GEOTECHNICAL LOGGING AND SAMPLING

1 Logging Requirements

1.1 Geotechnical Logging

Geotechnical logging is a procedure that enables the mechanical state of the rock mass, as sampled
from drill cores and outcrops, to be described. The primary objective in open cut and underground
mining is to obtain data which can assist with excavation, slope stability, blasting, pillar design,
pumping system and trafficability.

Geotechnical data can be recorded on two main types of logging sheets:

1. “Graphic Defect Log”; and

2. “Geotechnical Core Log”.

The “Graphic Defect Log” aims to provide an assessment of defects/fractures in the cored strata and
must be completed on drill site, immediately after drilling. This log must be compiled soon after the
core comes out of the core barrel as significantly more open fractures and breaks may be induced in
the core from additional handling during lithological logging, core photography, core boxing and
storage.

The “Geotechnical Core Log” provides a more detailed assessment of the geotechnical
characteristics of the core. It effectively enables all the raw geotechnical information captured in the
data base compatible “Sedimentary Lithology Log” and the “Graphic Defect Log”, to be combined
with any geotechnical core testing results, on one sheet. This sheet can be completed in the office.
However, additional detailed information regarding “Slaking Potential” and “Strength Estimates”
must be gathered in the field. This data can be easily recorded as additional comments (“C”) on the
“Sedimentary Lithology Log”.

Geotechnical logging aims to provide information on:

• ground water;

• rock weathering;

• rock fracturing; and rock and soil mechanical properties.

The following information should also be obtained during drilling and can provide additional insight
into the prevailing ground conditions and, therefore, the in situ localised structure:

• drilling method(s) and dates;

• drill type;

• depth and type of casing;

• any problems which necessitate casing;

• problems associated with caving and/or swelling ground;

• bad drilling zones;

• drilling fluids used and relative amounts;

 • fluid losses;

• zones of core loss; and groundwater levels and dates of measurement (measured at the
commencement of drilling each day, and current hole and casing depths should also be
noted).

1.1.1 Graphic Defect Log

The examples of blank form and completed “Graphic Defect Log” sheets are presented in Figure1.1a,
1.1b and 1.1c.

Once out of the barrel the core should be immediately washed to remove any clay or oil coating. If
geotechnical samples are to be taken, the “Graphic Defect Log” must be compiled immediately after
sampling and prior to “Core Photography in the Splits” (Refer to 1.3.1 Core Photography)

Some important features that should be looked for include:

• “soft” clay bands within the coal seam (instead of using the “Rock” strength codes
“R1- R6”, “Clay” strength codes “C1-C4” should used if appropriate);

• shear zones and crushed zones in the immediate roof, floor and within the coal
seam (instead of using the “Rock” strength codes “R1-R6”, “Clay” strength codes
“C1- C4” should used if appropriate);

• evidence of movement on joint surfaces (slickensides) in the immediate roof, floor

and
within the coal seam;
Figure 1.1a Graphic Defect Log – Blank Form
 Figure 1.1b Graphic Defect Log – Completed Example 1
EXPLANATION OF DEFECT CODES
__________________________________________________________________________________________
TYPE
 Bedding Breaks
Confusion over Bedding Spacing and bedding breaks often occurs. Bedding Spacing refers to
sedimentary laminations within strata, which may not necessarily be breaks in the core.
Bedding breaks are recorded differently as breaks or partings observed per run or lithological unit.
Bedding Spacing, and additional descriptions of bedding, should also be recorded in the “Sedimentary
Lithology Log” in the “Bedding Spacing” and “Sedimentary Structure” columns.

______________________________________________________________________________________

Joints
Most joint faces are in contact but fall apart when the core is handled. Open joints are those where the
faces are not in contact when in place. Incipient joints, which may or may not be visible in the core
form break surfaces when the core is hammered. These are relevant to bulk excavation and blasting.
 A profile of the joint surface, depicting its approximate dip angle, should be clearly marked on the
“Graphic Log Sheet”. With the down hole depth of joint obtained form its centre point, or if near
vertical and extensive a depth range may be more appropriate.
If the core can be oriented then the procedure for measuring an accurate dip angle of a fracture trace is
depicted in Figure 7.2.
Ensure that joints are also recorded in the “Sedimentary Lithology Log” in the “Tectonic Structure
Type” columns.1

______________________________________________________________________________________

Fault and Sheared

Fault and Sheared zones should contain evidence of movement. Slickensides and associated crushed
zones are common. Lithological displacement is particularly common in Fault zones.
As a result of the movement in these zones the original rock fabric is no longer intact.Therefore, it
would be inappropriate to assign a “Rock” strength code (i.e. R1-R6) to these zones and instead they
would be more accurately described with a “Clay” strength code (i.e.C1-C4) (refer to Table 7.1).

Assigning a depth range to these zones is best. It is also important to ensure that these zones are
recorded in the “Sedimentary Lithology Log” in the “Mechanical State”, “Tectonic Structure Type”
and “Tectonic Structure Description” columns.

______________________________________________________________________________________
Crushed
Similar to Fault and Sheared zones, however, Crushed zones tend to lack evidence of movement (e.g.
slickensides). Crushed zones are particularly evident within coal seams, and are frequently associated
with zones of movement in bright coal layers.
Assigning a depth range to these zones is best. It is also important to ensure that these zones are
recorded in the “Sedimentary Lithology Log” by utilizing additional comment lines.
______________________________________________________________________________________
Drilling Induced
Drilling Induced Breaks commonly refer to all breaks in the core that are the result of drilling or
handling. They are not reflection discontinuities in the in situ rock mass and thus should be highlighted
with uniquely coloured chalk and clearly depicted and appropriately annotated in the “Graphic Defect
Log”.
Induced discontinuities such as Drilling Induced Breaks are ignored in “RQD” calculations and
“Fracture Spacing” measurements.
______________________________________________________________________________________

SHAPE AND SURFACE

Refer to Figure 7.4 and Figure 7.5 for graphical representation of these fracture types.
An appraisal of the of the fracture surface and it profile is required, not a description of the grain
texture of the lithological unit. (e.g. A joint in sandstone that is described as “Rough” should be
referring to the fracture surface, not the sandstone’s grainsize.)
It is also important to ensure that these descriptions are recorded in the “Sedimentary Lithology Log” in
the “Tectonic Structure Description” column.
__________________________________________________________________________________
___
ATTITUDE

The steps to measure fracture attitude is presented in Figure 7.2 and Figure 7.3.
__________________________________________________________________________________
___

INFILL

The type and thickness of infill should be recorded on the “Graphic Defect Log”. More than
one code can be used from this column. The list of potential “Infill” minerals is by no means
exhaustive and if additional mineralization is evident feel free to comment on the log sheet.
The “Fossil/Mineral Abundance”, “Fossil/Mineral Type” and “Fossil/Mineral Association”
columns on the “Sedimentary Lithology Log” should also be coded appropriately.
__________________________________________________________________________________
___

7.1.1.2 Geotechnical Core Log

(For an example of a completed “Geotechnical Core Log” sheet refer to Figure 7.6 and 7.7).

EXPLANATION OF COLUMNS (left to right)

Column 1.

WATER LEVEL
Standing water level should be recorded:

1. At the commencement of each day’s drilling;

2. Completion of the hole; and
3. Approximately 48 hours after drilling.
__________________________________________________________________________________
___
Column 2.

CORE RECOVERY (%)

Calculated for each core run.
__________________________________________________________________________________
___
Column 3.

DEPTH BELOW COLLAR (m)

Measured from borehole collar.
Column 4 - 6.
MATERIAL DESCRIPTION
This includes the rock type, together with the degree of stratification and/or bedding parting as defined
below.
______________________________________________________________________________________
Column 4.
LITHOLOGY
Conventional geological definitions - See Aus. IMM, ISRM and other publications. Unless stated
otherwise, all classification is by visual appraisal only. Some variation from strict petrographic
definition may occur in marginal or transitional rock types.
______________________________________________________________________________________
Column 5 - 6.
BEDDING DESCRIPTION (Bedding and Splitting)
Record of the thickness of sedimentary bedding features as defined and explained in Table 7.2.

Table 1.2 Bedding Thickness Terminology

_________________________________________________
Column 7.
SLAKING POTENTIAL (Durability)
Field values of slaking potential can be based on a simple field test. Several fragments of size 10-30mm
are contained within a gauze cylinder in a jar half filled with fresh water and shaken vigorously for 30
seconds. The remaining material is then classified as follows:
Column 8 - 15.

ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATION

Data is recorded to permit rock mass classification using the Geomechanics Rock Mass Rating (RMR)
system, as described by Z.T. Bieniawski (1989):
“Engineering Rock Mass Classification” John Wiley and Sons
The individual classification columns on the log are explained in turn:
______________________________________________________________________________________
Column 8.
WEATHERING
Sources:
“Field Geologist’s Manual”(ibid.) based on McMahon et. al:
“Engineering classification of sedimentary rocks in the Sydney area” 1975, Australian Geomechanics
Journal

The original descriptions are re-written in Table 7.4. to remove redundant terms and expressions.

Table 7.4 Rock Weathering Classification

______________________________________________________________________________________
Column 9 - 11.
STRENGTH
 “Strength” refers to the strength of the intact rock, sometimes called the “Rock Fabric Strength”. It
excludes the effects of joints, fissures etc, and in rock with many discontinuities is sometimes a rather
theoretical concept.

FIELD STRENGTH
Field Strength is the qualitative estimate of rock strength. It usually requires the core to be broken by
hammering; scratching with a knife or pick point tends only to give a measure of surface hardness.

To obtain estimates of the ‘Field Strength of Core’ please refer to Table 7.6 and Figure 7.6, while
estimation for chip sample is provide in Table 7.5.

Table 7.5 Field Strength of Chip Sample

______________________________________________________________________________________
Column 9.
ESTIMATES
There is an enormous variation between standard systems adopted world-wide, both in terms of the
definitions of strength classes, and the strengths deduced from visual inspection and simple manual
tests. Identical terms and descriptions can differ in implied Uniaxial Compressive Strength (UCS) by an
order of magnitude when different respected and accepted publications are compared. Geophysical logs
and laboratory tests both yield indications or measurements of UCS, and this parameter is used by
contractors and designers for a variety of purposes. Therefore, in these logs, ranges of UCS as shown in
Table 7.6 define strength terms (i.e. which coincide with the approximate ranges listed in the
Australian Standard). The relevant strength bar is shaded in Column 9 of the log.

Table 7.6 Core Strength Terminology

 Figure 1.8 Rock Strength Estimate for Core
______________________________________________________________________________________
Column 10.
UCS (Uniaxial Compressive Strength - MPa)
The Uniaxial Compressive Strengths as determined in the laboratory are displayed at the relevant
sample depths in this column.
The measured UCS result may not lie within the range shown by the strength estimate graph.
 However, the laboratory test results are not necessarily more reliable, as samples can fail on unseen
flaws in the core. Both the test results and the estimates should be considered when evaluating the rock
strength.
______________________________________________________________________________________
Column 11.
E (GPa)
Young’s Modulus, as measured in the laboratory. While not strictly a measure of “strength” as
defined above, the measurements are presented with the relevant UCS values.
______________________________________________________________________________________
Column 12.
RQD (Rock Quality Designation - %)
Rock Quality Designation (RQD) is the summation of individual lengths of solid core greater than
10cm in length expressed as a percentage. Solid core is measured axially with the centre point of
measurement falling at the centre point of the discontinuity. In some instances the centre of the
discontinuity may be concealed. In these circumstances remeasurement may be necessary as the
conditions are revealed during detailed lithological logging or handling of the core.

Figure 1.9 Measurement of Core Length

Individual RQD calculations are carried out over sections of structurally comparable core.
These sections are generally selected on the basis of visual inspection. It is commonly recorded over a
core run, however, the RQD may also be referred to major engineering lithotypes if an obvious change
of lithology or character is apparent.
Induced discontinuities such as Drilling Induced Breaks are ignored, as are joints that do not part
without hammering.
RQD was originally defined by Deere, 1945. The accepted definition is:

Total length of core sample being assessed

------------------------------------------------------- x 100%
Total length of core pieces > 100mm long
The completion of the “Fracture Defect Log”, and therefore assessment of fractures, must occur on site,
immediately after drilling; the RQD of core after storage or handling may be significantly less.

Thus the RQD is commonly measured on site whilst the core is in the splits, prior to any lithological
logging. This will normally be sufficient as any major lithological changes should be obvious from
cursory inspection.
______________________________________________________________________________________
Column 13.
FRACTURE SPACE
 Depths of individual defects are recorded on the “Graphic Defect Log”; the fracture space profile graph
in Column 13 is generated from this data.
The Fracture Space is effectively an average spacing of fractures independent of lithological
boundaries.