governed by the — May require minimum concrete strength
rate at which it can compact the concrete prior to stripping to avoid damage to edges,
(refer to manufacturer’s literature) corners and finish from stripping operation.
— For slabs thicker than 100 mm use immersion — If colour control has been specified, formwork
vibrators or vibrating screeds. stripping time must be consistent for all
— If using vibrating screeds compact edges elements. This may require scheduling of
using immersion vibrators. concrete placement.
— Additional compaction should be provided to > Curing
top 500 mm of vertical edges/downturns prior
— Curing method – forms left in place, plastic
to concrete stiffening to minimise formation of
sheeting, liquid membrane forming curing
blowholes.
compound (complying with AS 3799 52).
— If placed in layers, compaction by immersion
— Plastic sheeting–- lap and tape joints, seal
vibrators to extend about 150 mm into
and secure edges, minimise wrinkles or
previous layer.
suspend above surface, colour (clear or
— If compacting by vibrating screed the orange for exterior use).
slab thickness should not exceed that
— Water curing – water temperature should
which can be adequately compacted
not be more than about 5°C lower than the
(refer to manufacturer’s specifications)
concrete surface, keep surface of concrete
unless supplemented with other forms of
or hessian/sand covering continuously wet,
compaction, eg immersion vibrators.
ensure impurities do not stain surface if colour
— Damage to form face or joints from contact is important. Measures required to protect the
with immersion vibrators should be avoided. surface until it has hardened sufficiently and
> Finishing water curing can be commenced.

— Screed and finish the surface to the required — Curing compounds – specify type and
level and to within specified tolerances. that application and rate of coverage be
in accordance with the manufacturer’s
— Initially float the surface with a bullfloat prior
recommendations for the type of surface finish.
to bleedwater appearing.
Fugitive dyes to assist in assessing coverage.
— Final floating should be carried out after all
— Commencement – generally as soon as
bleedwater has evaporated.
possible after finishing.
— Do not float dry materials such as cement
— Decorative finishes – curing method to
into the surface (to soak up surface water).
minimise colour variations. If plastic sheeting
— Dry-shake toppings should be applied and
used for curing and protection, method to
floated into the surface after all bleedwater
avoid contact with surface to reduce risk of
has evaporated.
hydration staining.
— Compact the surface by steel trowelling
— Curing period (minimum 3 or 7 days
(a minimum 3 passes with a steel trowel is
depending on exposure classification).
recommended).
— For cold climates, control of temperature
— Do not add water to the surface during
during curing, ie to avoid freezing.
trowelling ('wet wiping') as this may affect
— If adhesives/coatings are to be applied
abrasion resistance.
to surface, remove all curing compounds
— Apply surface textures such as wood float
from the surface. If same-day sealers have
and broom finish (after steel trowelling).
been used, ensure they are compatible with
subsequent coatings/adhesives.
Also, if colour control has been specified:
— Curing procedure consistent for all areas/
elements.

112 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

> Joints (c) Widths – minimum 10 mm recommended.
— General Greater widths required depending on
spacing.
(a) To be provided where indicated on the
drawings (if available). (d) Dowels – size, length, spacing, profile
(eg circular, square, plate) and material
(b) To be constructed square to the finished
(eg galvanised steel). Fix in position to
top surface with a tolerance of ± 5°.
ensure adequate alignment and height
(c) The angle formed between joints or a within slab. Also, method to allow for
joint and the edge of the pavement movement, eg coat one half with bitumen
should not be less than 75°. and provide expansion cap or provide
(d) Joints should be continuous from edge to proprietary dowel sleeves to one side.
edge of the pavement and not terminate (e) Filler material – high-density foam or
within the paved area. self-expanding cork recommended.
(e) If joints are saw cut, specify the timing to (f) Sealant – type and application.
avoid random cracking, extent of ravelling
— Construction joints
(no greater than 20 mm in depth or width
adjacent to the saw cut), and cleaning of (a) Type – straight joint formed up to allow
surface before the residue dries. compaction and finishing of concrete.
(f) Concrete saws should have a maximum (b) Preparation – first-cast face to be
weight of 0.5 t. roughened prior to placing the adjacent
concrete.
— Control joints
(a) Type – formed, scoring of plastic > Sealants
concrete with a suitable tool, inserting — Type – manufacturer and product,
proprietary crack-inducing device or eg polyurethane, silicon. Ensure elastomeric
sawing the concrete. properties can accommodate expected
(b) Location – recommend maximum movement and use, ie sealants for road
spacing of 30 times slab thickness and pavements can be softer than those subject
to ensure longest dimension of slab to pedestrian (and possible high-heel) usage.
panel is no more than 1.5 times shortest — Sealant width and depth. The depth of the
dimension. Spacing may be increased sealant should not be less than half the width
but risk of cracking also increases. of the joint and not more than the width of the
(c) Depth – one-quarter to one-third of the joint.
pavement thickness. — Use of backing rod or other material to
(d) Sealant – typically not required but may control joint depth.
be necessary in food preparation areas, — Sealant to be applied in accordance with
to improve appearance, hygiene and manufacturer’s recommendations in respect
assist with cleaning. of preparation (eg clean and dry), priming of
surfaces, temperature (eg not less than 5°C),
— Isolation joints
adhesion to the sides of the joint.
(a) Location – provide where a pavement
— Timing of application – should not occur
adjoins a building or other rigid structure
when the joint is either at its narrowest
such as a drainage pit or access hole.
(shortly after construction on hottest day) or
(b) Width – typically 10 mm.
widest (coldest day after drying shrinkage)
(c) Filler material – high-density foam or unless joint width and properties of material
self-expanding cork recommended. can accommodate the maximum elongation
(d) Extend the full depth of the pavement. or contraction possible. The concrete should
(e) Sealant – type and application. be fully cured and have reached its design
strength.
— Expansion joints
— Backfilling against edges should not occur
(a) Type – straight or keyed
until the sides of isolation and expansion
(b) Location – recommended at maximum 6-m joints have been sealed.
centres for pavements less than 100 mm
— The joint should be protected from traffic until
thick and at maximum 15-m centres for
the sealant has gained sufficient strength.
pavements 100 mm thick or greater.

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 113

> Sealers > Cleaning
— Sealer type, eg solvent- or water-based, — Water washing (ensure water pressure is not
same-day followed by final sealer, such as to damage finish).
penetrating or surface film forming, allow — Use of detergents or chemicals. Evaluate
bonding of subsequent coatings/finishes. effect on finish (texture and colour) by
Specify manufacturer and product. application to test panel or inconspicuous
— Colour (if required). If pigmented, ensure area prior to general use.
colourfast for exterior applications and where — Procedures for removal of particular stains.
exposed to sunlight. Either specify products and procedures
— Extent of sealed area. or require contractor to submit these for
— If colour control has been specified for large approval prior to any work being undertaken.
areas, same sealer to be used throughout Procedures can be evaluated on test panel.
project. — Efflorescence. Specify how this is to be
— Applied by experienced personnel in dealt with, eg removed on occurrence by
accordance with the manufacturer’s scrubbing and rinsing with fresh water only,
recommendations. or perhaps left to the end of the defects
liability period.
— Compatible with other materials, eg sealants.
— Use of acid-based cleaners/products that
> Protection of finishes may etch the surface should be avoided.
— Concrete should be protected from traffic Acids such as oxalic acid should not affect
until the end of the curing period or until the the finish but trials on the test panel should
concrete has reached a minimum strength of always be used to confirm the suitability and
15 MPa. dilution ratio of products and their effect on
— Protection of finishes from cementitious slurry/ the colour.
spoil, eg grinding surfaces, placing concrete — Hydrochloric acid (also known as muriatic
above. acid) should be used as a last resort. A less
— Protection of concrete following removal of dangerous acid that will perform equally well
formwork. under most circumstances is phosphoric
— Protection until subsequent construction work acid, which is typically found in a variety of
is complete. concrete and grout cleaners.

— Protection from freezing. — All surfaces to be thoroughly rinsed after any

cleaning operation.
> Assessment
> Safety
— Time of assessment.
— Use appropriate safety equipment
— Measurement criteria.
to minimise exposure to dust, noise,
— Comparison to test panels. wet concrete and other chemicals
— Allowable variations. (eg hydrochloric acid).

> Repairs — Use correct lifting, handling and work

procedures to avoid effects such as muscle
— Procedures for minor and major repairs.
strains and back pain.
— Criteria for acceptance/rejection, eg colour
— Implement work methods to avoid/reduce risk
match, finish.
of loose objects falling on workers heads or
— Trial repairs to test panel for approval.
equipment being dropped on their feet.
— Repairs to be completed as soon as possible
— Ensure site is safe for delivery of materials.
to provide same curing conditions as
remainder of work.
— Repairs to be carried out prior to any
subsequent surface treatment.
— Repairs to be carried out by suitably qualified
and experienced personnel.

114 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

9 References 18 Timms, AG Evaluating Subgrade Friction-
Reducing Mediums for Rigid Pavement Research
Record No. 60, pp 28–38 National Research
Council, Highway Research Board, 1964.
19 Fibres in Concrete, Current Practice Note 35
Concrete Institute of Australia, 2003.
20 Guide to Concrete Construction (T41/HB64),
Cement & Concrete Association of Australia/
Standards Australia, 2002.
21 Guide to Concrete for Housing, (T53), Cement
1 AS 3972 Portland and blended cements Concrete & Aggregates Australia, 2007.
Standards Australia.
22 Industrial Floors and Pavements – Guidelines
2 The Specification of Burnished Concrete Finish for design, construction and specification (T48),
Data Sheet, Cement & Concrete Association of Cement & Concrete Association of Australia, 1997.
Australia, 2003.
23 Guide to Residential Slabs and Footings in
3 Exposed Aggregate Finishes for Flatwork Saline Environments (T56), Cement Concrete &
Briefing–02, Cement Concrete & Aggregates Aggregates Australia, 2005.
Australia, 2007
24 AS 1379 Specification and supply of concrete
4 The Specification of Honed Concrete Finish Standards Australia, 1997.
Data Sheet, Cement & Concrete Association of
25 Permeable Concrete Pavements Data Sheet,
Australia, 2003.
Cement & Concrete Association of Australia, 2004.
5 Polished Concrete Floors Briefing 05, Cement
26 Hot-weather Concreting Data Sheet Cement
Concrete & Aggregates Australia, 2006.
Concrete & Aggregates Australia, 2004.
6 AS 2758.1 Aggregates and Rock for Engineering
27 Cold-weather Concreting Data Sheet Cement
Purposes – Concrete Aggregates, Standards
Concrete & Aggregates Australia, 2004.
Australia.
28 Compaction of Concrete Data Sheet Cement
7 Rock Salt Texturing Data Sheet, Cement &
Concrete & Aggregates Australia, 2006.
Concrete Association of Australia, 2002.
29 Compaction of Concrete Road Pavements Road
8 AS/NZS 4671 Steel Reinforcing Materials,
Note 63, Cement & Concrete Association of
Standards Australia/Standards New Zealand.
Australia, 2002, pp 7–9.
9 Guide to Standards and Tolerances, Victorian
30 Curing of Concrete Data Sheet, Cement Concrete
Building Commission, 2007.
& Aggregates Australia, 2006.
10 NSW Department of Environment and
31 Sealers for Exposed Concrete Flatwork Data Sheet,
Conservation Environmental Best Management
Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia, 2003.
Practice Guideline for Concreting Contractors.
32 Davis, AJ and MacDonald, A Joint Load Transfer
11 Building Code of Australia, Australian Building
Model Tests for Industrial Ground Supported Slabs
Codes Board.
Proceedings, Concrete Institute of Australia, 21st
12 AS 3610 Formwork for concrete Standards Biennial Conference, Brisbane, pp 797–807.
Australia.
33 Building Technology File (BTF) 18 Foundation
13 AS/NZS 2890.1, Parking facilities Part 1: Off-street Maintenance and Footing Performance: A
car parking, Standards Australia/Standards New Homeowner’s Guide, CSIRO (formerly Information
Zealand, 2004. Sheet 10–91).
14 AS 3600 Concrete structures Standards Australia. 34 European Standard EN 1992-1-1:2004 (E),
15 AS 2870 Residential slabs and footings – Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures –
Construction Standards Australia. Part 1-1: General rules and rules for buildings,
Table 7.1N
16 Concrete Masonry Association of Australia website
www.cmaa.com.au. 35 Miltenberger, MA and Attiogbe, EK Shrinkage-
Based Analysis for Control-Joint Spacing
17 AS 3798 Guidelines on earthworks for commercial
in Slabs-on-Ground ACI Structural Journal,
and residential developments Standards Australia,
May–June 2002, pp 352–359.
2007.

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 115

36 American Concrete Institute, Joints in Concrete 52 AS 3799 Liquid membrane-forming curing
Construction, Chapter 5 – Slabs-on-grade – compounds for concrete, Standards Australia.
Clause 5.2.4.1 Aggregate Interlock, ACI 53 Dusting Concrete Surfaces Data Sheet, Cement
224.3R-95, ACI Manual of Concrete Practice, Concrete & Aggregates Australia, 2005.
Volume 2, 2007, pp 224.3R-21
54 Flaking Floors Data Sheet, Cement & Concrete
37 Potter, RJ Cracking in residential slab-on-ground Association of Australia, 2001.
floors and footings Cement & Concrete
55 Popouts Data Sheet, Cement & Concrete
Association of Australia, 1995.
Association of Australia, 2001.
38 Residential Concrete Driveways and Paths Data
56 Honeycombing Data Sheet, Cement & Concrete
Sheet, Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia,
Association of Australia, 2001.
2006.
57 Blowholes (Bug Holes) Data Sheet, Cement &
39 Moisture in Concrete (and Moisture-sensitive
Concrete Association of Australia, 2001.
Finishes and Coatings) Data Sheet, Cement
Concrete & Aggregates Australia, 2007. 58 Plastic Settlement Cracking Data Sheet, Cement
Concrete & Aggregates Australia, 2005.
40 Tolerances for Concrete Surfaces Data Sheet,
Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia, 2005. 59 Plastic Shrinkage Cracking Data Sheet, Cement
Concrete & Aggregates Australia, 2005.
41 'Skid Resistance of Decorative Concrete Paving',
Road Note 62, Cement & Concrete Association of 60 Avoiding Early Cracking Data Sheet Cement
Australia, 2002. Concrete & Aggregates Australia, 2005.
42 Slip Resistance of Polished Concrete Surfaces 61 Early-age Shrinkage of Concrete Data Sheet,
Data Sheet, Cement Concrete & Aggregates Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia, 2005.
Australia, 2006. 62 Drying Shrinkage of Cement and Concrete Data
43 Curling of Concrete Slabs Data Sheet, Cement Sheet P6, Cement & Concrete Association of
Concrete & Aggregates Australia, 2006. Australia, 2002.
44 Suprenant, BA and Malisch, RW 'Repairing curled 63 Crazing Data Sheet, Cement & Concrete
slabs' Concrete Construction, Vol. 9, May 1999, Association of Australia, 1999.
pp 58–65. 64 Slab Edge Dampness and Moisture Ingress Data
45 Greening, NR, and Landgren, R, Surface Sheet, Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia,
Discoloration of Concrete Flatwork, Research 2005.
Department Bulletin RX203, Portland Cement
Association, 1966, 17 pages.
46 Efflorescence Data Sheet, Cement Concrete &
Aggregates Australia, 2006.
47 Removal of Mortar Data Sheet H10, Cement &
Concrete Association of Australia, 2001.
48 Removing Stains from Concrete Data Sheet H5,
Cement & Concrete Association of Australia, 1999.
49 Guide to Off-form Concrete Finishes (T57),
Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia, 2007.
50 AS 1289.5.4.1 Methods of testing soils for
engineering purposes – Soil compaction and
density tests – Compaction control test – Dry
density ratio, moisture variation and moisture ratio,
Standards Australia, 2007.
51 AS 1289.5.6.1 Methods of testing soils for
engineering purposes – Soil compaction and
density tests – Compaction control test – Density
index method for cohesionless material, Standards
Australia, 1998.

116 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

10 Further
Information

> Harris, Bob, Bob Harris’ Guide to Stained

Concrete Interior Floors, The Bob Harris
Decorative Concrete Collection, Decorative
Concrete Institute, 2004.
> Kosmatka, Steven H. and Collins, Terry C.,
Finishing Concrete Slabs with Color and Texture,
PA 124, Portland Cement Association, Skokie,
Illinois, 2004.
> Guide to Residential Streets and Paths, T51,
Cement & Concrete Association of Australia, 2004
> Guide to Residential Floors, T49, Cement &
Concrete Association of Australia, 2003.
> Concrete Slabs as Barriers to Subterranean
Termites, Data Sheet, Cement Concrete &
Aggregates Australia, 2004.
> Slab Edge Dampness and Moisture Ingress, Data
Sheet, Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia,
2005.
> Concrete Floor Heating, Briefing 07, Cement &
Concrete Association Australia, 2002.
> Passive Solar Design, Briefing 09, Cement &
Concrete Association of Australia, 2003.
> Energy Efficiency in Building Regulations and the
Use of Concrete in Housing, Data Sheet, Cement
Concrete & Aggregates Australia, 2004.
> Climate responsive house design with concrete
(T58), Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia,
2007

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 117

Appendix A
Physical defects
and colour variations

Table A1 Physical defects in concrete flatwork, their causes and repair options

defect probable cause(s) repair options

Dusting53 Concrete mix > Apply a chemical surface

Inappropriate concrete strength hardener or dust inhibitor if the
Addition of excess water problem is not too severe. Typical
Ambient conditions products include lithium, sodium
Rainwater on surface or potassium silicates. Because
Freezing of the surface they react with the calcium
hydroxides to form compounds
Finishing
that assist to strengthen the
Premature (while still bleeding)
surface layer, they are generally
Excessive use of water
applied after 28 days.
Use of dry cement on surface
Over trowelling > Grind of the surface down to
Low strength surface layer marked concrete of sufficient strength.
Applying textures to moist concrete
by an accumulation of fine material
Wet wiping finishing of the surface > Apply a topping.
requiring to be swept up after the
floor has been used. Curing
Inadequate
Compaction
Inadequate

Flaking54 Concrete mix > Grind surface and apply a sealer.

Use of retarders > Remove delaminated areas
Application and apply a topping or epoxy
Applying coloured topping after coating.
the concrete has set resulting in
poor bond
Finishing
Too early
Use of driers (cement or dry-shake
topping) to absorb bleed water

Discrete pieces of the surface Ambient conditions

(usually flat) become detached Hot, dry, or windy conditions
as a result of bleed water trapped
beneath the surface layer leaving a
rough indentation behind.

Blistering Refer Flaking above

Low-profile bumps in the
concrete surface.

continues

118 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

Table A1 continued

defect probable cause(s) repair options

Popouts55 Concrete > Accept variation in surface

Expansion of deleterious appearance/tolerances.
aggregate particle close to the > Fill holes with mortar.
surface
Concrete mix
Particles known to cause
popouts such as pieces of wood,
clay and coal
Alkali reactive aggregates
Low strength concrete
Roughly conical depressions in
Compaction
the concrete surface created
Inadequate compaction
by localised pressure within the
concrete from expansion of a Curing
deleterious aggregate particle or Inadequate curing
freezing of water absorbed by an Ambient conditions
aggregate particle. They generally Concrete subject to freezing
occur after some time.
Small < 10 mm
Medium >10 and < 50 mm
Large > 50 mm

Crusting Concrete > Accept cracked surface.

Use of retarders > Fill with a matching coloured
Ambient conditions mortar.
Hot, dry, or windy conditions
Finishing
Surface dries too rapidly
Stamping undertaken too late

Surface dries forming a crust that is

unable to deform without cracking
during the stamping process.
Usually occurs at locations where
deep depressions are stamped into
the concrete surface.

Honeycombing56 Formwork > Square off any tapered edges

Leaking joints and deepen shallow holes to a
Holes and gaps present minimum of 5 mm.
Concrete mix > Remove all loose material.
Insufficient fines > Fill with mortar.
Workability too low
Placing methods
Segregation occurs
Compaction
Inadequate
Coarse stoney surface with air Detailing
voids, lacking in fines. Voids in Shape/detailing prevents adequate
concrete surface. placement of concrete
Reinforcement
Congestion prevents adequate
continues
placement of concrete
Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 119
Table A1 continued

defect probable cause(s) repair options

Blowholes57 Formwork > On formed surfaces, fill with

Texture and stickiness of the earth-damp mixture after
surface moistening the surface.
Inclination of the surface > On honed surfaces, to fill holes
Concrete mix over a larger area use a cement
Poorly proportioned or sticky slurry during one of the grinding
Workability too low stages.
Sand too coarse
Too lean
Individual rounded or irregular
cavities that are formed by the Compaction
entrapment of air against the inside May be inadequate
face of the formwork and become
visible when it is stripped. Usually
less than 10 mm in size. Blowholes
within the concrete may also
become exposed if the concrete
surface is removed.

Stepping at joints Preparation > Grind the surface of the higher

Uneven settlement of subgrade slab over an appropriate width
Inadequately compacted fill (typically 150 to 200 mm for minor
Inadequate backfilling of service stepping).
trenches > Lift the lower slab by injecting
Detailing grout beneath the slab.
Aggregate interlock lost across > Top the lower slab adjacent to
joint the step. This would apply to
Loading significant stepping caused
Overloading causing settlement by tree roots, expansive
Site conditions soils, moisture problems and
Vertical displacement greater than
Loss of material from under slab subsidence where grinding is
5 mm across a joint or crack in the
Damage by trees not an option. Where there is
pavement.
a serious case of subsidence,
and the slab has lost support,
an alternative to replacement
is the injection of grout under
the slab ('slab jacking'). This
is expensive but may be
necessary in some cases.

Curling43 Preparation > Minor-out-of-tolerance. For minor

Wet subgrade/subbase corrections, locally grind high
Slab too thin spots, ensuring that the minimum
Plastic membrane under slab slab thickness and properties
Large joint spacing such as abrasion resistance are
Concrete complied with. For significant
High drying shrinkage curling deflections, scabbling the
surface and providing a topping
Curing
to reinstate the surface finish
Inadequate
may be an option. Ensure that
Vertical displacement at slab Ambient conditions the thinner slab is still structurally
joints, edges or corners due to Low relative humidity adequate. Alternatively, low areas
moisture or temperature gradients High/low temperatures can be filled with an appropriate
within the slab.
topping material.
continues

120 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

Table A1 continued

defect probable cause(s) repair options

> Loss of support. Methods include

providing extra joints across
the corners of the slab to allow
curled corners to settle onto the
supporting material and grouting
the void beneath the slab.
> Stepping. As for stepping above
plus lowering the curled slab by
loading or ponding with water
(to increase surface moisture)
and then providing mechanical
connection across the joint.
> Joint failure. If curling has
reduced effectiveness of joints,
some form of mechanical
connection may be required, eg
dowels, transverse bars.
> Slab replacement. Replacing slabs
should be considered as a last
resort and not undertaken unless
the cause of the problem has
been identified and corrected.

Rain damage Concrete > Grind the surface.

Varies from stippled texture of the Insufficient hardness/strength > Provide a topping.
concrete surface from drops of rain Not protected
to surface washed away from runoff. Ambient conditions
Depth may vary and coloured Rain
pigments (if present) may be
Curing
washed over adjacent surfaces.
Method unable to protect surface

Holes in stamped surface Concrete > Fill with matching coloured

Similar to stippled finish, surface Too wet when stamping begins material.
displays small craters over much of Re-wetted to facilitate stamping
the area

Depth of stamping varies Concrete

The depth of stamped impressions Hardened too much prior to
tapers down to a minimal imprint. stamping

Ravelling at edges of Saw cutting

saw cuts Too early
Inappropriate saw

Breaking away of small pieces of

concrete or aggregates along the
edges of saw cuts continues

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 121

Table A1 continued

defect probable cause(s) repair options

Plastic settlement Concrete mix > Dormant cracks (not moving) can
cracking58 High bleed with increased be filled with a rigid material such
settlement as cementitious or epoxy grout.
Retarding admixtures may Live cracks (still moving) should
contribute be filled with a flexible material
Addition of excess water such as mastic, thermoplastic
Detailing or an elastomer. Mastics are
Ratio of cover to reinforcing bar the cheapest of the available
diameter too low sealants but are not suitable
Reinforcement too close to surface for trafficked surfaces and with
movement (particularly in hot
Construction
weather) may extrude from the
Excessive water loss into dry
If plastic concrete is locally crack. Thermoplastic materials
subgrade
restrained from settling during are those which soften and
Flexible formwork
the bleeding process (eg by a become liquid or semi-liquid at
Deep sections placed in single pour
reinforcing bar, duct or insert), higher temperatures, normally in
Compaction excess of 100°C. Although less
cracks may form over the
Inadequate consolidation susceptible to temperature than
restraining element.
mastics, they suffer from much the
same disadvantages. Elastomers
Plastic shrinkage Concrete mix are the most common materials
cracking59,60,61 High water content used and include a wide range of
Low sand content one- and two-part materials, such
Low bleed potential as polysulphides, polyurethanes,
Use of retarders delaying setting silicones and various acrylics.
They have the advantage that
Ambient conditions
they are less susceptible to
Hot, dry or windy conditions cause
temperature, adhere strongly
rate of evaporation greater than the
to concrete and are able to
rate of bleeding
accommodate quite significant
Curing movements without failure.
Not commenced early enough
> Due to the wide range of products,
Placing manufacturers should always be
Formed by the rapid drying of the
Addition of excess water consulted to determine the correct
plastic concrete, cracks may be
Rate of drying of the surface not product for a particular application
random or roughly parallel to each
controlled by use of products such and repair method.
other. Cracks:
as aliphatic alcohols
> are usually straight;
> range in length from 25 mm to 2 m
but are usually 300 to 600 mm
long;
> can be up to 3 mm wide at the
surface;
> usually taper quickly over their
depth but may penetrate right
through a concrete element;
> form a weakness in the concrete
that may widen/extend with
drying shrinkage and/or thermal
movement;
> may not always be evident
during finishing and may not be
discovered until the next day.

continues

122 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

Table A1 continued

defect probable cause(s) repair options

drying shrinkage Concrete mix As above

cracking62 Aggregate shrinkage, grading,
size, shape and texture
Inclusion of contaminants such as
silt, clay, coal, wood or organic
matter
Admixtures
Water content
Adding excess water on site
Compaction and curing
Inadequate
Ambient conditions
Any restraint that results in the Air temperature
tensile stresses from the drying and Wind velocity
hence shrinkage of the concrete Relative humidity
exceeding the tensile strength of the
Detailing
concrete will cause cracking. The
Size and shape of the member
extent of shrinkage is a combination
Inadequate joints
of external factors causing moisture
loss from the concrete and internal Reinforcement
factors related to the concrete Insufficient to control width
and its constituents. The spacing Joints
and width of shrinkage cracks Spaced too far apart
depends upon the percentage of
reinforcement within the concrete.

Crazing63 Concrete mix > If the problem is an aesthetic one,

A high water-cement ratio rubbing down the surface with
combined with a cement-rich mix a carborundum stone followed
can be a contributory cause by sealing with a water-repellent
Ambient conditions material, such as sodium silicate,
Hot, dry or windy conditions may provide a solution. This
causing rapid drying of surface should prevent dirt collecting
in the very fine cracks and
Finishing
accentuating them.
Working bleedwater into surface
Overworking of the surface
Network of fine random surface Adding driers to the surface
cracks caused by the shrinkage of Curing
the surface layer relative to the base Commenced too late
concrete and spaced from 10 to Inadequate
70 mm apart, dividing the surface
Other
up into irregular hexagonal areas.
Cycles of wetting and drying

Slab edge dampness64 Preparation > Extend vapour barrier/DPM to

Damp slab edge due to rain, Plastic membrane incorrectly/not finished ground or paving level.
garden watering or by contact with installed > Seal exposed face of concrete.
the ground Inadequate site drainage provided
> Repair any defects such as
Concrete in contact with the ground
honeycombing.
Finished level of paving adjacent
to slab too high > Grade ground/paving away
from building.
Concrete
Honeycombed > Improve drainage.
Inadequately compacted continues

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 123

Table A1 continued

defect probable cause(s) repair options

Wearing surface Concrete > Grind down to sound concrete of

Insufficient strength adequate strength.
Concrete mix > Provide topping of appropriate
Addition of excess water strength.
Finishing > Apply a suitable surface hardener.
Commenced while bleed water still
present
Compaction
Inadequate
Curing
Inadequate
Ambient conditions
Abrasive material such as sand/
Surface wears quickly
fine aggregate present on surface

Ragged edges along Application > Accept finish.

stencil Stencil embedded too far into base > Provide topping.
After the stencil has been removed concrete
> Carefully grind edges to improve
the lines display ragged and untidy Finishing appearance.
edges Surface coating depth over stencil
too great
Stencil removed too late

Stencilled pattern Application > Accept finish.

distorted Positioning the stencil by dragging > Provide topping.
Stencil lines and/or pattern are not it across the surface
straight

Stencilled pattern not Application > Accept finish.

aligned Unplanned > Provide topping.
Stencil lines and/or pattern are out Alignment not achieved between
of alignment separate concrete pours

Depth of grout lines Concrete > Accept finish.

varies Too wet > Provide topping.
The grout lines formed by the Application
stencilled pattern vary in depth Too early allowing deep
embedment into soft surface

Surface flatness/ Preparation > Grind high spots.

levelness exceeds Incorrect formwork levels set > Fill low areas.
tolerance or incorrect40 Problems with laser/dumpy level
> Provide topping (usually
Placing self-levelling).
Screeding levels inaccurately set
> Accept tolerance if still
Short screed used
appropriate for application.
Poor screeding technique
Finishing
Commenced too early
The surface of the concrete exceeds
the maximum deviation allowed

124 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

Table A2 Colour variations in concrete flatwork and their causes

defect description most probable cause(s)

Inherent colour Variation in colour of Materials

variation the surface Change of cement brand, type or colour
Change of source of fine and coarse aggregate
Variation in admixtures
Use of calcium chloride admixtures
Concrete mix
Variations in mixing procedure
Variation in mix design/batching
Inadequate mixing
Segregation of materials
Addition of excess water
Variation of colour dosage
Application
Dry-shake colour addition insufficient or
inconsistent
Colour inadequately worked into concrete
surface
Surface texturing inconsistent
Incomplete removal of release coat
Finishing
Steel trowelling 'burn' marks
Wet wiping during trowelling
Inconsistent
Compaction
Inconsistent or inadequate
Curing
Inconsistent or inadequate

Aggregate transparency Dark areas of size and Concrete mix

shape similar to the Low sand content
coarse aggregate Gap-grading of sand
Mottled appearance Gap-graded aggregate dry or porous
Excessive coarse aggregate
Excessive slump with lightweight concrete
Compaction
Over-vibration of lightweight concrete
Curing
Inadequate

Negative aggregate Light areas of size and Materials

transparency shape similar to the Aggregate dry or highly porous
coarse aggregate Curing
Mottled appearance Too rapid drying

Hydration discolouration Variation in shade of Curing

(Due to moisture movement within the surface Uneven
or from plastic concrete)

continues

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 125

Table A2 continued

defect description most probable cause(s)

Dye discolouration or Discolouration foreign Formwork

contamination to the constituents of Stains, dyes, dirt on form face, timber stains,
the mix rust from reinforcement or other metal form
components.
Release agent (formed surfaces)
Impure or improperly applied
Materials
Dirty
Contaminated by pyrites, sulfates, clay, organic
matter or other impurities
Curing
Impure curing compounds
Impure curing water
Dirty covers

Oil discolouration Cream or brown Release agent

(formed surfaces) discolouration Excessive amount
Sometimes showing Low viscosity
sand or coarse Impure
aggregate. Applied too late or unevenly

Lime bloom or White powder or bloom Concrete mix

efflorescence46 on surface Addition of excess water
Salts in aggregates/water
Excessive bleeding
Ambient conditions
Periods of wet weather after placement
Uneven washing by rain
Curing
Uneven conditions
Intermittent wetting and drying

Laitence Weak layer of powdery Concrete mix

fines on surface Addition of excess water
Excessive bleeding
Finishing
Working in of bleedwater
Over-working the surface

'Pinto' concrete Large, irregular-shaped, A combination of factors listed below is usually

dark-coloured blotches responsible. The use of calcium chloride
on the surface of admixtures, inadequate curing, trowel burns
concrete flatwork and trowelling cement into the surface are the
major contributors.
Preparation
Changes in subgrade absorptivity
Concrete mix
Variations in water-cement ratio
Changes in mix constituents such as cement
source and supplementary cementitious
materials
continues

126 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

Table A2 continued

defect description most probable cause(s)

Admixtures
Use of calcium chloride
Finishing
Steel trowelling of the surface ('burn' marks)
Variation in evaporation rate at surface
Entrapment of water below the finished surface
Procedures which cause surface variation
of water-cement ratio and changes in the
concrete mix
Trowelling additional cement into the surface
Curing
Inadequate or inappropriate
Uneven curing

Uneven colour with dry- Surface does not have Concrete mix
shake materials when new uniform colour Addition of excess water
Ambient conditions
Presence of salts
Efflorescence
Finishing
Uneven/insufficient application of material
Sealing
Inadequate

Colour change with Surface appearance/ Materials

use/time colour changes over Pigment is not colourfast
time Concrete
Inadequate strength
Surface coloured layer worn off (pictured)
Concrete mix
Addition of excess water
Application
Dry-shake topping applied while bleedwater
present
Insufficient material applied to surface
Colour not worked adequately into concrete
surface
Finishing
Commenced while bleed water still present
Compaction
Inadequate
Curing
Inadequate
Sealing
Sealer wearing off
Inadequate removal of release agent prior to
sealing (for stamped finishes)
Ambient conditions
Abrasive material such as sand/fine aggregate
present on surface
Accumulation of dirt/grime on surface
continues

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 127

Table A2 continued

defect description most probable cause(s)

Staining/Contamination Discolouration of the Concrete mix

concrete surface from Impurities within ingredients
various minerals and Placing
other materials Inadequate cleaning of agitator bowl
Curing
Impurities within water
Leaching of colour from covering such as
wet hessian
Ambient conditions
Colour leaching from materials such as
timber (pictured)
Spills of various materials
Accumulation of detritus/grime
Walked in soil
Rust or mill scale from reinforcement

Colour variation from Dark coloured areas Finishing

trowelling ('burn' marks) on Friction from trowelling drier surface generates
surface of highly heat and affects colour
trowelled concrete

Colour under stencil Colour from dry-shake Concrete

topping has penetrated Too hard
under the stencil (due Application
to poor adhesion Stencil not worked into concrete surface
with the surface) and Stencil applied too late
discoloured the grout Stencil dragged over surface causing loss
lines within the pattern of bond
Application of colour has lifted stencil
Finishing
Poor screeding to tolerances

Colour variation between The colour of the Concrete mix

different concrete concrete varies Varying water content
placements between batches Variation in ingredients
Pigments from different batches
Concrete
Variation in concrete strength
Curing
Inconsistent curing conditions

continues

128 Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes

Table A2 continued

defect description most probable cause(s)

Non-uniform colour from Colour or mottled effect Concrete mix

chemical staining varies from one area to Variation in water content/ingredients
another Variable absorbency of stain into the concrete
surface
Finishing
Variation in trowelling and hence compaction
of surface
Compaction
Variable over area causing changes in density
Application
Uneven

Non-uniform exposure of Variable exposure or Concrete

aggregates aggregate density to Poor material grading
any exposed aggregate Addition of excess water
application Application
Excessive washing off
Uneven abrasive blasting/acid etching
Finishing
Not trowelling surface during washing off
process

Paver colour varies Variation in colour or Concrete mix

finish of segmental units Different colour
Different aggregates
Finishing
Different finish used. Photo shows honed finish
used as replacement for abrasive blast finish.
Concrete
Different batch

Guide to Concrete Flatwork Finishes 129