Applied

Mechanics
of Solids

Allan F. Bower

Oc;1lJ
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
Contents

Preface, xxiii

Author, xxv

CHAPTER 1 • Overview of Solid Mechanics

1.1 DEFINING A PROBLEM IN SOLID MECHANICS 2
1.1.1 Deciding What to Calculate 3
1.1.2 Defining the Geometry of the Solid 4
1.1.3 Defining Loading 5
1.1.4 Deciding What Physies to Include in the Model 6
1.1.5 Defining Material Behavior 7
1.1.6 A Representative Initial Value Problem in Solid Mechanies 10
1.1.7 Choosing a Method of Analysis 11

CHAPTER 2 • Governing Equations 13

2.1 MATHEMATICAL DESCRIPTION OF SHAPE CHANGES IN SOLIDS 13
2.1.1 Displacement and Velocity Fields 13
2.1.2 Displacement Gradient and Deformation Gradient Tensors 14
2.1.3 Deformation Gradient Resulting from Two Successive
Deformations 18
2.1.4 The Jacobian ofthe Deformation Gradient 19
2.1.5 Lagrange Strain Tensor 20
2.1.6 Eulerian Strain Tensor 22
2.1.7 Infinitesimal Strain Tensor 22
2.1.8 Engineering Shear Strains 24
2.1.9 Decomposition ofInfinitesimal Strain into Volumetrie and
Deviatorie Parts 24
2.1.1 0 Infinitesimal Rotation Tensor 25
2.1.11 Principal Values and Directions of the Infinitesimal
Strain Tensor 26
2.1.12 Cauchy-Green Deformation Tensors 27
v
vi • Contents

2.1.13 Rotation Tensor and Left and Right Stretch Tensors 27

2.1.14 Principal Stretches 29
2.1.15 Generalized Strain Measures 30
2.1.16 The Velocity Gradient 31
2.1.17 Stretch Rate and Spin Tensors 32
2.1.18 Infinitesimal Strain Rate and Rotation Rate 33
2.1.19 Other Deformation Rate Measures 33
2.1.20 Strain Equations of Compatibility for Infinitesimal Strains 34
2.2 MATHEMATICAL DESCRIPTION OF INTERNAL FORCES IN SOLIDS 38
2.2.1 Surface Traction and Internal Body Force 38
2.2.2 Traction Acting on Planes within aSolid 40
2.2.3 Cauchy (True) Stress Tensor 43
2.2.4 Other Stress Measures: Kirchhoff, Nominal, and Material Stress
Tensors 44
2.2.5 Stress Measures for Infinitesimal Deformations 47
2.2.6 Principal Stresses and Directions 47
2.2.7 Hydrostatic, Deviatoric, and von Mises Effective Stress 48
2.2.8 Stresses near an External Surface or Edge: Boundary Conditions
on Stresses 49
2.3 EQUATIONS OF MOTION AND EQUILIBRIUM FOR
DEFORMABLE SOLIDS 49
2.3.1 Linear Momentum Balance in Terms ofCauchy Stress 49
2.3.2 Angular Momentum Balance in Terms of Cauchy Stress 51
2.3.3 Equations of Motion in Terms of Other Stress Measures 53
2.4 WORK DONE BY STRESSES: PRINClPLE OF VIRTUAL WORK 54
2.4.1 Work Done by Cauchy Stresses 54
2.4.2 Rate of Mechanical Work in Terms of Other Stress Measures 56
2.4.3 Rate of Mechanical Work for Infinitesimal Deformations 57
2.4.4 The Principle ofVirtual Work 58
2.4.5 The Virtual Work Equation in Terms of Other Stress Measures 61
2.4.6 The Virtual Work Equation for Infinitesimal Deformations 62

CHAPTER 3 • Constitutive Models: Relations between Stress arid Strain 65

3.1 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS 66
3.1.1 Thermodynamic Restrictions 66
3.1.2 Objectivity 66
3.1.3 Drucker Stability 67
 Contents - vii

3.2 LINEAR ELASTIC MATERIAL BEHAVIOR 69

3.2.1 Isotropie, Linear Elastie Material Behavior 69
3.2.2 Stress-Strain Relations for Isotropie, Linear Elastie Materials:
Young's Modulus, Poisson's Ratio, and the Thermal Expansion
Coefficient 70
3.2.3 Reduced Stress-Strain Equations for Plane Deformation of
Isotropie Solids 72
3.2.4 Representative Values for Density and Elastie Constants of
Isotropie Solids 73
3.2.5 Other Elastic Constants: Bulk, Shear, and Lame Modulus 74
3.2.6 Physieal Interpretation of Elastie Constants for Isotropie Solids 75
3.2.7 Strain Energy Density for Isotropie Solids 75
3.2.8 Stress-Strain Relation for a General Anisotropie Linear Elastie
Material: Elastie Stiffness and Compliance Tensors 76
3.2.9 Physieal Interpretation of the Anisotropie Elastie Constants 78
3.2.10 Strain Energy Density for Anisotropie, Linear Elastie Solids 79
3.2.11 Basis Change Formulas for Anisotropie Elastie Constants 79
3.2.12 The Effect of Material Symmetry on Stress-Strain Relations
for Anisotropie Materials 81
3.2.13 Stress-Strain Relations for Linear Elastie Orthotropie Materials 82
3.2.14 Stress-Strain Relations for Linear Elastie Transversely Isotropie
Material 83
3.2.15 Representative Values for Elastic Constants ofTransversely
Isotropie Hexagonal Close-Packed Crystals 85
3.2.16 Linear Elastie Stress-Strain Relations for Cubie Materials 85
3.2.17 Representative Values for Elastic Properties of Cubie Crystals
and Compounds 87
3.3 HYPOELASTIClTY: ELASTIC MATERIALS WITH A NONLINEAR
STRESS-STRAIN RELATION UNDER SMALL DEFORMATION 87
3.4 GENERALIZED HOOKE'S LAW: ELASTIC MATERIALS SUBJECTED
TO SMALL STRETCHES BUT LARGE ROTATIONS 91
3.5 HYPERELASTIClTY: TIME-INDEPENDENT BEHAVIOR OF RUBBERS
AND FOAMS SUBJECTED TO LARGE STRAINS 93
3.5.1 Deformation Measures Used in Finite Elasticity 95
3.5.2 Stress Measures Used in Finite Elasticity 96
3.5.3 Calculating Stress-Strain Relations from the Strain Energy
Density 97
3.5.4 A Note on Perfectly Incompressible Materials 99
viii • Contents

3.5.5 Specific Forms of the Strain Energy Density 100

3.5.6 Calibrating Nonlinear Elasticity Models 102
3.5.7 Representative Values of Material Properties for Rubbers 103
3.6 LINEAR VISCOELASTIC MATERIALS: TIME-DEPENDENT
BEHAVIOR OF POLYMERS AT SMALL STRAINS 103
3.6.1 Features of the Small Strain Rate-Dependent Response of Polymers 104
3.6.2 General Constitutive Equations for Linear Viscoelastic Solids 109
3.6.3 Spring-Damper Approximations to the Relaxation Modulus 110
3.6.4 Prony Series Representation for the Relaxation Modulus 112
3.6.5 Calibrating the Constitutive Laws for Linear
Viscoelastic Solids 112
3.6.6 Representative Values for Viscoelastic Properties ofPolymers 113
3.7 SMALL STRAIN, RATE-II\lDEPENDENT PLASTIClTY: METALS LOADED
BEYOND YIELD 113
3.7.1 Features of the Inelastic Response of Metals 115
3.7.2 Decomposition of Strain into Elastic and Plastic Parts 118
3.7.3 Yield Criteria 118
3.7.4 Graphical Representation of the Yield Surface 119
3.7.5 Strain Hardening Laws 120
3.7.6 Plastic Flow Law 122
3.7.7 Elastic Unloading Condition 126
3.7.8 Complete Incremental Stress-Strain Relations for a
Rate-Independent Elastic- Plastic Solid 126
3.7.9 Typical Values for Yield Stress of Polycrystalline Metals 129
3.7.10 Perspectives on Plastic Constitutive Equations: Principle of
Maximum Plastic Resistance 129
3.7.11 Perspectives on Plastic Constitutive Equations: Drucker's Postulate 131
3.7.12 Microscopic Perspectives on Plastic Flow in Metals 132
3.8 SMALL STRAIN VISCOPLASTIClTY: CREEP AND HIGH STRAIN RATE
DEFORMATION OF CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS 135
3.8.1 Features of Creep Behavior 135
3.8.2 Features of High Strain Rate Behavior 137
3.8.3 Small Strain, Viscoplastic Constitutive Equations 137
3.8.4 Representative Values ofParameters for Viscoplastic Models of
Creeping Solids 142
3.8.5 Representative Values of Parameters for Viscoplastic Models of
High Strain Rate Deformation 142
 Contents - ix

3.9 LARGE STRAIN, RATE-DEPENDENT PLASTICITY 143

3.9.1 Kinematics ofFinite Strain Plasticity 143
3.9.2 Stress Measures for Finite Deformation Plasticity 145
3.9.3 Elastic Stress-Strain Relation for Finite Strain Plasticity 146
3.9.4 Plastic Constitutive Law for Finite Strain Viscoplasticity 147
3.10 LARGE STRAIN VISCOELASTICITY 148
3.10.1 Kinematics for Finite Strain Viscoelasticity 148
3.10.2 Stress Measures for Finite Strain Viscoelasticity 150
3.10.3 Relation among Stress, Deformation Measures, and Strain
Energy Density 150
3.10.4 Strain Relaxation 151
3.10.5 Representative Values for Material Parameters in a Finite Strain
Viscoelastic Model 152
3.11 CRITICAL STATE MODELS FOR SOlLS 152
3.11.1 Features of the Behavior of Soils 152
3.11.2 Constitutive Equations for Cam-Clay 153
3.11.3 Application of the Critical State Equations to Simple 2D Loading 160
3.11.4 Typical Values of Material Properties for Soils 161
3.12 CONSTITUTIVE MODELS FOR METAL SINGLE CRYSTALS 161
3.12.1 Review ofSome Important Concepts from Crystallography 162
3.12.2 Features of Plastic Flow in Single Crystals 166
3.12.3 Kinematic Descriptions Used in Constitutive Models
of Single Crystals 171
3.12.4 Stress Measures Used in Crystal Plasticity 173
3.12.5 Elastic Stress-Strain Relation Used in Crystal Plasticity 174
3.12.6 Plastic Stress-Strain Relation Used in Crystal Plasticity 174
3.12.7 Representative Values for Plastic Properties ofSingle Crystals 176
3.13 CONSTITUTIVE MODELS FOR CONTACTING SURFACES AND
II\lTERFACES IN SOLIDS 176
3.13.1 Cohesive Zone Models ofInterfaces 176
3.13.2 Models of Contact and Friction between Surfaces 182

CHArTER 4· Solutions to Simple Boundary and Initial Value Problems 193

4.1 AXIALLY AND SPHERICALLY SYMMETRIC SOLUTIONS TO
QUASI-STATIC LINEAR ELASTIC PROBLEMS 193
4.1.1 Summary of Governing Equations of Linear Elasticity in Cartesian
Components 193
x • Contents

4.1.2 Simplified Equations for Spherieally Symmetrie Linear Elasticity

Problems 194
4.1.3 General Solution to the Spherieally Symmetrie Linear Elasticity
Problem 197
4.1.4 Pressurized Hollow Sphere 197
4.1.5 Gravitating Sphere 199
4.1.6 Sphere with Steady-State Heat Flow 200
4.1.7 Simplified Equations for Axially Symmetrie Linear Elasticity
Problems 202
4.1.8 General Solution to the Axisymmetrie Boundary Value Problem 205
4.1.9 Long (Generalized Plane Strain) Cylinder Subjected to Internal and
External Pressure 206
4.1.10 Spinning Cireular Plate 208
4.1.11 Stresses Indueed byan Interferenee Fit between Two Cylinders 209
4.2 AXIALLY AND SPHERICALLY SYMMETRIC SOLUTIONS TO
QUASI-STATIC ELASTIC-PLASTIC PROBLEMS 211
4.2.1 Summary of Governing Equations 212
4.2.2 Simplified Equations for Spherieally Symmetrie Problems 213
4.2.3 Elastie Perfeetly Plastie Hollow Sphere Subjeeted to Monotonieally
Inereasing Internal Pressure 215
4.2.4 Elastie Perfeetly Plastie Hollow Sphere Subjeeted to Cyclie
Internal Pressure 219
4.2.5 Simplified Equations for Plane Strain Axially Symmetrie Elastic-
Perfeetly Plastie Solids 223
4.2.6 Long (Plane Strain) Cylinder Subjeeted to Internal Pressure 226
4.3 SPHERICALLY SYMMETRIC SOLUTION TO QUASI-STATIC LARGE
STRAIN ELASTICITY PROBLEMS 229
4.3.1 Summary of Governing Equations of Finite Elastieity in Cartesian
Components 229
4.3.2 Simplified Equations for Ineompressible Spherieally Symmetrie
Solids 230
4.3.3 Pressurized Hollow Sphere Made from an Ineompressible Rubber 232
4.4 SIMPLE DYNAMIC SOLUTIONS FOR LINEAR ELASTIC MATERIALS 236
4.4.1 Surfaee Subjeeted to Time-Varying Normal Pressure 236
4.4.2 Surfaee Subjeeted to Time-Varying Shear Traction 239
4.4.3 One-Dimensional Bar Subjeeted to End Loading 239
4.4.4 Plane Waves in an Infinite Solid 240
4.4.5 Summary ofWave Speeds in Isotropie Elastic Solids 241
 Contents - xi

4.4.6 Reflection ofWaves Traveling Normal to a Free Surface 242

4.4.7 Reflection and Transmission ofWaves Normal to an Interface 243
4.4.8 Simple Example Involving Plane Wave Propagation: Plate Impact
Experiment 245

CHAPTER 5 • Solutions für Linear Elastic Solids 249

5.1 GENERAL PRIt\ICIPLES 250
5.1.1 Summary ofthe Governing Equations ofLinear Elasticity 250
5.1.2 Alternative Form ofthe Governing Equations: Navier Equation 251
5.1.3 Superposition and Linearity of Solutions 251
5.1.4 Uniqueness and Existence ofSolutions to the Linear Elasticity
Equations 252
5.1.5 Saint-Venant's Principle 252
5.2 AIRY FUNCTION SOLUTION TO PLANE STRESS At\ID STRAIN
STATIC LINEAR ELASTIC PROBLEMS 255
5.2.1 Airy Solution in Rectangular Coordinates 256
5.2.2 Demonstration That the Airy Solution Satisfies the Governing
Equations 257
5.2.3 Airy Solution in Cylindrical-Polar Coordinates 259
5.2.4 Airy Function Solution to the End-Loaded Cantilever 260
5.2.5 2D Line Load Acting Perpendicular to the Surface of an Infinite
Solid 262
5.2.6 2D Line Load Acting Parallel to the Surface of an Infinite Solid 264
5.2.7 Arbitrary Pressure Acting on a Flat Surface 265
5.2.8 Uniform Normal Pressure Acting on a Strip 266
5.2.9 Stresses near the Tip of a Crack 266
5.3 COMPLEX VARIABLE SOLUTION TO PLANE STRAIN STATIC
LINEAR ELASTIC PROBLEMS 267
5.3.1 Complex Variable Solutions to Elasticity Problems 268
5.3.2 Demonstration That the Complex Variable Solution Satisfies the
Governing Equations 270
5.3.3 Complex Variable Solution for a Line Force in an Infinite Solid
(Plane Strain Deformation) 272
5.3.4 Complex Variable Solution for an Edge Dislocation in an Infinite
Solid 274
5.3.5 Cylindrical Hole in an Infinite Solid under Remote Loading 277
5.3.6 Crack in an Infinite Elastic Solid under Remote Loading 278
5.3.7 Fields near the Tip of a Crack on Bimaterial Interface 280
xii • Contents

5.3.8 Frictionless Rigid Flat Indenter in Contact with a Half-Space 283

5.3.9 Frictionless Parabolic (Cylindrieal) Indenter in Contact with a
Half-Space 284
5.3.10 Line Contact between Two Nonconformal Frietionless Elastie
Solids 286
5.3.11 Sliding Contact between Two Rough Elastic Cylinders 287
5.3.12 Dislocation near the Surface of a Half-Space 289
5.4 SOLUTIONS TO 3D STATIC PROBLEMS IN LINEAR ELASTICITY 290
5.4.1 Papkovieh Neuber Potential Representations for 3D Solutions
for Isotropie Solids 290
5.4.2 Demonstration That the Papkovich Neuber Solution Satisfies the
Governing Equations 291
5.4.3 Point Force in an Infinite Solid 292
5.4.4 Point Force Normal to the Surface of an Infinite Half-Space 293
5.4.5 Point Force Tangent to the Surface of an Infinite Half-Space 293
5.4.6 The Eshelby Inclusion Problem 294
5.4.7 Elastically Mismatched Ellipsoidal Inclusion in an Infinite Solid
Subjected to Remote Stress 299
5.4.8 Spherieal Cavity in an Infinite Solid Subjected to Remote Stress 300
5.4.9 Flat-Ended Cylindrical Indenter in Contact with an Elastie
Half-Space 302
5.4.10 Frietionless Contact between Two Elastic Spheres 304
5.4.11 Contact Area, Pressure, Stiffness, and Elastie Limit for General
Nonconformal Contacts 306
5.4.12 Load Displacement-Contact Area Relations for Arbitrarily Shaped
Axisymmetrie Contacts 308
5.5 SOLUTIONS TO GENERALIZED PLANE PROBLEMS FOR
ANISOTROPIC LINEAR ELASTIC SOLIDS 310
5.5.1 Governing Equations of Elasticity for Anisotropie Solids 310
5.5.2 Stroh Representation for Fields in Anisotropie Solids 312
5.5.3 Demonstration That the Stroh Representation Satisfies the
Governing Equations 314
5.5.4 Stroh Eigenvalues and Anisotropy Matrices for Cubie Materials 316
5.5.5 Degenerate Materials 317
5.5.6 Fundamental Elasticity Matrix 317
5.5.7 Orthogonal Properties of Stroh Matrices A and B 318
5.5.8 Barnett-Lothe Tensors and the Impedance Tensor 319
 Contents - xiii

5.5.9 Useful Properties of Matriees in Anisotropie Elasticity 320

5.5.10 Basis Change Formulas for Matriees Used in Anisotropie Elasticity 321
5.5.11 Barnett-Lothe Integrals 323
5.5.12 Stroh Representation for aState of Uniform Stress 325
5.5.13 Line Load and Disloeation in an Infinite Anisotropie Solid 327
5.5.14 Line Load and Disloeation below the Surfaee of an Anisotropie
Half-Spaee 329
5.6 SOLUTIONS TO DYNAMIC PROBLEMS FOR ISOTROPIC
LINEAR ELASTIC SOLIDS 330
5.6.1 Love Potentials for Dynamie Solutions for Isotropie Solids 330
5.6.2 Pressure Suddenly Applied to the Surfaee of a Spherieal Cavity
in an Infinite Solid 331
5.6.3 Rayleigh Waves 333
5.6.4 Love Waves 335
5.6.5 Elastie Waves in Waveguides 337
5.7 ENERGY METHODS FOR SOLVII\lG STATIC LINEAR ELASTICITY
PROBLEMS 339
5.7.1 Definition of the Potential Energy of a Linear Elastie Solid under
Statie Loading 339
5.7.2 Prineiple of Stationary and Minimum Potential Energy 341
5.7.3 Uniaxial Compression of a Cylinder Solved by Energy Methods 344
5.7.4 Variational Derivation of the Beam Equations 346
5.7.5 Energy Methods for Calculating Stiffness 350
5.8 REClPROCAL THEOREM AND APPLICATIONS 352
5.8.1 Statement and Proof ofthe Reeiproeal Theorem 352
5.8.2 Simple Example Using the Reciproeal Theorem 353
5.8.3 Formulas Relating Internal and Boundary Values of Field
Quantities 355
5.8.4 Classieal Solutions for Displaeement and Stress Indueed
by a 3D Disloeation Loop in an Infinite Solid 356
5.9 ENERGETICS OF DISLOCATIONS IN ELASTIC SOLIDS 359
5.9.1 Classieal Solution for Potential Energy of an Isolated Disloeation
Loop in an Infinite Solid 359
5.9.2 Nonsingular Disloeation Theory 362
5.9.3 Energy of a Disloeation Loop in a Stressed, Finite Elastie Solid 365
5.9.4 Energy of Two Interaeting Disloeation Loops 369
5.9.5 Driving Foree for Disloeation Motion: Peaeh-Koehler Formula 370
xiv • Contents

5.10 RAYLEIGH-RITZ METHOD FOR ESTIMATING NATURAL

FREQUENCY OF AN ELASTIC SOLID 375
5.10.1 Mode Shapes and Natural Frequencies; Orthogonality of Mode
Shapes and Rayleigh's Principle 375
5.10.2 Estimate ofNatural Frequency ofVibration for a Beam Using
Rayleigh-Ritz Method 379

CHArTER 6· Solutions für Plastic Solids 381

6.1 SLlP-L1NE FIELD THEORY 381
6.1.1 Interpreting a Slip-Line Field 382
6.1.2 Derivation of the Slip-Line Field Method 386
6.1.3 Examples of Slip-Line Field Solutions to Boundary Value
Problems 392
6.2 BOUNDING THEOREMS IN PLASTICITY AND THEIR
APPLICATIONS 398
6.2.1 Definition of the Plastic Dissipation 399
6.2.2 Principle of Minimum Plastic Dissipation 401
6.2.3 Upper Bound Plastic Collapse Theorem 404
6.2.4 Examples of Applications of the Upper Bound Theorem 405
6.2.5 Lower Bound Plastic Collapse Theorem 410
6.2.6 Examples of Applications of the Lower Bound Plastic Collapse
Theorem 411
6.2.7 Lower Bound Shakedown Theorem 412
6.2.8 Examples of Applications of the Lower Bound Shakedown
Theorem 415
6.2.9 Upper Bound Shakedown Theorem 417
6.2.10 Examples of Applications of the Upper Bound Shakedown
Theorem 419

CHArTER 7· Finite Element Analysis: An Introduction 421

7.1 A GUIDE TO USING FINITE ELEMENT SOFTWARE 423
7.1.1 Finite Element Mesh for a 2D or 3D Component 425
7.1.2 Nodes and Elements in a Mesh 428
7.1.3 Special Elements: Beams, Plates, Shells, and Truss Elements 432
7.1.4 Material Behavior 434
7.1.5 Boundary Conditions 435
7.1.6 Constraints 438
 Contents - xv

7.1.7 Contacting Surfaces and Interfaces 439

7.1.8 Initial Conditions and External Fields 441
7.1.9 Solution Procedures and Time Increments 441
7.1.10 Output 445
7.1.11 Units in Finite Element Computations 446
7.1.12 Using Dimensional Analysis to Simplify FEA 447
7.1.13 Simplifying FEA by Scaling the Governing Equations 449
7.1.14 Dimensional Analysis: Closing Remarks 451
7.2 A SIMPLE FINITE ELEMENT PROGRAM 451
7.2.1 Finite Element Mesh and Element Connectivity 452
7.2.2 Global Displacement Vector 453
7.2.3 Element Interpolation Functions 453
7.2.4 Element Strains, Stresses, and Strain Energy Density 454
7.2.5 Element Stiffness Matrix 455
7.2.6 Global Stiffness Matrix 456
7.2.7 Boundary Loading 459
7.2.8 Global Residual Force Vector 461
7.2.9 Minimizing the Potential Energy 461
7.2.10 Eliminating Prescribed Displacements 462
7.2.11 Solution 463
7.2.12 Postprocessing 463
7.2.13 Example FEA Code 464

CHAPTER 8· Finite Element Analysis: Theory and Implementation 467

8.1 GENERALIZED FEM FOR STATIC LINEAR ELASTICITY 468
8.1.1 Review of the Principle ofVirtual Work 468
8.1.2 Integral (Weak) Form ofthe Governing Equations ofLinear
Elasticity 469
8.1.3 Interpolating the Displacement Field and the Virtual Velocity Field 470
8.1.4 Finite Element Equations 472
8.1.5 Simple ID Implementation of the FEM 472
8.1.6 Summary ofthe ID Finite Element Procedure 476
8.1.7 Example FEM Code and Solution 477
8.1.8 Extending the ID FEM to 2D and 3D 480
8.1.9 Interpolation Functions for 2D Elements 481
8.1.10 Interpolation Functions for 3D Elements 481
XVI • Contents

8.1.11 Volume Integrals for Stiffness and Force in Terms ofNormalized

Coordinates 482
8.1.12 Numerical Integration Schemes for 2D and 3D Elements 485
8.1.13 Summary ofFormulas for Element Stiffness and Force Matrices 486
8.1.14 SampIe 2D/3D Linear Elastostatic FEM Code 486
8.2 THE FEM FOR DYNAMIC LINEAR ELASTICITY 490
8.2.1 Review of the Governing Equations of Dynamic Linear Elasticity 490
8.2.2 Expressing the Governing Equations Using the Principle
ofVirtual Work 491
8.2.3 Finite Element Equations of Motion for Linear Elastic Solids 491
8.2.4 Newmark Time Integration for Elastodynamics 493
8.2.5 1D Implementation of a Newmark Scheme 495
8.2.6 Example 1D Dynamic FEM Code and Solution 497
8.2.7 Lumped Mass Matrices 499
8.2.8 Example 2D and 3D Dynamic Linear Elastic Code and Solution 501
8.2.9 Modal Method ofTime Integration 501
8.2.10 Natural Frequencies and Mode Shapes 502
8.2.11 Example 1D Code with Modal Dynamics 503
8.2.12 Example 2D and 3D FEM Code to Compute Mode Shapes
and Natural Frequencies 505
8.3 FEM FOR NONLINEAR (HYPOELASTIC) MATERIALS 505
8.3.1 Summary of Governing Equations 505
8.3.2 Governing Equations in Terms of the Virtual Work Principle 507
8.3.3 Finite Element Equations 507
8.3.4 Solving the Finite Element Equations Using Newton-Raphson
Iteration 509
8.3.5 Tangent Moduli for the Hypoelastic Solid 510
8.3.6 Summary of the Newton-Raphson Procedure for Hypoelastic
Solids 511
8.3.7 What to Do if the Newton-Raphson Iterations Do Not Converge 511
8.3.8 Variations on Newton-Raphson Iteration 512
8.3.9 Example Hypoelastic FEM Code 512
8.4 FEM FOR LARGE DEFORMATIONS: HYPERELASTIC MATERIALS 514
8.4.1 Summary of Governing Equations 514
8.4.2 Governing Equations in Terms of the Principle of Virtual Work 515
8.4.3 Finite Element Equations 515
 Contents - xvii

8.4.4 Solution Using Consistent Newton-Raphson Iteration 517

8.4.5 Tangent Stiffness for the Neo-Hookean Material 519
8.4.6 Evaluating the Boundary Traction Integrals 520
8.4.7 Example Hyperelastie Finite Element Code 521
8.5 THE FEM FOR VISCOPLASTICITY 522
8.5.1 Summary of Governing Equations 522
8.5.2 Governing Equations in Terms of the Virtual Work Principle 523
8.5.3 Finite Element Equations 524
8.5.4 Integrating the Plastie Stress-Strain Law 525
8.5.5 Material Tangent 527
8.5.6 Solution Using Consistent Newton-Raphson Iteration 528
8.5.7 Example Small Strain Plastie FEM Code 529
8.6 ADVANCED ELEMEt\IT FORMULATIONS: INCOMPATIBLE MODES,
REDUCED INTEGRATION, AND HYBRID ELEMEt\ITS 530
8.6.1 Shear Locking and Incompatible Mode Elements 531
8.6.2 Volumetrie Locking and Reduced Integration Elements 533
8.6.3 Hybrid Elements for Modeling Near-Incompressible Materials 541
8.7 LIST OF EXAMPLE FEA PROGRAMS AND INPUT FILES 544

CHAPTER 9· Modeling Material Failure 547

9.1 SUMMARY OF MECHANISMS OF FRACTURE AND FATIGUE
UNDER STATIC AND CYCLIC LOADING 548
9.1.1 Failure under Monotonie Loading 548
9.1.2 Failure under Cydie Loading 550
9.2 STRESS- AND STRAIN-BASED FRACTURE AND FATIGUE
CRITERIA 553
9.2.1 Stress-Based Failure Criteria for Brittle Solids and Composites 553
9.2.2 Probabilistic Design Methods for Brittle Fracture
(Weibull Statistics) 556
9.2.3 Static Fatigue Criterion for Brittle Materials 557
9.2.4 Constitutive Laws for Crushing Failure ofBrittle Materials 558
9.2.5 Ductile Fracture Criteria 559
9.2.6 Ductile Failure by Strain Localization 562
9.2.7 Criteria for Failure by High Cyde Fatigue under Constant
Amplitude Cydic Loading 564
9.2.8 Criteria for Failure by Low Cyde Fatigue 565
9.2.9 Criteria for Failure under Variable Amplitude Cydic Loading 566
xviii • Contents

9.3 MODELING FAllURE BY CRACK GROWTH: LINEAR ELASTIC

FRACTURE MECHANICS 567
9.3.1 Crack Tip Fields in an Isotropie, Linear Elastie Solid 567
9.3.2 Assumptions and Application ofPhenomenologieal Linear Elastie
Fracture Mechanics 569
9.3.3 Calculating Stress Intensity Factors 572
9.3.4 Calculating Stress Intensity Factors Using FEA 578
9.3.5 Measuring Fracture Toughness 580
9.3.6 Typieal Values for Fracture Toughness 581
9.3.7 Stable Tearing: Kr Curves and Crack Stability 581
9.3.8 Mixed-Mode Fracture Criteria 584
9.3.9 Static Fatigue Crack Growth 584
9.3.10 Cydic Fatigue Crack Growth 586
9.3.11 Finding Cracks in Structures 587
9.4 ENERGY METHODS IN FRACTURE MECHANICS 588
9.4.1 Definition of Crack Tip Energy Release Rate for Cracks in Linear
Elastic Solids 588
9.4.2 Energy Release Rate as a Fracture Criterion 589
9.4.3 Relation between Energy Release Rate and Stress Intensity Factor 589
9.4.4 Relation between Energy Release Rate and Compliance 591
9.4.5 Calculating Stress Intensity Factors Using Compliance 592
9.4.6 Integral Expressions for Energy Flux to a Crack Tip 593
9.4.7 Rice's !Integral 596
9.4.8 Calculating Energy Release Rates Using the J Integral 598
9.5 PLASTIC FRACTURE MECHANICS 599
9.5.1 Dugdale-Barenblatt Cohesive Zone Model ofYield at a
Crack Tip 599
9.5.2 Hutchinson-Rice-Rosengren Crack Tip Fields for Stationary
Crack in aPower Law Hardening Solid 601
9.5.3 Plastic Fracture Mechanies Based on J 605
9.6 LINEAR ELASTIC FRACTURE MECHANICS OF INTERFACES 607
9.6.1 Crack Tip Fields for a Crack on an Interface 607
9.6.2 Phenomenological Theory of Interface Fracture 610
9.6.3 Stress Intensity Factors for Some Interface Cracks 612
9.6.4 Crack Path Selection 613
 Contents - xix

CHAPTER 10· Solutions für Rads, Beams, Membranes, Plates, and Shells 615
10.1 PRELIMINARIES: DYADIC NOTATION FOR VECTORS AND
TENSORS 616
10.2 MOTION AND DEFORMATION OF SLENDER RODS 617
10.2.1 Variables Characterizing the Geometry of a Rod's Cross
Seetion 617
10.2.2 Coordinate Systems and Variables Charaeterizing the
Deformation of a Rod 618
10.2.3 Additional Deformation Measures and Useful Kinematie
Relations 620
10.2.4 Approximating the Displacement, Velocity, and Acceleration
in a Rod 624
10.2.5 Approximating the Deformation Gradient 625
10.2.6 Other Strain Measures 626
10.2.7 Kinematies of Rods lhat Are Bent and Twisted in the Unstressed
State 628
10.2.8 Representation of Forees and Moments in Slender Rods 630
10.2.9 Equations of Motion and Boundary Conditions 631
10.2.10 Constitutive Equations Relating Forees to Deformation Measures
~fu~k~~ 6~

10.2.11 Strain Energy of an Elastic Rod 639

10.3 SIMPLIFIED VERSIONS OF THE GENERAL THEORY OF
DEFORMABLE RODS 641
10.3.1 Stretched Flexible String with Small Transverse Defleetions 641
10.3.2 Straight Elastk Beam with Small Deflections and No Axial
Force (Euler-Bernoulli Beam lheory) 642
10.3.3 Straight Elastic Beam with Small Transverse Deflections and
Significant Axial Force 643
10.4 EXACT SOLUTIONS TO SIMPLE PROBLEMS INVOLVING
ELASTIC RODS 644
10.4.1 Free Vibration of a Straight Beam without Axial Force 645
10.4.2 Buckling of a Column Subjected to Gravitational Loading 648
10.4.3 Post-Buckled Shape of an Initially Straight Rod Subjected to
End lhrust 650
10.4.4 Rod Bent and Twisted into a Helix 653
10.4.5 He/kai Spring 655
xx • Contents

10.5 MOTION AND DEFORMATION OF THIN SHELLS:

GENERAL THEORY 657
10.5.1 Coordinate Systems and Variables Characterizing Deformation
of Shells 657
10.5.2 Vectors and Tensor Components in Nonorthogonal Bases:
Covariant and Contravariant Components 659
10.5.3 Additional Deformation Measures and Kinematic Relations 660
10.5.4 Approximating the Displaeement and Veloeity Field 664
10.5.5 Approximating the Deformation Gradient 665
10.5.6 Other Deformation Measures 666
10.5.7 Representation of Forees and Moments in Shells 667
10.5.8 Equations of Motion and Boundary Conditions 670
10.5.9 Constitutive Equations Relating Forees to Deformation
Measures in Elastic Shells 678
10.5.10 Strain Energy and Kinetie Energy of an Elastie Shell 680
10.6 SIMPLIFIED VERSIONS OF GENERAL SHELL THEORY: FLAT PLATES
AND MEMBRAN ES 681
10.6.1 Flat Plates with Small Out-of-Plane Defleetions and Negligible
In-Plane Loading 681
10.6.2 Flat Plates with Small Out-of-Plane Deflections and Signifieant
In-Plane Loading 684
10.6.3 Flat Plates with Smallln-Plane and Large Transverse Defleetions
(von Karman Theory) 686
10.6.4 Stretched, Flat Membrane with Small Out-of-Plane Deflections 688
10.6.5 Membrane Equations in Cylindrical-Polar Coordinates 689
10.7 SOLUTIONS TO SIMPLE PROBLEMS INVOLVING MEMBRAN ES,
PLATES, AND SHELLS 692
10.7.1 Thin Cireular Plate Bent by Pressure Applied to One Face 692
10.7.2 Vibration Modes and Natural Frequencies for a Circular
Membrane 694
10.7.3 Estimate for the Fundamental Frequency ofVibration of a
Simply Supported Rectangular Flat Plate 696
10.7.4 Bending Induced by Inelastic Strain in a Thin Film on a
Substrate 697
10.7.5 Bending of a Circular Plate Caused by a Through-Thiekness
Temperature Gradient 700
 Contents • xxi

10.7.6 Buckling of a Cylindrical Shell Subjected to Axial Loading 703

10.7.7 Torsion of an Open-Walled Circular Cylinder 705
10.7.8 Membrane Shell Theory Analysis of a Spherical Dome under
Gravitational Loading 708

Appendix A: Review ofVectors and Matrices 711

Appendix B: Introduction to Tensors and Their Properties 729

Appendix C: Index Notation for Vector and Tensor Operations 741

Appendix 0: Vectors and Tensor Operations in Polar Coordinates 749

Appendix E: Miscellaneous Derivations 765

References 771

Index 775