High-rise building, also called high-rise, multistory building tall enough to require the

use of a system of mechanical vertical transportation such as elevators. The skyscraper

is a very tall high-rise building.

A building is an enclosed structure that has walls, floors, a roof, and usually windows. “
A ‘ tall building ’ is a multi-story structure in which most occupants depend on
elevators [lifts] to reach their destinations. The most prominent tall buildings are called
‘ high-rise buildings ’ in most countries and ‘ tower blocks ’ in Britain and some
European countries. The terms do not have internationally agreed definitions. ” 2
However, a high-rise building can be defined as follows: ● “ Any structure where
the height can have a serious impact on evacuation ” ( The International Conference on
Fire Safety in High-Rise Buildings ) .3 ● “ For most purposes, the cut-off point
for high-rise buildings is around seven stories. Sometimes, seven stories or higher
define a high-rise, and sometimes the definition is more than seven stories. Sometimes,
the definition is stated in terms of linear height (feet or meters) rather than stories. ”
4 ● “ Generally, a high-rise structure is considered to be one that extends higher
than the maximum reach of available fire-fighting equipment. In absolute numbers, this

The first high-rise buildings were constructed in the United States in the 1880s. They
arose in urban areas where increased land prices and great population densities created
a demand for buildings that rose vertically rather than spread horizontally, thus
occupying less precious land area. High-rise buildings were made practicable by the use
of steel structural frames and glass exterior sheathing. By the mid-20th century, such
buildings had become a standard feature of the architectural landscape in most
countries in the world.
The foundations of high-rise buildings must sometimes support very heavy gravity
loads, and they usually consist of concrete piers, piles, or caissons that are sunk into the
ground. Beds of solid rock are the most desirable base, but ways have been found to
distribute loads evenly even on relatively soft ground. The most important factor in the
design of high-rise buildings, however, is the building’s need to withstand the lateral
forces imposed by winds and potential earthquakes. Most high-rises have frames made
of steel or steel and concrete. Their frames are constructed of columns (vertical-support
members) and beams (horizontal-support members). Cross-bracing or shear walls may
be used to provide a structural frame with greater lateral rigidity in order to withstand
wind stresses. Even more stable frames use closely spaced columns at the building’s
perimeter, or they use the bundled-tube system, in which a number of framing tubes are
bundled together to form exceptionally rigid columns.
High-rise buildings are enclosed by curtain walls; these are non-load-bearing sheets of
glass, masonry, stone, or metal that are affixed to the building’s frame through a series
of vertical and horizontal members called mullions and muntins.
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The principal means of vertical transport in a high-rise is the elevator. It is moved by an
electric motor that raises or lowers the cab in a vertical shaft by means of wire ropes.
Each elevator cab is also engaged by vertical guide tracks and has a flexible electric
cable connected to it that provides power for lighting, door operation, and signal
transmission.
Because of their height and their large occupant populations, high-rises require the
careful provision of life-safety systems. Fire-prevention standards should be strict, and
provisions for adequate means of egress in case of fire, power failure, or other accident
should be provided. Although originally designed for commercial purposes, many high-
rises are now planned for multiple uses. The combination of office, residential, retail,
and hotel space is common. See also building construction.
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Building

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Concrete Admixtures

Cement

Concrete Cracks

Concrete Properties

Construction

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Estimating & Costing

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High Rise Structures

Home/ Structural Engineering / Steel Structures / High Rise Structures

<img style="border-width: 0px; display: block; float:

none; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" title="burj-dubai-worlds-tallest"
src="https://lh3.ggpht.com/_PR8ZKUe4Yc0/Stq_Lgrqm-I/AAAAAAAAKj4/l7zU3TKcxQw/burj-dubai-
worlds-tallest%5B3%5D.jpg?imgmax=800" border="0" alt="burj-dubai-worlds-tallest" width="288"
height="257" />

A high-rise is a tall building or structure

·Buildings between 75 feet and 491 feet (23 m to 150 m) high are considered high-rises. Buildings
taller than 492 feet (150 m) are classified as skyscrapers.

The materials used for the structural system of high-rise buildings are reinforced concrete and steel.
Most American style skyscrapers have a steel frame, while residential tower blocks are usually
constructed out of concrete.

High-rise structures have certain features. The structures are high & lead to higher vertical loads and
higher lateral loads (mainly due to wind stress) in comparison with lower buildings.

LOADS ON THE HIGHRISE STRUCTURES

Vertical Loads

Dead loads arise from the weigh to the individual construction elements and the finishing loads.

Live loads are dependent on use depending on the number of stories; live loads can be reduced for
load transfer and the dimensioning of vertical load-bearing elements.

· However, the reduction of the total live load on a construction element may not exceed 40%.

Horizontal Loads

Calculation of lateral loads should be carefully scrutinized.

It generally arises from unexpected deflections, wind and earthquake loads

Unexpected Deflections

It arises from imprecision in the manufacture of construction elements and larger components.

Another cause is the uneven settling of the foundation at an in-homogeneous site.

Any deflection produces additional lateral forces.

Wind Loads

High-rise buildings are susceptible to oscillation. It should not be viewed as statically equivalent
loads, but must be investigated under the aspect of sway behaviour.

Wind tunnel experiments are used to see the influence of the building?s shape on the wind load.

The ability of wind loads to bring a building to sway must also be kept in mind. This oscillation leads
both to a perceptible lateral acceleration for occupants, and to a maximum lateral deflection.

Earthquake Loads

Definition

Seismology (from the Greek seismos= earthquake and logos= word)

scientific study of earthquakes

propagation of elastic waves through the Earth.

studies of earthquake effects, such as tsunamis

diverse seismic sources such as volcanic, tectonic, oceanic, atmospheric, and artificial processes such
as explosions.

Earthquake

Produce different types of seismic waves.

It travel through rock, and provide an effective way to image both sources and structures deep
within the Earth.

Seismic Waves

There are three basic types of seismic waves in solids:

P-waves
\S-waves

P-and/or S-waves.

The two basic kinds of surface waves (Raleigh and Love).

Pressure waves,/Primary waves /P-waves,

Travel at the greatest velocity within solids and are therefore the first waves to appear on a
seismogram.

P-waves are fundamentally pressure disturbances that propagate through a material by alternately
compressing and expanding (dilating) the medium, where particle motion is parallel to the direction
of wave propagation.

Shear waves/secondary waves/S-waves,

Transverse waves that travel more slowly than P-waves and thus appear later than P-waves on a
seismogram.

Particle motion is perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation. Shear waves do not exist in
fluids such as air or water.

<img style="border-width: 0px;

display: block; float: none; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" title="high rise structure"
src="https://lh3.ggpht.com/_PR8ZKUe4Yc0/Stq_fYy_W3I/AAAAAAAAKj8/AYC36an4fGU/image%5B2
%5D.png?imgmax=800" border="0" alt="high rise structure" width="388" height="201" />

Type of High-Rise Structure

Braced Frame

Rigid Frame Structure

Infilled Frame Structure

Flat Plate and Flat Slab Structure

Shear wall structure

Coupled wall structure

Wall-frame structure

Framed tube structure

The trussed tube

Tube in tube or Hull core structure

Bundled tube structure

Core and Outriggers system

Hybrid structure

Braced Frame

Braced frames are cantilevered vertical trusses resisting laterals loads primarily through the axial
stiffness of the frame members.

The effectiveness of the system, as characterized by a high ratio of stiffness to material quantity, is
recognized for multi-storey building in the low to mid height range.

Generally regarded as an exclusively steel system because the diagonal are inevitably subjected to
tension for or to the other directions of lateral loading.

Able to produce a laterally very stiff structure for a minimum of additional material, makes it an
economical structural form for any height of buildings, up to the very tallest.

Advantages:-

Girders only participate minimally in the lateral bracing action-Floor framing design is independent
of its level in the structure.

Can be repetitive up the height of the building with obvious economy in design and fabrication.

Disadvantages:-

Obstruct the internal planning and the locations of the windows and doors; for this reason, braced
bent are usually incorporated internally along wall and partition lines, especially around elevator,
stair, and service shaft.-Diagonal connections are expensive to fabricate and erect.

<img style="border-width: 0px; display: block; float:

none; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" title="act tower"
src="https://lh3.ggpht.com/_PR8ZKUe4Yc0/Stq_3iJ24_I/AAAAAAAAKkA/nLM11SH96os/image%5B5
%5D.png?imgmax=800" border="0" alt="act tower" width="287" height="201" />

ACT Tower, Himatsu Japan

Rigid Frame Structure

Consist of columns and girders joined by moment resistant connections. Lateral stiffness of a rigid
frame bent depends on the bending stiffness of the columns, girders, and connection in the plane of
the bents. Ideally suited for reinforced concrete buildings because of the inherent rigidity of
reinforced concrete joints. Also used for steel frame buildings, but moment-resistant connections in
steel tend to be costly. While rigid frame of a typical scale that serve alone to resist lateral loading
have an economic height limit of about 25 stories, smaller scale rigid frames in the for of perimeter
tube, or typically rigid frames in combination with shear walls or braced bents, can be economic up
top much greater heights.

Advantages:-

May be place in or around the core, on the exterior, or throughout the interior of the building with
minimal constraint on the planning module.

The frame may be architecturally exposed to express the grid like nature of the structure.

The spacing of the columns in a moment resisting frame can match that required for gravity
framing.-Only suitable for building up to 20 –30 storiesonly; member proportions and materials cost
become unreasonable for building higher than that.

<img style="border-width: 0px; display: inline;"

title="WTC OSAKA JAPAN HIGH RISE STRUCTURE"
src="https://lh6.ggpht.com/_PR8ZKUe4Yc0/StrAFBo_soI/AAAAAAAAKkE/R2J3gaPLu5I/image%5B8%
5D.png?imgmax=800" border="0" alt="WTC OSAKA JAPAN HIGH RISE STRUCTURE" width="258"
height="254" />

Fig. WTC OSAKA JAPAN

In-filled Frame Structure

Most usual form of construction for tall buildings up to 30 stories in height Column and girder
framing of reinforced concrete, or sometimes steel, is in-filled by panels of brickwork, block work, or
cast-in-place concrete. Because of the in-filled serve also as external walls or internal partitions, the
system is an economical way of stiffening and strengthening the structure. The complex interactive
behaviour of the infill in the frame, and the rather random quality of masonry, has made it difficult
to predict with accuracy the stiffness and strength of an in-filled frame.
 <img style="border-width: 0px; display: inline;" title="high
rise structure"
src="https://lh3.ggpht.com/_PR8ZKUe4Yc0/StrAVsKOZQI/AAAAAAAAKkI/L1Rb_FT7NOw/image%5B1
1%5D.png?imgmax=800" border="0" alt="high rise structure" width="247" height="226" />

Fig. Infilled Frame.

Flat-Plate and Flat Slab Structure

Is the simplest and most logical of all structural forms in that it consists of uniforms slabs, connected
rigidly to supporting columns.

The system, which is essentially of reinforced concrete, is very economical in having a flat soffit
requiring the most uncomplicated formwork and, because of the soffit can be used as the ceiling, in
creating a minimum possible floor depth.

Lateral resistance depends on the flexural stiffness of the components and their connections, with
the slab corresponding to the girder of the rigid frame.

Particularly appropriate for hotel and apartment construction where ceiling space is not required
and where the slab may serve directly as the ceiling.

Economic for spans up to about 25 ft (8m),above which drop panels can be added to create a flat-
slab structure for span of up to 38 ft (12m).

Suitable for building up to 25 stories height.

Shear Wall Structure

Concrete or masonry continuous vertical walls may serve both architecturally partitions and
structurally to carry gravity and lateral loading. Very high in plane stiffness and strength make them
ideally suited for bracing tall building Act as vertical cantilevers in the form of separate planar walls,
and as non-planar assemblies of connected walls around elevator, stair and service shaft. well suited
to hotel and residential buildings where the floor-by floor repetitive planning allow the walls to be
vertically continuous and where they serve simultaneously as excellent acoustic and fire insulators
between rooms and apartments. Minimum shrinkage restraint reinforcement where the wall
stresses are low, which can be for a substantial portion of the wall.

Tensile reinforcement for areas where tension stresses occur in walls when wind uplifts stresses
exceeds gravity stresses.
Compressive reinforcement with confinement ties where high compressive forces require the walls
is designed as columns. Individual shear walls, say at the edge of a tall building, are design as blade
walls or as columns resisting shear and bending as required.

High strength concrete has enable wall thickness to be minimized, hence maximizing rentable floor
space.

Technology exists to pump and to place high-strength concrete at high elevation.

Fire rating for service and passenger elevator shafts is achieved by simply placing concrete of a
determined thickness.

The need for complex bolted or side-welded steel connections is avoided.

Well detail reinforce concrete will develop about twice as much damping as structural steel. This
advantage where acceleration serviceability is critical limits state, or for ultimate limits state design
in earthquake-prone area.

Action to be considered:-

Shear wall formed around elevator and service risers requires a concentration of opening at ground
level where stresses are critical.

Torsional and flexural rigidity is affected significantly by the number and the size of opening around
the shear walls throughout the height of the building.

Shear wall vertical movements will continue throughout the life of the building.

Construction time is generally slower than for a steel frame building.

The additional weight of the vertical concrete elements as compared to steel will induce a cost
penalty for the foundations.

An increase in mass will cause a decrease in natural frequency and hence will most likely produce an
adverse affect of the acceleration response depending on the frequency range of the building. But
shear wall systems are usually stiff and cause a compensating increase in natural frequency.

Problem associated with formwork systems:

A significant time lag will occur between footing construction and wall construction, because of the
fabrication and erection on site of the moving formwork systems

Time will be lost at the levels where wall are terminated or decrease in thickness, alignment of the
shear walls are within tolerance.

Regular survey check must be undertaken to ensure that the vertical and twist alignment of the
shear walls are within tolerance.

In general it is difficult to achieve a good finish from slip-form formwork systems, and hence
rendering or some other type of finishing may be necessary.
 <img style="border-width: 0px; display: inline;" title="high rise shear
walled structure"
src="https://lh4.ggpht.com/_PR8ZKUe4Yc0/StrAiWE4MBI/AAAAAAAAKkM/pYDptB9K3pY/image%5B
14%5D.png?imgmax=800" border="0" alt="high rise shear walled structure" width="191"
height="283" />

Shear wall Structure

Coupled Wall Structure

Consist of two or more shear walls in the same plane, or almost the same plane, connected at the
floor levels by beam or stiff slabs.

The effect of the shear-resistant connecting members is to cause the sets of wall to behave in their
partly as a composite cantilever, bending about the common centroidal axis of the walls.

Suited for residential construction where lateral-load resistant cross walls, which separate the
apartments, consist of in-plane coupled pairs, or trios, of shear walls between which there are
corridor or window openings. Besides using concrete construction, it occasionally been constructed
of heavy steel plate, in the style of massive vertical plate or box girders, as part of steel frame
structure.

<img style="border-width: 0px; display: inline;"

title="coupled shear wall structure"
src="https://lh5.ggpht.com/_PR8ZKUe4Yc0/StrAu7EX1_I/AAAAAAAAKkQ/Erv95IqXUeE/image%5B17
%5D.png?imgmax=800" border="0" alt="coupled shear wall structure" width="263" height="194" />

Coupled shear walled structure

Wall-Frame Structure

The walls and frame interact horizontally, especially at the top, to produce stiffer and stronger
structure. The interacting wall-frame combination is appropriate for the building in the 40 –60 story
range, well beyond that of rigid frames or shear walls alone.

Carefully tuned structure, the shear of the frame can be made approximately uniform over the
height, allowing the floor framing to be repetitive. Although the wall-frame structure is usually
perceived as a concrete structural form, with shear wall and concrete frames, a steel counterpart
using braced frames and steel rigid frames offers similar benefits of horizontal interaction.

The braced frames behave with an overall flexural tendency to interact with the shear mode of the
rigid frames.

<img style="border-width: 0px; display: inline;" title="wall frame structure"

src="https://lh3.ggpht.com/_PR8ZKUe4Yc0/StrA6q4yOhI/AAAAAAAAKkU/nbvlEuF0kYA/image%5B20
%5D.png?imgmax=800" border="0" alt="wall frame structure" width="139" height="174" />

Wall frame structure

<img style="border-width: 0px; display: inline;" title="majestic

building, high rise structure"
src="https://lh3.ggpht.com/_PR8ZKUe4Yc0/StrBFVrT0wI/AAAAAAAAKkY/nWSjLZQ5OXk/image%5B2
3%5D.png?imgmax=800" border="0" alt="majestic building, high rise structure" width="183"
height="226" />

Majestic building, Wellington, New Zealand.

The lateral resistant of the framed-tube structures is provided by very stiff moment-resistant frames
that form a “tube” around the perimeter of the building. The basic inefficiency of the frame system
for reinforced concrete buildings of more than 15 stories resulted in member proportions of
prohibitive size and structural material cost premium, and thus such system were economically
inviable. The frames consist of 6-12 ft (2-4m) between centers, joined by deep spandrel girders.
Gravity loading is shared between the tube and interior column or walls. When lateral loading acts,
the perimeter frame aligned in the direction of loading acts as the “webs” of the massive tube of the
cantilever, and those normal to the direction of the loading act as the “flanges”. The tube form was
developed originally for building of rectangular plan, and probably it?s most efficient use in that
shape.

Suitable for reinforced concrete and steel construction and has been used for building ranging from
40 to more than 100 stories. Aesthetically, the tube externally evident form is regarded with mixed
enthusiasm; some praise the logic of clearly expressed structure while other criticizes the grid like
façade as small-windowed and uninterestingly repetitious. Depending on the height and dimensions
of the building, exterior columns spacing should be in order of 1.5 m to 4.5 m on center maximum.
Spandrel beam depths for normal office or residential occupancy application are typically 600 mm to
1200 mm. Frame tube in structural steel requires welding of the beam-column joint to develop
rigidity and continuity. The formation of fabricated tree elements, where all welding is performed in
the shop in a horizontal position, has made the steel frame tube system more practical and efficient.
The 110 story World Trade Center twin towers, New York are examples whereby the structuralist
notion of a punched wall tube with extremely close exterior columns is architecturally exploited to
express visually the inherent verticality of the high rise building.
 <img
style="border-width: 0px; display: inline;" title="high rise structure design"
src="https://lh4.ggpht.com/_PR8ZKUe4Yc0/StrBzn67tTI/AAAAAAAAKkg/oDdZFGvs22Y/image%5B26
%5D.png?imgmax=800" border="0" alt="high rise structure design" width="487" height="559" />

The Trussed tube:

The trussed tube system represents a classic solution for a tube uniquely suited to the qualities and
character of structural steel.

Interconnect all exterior columns to form a rigid box, which can resist lateral shears by axial in its
members rather than through flexure.

Introducing a minimum number of diagonals on each façade and making the diagonal intersect at
the same point at the corner column.

The system is tubular in that the fascia diagonals not only form a truss in the plane, but also interact
with the trusses on the perpendicular faces to affect the tubular behaviour. This creates the x form
between corner columns on each façade.

Relatively broad column spacing can resulted large clear spaces for windows, a particular
characteristic of steel buildings.
The façade digitalisation serves to equalize the gravity loads of the exterior columns that give a
significant impact on the exterior architecture.

<img style="border-width: 0px; display: inline;" title="trussed

tube structure"
src="https://lh5.ggpht.com/_PR8ZKUe4Yc0/StrCC7gvO2I/AAAAAAAAKkk/lWoVHUuvMzw/image%5B
29%5D.png?imgmax=800" border="0" alt="trussed tube structure" width="235" height="393" />

Tube-in-Tube or Hull Core Structure

This variation of the framed tube consists of an outer frame tube, the “Hull,” together with an
internal elevator and service core.

The Hull and core act jointly in resisting both gravity and lateral loading.

The outer framed tube and the inner core interact horizontally as the shear and flexural components
of a wall-frame structure, with the benefit of increased lateral stiffness.

The structural tube usually adopts a highly dominant role because of its much greater structural
depth.
 <img style="border-width: 0px; display: block; float:
none; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" title="high rise structure design"
src="https://lh3.ggpht.com/_PR8ZKUe4Yc0/StrCOQwDZ2I/AAAAAAAAKko/KFW9RlaZkW8/image%5B
32%5D.png?imgmax=800" border="0" alt="high rise structure design" width="267" height="349" />

<img style="border-width:
0px; display: inline;" title="tube in structure high rise structure"
src="https://lh3.ggpht.com/_PR8ZKUe4Yc0/StrFvM1A2eI/AAAAAAAAKks/2ISA5jsi1Fs/image35.png?i
mgmax=800" border="0" alt="tube in structure high rise structure" width="420" height="335" />

Bundled-Tube structures

The concept allows for wider column spacing in the tubular walls than would be possible with only
the exterior frame tube form.
The spacing which make it possible to place interior frame lines without seriously compromising
interior space planning.

The ability to modulate the cells vertically can create a powerful vocabulary for a variety of dynamic
shapes therefore offers great latitude in architectural planning of a tall building.

<img style="border-width: 0px;

display: inline;" title="bundle tube structure high rise structure"
src="https://lh4.ggpht.com/_PR8ZKUe4Yc0/StrGpGEJWhI/AAAAAAAAKkw/U2T0jnXmzcM/image38.p
ng?imgmax=800" border="0" alt="bundle tube structure high rise structure" width="391"
height="306" />

<img style="border-width: 0px; display: inline;"

title="high rise structure N6E building" src="https://lh4.ggpht.com/_PR8ZKUe4Yc0/StrGy6wO-
sI/AAAAAAAAKk0/_NJFCDSgK5c/image41.png?imgmax=800" border="0" alt="high rise structure N6E
building" width="267" height="273" />

Core and Outrigger Systems

Outrigger serve to reduce the overturning moment in the core that would otherwise act as a pure
cantilever, and to transfer the reduced moment to columns outside the core by the way of tension-
compression coupled, which take advantage of the increase moment arm between these columns.

It also serves to reduce the critical connection where the mast is stepped to the keel beam.

In high-rise building this same benefit is realized by a reduction of the base core over-turning
moments and the associated reduction in the potential core uplift forces.

In the foundations system, this core and outrigger system can lead to the need for the following:

The addition of expensive and labour-intensive rock anchors to an otherwise “simple” foundation
alternative such as spread footing.

Greatly enlarged mat dimensions and depth solely to resist overturning forces.

Time-consuming and costly rock sockets for caisson systems along with the need to develop
reinforcement throughout the complete caisson depth.

Expensive and intensive field work connection at the interface between core and the foundation.
This connection can become particularly troublesome when one considers the difference in
construction tolerances between foundations and core structure.

The elimination from consideration of foundation systems which might have been nsiderably less
expensive, such as pile, solely for their inability to resist significant uplift.

Advantages:

The outrigger systems may be formed in any combination of steel, concrete, or composite
construction.

Core overturning moments and their associated induced deformation can be reduced through the
“reverse” moment applied to the core at each outrigger intersection. This moment is created by the
force couple at the exterior columns to which the outrigger connect. It can potentially increase the
effective depth of the structural system from the core only to almost the complete building.

Significant reduction and possibly the complete elimination of uplift and net tension forces
throughout the column and the foundation systems.

The exterior column spacing is not driven by structural considerations and can easily mesh with
aesthetic and functional considerations.

Exterior framing can consist of “simple” beam and column framing without the need for rigid-frame-
type connections, resulting in economies.

For rectangular buildings, outriggers can engage the middle columns on the long faces of the
building under the application of wind loads in the more critical direction. In core-alone and tubular
systems, these columns which carry significant gravity load are either not incorporated or under
utilized. In some cases, outrigger systems can efficiently incorporate almost every gravity column
into lateral load resisting system, leading to significant economies.

Disadvantages
The most significant drawback with use of outrigger systems is their potential interference with
occupiable and rentable space. This obstacle can be minimized or in some cases eliminate by
incorporation of any of the following approaches:

Locating outrigger in mechanical and interstitial levels

Locating outriggers in the natural sloping lines of the building profile

Incorporating multilevel single diagonal outriggers to minimize the member?s interference on any
single level.

Skewing and offsetting outriggers in order to mesh with the functional layout of the floor space.

Another potential drawback is the impact the outrigger installation can have on the erection
process. As a typical building erection proceeds, the repetitive nature of the structural framing and
the reduction in member sizes generally result in a learning curve which can speed the process
along.

The incorporation of a outrigger at intermediate or upper levels can, if not approached properly,
have a negative impact on the erection process. Several steps can be taken to minimize this
possibility Provide clear and concise erection guidelines in the contract documents so that the
erector can anticipate the constraint and limitation that the installation will impose. If possible,
avoid outriggers locations or design constraints that will require “backtracking” in the construction
process to install or connect the outrigger. The incorporation of intermediate outriggers in concrete
construction or large variation in dead-load column stresses between the core and the exterior can
in some cases result in the need to “backtrack”. Such a need can be minimized if issues such as creep
and differential shortening are carefully studied during the design process to minimize their impact.
Avoid adding additional outrigger levels for borderline force or deflection control.

Hybrid Structure

Combination of two or even more of basic structural forms either by direct combination or by
adopting different forms in different parts of the structure. This systems provide in-plane stiffness,
its lack of Torsional stiffness requires that additional measures be taken, which resulted in one bay
vertical exterior bracing and a number of level of perimeter Vierendeel “bandages” –perhaps one of
the best examples of the art of structural engineering. Hybrid structures are likely to be the rule
rather than the exception for future very tall buildings, whether to create acceptable dynamic
characteristics or to accommodate the complex shapes demanded by modern architecture. High-
strength concrete, consist of stiffness and damping capabilities of large concrete elements are
combined with the lightness and constructability of steel frame exhibits significantly lower creep and
shrinkage and is therefore more readily accommodated in a hybrid frame.