FACILITATING LEARNING

Review for the Licensure Examination for Teachers

Learning Objectives:

1. To have a general overview about the contents of the course/subject and understand the nature
on how to better facilitates the learning process.
2. To analyze the cognitive, metacognitive, motivational, socio-cultural, and individual difference
factors involve in facilitating the learning of the students.
3. To have a deep understanding of the various theories of learning and to know the application of
each theory in facilitating the learning and teaching process.
4. Demonstrates learning skills to facilitate self-directed learning.

I. BASIC CONCEPTS

1. Learning
Learning may be defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior potentiality
that occurs due to experience and reinforced practice.
It is also defined as a process inferred from relatively stable changes in behavior that
result through practice or interaction with and adaptation to the environment.
(Goodwin and Klausmeier, 1975-1975)
Permanently change in immediate or potential behavior/mental processes that result
from past experiences/practices.
It is an ongoing process of continued adaptation to our enviroment, assimilation of
new information and accommodation of new input to fit prior knowledge.

2. Facilitate
Simplify process; to make something easy or easier to do.
To make easier, to aid, to assists.

3. Facilitator
Somebody enables something to happen; somebody who encourages people to find
their own solutions to problem or tasks.

4. Facilitating Learning
Tools that make learning easier, aid instruction and bridge the gap between the
teacher and the learner in order for the individual to adapt, assimilate and
accommodate one’s existing environment. (Aggarao M., PNU Manila)
It is bedrock on learning theories and motivational processes to achieve desirable
learning outcomes – cognitive, affective and physical domains. (Aggarao M., PNU
Manila)

5. Theory
Public pronouncement of what a scientist or an independent/group of minds that
have done something and is subjected for further studies/research.
Concepts/propositions that help to describe and explain observations that one has
made.
A supposition or a system of ideas intended to explain something, especially one
based on general principles independent of the thing to be explained (Concise Oxford
Dictionary).

6. Learning Theories
They are sets of conjectures and hypothesis that explains the process of learning or
how learning takes place.

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II. LEARNING PROCESS

A. NATURE OF THE LEARNING PROCESS

Facilitating of learning is not a simple task unless a teacher has a clear knowledge
and understanding of the learning process. He will find it difficult to set the conditions that
will facilitate learning success on the part of the learners. The teacher should understand the
nature of the learning process and the facts relating to the conditions under what learning
takes place. A teacher needs to understand also the psychological principles, theories and
laws relating to learning.

B. TYPES OF LEARNING
1. Sensory-motor learning - involves understanding the external world through the
senses and muscles. The chief outcome is the development of movement as reaction to
stimuli resulting in speed and precision in performance. It may vary from large
muscular to fine motor skills.
2. Cognitive learning - is concerned with the development of ideas and concepts. It
covers much of what academic learning demands. It includes everything from
associations between stimuli and responses (referred to as associative learning) to the
development of problem-solving skills. It has two types: associative learning and
problem solving.
3. Affective learning - involves experiences within which emotions and affects take
precedence. It involves the assimilation of values, mental understanding, emotional
reactions, the sense of pleasure and satisfaction.

C. FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING

1. Learner - They are the immediate client in the teaching-learning process. He knows
best whether or not he is learning although at times he is not aware what he has
learned.
2. Teacher - has a crucial role in the teaching-learning process and play multiple roles
inside and outside the school. He must know who he is, his capabilities, interests,
strengths, weaknesses before he plunges into teaching.
3. Environment/Culture - includes the forces external to the individual and internal and
external to the school. It is generally accepted that the environment is a potent force in
human development and in learning. The school, family, church, recreation centers,
peers, mass media and the community all affect learning.

III. METACOGNITION

A. DEFINITIONS
According to John Flavell (1979, 1987), metacognition consists of both
metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive experiences. It is “thinking about
thinking” or “learning how to learn”. It refers to higher order thinking which involves
active awareness and control over the cognitive processes engaged in learning.
Metacognition refers to the learner’s understanding and control of their cognitive
processes (Kauchak & Eggen, 2007). Learners think about their own thinking
processes and choose learning strategies that are appropriate for specific tasks.

B. METACOGNITIVE KNOWLEDGE: 3 Categories

1. Person variables – includes how one learn and process information as well as his
learning processes. Also, how one views himself as a learner and thinker.
2. Task variables – includes knowledge about the nature of the task.
3. Strategy variables – involves awareness of the strategy that the learner is using and
evaluation of the effectiveness of this strategy.

C. TWO TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE

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 1. Explicit metacognitive knowledge – conscious factual knowledge.
2. Implicit metacognitive knowledge – self-monitoring.

D. ESSENTIAL SKILLS OF METACOGNITION (Woolfolk, 2007)

1. Planning
2. Monitoring
3. Evaluating

IV. LEARNER-CENTERED PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES (LCP)

The LCP Principles were put together by the American Psychological Association. There
are 14 psychological principles pertaining to the learner and the learning process and it is
divided into four factors.

A. Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors

1. Nature of the learning process
2. Goals of the learning process
3. Construction of knowledge
4. Strategic thinking
5. Thinking about thinking
6. Context of learning

B. Motivational and Affective Factors

7. Motivational and emotional influences on learning
8. Intrinsic motivations to learn
9. Effects of motivations on effort

C. Developmental and Social Factors

10. Developmental influences on learning
11. Social influences on learning

D. Individual Difference Factors

12. Individual differences in learning
13. Learning and diversity
14. Standards and assessment

V. REVIEW OF THEORIES RELATED TO THE LEARNER’S DEVELOPMENT

A. PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY – Sigmund Freud

1. Id – pleasure-centered
2. Ego – reality-centered
3. Superego – ego ideal or conscience

B. PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT – Sigmund Freud

1. Oral – mouth (birth to 1 year)
2. Anal – anus/anal region (1 to 3 years)
3. Phallic – genitals (3 to 6 years)
4. Latency – focus on other aspects except sexual (6 to 12 years)
5. Genital – genital (12 years onwards)

 Each stage demands satisfaction of needs, and failure to do so results in fixations.

C. PSYCHO-SOCIAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT – Erik Erikson

Erikson described the crisis (expressed in opposite polarities) that a person goes
through; the maladaptations and malignancies that result from failure to effectively resolve
the crisis; and the virtue that emerges when balance and resolution of the crisis is attained.

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 1. Trust vs. Mistrust – birth to 1 year
2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt – 2 to 3 years
3. Initiative vs. Guilt – 3 to 6 years
4. Industry vs. Inferiority – 6 to 12 years
5. Ego-identity vs. Role/Identity Confusion – 12 to 18 years
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation – 18 to 40 years
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation – 40 to 60 years
8. Ego-integrity vs. Despair – 60 years to death

D. COGNITIVE THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT – Jean Piaget

1. Basic Concepts
Schema – cognitive structures, prior knowledge
Assimilation – fitting new information into existing schema
Accommodation – process of creating new schema
Equilibration – mental balances between cognitive schemes and information from
the environment
Disequilibrium – current ways of thinking are not working to solve a problem

2. Stages of Cognitive Development

a. Sensory-motor stage (birth to 2 years) – learning through senses, motor
responses, object permanence.
b. Pre-operational stage (2 to 7 years) – mental representations, symbolic
function, egocentrism, irreversibility, animism, centration
c. Concrete operational stage (7 to 11 years) – concrete objects, reversibility,
decentering, conservation, seriation
d. Formal operational stage (11 onwards) – logical thinking, analogical
reasoning, hypothetical situations, deductive reasoning, problem solving.

 Each stage has characteristics ways of thinking and perceiving that shows how one’s
cognitive abilities develop.

E. MORAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY – Lawrence Kohlberg

1. Pre-conventional level – 0 to 9 years
1.1 Punishment-obedience orientation – obeying authority and avoiding punishment
1.2 Instrumental relativist orientation – mutual benefit

2. Conventional level – 9 to 20 years

2.1 Interpersonal accord and conformity – social approval
2.2 Law and order orientation – upholding the laws and regulation of society

3. Post conventional level – 20 onwards

3.1 Social contract orientation – common good
3.2 Universal ethical principle – self-chosen ethical principles

 This theory was influenced by Piaget, Kohlberg believed that one’s cognitive
development influenced of one’s moral reasoning.

F. SOCIO-CULTURAL THEORY – Lev Vygotsky

Vygotsky emphasized the role of social interaction in learning and development. It
emphasizes how meaning and understanding grow out of social encounters. For Vygotsky,
cognitive development is a social process.

Concepts:
1. Social interaction
2. Language – used to transmit culture form one generation to the next, both oral and
written.
3. Scaffolding – support or assistance from more knowledgeable others

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 4. Zone of Actual Development – if a child performs a task alone
5. Zone o Proximal Development (ZPD) – if a child perform the task with the help of
more knowledgeable others.

G. BIOECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS THEORY – Urie Bronfenbrenner

Bronfenbrenner’s model presents child development within the context of relationship
systems that comprise the child’s environment. The term “bioecological” points out that a
child’s own biological make-up impacts on his/her development (Lucas, et.al, 2014).
Learning is greatly affected by the kind of environment we are in. The model is
composed of the following:
1. Microsystem – innermost level, contains the structure that has direct contact
with child
2. Mesosystem – connection between the structures of the child’s microsystem
3. Exosystem – 3rd level, ex. social system which the child does not function
directly
4. Macrosystem – outermost level, ex. values, customs, laws, beliefs and resources
of a culture/society
5. Chronosystem – not within the system, temperal-related
 external – timely death of a loved one
 internal – physiological changes caused by aging

 To study the child’s development, we must look not only at the child and his/her
immediate environment, but also at the larger environment with which the child
interacts.

VI. STUDENT DIVERSITY

A. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
It accounts for our distinguishing characteristics that make us unique.
Individual stresses qualities that distinguish one from other members of the same
group or class (Merriam – Webster).
Differences may imply little more than separateness but it may also imply contrast/
contrariness (Merriam – Webster).
In all learning environments, individuals interact with others who are in some ways
different from them.

B. LEARNING AND THINKING STYLES

Refer to the preferred way individual processes information. They describe a person’s
typical mode of thinking, remembering or problem solving.

1. Sensory Preferences
1.1 Visual learners - These learners must see their teacher’s actions and facial
expression to fully understand the content of the lesson. They may think in pictures
and learn best from visual aids, and prefer to take detailed notes.
1.1.1 Visual-iconic – visual imagery
1.1.2 Visual-symbolic – abstract symbolism

1.2 Auditory learners - They learn best through verbal lectures, discussions, talking
things through and listening to what others have to say.
1.2.1 Listeners
1.2.2 Talkers

1.3 Tactile learners – likes to manipulate objects

1.4 Kinesthetic learners – hands-on, learning by doing, motor coordination

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 2. Thinking Styles (Global-Analytic Continuum)

2.1 Analytic - Analytic thinkers tend toward the linear, step–by–step processes of
learning. They are more comfortable of in a world of details and hierarchies of
information.
2.2 Global - Global thinkers lean towards the non-linear thought and tend to see the
whole pattern rather than particle elements.

LEFT BRAIN (Analytic) RIGHT BRAIN (Global)

 Follows the sequential process  Follows random process
 Analytical  Intuitive
 Verbal language  Non-verbal language
 Logical  Spatial
 Temporal  Holistic
 Mathematical functions  Non-verbal process
 Prefers structure  Prefers to see and experience
 Internal focus  External focus
 Reasoning  Dreams
 Responds to logic  Responds to emotion
 Symbolic processing  Concrete processing
 Reality-based processing  Fantasy-based processing
 Deals with one thing at a time  Integrates multiple inputs
 Plans ahead  Impulsive
 Recalls people’s names  Recalls people’s faces
 Speaks with few gestures  Gestures when speaking
 Prefers formal study design  Prefers sound/music while studying
C. MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES – Howard Gardner, 1983
Nine distinct forms of intelligences:
1. Visual/Spatial (Picture Smart) – learning visually and organizing ideas spatially.
Seeing concepts in action in order to understand them.

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 2. Verbal/Linguistic (Word Smart) – learning through spoken and written words.
3. Mathematical/Logical (Number/Logic Smart) – learning through reasoning and
problem solving.
4. Body/Kinesthetic (Body Smart) – learning through interaction with one’s
environment. It promotes understanding through concrete experiences.
5. Musical (Music Smart) – learning through patterns, rhythms and music.
6. Intrapersonal (Self Smart) – learning through feelings, values and attitudes.
7. Interpersonal (People Smart) – learning through interaction with others.
8. Naturalist (Nature Smart) – learning through classifications, categories and
hierarchies.
9. Existentialist (Spirit Smart) – seeks connections to real world understanding and
application of new learning.

D. LEARNERS WITH EXCEPTIONALITIES

Categories of exceptionalities (Omrod’s Educational Psychology, 2000)
1. Cognitive/Academic Difficulties
1.1 Learning Disabilities – dyslexia, dyscalculia, dysgraphia
1.2 Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) – difficulty in focusing,
hyperactive and impulsive behavior.
1.3 Speech and Communication Disorders – difficulty in spoken language

2. Social/Emotional and Behavioral Difficulties

2.1 Autism – condition manifested by different levels of impaired social
interaction and communication, repetitive behaviors and limited interests.
2.2 Mental Retardation – sub-average intelligence and deficits in adaptive
behavior.
2.3 Emotional/Conduct Disorders – depression, aggression

3. Physical Disabilities and Health Impairments

4. Severe and Multiple Disabilities
5. Sensory Impairments
5.1 Visual Impairments
5.2 Hearing Impairments

6. Giftedness – high level of cognitive development

VII. BEHAVIORIST PERSPECTIVE

A. BEHAVIORISM
Focuses on the study of observable and measurable behavior.
It emphasizes that behavior is mostly learned through conditioning and
reinforcement (rewards and punishment).
All behaviorists are focused on the analyses of stimuli and responses.
It prefers to concentrate on the actual behavior.
It is divided into two types: Association theory and Reinforcement theory.

1. Classical Conditioning – Ivan Petrovich Pavlov

 Pavlov’s most renowned experiment involved meat, a dog and a bell.
 Individual learns when a previously neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with an
unconditioned stimulus until a neutral stimulus evokes a conditioned response.
 The teacher should build positive associations between teaching and learning
activities and relate it with pleasant events.

Feature of Classical Conditioning Educational Implications

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1. Stimulus – Generalization – a process by  A child should be convinced that not all
which the conditioned response transfers to teachers in school are bad or anything that
other stimuli that is similar to the original associates to school matters is bad.
conditioned stimulus.
Ex. stern teacher

2. Discrimination – a process by which one  Help the child to distinguish the

learns not to respond to similar stimuli in an difference between two or three identical
identical manner because of previous stimuli or to discriminate their distinct
experiences. differences.
Ex. pairs of numbers 31 and 13 or 13 and
31.
3. Extinction – a process by which a  Fear of anxiety towards a terror teacher
conditioned response is lost. gradually vanishes if in the succeeding days
Ex. anxiousness you experience pleasant treatment with the
teacher.

2. Operant Conditioning – Burrhus Frederic Skinner

Using pleasant or unpleasant consequences to control the occurrence of behavior.
Using reinforcement: positive reinforcer and negative reinforcer.

2.1 Reinforcer – is anything that strengthens the desired response; any consequence
that strengthen the behavior.
 Primary reinforcer – related to basic needs. Ex. food.
 Secondary reinforcer – value of something is acquired when associated with
primary reinforcer. Ex. money to buy food.
 Positive reinforcer – consequence given to strengthen a behavior
 Negative reinforcer – release from an unpleasant situation to strengthen
behavior.

2.2 Types of Reinforcement

 Verbal – praise, encouragement
 Physical – touch, pats, hugs
 Non-verbal – smiles, winks, warm looks
 Activity – games, enjoyments
 Token – points, stars
 Consumable – cookies

2.3 Punishment - any unpleasant consequence to weaken a behavior; harms a person in

what not to do, rather than in what to do.

3. Connectionism Theory – Edward Lee Thorndike

Thorndike saw learning as the formation of bonds between the stimulus and the
response. He believed that pleasant and unpleasant consequences of behavior
help determine whether that behavior will tend to be repeated or not.
Connectionism means learning by selecting and connecting.

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 Thorndike Theory of Learning Educational Implications
1. Multiple response – variation of responses that  A child tries multiple responses to solve
would lead to conclusion or arrival of an answer a certain problem.
2. Law of Set and Attitude – attitudes means
“dispositions”, “pre-judgments”, and prior  Giving of homework, advanced reading
instruction/experience effect toward a given task. affects learning
3. Law of Readiness – interfering with oral directed
behavior causes frustration, causing someone to do  Asking a child to write the alphabets
something they do not want to do is also frustrating. when he/she did not learn the basic strokes
a. When someone is ready to perform some act, to do of writing gets frustrated and annoyed.
is satisfying.
b. When someone is ready to perform some act, not to
do is annoying.
c. When someone is not ready to perform some act
and is forced to do, it is annoying.
4. Law of Exercise – the organism learns by doing
and forgets by not doing.  Practice makes perfect
a. Law of use – connections between stimulus and  Provide varied enhancement activities/
response are strengthened as they are used. exercises, seatwork.
b. Law of desire – connections between a stimulus and
response are weakened when practice is
discontinued.
5. Law of Effect – reward increases the strength of a  Praise students’ achievements;
connection whereas punishment does nothing. encourage those low performing students to
do better.
4. John B. Watson – American psychologist who work on Pavlov’s ideas.
He believed that all other behavior is learned through stimulus-response
associations though conditioning.
He conducted an experiment on the conditioning of infant emotion.
He and his followers believed that all emotions – good or bad – are learned.

B. NEO BEHAVIORISM
The neo-behaviorist was a transitional group, bridging the gap between behaviorism and
cognitive theories of learning.

1. Purposive Behaviorism – Edward Tolman

Tolman describes his theory of learning as Purposive behaviorism or Sign
Learning Theory. He viewed learning primarily as a cognitive process, a matter of
acquiring beliefs and knowledge about the environment and then demonstrating that
knowledge by acting in purposeful, goal directed ways.

Key Concepts:
1.1 Learning is always purposive and goal-directed.
1.2 Cognitive maps – selecting the shortest and easiest path to achieve a goal.
1.3 Latent learning – remains or stays within the individual until needed.
1.4 Intervening variable – determinants of behavior
1.5 Reinforcement is not essential for learning.

2. Social Learning Theory – Albert Bandura

It emphasizes the importance of observing and modeling the behaviors, attitudes
and emotional reactions of others. According to Bandura, most human behavior is
learned observationally through modeling and imitation.
This theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction
between cognitive, behavioral, and environmental influences.
People learn through observation, simulation, modeling which means watching
(observing), another called a model and later imitating the model’s behavior.
Key Concepts:

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 2.1 Modeling - refers to the observation and learning of new behaviors from others. By
simply observing how others perform the behavior, we are able to imitate what we
have observed.
2.2 Self-regulated learning - occurs when individuals observe, assesses and judge
their own behavior against their own standards and subsequently reward or punish
themselves.
2.3 Vicarious learning - is learning acquired from observing the consequences of
other’s behavior.
2.4 Observational learning – consists of four phases
 Attention – paying attention to the model
 Retention - learning to remember what one observed.
 Motor reproduction – replicate the behavior
 Motivation – learning through motivating factors: incentives, negative reinforcers
2.5 Classification of models
 Real life – exemplified by teachers and parents.
 Symbolic – presented through oral or written symbols.
 Representational – presented through audio-visual means.

VIII. COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE

A. GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY – Wolfgang Kohler, Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka

The word gestalt is German origin which means “pattern,” “shape,” or “form.”
It served as the foundation of the cognitive perspective to learning. It opposed the
external and mechanic focus of behaviorism. It considered the mental processes and
products of perception.
Psychologists suggested that learners do not just collect information as it is but they
actively process and restructure data in order to understand it.

1. Gestalt Principles
1.1 Law of Proximity – things that are near to each other appears to be grouped
together; tendency to perceive objects that are close to each other.
1.2 Law Similarity – similar things appear to be grouped together; we grouped things
that are similar or the same.
1.3 Law of Closure – incomplete figures tend to be perceived as complete. Our minds
tend to fill in the gaps or missing parts of the figures.
1.4 Law of Continuity – link individual elements together so they for a continuous
pattern that makes sense.
1.5 Law of Pragnanz – means good figure. It states that every stimulus pattern is seen
in such a way that the resulting structure is as simple as possible.

2. Insight Learning/Problem-Solving Theory – Wolfgang Kohler

Insight is the capacity to discern the true nature of situation.
Imaginative power to see into and understand immediately.
Gaining insight is a gradual process of exploring, analyzing, and structuring
perception until a solution has arrived.

2.1 Patterns in solving through trial and error

Failure pause looking for potential solutions attempt insight plan

B. INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY

Is a cognitive theoretical framework that focuses on how knowledge enters and is stored
in and is retrieved from our memory.
IPT describes how the learner receives information (stimuli) from the environment
through the senses and what takes place in between determines whether the

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 information will continue to pass through the sensory register, then the short term
memory and the long term memory.

1. Types of Knowledge
1.1 General and Specific – involves whether the knowledge is useful in many tasks or
only in one task.
1.2 Declarative – factual knowledge
1.3 Procedural – knowledge on how to do things
1.4 Episodic – biographical memory or memories of life events
1.5 Conditional – knowing when the appropriate time and condition in which certain
information is to be used

2. Stages in IPT
2.1 Encoding – information is sensed, perceived and attended to.
2.2 Storage – information is stored for either a brief or extended period of time.
2.3 Retrieval – information is brought back at the appropriate time and reactivated for
use on a current task.

3. Short Term Memory – working memory; lasts up to 13 to 30 seconds.

STM techniques (Brownell, 2002):
3.1 Repetition
3.2 Chunking
3.3 Identifying logical patterns

4. Long Term Memory – is a warehouse of knowledge. It holds the stored information

until needed again. It has unlimited capacity. It can be forgotten if not rehearsed.
LTM techniques (Brownell, 2002):
4.1 Association
4.2 Categorization
4.3 Mediation
4.4 Imagery
4.5 Mnemonics

5. Forgetting – is the inability to retrieve or access information when needed.

5.1 Decay
5.2 Interference

C. CONDITIONS OF LEARNING/CUMULATIVE LEARNING – Robert Mills Gagne

Gagne has developed a hierarchical theory that some types of learning are
prerequisites to other types.
In his theory, he specified several different types or levels of learning. He stressed that
different internal and external conditions are needed for each type of learning.
He supports cumulative teaching that transitions from simple to complex skills which is
widely used in many instructional environments.
Learning skills are hierarchically arranged.

1. Five Types of Learning

1.1 Intellectual skills (procedural knowledge) - refer to the learner’s use of symbols to
interact in the environment.
1.2 Verbal information - accounts for learning names, labels and facts.
1.3 Cognitive Strategies - essential mental activities to formulate plans, devices and
techniques through which a certain problem will be solved.
1.4 Motor skills - are concerned with the coordination of muscular movement; acquired
through observation.
1.5 Attitudes - Choosing personal actions based on internal states of understanding and
feeling.
2. Nine Events of Instruction

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 NINE EVENTS OF INSTRUCTION Application in Classroom Teaching
1. Gaining attention  Pique the learner’s interest in the subject.
2. Informing the learner of the objective  Let the students know what they will be learning.
3. Recalling of prior knowledge  Get the learners to think about what they
already know.
4. Presenting new material  Teach the topic.
5. Providing learning guidance  Help the learners follow along as the topic is
presented.
6. Eliciting performance  Ask learners to do what they have been taught.
7. Providing feedback about performance  Inform learners of their performance.
8. Assessing performance  Evaluate learners on their knowledge of the
topic.
9. Enhancing retention and transfer  Aid learners in remembering and applying the
new skill.

3. Teaching Applications:
 Observe strictly sequence in teaching in terms of level of learning skills and
capabilities required.
 Check students’ capabilities in each level of learning before moving to the next
level.
 Make sure that prerequisite learning skills are acquired/ developed before
proceeding to the target level.

D. SUBSUMPTION THEORY/ Meaningful Verbal Learning – David Ausubel

Meaningful learning occurs when new experiences are related to what a learner already
knows.
Concerned with how students learn large amounts of meaningful material from
verbal/textual presentations in a school setting.
Subsumption is a process by which new material is related to relevant ideas in the
existing cognitive structure.

1. Four Processes:
1.1 Derivative subsumption – new information learned is an example of a concept that
the learner’s already learned.
1.2 Correlative subsumption – relate new information to previous information learned to
enrich higher-level concept.
1.3 Superordinate learning – knowing a lot of examples of the concept.
1.4 Combinatorial learning – newly acquired knowledge combines with prior knowledge
to enrich the understanding of both concepts.

2. Advance Organizers – is a major instructional tool proposed by Ausubel. It is an

instructional that is used before direct instruction, or before a new topic.
Types of Advance Organizer
2.1 Expository – describing the new content
2.2 Narrative – story form
2.3 Skimming – basic overview
2.4 Graphic Organizers – visuals or outline

E. CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORY – Jerome Seymour Bruner

Based on the concept of categorization, this theory states that, “To perceive is to
categorize; to conceptualize is to categorize; to learn is to form categories; to make
decisions is to categorize.”
Learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based
upon their current/past knowledge.
Main Concepts:

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 1. Three Modes of Representation
1.1 Enactive (action-based) – learning through actions on physical objects and the
outcomes of these actions; motor responses and manipulation.
1.2 Iconic (image-based) – learning can be obtained through using models and
pictures.
1.3 Symbolic (language-based) – developed the ability to think in abstract terms;
used of symbol systems (language/mathematical notation) to encode knowledge.

2. Spiral Curriculum
 Spiral curriculum is the one that develops the same lessons at succeeding age or
grade level as well as at different levels of difficulty.
 Teachers must revisit the curriculum by teaching the same content in different
ways depending on students’ developmental levels.

3. Discovery Learning
 It refers to obtaining knowledge for oneself. The teacher plans and arranges
activities in such a way that students search, manipulate, explore and investigate
to learn new knowledge.

4. Categorization – categorization of information in the construction of internal

cognitive maps. There are several kinds of categories:
4.1 Identify categories – based on attributes or features.
4.2 Equivalent categories – provide rules for combining categories.
4.3 Coding systems – serve to recognize sensory input.

IX. COGNITIVE PROCESSES

A. CONSTRUCTIVISM: Knowledge Construction/Concept Learning

It signifies that teaching involves giving opportunities for learners to explore and
discover. Learners construct their own meaning. Constructivism is associated with
cognitive psychology than behaviorism, it focuses on knowledge construction.

1. Two Views of Constructivism

1.1 Individual Constructivism – emphasizes individual, internal construction of knowledge.
1.2 Social Constructivism – emphasizes that knowledge exists in a social context and is
initially shared with others instead of being represented solely in the mind of an
individual.

2. Characteristics of Constructivism
2.1 Learners construct understanding.
2.2 New learning depends on current understanding.
2.3 Learning is facilitated by social interaction.
2.4 Meaningful learning occurs within authentic learning tasks.

3. Concepts – is a way of grouping or categorizing objects or events in our mind.

3.1 Concepts as Feature Lists – learning specific features that characterize positive
instance of the concept.
 Defining feature
 Correlational feature
3.2 Concepts as Prototypes – an idea or visual image of a “typical” example.
3.3 Concepts as Exemplars – represent a variety of examples.
4. Schemas and Scripts
4.1 Schema– is an organized body of knowledge about something.
4.2 Script – is a schema that includes a series of predictable events about specific activity.
B. TRANSFER OF LEARNING

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 Transfer of learning happens when learning in one context or with one set of materials
affects performance in another context or with other related materials. It is applying to
another situation what was previously learned.

1. Types of Transfer
1.1 Positive transfer – occurs when learning in one context improves performance in
some other context.
1.2 Negative transfer – occurs when learning in one context impacts negatively on
performance in another.
1.3 Near transfer – refers to transfer between very similar contexts. (specific transfer)
1.4 Far transfer – refers to transfer between contexts that seem remote to one another.
(general transfer)

C. SUCCESSFUL INTELLIGENCE THEORY AND WICS MODEL – Robert Sternberg

According to Sternberg, successful intelligence is “the ability to succeed in life, given
one’s own goals, within one’s environmental contexts.”

1. Successful Intelligence Theory

1.1 Memory skills – recall facts and information; retaining knowledge
1.2 Analytical skills – determine if a certain idea is good
1.3 Creative skills – allow a person to come up with a new idea; or to solve a problem
1.4 Practical skills – enable to apply what one has learned; implement a plan

2. WICS Model
 Intelligence is viewed as a set of fluid abilities to learn from experience and to adapt to
one’s surroundings. Individual possess abilities that can be nurtured into
competencies and further cultivated into expertise.
 The WICS is a more recent model of how humans think and reason that can help us
understand how students will learn most effectively. It aims to develop basic abilities
to true expertise.
 WICS stands for Wisdom, Intelligence, Creatively, Synthesized.
 Sternberg proposed that while education develops analytical and practical intelligence
as well as creatively, wisdom should be an integral part of the whole process.
 The uses of WICS model include admission, instruction, and assessment.

X. MOTIVATION

A. MEANING OF MOTIVATION
 Motivation is an inner drive that causes you to do something and persevere at
something. It energizes you to do something. It refers to the initiation, direction,
intensity and persistence of behavior (Lucas, et.al, 2014).
 Motivation refers to an internal state of arousal that often precedes behavior (Epstein &
Rogers, 2001).
 An internal state or condition (sometimes described as a need, desire or want) that
serves to activate or energize behavior and give it direction.
 Although motivation cannot be seen directly, it can be inferred from behavior we
ordinarily refer to as ability. Ability refers to what a person wants to do.

B. TYPES OF MOTIVATION
1. Intrinsic motivation
 Intrinsic motivation comes from within the individual. It comes from the pleasure
provided by the work itself (Deeprose, 2003).
 When students study because they enjoy the subject and desire to learn it,
irrespective of the praise won or grades earned; the reasons for learning reside
primarily inside themselves.

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  Fuelled by one’s own goal or ambitions.

2. Extrinsic motivation
 Extrinsic motivation comes from the pleasure of a reward (Deeprose, 2003). It is
based on the external reward; it comes from outside us.
 It is concerned with the performance of an activity because of some external rewards
that hinge on external consequences. Ex. money, praises, recognition, or grades.
 When students work hard to win their parents’ favor, gain teachers’ praise or earn
high grades; their reasons for work and study lie primarily outside themselves.

C. THEORIES ON MOTIVATION
1. Drive-Reduction Theory – Clark Hull
 It is anchored on the belief that all living organisms have biological needs such as
food, water, air, shelter, and clothing.
 Drive is a condition of arousal on tension that motivates behavior.
 Need – a physiological deficiency that creates condition of disequilibrium in the body.

2. Attribution Theory – Bernard Weiner

 This theory explains that we attribute or successes or failures or other events to
several factors.
 Dimensions underlying people’s attribution. People can explain events in many
different ways. For example, a tennis player may attribute his/her wins and
successes in matches to things like – luck, health, effort, mood, strengths and
weaknesses of his/her opponents, climate, his/her fans etc.

 Attributions of people are affected by three dimensions:

2.1 Locus: (Place) Internal vs. External
 Internal – factors within ourselves
 External – factors beyond our control
2.2 Temporal Stability: Stable vs. Unstable
 Stable - things that probably won’t change much in the near future
 Unstable – things that are can change from time to time
2.3 Controllability: Controllable vs. Uncontrollable
 Controllable – things we can influence and change
 Uncontrollable – things that we have no influence

3. Self-Efficacy Theory
 Self–efficacy relates to a person’s perception of his/her ability to reach a goal while,
self–esteem relates to a person’s sense of self–worth.
 It refers to our ability to deal effectively with a particular task (Woolfolk, 2007).
 It is the belief that one has the necessary capabilities to perform a task, fulfill role
expectations, or meet a challenging situation successfully (Lucas, et.al, 2014).
 Self-fulfilling prophecy is a condition in which we end up acting in certain ways
because that is what others expect of us (Kyle & Rogien, 2004).
 Self – efficacy affects people’s behavior including their:
 Choice of activities
 Goals
 Efforts and persistence
 Learning and achievement
 Factors in the development of self – efficacy
 Previous successes and failures
 Messages from others
 Successes and failures of others
 Successes and failures of the group as a whole

4. Self-Determination and Self-Regulation Theories

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  Self-determination - comes from the sense of autonomy that a person has
when it comes to things that he does and the choices he makes.
 Students are intrinsically motivated when they have a sense of self-determination,
when they believe that they have some choice and control regarding the things they
do and the directions their lives take.
 Self-regulation – refers to a person’s ability to master himself. He is capable of
directing himself.
 There are several variables that influence people’s sense of self determination one
way or the other:
 Choices
 Threats and deadlines
 Controlling statements
 Extrinsic rewards
 Surveillance and evaluation

5. Hierarchy of Needs – Abraham Maslow

Based on Maslow’s theory, a satisfied need is not a strong motivator but an unsatisfied
need is. Research proves that unless the lower-order needs (physiological and
security) are basically satisfied, our students will not be greatly concerned with higher-
order needs (Newstrom, 1997 as cited by Lucas, et.al, 2014).
A student’s lower-needs must first be met before she/he works for the satisfaction of
his/her higher-order needs.
Maslow has presented these needs in the form of hierarchy.

Five Levels:
5.1 Physiological needs – include the need for food, air, water, clothing, shelter, sex,
and others.
5.2 Safety needs – are concerned with our needs to feel safe and avoid danger.
5.3 Belonging and love needs – move us to affiliate ourselves with, be connected to, or
be respected and loved by others.
5.4 Esteem needs – involve our needs to express and do what is necessary in order to
gain respect and honor.
5.5 Self-actualization needs – deal with our need to develop ourselves to the fullest
and to the most productive persons we can be; capacity to embrace changes.

Jonah Complex – fear of not meeting people’s expectations; fear of accepting change.

“What you are afraid of is never as bad as you imagine.”

(Who Moved My Cheese, Dr. Spencer Johnson)

References:
Aquino, Avelina M. Ed.D, (2009), Facilitating Human Learning, Rex Book Store, Manila,
Philippines.
Lucas, Maria Rita D. and Brenda B. Corpuz, (2014), Facilitating Learning: A
Metacognitive Process, Fourth Edition, Lorimar Publishing, Inc., Quezon City.
Aggarao, Marivilla Lydia B., LET Reviewer for Professional Education, PNU Manila.

Prepared by:
Ms. Jonalyn M. Latorre
PKM Instructor

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