SQL

What is SQL?

SQL (pronounced "sequel ") stands for Structured Query Language. SQL is used to
communicate with a database. SQL statements are used to perform tasks such as CRUD
operations over data in a database. Some common relational database management
systems that use SQL are: Oracle, Sybase, Microsoft SQL Server, Access, Ingres, etc.
Although most database systems use SQL, most of them also have their own additional
proprietary extensions that are usually only used on their system. However, the standard
SQL commands such as "Select", "Insert", "Update", "Delete", "Create", and "Drop" can
be used to accomplish almost everything that one needs to do with a database

TABLE BASICS

A relational database system contains one or more objects called tables. They are
uniquely identified by their names and are comprised of columns and rows. Columns
contain the column name, data type, and any other attributes for the column. Rows
contain the records or data for the columns.

Importing Data

You can import data into SQLScope from another data source by using the Insert
command

Insert into tablename

(fieldname, fieldname, fieldname)
Values
(@fieldname, @fieldname, @fieldname);

Creating Tables

The create table statement is used to create a new table

To create a new table, enter the keywords create table followed by the table name,
followed by an open parenthesis, followed by the first column name, followed by the data
type for that column, followed by any optional constraints, and followed by a closing
parenthesis. It is important to make sure you use an open parenthesis before the
beginning table, and a closing parenthesis after the end of the last column definition.
Make sure you seperate each column definition with a comma. All SQL statements
should end with a ";".
While creating tables,user should specify type of column it is going to have , here are
types available :

Create table tablename using filename

(fieldname fieldtype(length),
fieldname fieldtype(length),
fieldname fieldtype(length));

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Explanation:

 Table names cannot exceed 20 characters.

 Table names must be unique within a database.
 Field names must be unique within a table.
 You may specify the data file to use. If you do not specify a data file,
Scalable SQL will create one, using a .dat extension.
 The list of fields must be enclosed in parentheses.
 You must specify the field type.

Examples:
Char -- a character string
Float -- a number
Date -- a date field
Logical -- a logical field

 You must specify the field length.

 The field length must be enclosed in parentheses.
 You must separate field definitions with commas.
 You must end each SQL statement with a semicolon.

You can also limit the type of information a table / a column can hold. This is done through the
CONSTRAINT keyword

You can place constraints to limit the type of data that can go into a table. Such constraints can
be specified when the table when the table is first created via the CREATE TABLE statement, or
after the table is already created via the ALTER TABLE statement

Common types of constraints include the following:

• NOT NULL Constraint: Ensures that a column cannot have NULL value. (By default, a
column can hold NULL)
• DEFAULT Constraint: Provides a default value for a column when none is specified.
• UNIQUE Constraint: Ensures that all values in a column are different.
• CHECK Constraint: Makes sure that all values in a column satisfy certain criteria.( Once
defined, the database will only insert a new row or update an existing row if the new
value satisfies the CHECK constraint. The CHECK constraint is used to ensure data
quality.)
• Primary Key Constraint: Used to uniquely identify a row in the table.
• Foreign Key Constraint: Used to ensure referential integrity of the data.

Alter Table

Once a table is created in the database, there are many occasions where one may wish to
change the structure of the table. In general, the SQL syntax for ALTER TABLE is

ALTER TABLE "table_name" [alter specification]

Possible Alter Specifications :

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1.Add/Modify/Rename/Drop column

2. Add/Drop Index

3. Add/Drop Constraint

ALTER TABLE "table_name" ADD "column 1" "Data Type"

ALTER TABLE "table_name" MODIFY "column 1" "New Data Type"

ALTER TABLE "table_name" Change "column 1" "column 2" ["Data Type"]

ALTER TABLE "table_name" DROP "column 1"

ALTER TABLE "table_name" ADD INDEX " INDEX_NAME " (COLUMN_NAME)

ALTER TABLE "table_name" DROP INDEX " INDEX_NAME "

ALTER TABLE "table_name" ADD [CONSTRAINT_NAME] [CONSTRAINT_TYPE]

[CONSTRAINT_CONDITION]

ALTER TABLE "table_name" DROP [CONSTRAINT|INDEX] "CONSTRAINT_NAME"

Inserting into a Table

The insert statement is used to insert or add a row of data into the table.

To insert records into a table, enter the key words insert into followed by the table name,
followed by an open parenthesis, followed by a list of column names separated by
commas, followed by a closing parenthesis, followed by the keyword values, followed by
the list of values enclosed in parenthesis. The values that you enter will be held in the
rows and they will match up with the column names that you specify. Strings should be
enclosed in single quotes, and numbers should not

Selecting Data

The select statement is used to query the database and retrieve selected data that match
the criteria that you specify. The column names that follow the select keyword determine
which columns will be returned in the results. You can select as many column names that
you'd like, or you can use a "*" to select all columns.

The where clause (optional) specifies which data values or rows will be returned or
displayed, based on the criteria described after the keyword where.

You can add multiple criteria to your Where clauses by using "and" or "or."

Conditional selections used in the where clause:

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= Equal
> Greater than
< Less than
>= Greater than or equal
<= Less than or equal
<> Not equal to
LIKE *See note below

The LIKE pattern matching operator can also be used in the conditional selection of the
where clause. Like is a very powerful operator that allows you to select only rows that are
"like" what you specify. The percent sign "%" can be used as a wild card to match any
possible character that might appear before or after the characters specified

HAVING

The SQL HAVING clause is used to restrict conditionally the output of a SQL
statement, by a SQL aggregate function used in your SELECT list of columns

You can't specify criteria in a SQL WHERE clause against a column in the SELECT list for
which SQL aggregate function is used. For example the following SQL statement will
generate an error:

SELECT Employee, SUM (Hours)

FROM EmployeeHours
WHERE SUM (Hours) > 24
GROUP BY Employee

The SQL HAVING clause is used to do exactly this, to specify a condition for an aggregate
function which is used in your query:

SELECT Employee, SUM (Hours)

FROM EmployeeHours
GROUP BY Employee
HAVING SUM (Hours) > 24

The above SQL statement will select all employees and the sum of their respective hours,
as long as this sum is greater than 24. The result of the SQL HAVING clause can be seen
below:

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Employee Hours
John Smith 25
Tina Crown 27

DISTINCT

The SQL DISTINCT clause is used together with the SQL SELECT keyword, to return
a dataset with unique entries for certain database table column.

LIKE

The SQL LIKE clause is very useful when you want to specify a search condition within
your SQL WHERE clause, based on a part of a column contents.

The '%' is a so called wildcard character and represents any string in our pattern.
Another wildcard character is '_' representing any single character.

IN

The SQL IN clause allows you to specify discrete values in your SQL WHERE search
criteria.

SELECT Column1, Column2, Column3, FROM Table1 WHERE Column1 IN (Valu1, Value2, …)

BETWEEN

The SQL BETWEEN & AND keywords define a range of data between 2 values

SELECT Column1, Column2, Column3, FROM Table1 WHERE Column1 BETWEEN Value1
AND Value2

The 2 values defining the range for SQL BETWEEN clause can be dates, numbers or
just text

ALIASES

SQL aliases can be used with database tables and with database table columns, depending
on task you are performing.

SELECT Employee, SUM(Hours) As SumHoursPerEmployee FROM EmployeeHours

GROUP BY Employee

GROUP BY

The SQL GROUP BY statement is used along with the SQL aggregate functions like SUM to
provide means of grouping the result dataset by certain database table column(s).

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Consider the following database table called EmployeeHours storing the daily hours for each
employee of a factious company:

Employee Date Hours

John Smith 5/6/2004 8
Allan Babel 5/6/2004 8
Tina Crown 5/6/2004 8
John Smith 5/7/2004 9
Allan Babel 5/7/2004 8
Tina Crown 5/7/2004 10
John Smith 5/8/2004 8
Allan Babel 5/8/2004 8
Tina Crown 5/8/2004 9

If the manager of the company wants to get the simple sum of all hours worked by all
employees, he needs to execute the following SQL statement:

SELECT SUM (Hours)

FROM EmployeeHours

But what if the manager wants to get the sum of all hours for each of his employees?
To do that he need to modify his SQL query and use the SQL GROUP BY statement:

SELECT Employee, SUM (Hours)

FROM EmployeeHours
GROUP BY Employee

The result of the SQL expression above will be the following:

Employee Hours
John Smith 25
Allan Babel 24
Tina Crown 27

As you can see we have only one entry for each employee, because we are grouping by the
Employee column.

The SQL GROUP BY clause can be used with other SQL aggregate functions, for example
SQL AVG:

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SELECT Employee, AVG(Hours)

FROM EmployeeHours
GROUP BY Employee

The result of the SQL statement above will be:

Employee Hours
John Smith 8.33
Allan Babel 8
Tina Crown 9

In our Employee table we can group by the date column too, to find out what is the total
number of hours worked on each of the dates into the table:

SELECT Date, SUM(Hours)

FROM EmployeeHours
GROUP BY Date

Here is the result of the above SQL expression:

Date Hours
5/6/2004 24
5/7/2004 27
5/8/2004 25

Ordering Rows

If you want to see your data displayed in sequence, you must add an Order By clause to
your Select statement.By default it will display in ascending, however we can opt for
descending using “DESC”

Select */fieldname ...

from tablename
order by fieldname

Select */fieldname ...

from tablename
order by fieldname <desc>

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When ordering your data, you can have multiple sort levels.

Select fieldname, fieldname, fieldname

from tablename
order by fieldname <desc>, fieldname <desc>, fieldname <desc>

Joining Tables

Select */tablename.fieldname<mask> ...

from tablename <alias>, tablename <alias>, tablename <alias>
where tablename.fieldname = tablename.fieldname
and
tablename.fieldname = tablename.fieldname
and
tablename.fieldname = tablename.fieldname
order by fieldname <desc>...

Explanation:

 When you join two or more tables, a good idea is to precede the field
names with the table names. This is not mandatory unless the same field name is
found in more than one table.
 If you precede the field name with a table name, place a period between
the two names. For example, tablename.fieldname.
 You must specify which fields are being joined.
 If you do not specify which fields are being joined, the result is what is
commonly referred to as a "Cartesian join" in which all rows in the first table are
joined with all rows in the second table.
 You can give each table name an alias, or alternative table name. When
you assign an alias, you can then refer to the table by using its alias.

Updating Records

The update statement is used to update or change records that match a specified criteria.
This is accomplished by carefully constructing a where clause

Start transaction;

Update tablename
set fieldname = value
where fieldname = value;

Rollback work;

Commit work;

Explanation:

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 Issue a Start Transaction command before updating your table. This will
allow you to roll back the changes, if necessary. If you do not issue a Start
Transaction command, you will not be able the roll back your work.
 If you find that you have updated a row in error, execute the Rollback
Work command.
 When you are satisfied with your changes, issue the Commit Work
command.
 Use a Where clause to specify which rows will be updated. If you do
not include a Where clause, all rows will be updated.
 Remember to end each command with a semicolon

Inserting Rows

You can insert new rows into a table by using SQL

Insert into tablename ( fieldname, fieldname, fieldname)

values ( value, value, value);

Explanation:

 When inserting data, use the Start Transaction command so that any errors
can be rolled back.
 You must specify the values to be inserted.
 When performing an insert, enclose character values in single quotes.
 Do not enclose numeric values in single quotes.
 Use the Rollback Work command to undo changes.
 Use the Commit Work command to finalize changes

Deleting Records

The delete statement is used to delete records or rows from the table

To delete an entire record/row from a table, enter "delete from" followed by the table
name, followed by the where clause which contains the conditions to delete. If you leave
off the where clause, all records will be deleted.

Drop a Table

The drop table command is used to delete a table and all rows in the table.

Delete from tablename

where fieldname =/<>/ ... value
and/or ...
fieldname =/<>/ ... value
and/or
fieldname =/<>/ ... value

Explanation:

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 If you do not include a Where clause, all of the rows in the table will be
deleted.
 Every table has a primary key -- a field or combination of fields that
uniquely identify each row in the table. VendId is the primary key for the vendor
table. Each vendor is uniquely identified by the vendor Id. RefNbr is the primary
key for APDoc.
 If you want to delete a single row of data, you can refer to the row in the
Where clause by using the primary key.
 When deleting data, use the Start Transaction command so that any errors
can be rolled back.
 Use the Rollback Work command to undo changes.
 Use the Commit Work command to finalize changes

To delete an entire table including all of its rows, issue the drop table command
followed by the tablename. drop table is different from deleting all of the records in the
table. Deleting all of the records in the table leaves the table including column and
constraint information. Dropping the table removes the table definition as well as all of
its rows.

Truncate Table

TRUNCATE TABLE "table_name"

View
A view is a virtual table. A view consists of rows and columns just like a table. The difference
between a view and a table is that views are definitions built on top of other tables (or views), and
do not hold data themselves. If data is changing in the underlying table, the same change is
reflected in the view. A view can be built on top of a single table or multiple tables. It can also be
built on top of another view.

Advantages:

1. Ease of use: A view hides the complexity of the database tables from end users. Essentially
we can think of views as a layer of abstraction on top of the database tables.

2. Space savings: Views takes very little space to store, since they do not store actual data.

3. Additional data security: Views can include only certain columns in the table so that only the
non-sensitive columns are included and exposed to the end user. In addition, some databases
allow views to have different security settings, thus hiding sensitive data from prying eyes

CREATE VIEW "VIEW_NAME" AS "SQL Statement"

"SQL Statement" can be any of the SQL statements we have discussed in this tutorial.

Index
Indexes help us retrieve data from tables quicker. Let's use an example to illustrate this point: Say
we are interested in reading about how to grow peppers in a gardening book. Instead of reading
the book from the beginning until we find a section on peppers, it is much quicker for us to go to

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the index section at the end of the book, locate which pages contain information on peppers, and
then go to these pages directly. Going to the index first saves us time and is by far a more
efficient method for locating the information we need.

Therefore, it is often desirable to create indexes on tables. An index can cover one or more
columns.

some general strategies when building and using an index:

1.Build index on columns of integer type :Integers take less space to store, which means the
query will be faster. If the column you want to build an index for is not of type integer, consider
creating a surrogate integer key (or simply a surrogate column of type integer) which maps one-
to-one to the column you want to build the index for.

2.Keep index as narrow as possible : Narrower indexes take less space, require less time to
process, which in turn means the query will run faster.

3.Column order is important : For indexes covering multiple columns, the order of the columns
in the index is important. The best practice is to use the column with the lowest cardinality first,
and the column with the highest cardinality last. Recall cardinality means the number of distinct
values for that column. So, if "SELECT DISTINCT (COLUMN1) FROM TABLE_NAME;" returns 5,
that means the cardinality for COLUMN1 is 5.

4. Make sure the column you are building an index for is declared NOT NULL : This can
decrease the size of the index, which in turn will speed up the query.

CREATE INDEX "INDEX_NAME" ON "TABLE_NAME" (COLUMN_NAME)

There is no strict rule on how to name an index. The generally accepted method is to place a
prefix, such as "IDX_", before an index name to avoid confusion with other database objects. It is
also a good idea to provide information on which table and column(s) the index is used on.

NULL

In SQL, NULL means that data does not exist. NULL does not equal to 0 or an empty string. Both
0 and empty string represent a value, while NULL has no value at all.

Any mathematical operations performed on NULL will result in NULL.

Aggregate functions such as SUM, COUNT, AVG, MAX, and MIN exclude NULL values. This is
not likely to cause any issues for SUM, MAX, and MIN. However, this can lead to confusion with
AVG and COUNT.

Let's take a look at the following example:

Table Sales_Data

store_name Sales
Store A 300
Store B 200
Store C 100
Store D NULL

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Below are the results for each aggregate function:

SUM (Sales) = 600

AVG (Sales) = 200

MAX (Sales) = 300

MIN (Sales) = 100

COUNT (Sales) = 3

Note that the AVG function counts only 3 rows (the NULL row is excluded), so the average is
600 / 3 = 200, not 600 / 4 = 150. The COUNT function also ignores the NULL rolw, which is why
COUNT (Sales) = 3.

ISNULL Function

the ISNULL() function is used to test whether an expression is NULL. If the expression is NULL,
this function returns 1. Otherwise, this function returns 0.

For example, if we have the following table,

Table Sales_Data

store_name Sales
Store A 300
Store B NULL

The following SQL,

SELECT SUM(ISNULL(Sales,100)) FROM Sales_Data;

returns 400. This is because NULL has been replaced by 100 via the ISNULL function

NVL Function

The NVL() function is used to replace NULL value with another value

For example, if we have the following table,

Table Sales_Data

store_name Sales
Store A 300
Store B NULL
Store C 150

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The following SQL,

SELECT SUM(NVL(Sales,100)) FROM Sales_Data;

returns 550. This is because NULL has been replaced by 100 via the ISNULL function, hence the
sum of the 3 rows is 300 + 100 + 150 = 550.

NULLIF Function

The NULLIF function takes two arguments. If the two arguments are equal, then NULL is
returned. Otherwise, the first argument is returned

For example, let's say we have a table that tracks actual sales and sales goal as below:

Table Sales_Data

Store_name Actual Goal

Store A 50 50
Store B 40 50
Store C 25 30

We want to show NULL if actual sales is equal to sales goal, and show actual sales if the two are
different. To do this, we issue the following SQL statement:

SELECT Store_name, NULLIF(Actual,Goal) FROM Sales_Data;

The result is:

Store_name NULLIF(Actual,Goal)
Store A NULL
Store B 40
Store C 25

Union

The purpose of the SQL UNION query is to combine the results of two queries together. In this
respect, UNION is somewhat similar to JOIN in that they are both used to related information
from multiple tables. One restriction of UNION is that all corresponding columns need to be of the
same data type. Also, when using UNION, only distinct values are selected (similar to SELECT
DISTINCT).

[SQL Statement 1] UNION [SQL Statement 2]

Say we have the following two tables,

Table Store_Information

store_name Sales Date

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Los Angeles $1500 Jan-05-1999

San Diego $250 Jan-07-1999
Los Angeles $300 Jan-08-1999
Boston $700 Jan-08-1999

Table Internet_Sales

Date Sales
Jan-07-1999 $250
Jan-10-1999 $535
Jan-11-1999 $320
Jan-12-1999 $750

and we want to find out all the dates where there is a sales transaction. To do so, we use the
following SQL statement:

SELECT Date FROM Store_Information

UNION
SELECT Date FROM Internet_Sales

Result:

Date
Jan-05-1999
Jan-07-1999
Jan-08-1999
Jan-10-1999
Jan-11-1999
Jan-12-1999

Please note that if we type "SELECT DISTINCT Date" for either or both of the SQL statement, we
will get the same result set.

Union All

The purpose of the SQL UNION ALL command is also to combine the results of two queries
together. The difference between UNION ALL and UNION is that, while UNION only selects
distinct values, UNION ALL selects all values.

[SQL Statement 1] UNION ALL [SQL Statement 2]

Let's use the same example as the previous section to illustrate the difference. Assume that we
have the following two tables,

Table Store_Information

store_name Sales Date

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Los Angeles $1500 Jan-05-1999

San Diego $250 Jan-07-1999
Los Angeles $300 Jan-08-1999
Boston $700 Jan-08-1999

Table Internet_Sales

Date Sales
Jan-07-1999 $250
Jan-10-1999 $535
Jan-11-1999 $320
Jan-12-1999 $750

and we want to find out all the dates where there is a sales transaction at a store as well as all the
dates where there is a sale over the internet. To do so, we use the following SQL statement:

SELECT Date FROM Store_Information

UNION ALL
SELECT Date FROM Internet_Sales

Result:

Date
Jan-05-1999
Jan-07-1999
Jan-08-1999
Jan-08-1999
Jan-07-1999
Jan-10-1999
Jan-11-1999
Jan-12-1999

Intersect

Similar to the UNION command, INTERSECT also operates on two SQL statements. The
difference is that, while UNION essentially acts as an OR operator (value is selected if it appears
in either the first or the second statement), the INTERSECT command acts as an AND operator
(value is selected only if it appears in both statements).

SQL Statement 1] INTERSECT [SQL Statement 2]

Let's assume that we have the following two tables,

Table Store_Information

store_name Sales Date

Los Angeles $1500 Jan-05-1999

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San Diego $250 Jan-07-1999

Los Angeles $300 Jan-08-1999
Boston $700 Jan-08-1999

Table Internet_Sales

Date Sales
Jan-07-1999 $250
Jan-10-1999 $535
Jan-11-1999 $320
Jan-12-1999 $750

and we want to find out all the dates where there are both store sales and internet sales. To do
so, we use the following SQL statement:

SELECT Date FROM Store_Information

INTERSECT
SELECT Date FROM Internet_Sales

Result:

Date
Jan-07-1999

Please note that the INTERSECT command will only return distinct values.

Minus

The MINUS operates on two SQL statements. It takes all the results from the first SQL statement,
and then subtract out the ones that are present in the second SQL statement to get the final
answer. If the second SQL statement includes results not present in the first SQL statement, such
results are ignored.

[SQL Statement 1] MINUS [SQL Statement 2]

Let's continue with the same example:

Table Store_Information

store_name Sales Date

Los Angeles $1500 Jan-05-1999
San Diego $250 Jan-07-1999
Los Angeles $300 Jan-08-1999
Boston $700 Jan-08-1999

Table Internet_Sales

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Date Sales
Jan-07-1999 $250
Jan-10-1999 $535
Jan-11-1999 $320
Jan-12-1999 $750

and we want to find out all the dates where there are store sales, but no internet sales. To do so,
we use the following SQL statement:

SELECT Date FROM Store_Information

MINUS
SELECT Date FROM Internet_Sales

Result:

Date
Jan-05-1999
Jan-08-1999

"Jan-05-1999", "Jan-07-1999", and "Jan-08-1999" are the distinct values returned from "SELECT
Date FROM Store_Information." "Jan-07-1999" is also returned from the second SQL
statement, "SELECT Date FROM Internet_Sales," so it is excluded from the final result set.

Please note that the MINUS command will only return distinct values.

Some databases may use EXCEPT instead of MINUS. Please check the documentation for your
specific database for the correct usage.

Subquery

It is possible to embed a SQL statement within another. When this is done on the WHERE or the
HAVING statements, we have a subquery construct

SELECT "column_name1" FROM "table_name1" WHERE "column_name2" [Comparison

Operator] (SELECT "column_name3" FROM "table_name2" WHERE [Condition])

[Comparison Operator] could be equality operators such as =, >, <, >=, <=. It can also be a text
operator such as "LIKE", EXISTS

EXISTS simply tests whether the inner query returns any row. If it does, then the outer query
proceeds. If not, the outer query does not execute, and the entire SQL statement returns nothing.

Case

CASE is used to provide if-then-else type of logic to SQL. Its syntax is:

SELECT CASE ("column_name")

WHEN "condition1" THEN "result1"
WHEN "condition2" THEN "result2"
...

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[ELSE "resultN"]
END
FROM "table_name"

"condition" can be a static value or an expression. The ELSE clause is optional.

In our Table Store_Information example,

Table Store_Information

store_name Sales Date

Los Angeles $1500 Jan-05-1999
San Diego $250 Jan-07-1999
San Francisco $300 Jan-08-1999
Boston $700 Jan-08-1999

if we want to multiply the sales amount from 'Los Angeles' by 2 and the sales amount from 'San
Diego' by 1.5, we key in,

SELECT store_name, CASE store_name

WHEN 'Los Angeles' THEN Sales * 2
WHEN 'San Diego' THEN Sales * 1.5
ELSE Sales
END
"New Sales",
Date
FROM Store_Information

"New Sales" is the name given to the column with the CASE statement.

Result:

store_name New Sales Date

Los Angeles $3000 Jan-05-1999
San Diego $375 Jan-07-1999
San Francisco $300 Jan-08-1999
Boston $700 Jan-08-1999

JOIN

The SQL JOIN clause is used whenever we have to select data from 2 or more tables.

There are 2 types of SQL JOINS – INNER JOINS and OUTER JOINS. If you don't put
INNER or OUTER keywords in front of the SQL JOIN keyword, then INNER JOIN is used.
In short "INNER JOIN" = "JOIN" (note that different databases have different syntax for
their JOIN clauses).

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The INNER JOIN will select all rows from both tables as long as there is a match
between the columns we are matching on.

Example

SELECT Customers.FirstName, Customers.LastName, SUM(Sales.SaleAmount) AS

SalesPerCustomer FROM Customers JOIN Sales ON Customers.CustomerID = Sales.CustomerID
GROUP BY Customers.FirstName, Customers.LastName

The second type of SQL JOIN is called SQL OUTER JOIN and it has 2 sub-types
called LEFT OUTER JOIN and RIGHT OUTER JOIN.

The LEFT OUTER JOIN or simply LEFT JOIN (you can omit the OUTER keyword
in most databases), selects all the rows from the first table listed after the FROM clause,
no matter if they have matches in the second table.

The RIGHT OUTER JOIN or just RIGHT JOIN behaves exactly as SQL LEFT
JOIN, except that it returns all rows from the second table (the right table in our SQL
JOIN statement

DATA TYPE – Numbers, Decimals, Dates, Boolean,

Character Strings
Storing numbers and decimals allows the developer to collect statistical data and create reports
based on the data contained inside the table. SQL can even perform mathematical calculations
against numeric data, providing endless number-crunching abilities.

In SQL, decimals are often referred to as point or floating-point numbers. These data types are
slightly different from the normal 'integer' data types.

Date values are stored in date table columns in the form of a timestamp. A SQL timestamp is a record
containing date/time data, such as the month, day, year, hour, and minutes/seconds. It's not much
different from the standard date format

Boolean values are true/false types of data. A Boolean table column will contain either string
values of "True" and "False" or the numeric equivalent representation, with 0 being false and 1 being
true.

Strings range from a single word or character to large blocks of text including multiple paragraphs
and unique symbols. Set the table column type to VARCHAR or Text in order to incorporate string data
types into SQL tables.

Example

• Integers - (3, -17)

• Point(Decimal) - (3.23415)
• Date - (2004-06-22 10:33:11.840)
• ("TRUE" / "FALSE")

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• (1/0)
• VARCHAR - ('Words or numbers')
• Text - ('Once upon a time...')

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