MID TERMS – UTS Fortune Telling Error – Anticipating an outcome

and assuming your prediction is

PHYSICAL SENSATION (physiological) an established fact.
Attention - process - predict a negative
Filtering Distortion/Bias outcome without realistically
Perception (interpretation) considering the actual odds of
that outcome.
(C)ognition ex) I’m not going to get the job
Should Statement – Using should/must
statement can set up unrealistic
expectations of yourself and others.
ex) Lori had a fear of flying. Lori’s should
(B)ehavior (A)ffect/Emotion statements even continue long after her flight.
When back on land, Lori tells herself that she
Cognition – WHAT WE THINK “ought to be more in control of her fears.” She
- might be conscious puts herself down, telling herself that she
- Thought patterns or belief “should have been less nervous.” Lori concludes
system that she “must get over all of my fear and
 Behavior – WHAT WE DO anxiety without any help or medication.” These
 Affect – WHAT WE FEEL thoughts only lead her to experience more
METACOGNITION – related on reflection stress and disappointment.
Magnification/Minimization – tendency to
ANTS - (A)utonomic (N)egative (T)hought(s) exaggerate negative thoughts
- Coming from the general observation - The importance of insignificant events
(mistake) is exaggerated or the
COGNITIVE DISTORTIONS importance of something significant
Filtering – Concentrating on negative while (personal achievement) is lessened.
ignoring the positive ex) Kim had rehearsed a speech for her sister’s
- ignoring the things that contradicts wedding. When it came time to make her toast,
your (negative) view of the situation. though, Kim blundered a couple of words.
All or Nothing Thinking – Thinking black and Afterwards, many people complimented her on
white terms her speech. However, Kim complained that she
- refers to thinking in was embarrassed by her slip-ups and felt she'd
extremes ultimately ruined this special occasion for her
ex) I made so many mistakes. If I can’t do it sister.
perfectly, I might as well not bother.
I’m good at something or I’m bad at Cognitive Biases- systematic error in thinking
something. that affects the decisions and judgments that
Personalizing – taking responsibility for people make.
something that is not your fault. - might be related to problems with attention.
Catastrophizing – expect disaster to strike, no Since attention is a limited resource, people
matter what. have to be selective about what they pay
- uses what if to imagine the attention to in the world around them.
absolute worst occurring.
ex) Student jumps to the conclusion that failing COGNITIVE BIASES
an exam would be a catastrophe. They imagine Anchoring Bias – depends too heavily on an
that if they were to fail an exam, it would mean initial piece of information offered
they would never be a success in their life. when making decisions.
Emotional Reasoning – Negative things you fuel ex) shopee; Doctors can become susceptible to
about yourself in. the anchoring bias when diagnosing patients.
- “If I feel that way, it Availability Heuristic Bias – A mental shortcut
must be true.” that relies on immediate example that
ex) If a person feels stupid and boring, then came to a given person’s mind when
they must be stupid and boring. evaluating dpecific topic, concept,
Mind Reading – making assumptions about method or decision.
other people’s thoughts, feelings, and ex) After seeing several news reports of car
behaviour without having evidence. thefts in your neighborhood, you might start to
ex) Someone eating alone in a cafeteria thinking believe that such crimes are more common
everyone thinks she is a loser for eating alone. than they are.
You get to work a few minutes late, and
you think everyone else is thinking about
your tardiness.
 Ostrich Bias/Effect – tendency to ignore ex) You’ve been dealing with on-going
dangerous or negative information. headaches. They decide to prescribe you a pill
ex) Raj is slightly overweight. Rajesh has been that you take every morning. Also, tell you to
exercising daily for the past 5 years. He hits the expect certain side effects, including nausea
gym regularly and he believes he eats healthy as and dizziness. What they don’t tell you is that
well. He deliberately avoids any sort of the pill is made of sugar — that is, it’s a placebo.
feedback that doesn’t appreciate his efforts. You pick up your prescription and take the first
Maybe he doesn’t do any proper exercise at the pill. Within an hour, you feel the need to lie
gym. Maybe he doesn’t eat right. Maybe he down. You feel the nausea coming on, and you
doesn’t really run more than a minute. But he could swear the room is starting to spin a bit.
isn’t ready to listen to any of that. In his little “The doctor warned me about this,” you think.
bubble he has convinced himself that all is well In reality, you’ve just taken a harmless sugar
and he is in the right path. After all, the pill. But everything you heard during that
dietician or his trainer can’t know about his appointment conditioned your brain and body
body more than him. to have a specific response.
Bandwagon Effect – people do something Survivorship Bias – Logical error of
because other people are doing it. concentrating on people/things.
ex) Many people begin wearing a certain style - Act of focusing on
of clothing as they see others adopt the same successful people, businesses, or
fashions. strategies and ignoring those that failed
Choice Supportive Bias – Tendency of the - A phenomenon refers to
decision-maker to defend his own the human tendency to study successful
decision. outcomes and ignore the accompanying
ex) Buying apple products instead of Samsung. failures.
Defending that apple products are the best. ex) Steve Jobs, Bill Gates, and Mark Zuckerberg
Confirmation Bias – occurs from the direct dropped out of college and became
influence of desire and belief. millionaires, so will I. -------- Entrepreneurs who
ex) Imagine that a person holds a belief that had an idea, took a leap, and, miraculously,
left-handed people are more creative than became successful. But by equating their
right-handed people. Whenever this person success to hard work alone, we ignore a very
encounters a person that is both left-handed important fact: for every successful college
and creative, they place greater importance on dropout, there are hundreds, if not thousands,
this "evidence" that supports what they already who weren’t as lucky.
believe. Selective Perception – Is the tendency not to
Outcome Bias – error made in evaluating the notice and more quickly forget stimuli
quality of decision. that cause emotional discomfort and
ex) An investor decides to invest in real estate contradict our prior belief
after learning a colleague made a big return on - perceptual process in
an investment in real estate when interest rates which a person only perceives what he
were at a different level. Rather than look at desires to and sets aside or ignores
other factors that could have resulted in the other perceptions or viewpoints.
colleague’s success, such as the health of the ex) Jane spends two hours each day at the gym,
overall economy or performance of real estate, eats only healthy, low-fat meals, and is a
the investor is focusing on the money made by member of several online fitness groups. Jane is
the colleague. also a cigarette smoker. Though she knows
Overconfidence – Person’s subjective about the health risks of smoking, Jane believes
confidence in his or her judgement that she will not have any adverse health risks
- tendency to hold a false and as long as she exercises, eats well, and smokes
misleading assessment of our skills, less than one pack a day. While looking through
intellect, or talent. a fitness magazine, Jane came across two
ex) I know everyone thinks they’re above advertisements. One was for a book about
average, but I really am weightlifting for women, and the other was an
Placebo Bias – product of expectation advertisement about the dangers of smoking
- it is a phenomenon in which some tobacco products. After reading the
people experience a benefit after the advertisements, Jane bought the weightlifting
administration of an inactive substance book and disregarded the smoking
or sham treatment. advertisement.
ex) After taking a harmless medicine (placebo)
for your headache, you feel that you are starting
to get better when in fact, the medicine that you
took is not for headaches.
Nocebo Effect - happens when a placebo makes
you feel worse.
FREUD’S PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES 3.) Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years)
 Genitals become erogenous zone. The
Sigmund Freud believed that events in
last of the pre-genital or childhood
our childhood have a great influence on our
stages. Children begin to discover the
adult lives, shaping our personality. (image of
differences between males and
events in childhood)
females.
4th -- Each stage of development is marked by Fixations: Oedipus complex for boys.
conflicts that can help build growth or stifle describes these feelings of wanting to possess
development, depending upon how they are the mother and the desire to replace the father.
resolved. If these psychosexual stages are However, the child also fears that he will be
completed successfully, a healthy personality is punished by the father for these feelings, a fear
the result. If certain issues are not resolved at Freud termed castration anxiety.
the appropriate stage, fixations can occur. A  Freud described the male phallic
fixation is a persistent focus on an earlier personality as brash, vain, and self-
psychosexual stage. Until this conflict is assured. Men with this personality try
resolved, the individual will remain "stuck" in to assert or express their masculinity
this stage. through activities such as repeated
sexual conquests
FIVE PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES Oedipus complex for girls
(Electra complex). Like the boy’s, the girl’s first
1.) Oral stage (birth to 1year)
object of love is the mother. During this stage
 The mouth is the erogenous zone. The
however, the father becomes the girl’s new love
baby satisfies itself by putting things in
object because of the girl’s reaction to her
its mouth which the ID demands.
discovery that boys have penis and girls do not.
Fixations: Oral incorporative. Involves the
This leads to the girl developing penis envy.
pleasurable stimulation of the mouth by other
 The female phallic personality,
people and by food. Adults fixated at this stage
motivated by penis envy, exaggerates
are excessively concerned with oral activites,
her femininity and uses her talents and
such as eating, smoking, and kissing
charms to overwhelm and conquer
Oral aggressive. Occurs during
men.
the painful, frustrating eruption of teeth. Prone
4.) Latency Period (6 to puberty)
to excessive pessimism, hostility, and
aggressiveness. Tend to be envious of other  During this stage, the superego
people and try to be dominant. continues to develop while the id's
2.) Anal Stage (1 to 3 years) energies are suppressed. Children
develop social skills, values and
 The anus is the erogenous zone. During
relationships with peers and adults
the anal stage, Freud believed that the
outside of the family.
primary focus of the libido was on
controlling bladder and bowel  The sex instinct is dormant temporarily
movements. The major conflict at this sublimated in school activities, hobbies,
stage is toilet training--the child has to and sports and in developing friendship
learn to control his or her bodily needs. with the same sex. Fixation at this stage
Fixations: Anal Retentive. Holding back or can result in immaturity and an inability
retaining the feces. The person is likely to be to form fulfilling relationships as an
rigid, compulsively neat, obstinate, and overly adult.
conscientious. 5.) Genital Stage (Puberty to Death)
Anal aggressive. Defecate when  Erogenous zone is maturing sexual
and where the parents disapprove, thus defying interests. The body is becoming
their attempts at regulation. basis for many physiologically mature, and if no major
forms of hostile and sadistic behavior in adult fixations have occurred at an earlier
life. stage of development, the individual
may be able to lead a normal life.
 
Death instinct reappears in hostility, Self-actualization – realizing personal potential,
rebelliousness, or juvenile delinquency. self-fulfilment, seeking personal growth and
Sexual instinct can be repressed “out of peak experiences. A desire “to become
sight” with vows of celibacy, or everything one is capable of becoming”.
attractions to mystical philosophies,
religions, or cults. MAHLER’S SEPARATION INDIVIDUAL PROCESS
 Ability to love including sexual  Development of the “Self” (individual)
intercourse and ability to have orgasm. Margaret Schönberger Mahler - was a Hungarian physician,
Ability to work. effectively and diligently who later became interested in psychiatry. She was a
central figure on the world stage of psychoanalysis. Her
add to society without anal
main interest was in normal childhood development, but
compulsiveness or dependence of oral
she spent much of her time with psychiatric children and
character how they arrive at the "self".
ABRAHAM MASLOW’S THEORY

principles “Being” needs – growth/self-fulfillment

“Deficiency” needs
-deprivation
-duration

Physiological - These are biological

requirements for human survival, e.g. Normal Autistic Phase (Birth to 1 Month)
air, food, drink, shelter, clothing,  A new born infant is blissfully unaware
warmth, sex, sleep. of anything but its own needs. At this
 If these needs are not satisfied the stage, the mother needs to be available
human body cannot function optimally. to lovingly meet the baby's needs and
Maslow considered physiological needs introduce tender, caring interaction.
the most important as all the other Normal Symbiotic Phase (1 to 5 Months)
needs become secondary until these  During these first few months, babies
needs are met. begin to learn about their world and
Safety - protection from elements, security, develop their very first human bond,
order, law, stability, freedom from fear. that which they share with their
Love and Belongingness - after physiological mothers. Positive stimuli (cuddling,
and safety needs have been fulfilled, smiling, engaged attention) and relief of
the third level of human needs is social discomfort all help the infant to develop
and involves feelings of belongingness. a trust that their needs will be met,
The need for interpersonal relationships building a basis for security and
motivates behaviour. confidence.
ex) include friendship, intimacy, trust, and Differentiation (5 to 10 Months) – Mirror
acceptance, receiving and giving affection and  As the baby matures, he develops an
love. increased interest in both the mother
Esteem - which Maslow classified into two and the outside world. Not yet able to
categories: esteem for oneself (dignity, understand that she exists outside of
achievement, mastery, independence) his view, parents often first notice their
and the desire for reputation or baby's first outward signs of separation
respect from others (e.g., status, anxiety during this time as the baby
prestige). Maslow indicated that the continually "checks back," looking at
need for respect or reputation is most other things but then looking for the
important for children and adolescents mother as a reassurance that she is still
and precedes real self-esteem or dignity. present. Consistent access to the mother
aids the baby's emotional well-being and
while it first appears about this time, this
need may continue well into the
practicing sub-phase.
Practicing - 10 to 16 Months - Crawling  Anxious Attachment – ambivalent;
 As children's mobility increases, they Product of inconsistence
are able to explore their environment - Anxiously
with an autonomy that was previously attached people become
impossible. Still not ready for extended incredibly worried about being
separation from their mothers, crawlers too much or too little for the
and beginning walkers will sometimes person they are dating, and
choose to separate briefly from their take everything personally.
mums, but will typically return quickly
for assurance and comfort. Some KOHLBERG’S MORAL DEVELOPMENT
independent play time is enjoyed, but THEORY
often the baby is only comfortable to Pre-conventional morality – Level 1
play on their own when the mother is  (most nine-year-olds and younger,
within the child's line of sight. Mahler some over nine), we don’t have a
described this "hatching" as the true personal code of morality. Instead, our
birth the individual occurs, with the moral code is shaped by the standards
child beginning to have a basic sense of of adults and the consequences of
self not directly connected to the following or breaking their rules.
mother.  Authority is outside the individual and
Rapprochement - 16 to 24 Months reasoning is based on the physical
 As parents of toddlers know, they can consequences of actions.
be a confusing bunch. One minute, they  Obedience and Punishment
are running from their mothers, Orientation (Stage 1)
refusing her attention or wishes, and  The child/individual shows obedience to
the next they are anxiously clinging to avoid punishment. A person is punished
her. Mahler referred to this as for them to learn from their mistakes.
"ambitendency" and explained that this  Individualism and Exchange (Stage 2)
behaviour is representative of a  At this stage, the child understands that
toddler's sometimes opposing desires there are many points of views that are
and needs. It is during these months handed down by adults and individuals
that children first get a real sense that have different viewpoints.
they are individuals, separate from their Conventional morality – Level 2
mothers, which is both an exhilarating  (most adolescents and adults), we
and frightening discovery. begin to internalize the moral standards
Object Constancy - 24 to 36 Months of valued adult role models.
 At some point around the second  Authority is internalized but not
birthday, children begin to be more questioned, and reasoning is based on
comfortable separating from their the norms of the group to which the
mothers, knowing that they will return. person belongs.
This ability makes it possible for two  Good Interpersonal Relationships (3)
year olds to accept that they are unique  The good boy/ good girl level. An
from their mothers without anxiety, individual is good for them to be viewed
allowing the child to engage substitutes as a good person by people. Therefore,
for the mother when she is absent. answers are based on the approval of
THREE ATTACHMENT STYLES others.
 Secure Attachment - This means they  Maintaining Social Order (Stage 4)
are comfortable with intimacy, and  The individual becomes more conscious
tend to be more satisfied in their of the broader rules of society, so
relationships. judgments are based on the rules to
 Insecure Attachment – completely maintain the social order.
avoid relationships altogether, or keep
anyone new they meet at a distance.
 Avoidant (robot) ; No emotional
connection
Post-conventional morality – Level 3 PHASES OF ATTACHMENT THEORY
 Individual judgment is based on self- Pre Attachment Phase (Birth to 6 weeks)
chosen principles, and moral reasoning  It gives innate signals that attracts the
is based on individual rights and justice. caregiver, like grasping, gazing, crying
According to Kohlberg this level of and even smiling at the caregiver. The
moral reasoning is as far as most people baby responds in a positive manner
get. that’s why the caregiver remains close
 Social Contract and Individual Rights to him or her. Babies are not yet
(Stage 5) attached to the mother or caregiver and
 The individual becomes aware that does not mind being left with unfamiliar
while rules/laws exist for the greater adults as they have no fear of strangers
good of society, there are situations yet.
that it is against the interest of an Attachment in the Making Phase (6 weeks to 6
individual. to 8 months)
 Universal Principles ( Stage 6)  In this stage, infants are starting to
 People at this stage have their own respond differently to familiar
moral guidelines where it may or may caregivers than to strangers. The baby
not be suitable for the law. The would smile more to the mother or
principles are applicable to everyone. father while being picked up, than being
picked up by strangers because the
BOWLBY’S ATTACHMENT THEORY baby would cry. The infant learns that
(John Bowlby) his or her actions can affect the
Attachment - is characterized by specific behavior of people around him or her.
behaviors in children, such as seeking They tend to develop a “Sense of Trust”
proximity to the attachment figure where they expect the response of the
when upset or threatened. caregiver.
Attachment Theory - Focused on the Clear Cut Attachment Phase(6 or 8 months old
relationships and bonds between to 2 years)
people, particularly long-term  In this stage the attachment to familiar
relationships, including those between caregiver becomes evident. Children
a parent and a child, as well as romantic shows “separation anxieties” and will
partners. This is also a love relationship get upset when the caregiver or adult
that will have profound an everlasting on whom they rely, leaves them. A child
influence on an individual’s mental would show signs of distress, incase the
development. caregiver leaves but with the supportive
and sensitive nature of the caretaker or
COMPONENTS OF ATTACHMENT IN THIS close yaya of the child, this anxiety
THEORY could be reduced.
Safe Haven – A child can return to the caregiver Formation of Reciprocal Relationship (2 years
for comfort and soothing whenever the and above)
child feels threatened or afraid.  It is the time where there is a rapid
Secure Base – A secure and dependable base is
growth of the child, he or she is able to
provided by the caretaker for the child
to explore the world. understand few factors that influence
Proximity Maintenance – The child strives to his or her surroundings. This is where a
stay around the caregiver, which child depends less on the caregiver
provides safety. along with his or her age.
Separation Distress – The child will become
upset and distressed during the FOWLER’S FAITH STAGE THEORY
separation from the caretaker.
Pre-Stage: Undifferentiated Faith (birth to 2yrs)
Have the potential for faith but lack the ability to act on that
potential. Through loving care from parents and other adults in
their life, young children start to build a lived experience of
trust, courage, hope and love. At this stage, children experience
faith as a connection between themselves and their caregiver.
Stage 1:Intuitive-predictive (3yrs -7yrs) Stage 6: Universalizing (adult)
 Egocentric, becoming aware of time. - The person becomes totally altruistic
Forming images that will affect their and they feel an integral part of an all-
later life. inclusive sense of being. This stage is
 Faith is not a thought-out set of ideas, rarely achieved.
but instead a set of impressions that are Erik Erikson
largely gained from their parents or - A 20th century psychologist who developed
other significant adults in their lives. the theory of psychosocial development and
Stage 2:Mythical-literal (6yrs-12yrs) the concept of an identity crisis.
 Difference between verified facts and - He was raised by his mother and stepfather,
things that might be more fantasy or and his biological father was concealed from
speculation. Erikson for many years.
 Faith is something to be experienced. At - When he finally did learn the truth, Erikson
this stage it is because children think in was left with a feeling of confusion about who
concrete and literal ways. Faith he really was (leading to formation of identity)
becomes the stories told and the rituals - Studied with Anna Freud, he expanded
practiced. psychoanalytic theory by exploring
Stage 3:Synthetic-conventional (13yrs-18yrs) development throughout the life, including
 Extending faith beyond the family and events of childhood, adulthood, and old age.
using this as a vehicle for creating a STAGES OF PYSCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
sense of identity and values.
1. Trust vs. Mistrust (0-18 months)
 People at this stage claim their faith as
 centered on developing a sense
their own instead of just being what of trust in caregivers and the
their family does. However, the faith world.
that is claimed is usually still the faith of  Children who receive
their family. responsive care are able to
Stage 4:Individuative-reflective (18-22 yrs) develop the psychological
 The sense of identity and outlook on quality of hope.
the world are differentiated and the 2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
person develops explicit systems of (18 months- 3 years)
meaning.  involves gaining a sense of
 People in this stage start to question independence and personal
their own assumptions around the faith control
 they become more confident
tradition. Along with questioning their
and secure in their own ability
own assumptions about their faith,
to survive in the world.
people at this stage start to question
 Success in this stage allows
the authority structures of their faith.
people to develop will and
This is often the time that someone will determination.
leave their religious community if the 3. Initiative vs. Guilt (3-5 years)
answers to the questions they are  children begin to explore their
asking are not to their liking. environment and exert more
Stage 5: Conjunctive (30yrs) control over their choices.
 The person faces up to the paradoxes of  Some guilt are necessary in
experience and begins to develop order for the child to exercise
universal ideas and becomes more self-control or have a
oriented towards other people. conscience.
 People at this stage are also much more  By successfully completing this
stage, children are able to
open to other people's faith
develop a sense of purpose.
perspectives. This is not because they
are moving away from their faith but
because they have a realization that
other people's faiths might inform
and deepen their own.
4. Industry vs. Inferiority (5-12 years)
 focused on developing a sense 8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair (65+ years to
of personal pride and death)
accomplishment.  involves reflecting back on life.
 A child compares self to others  Looking back at life with a sense
during this phase and either of completeness and
develops a sense of industry satisfaction, while unsuccessful
life may let one feel that his or
and work ethic or feelings of
her life has been wasted.
inadequacy.  Those who look back and feel a
 Some necessary failures are sense of satisfaction develop a
needed in order for the child to sense of integrity and wisdom,
develop modesty while those who are left with
 Success in this stage will lead to regrets may experience
bitterness and despair.
the virtue of competence.
MARCIA’S IDENTITY STAGES
Refining and extending Erik Erikson’s work,
5. Identity vs. Confusion (12- 18 years)
James Marcia came up with four Identity
 The teen years are a time of
Statuses of psychological identity development.
personal exploration.
 During this period, teens may The main idea is that one’s sense of identity is
have an identity crisis, determined largely by the choices and
questioning their roles in the commitments made regarding certain personal
world and future goals and social traits.
 Those who are able to (4) IDENTITY STATUSES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL
successfully forge a healthy IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT
identity develop a sense of Identity Diffusion – the status in which the
fidelity. Those who do not adolescent does not have a sense of
complete this stage well may be having choices; he or she has not yet
left feeling confused about their made a commitment.
role and place in life. Identity Foreclosure – the status in which the
adolescent seems willing to commit to
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (18- 40 years)
some relevant roles, values, or goals for
 The stage that takes place in
the future. Adolescents in this stage
early adulthood is all about
have not experienced an identity crisis.
forging healthy relationships
with others. They tend to conform to the
 The development of strong expectations of others regarding their
friendships and healthy future (e. g. allowing a parent to
intimate relationships. determine a career direction) As such,
 Success leads to formation of these individuals have not explored a
the virtue of love, but failure range of options.
may lead to isolation. Identity Moratorium – the status in which the
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (40-65 adolescent is currently in a crisis,
years) exploring various commitments and is
 become concerned with ready to make choices, but has not
contributing something to made a commitment to these choices
society and leaving their mark yet.
on the world.
Identity Achievement – the status in which
 attempting to produce
adolescent has gone through an
something that makes a
identity crisis and has made a
difference to society.
commitment to a sense of identity (i.e.
 failing to contribute may result
to feeling of stagnation and certain role or value) that he or she has
unproductivity, while success chosen.
will lead to the virtue of care.
 SUPER’S CAREER DEVELOPMENT STAGES
Donald Super’s career model is based on the
belief that self-concept changes over time and  Lawrence Kohlberg was an American
develops as a result of experience. psychologist best known for his theory
SUPER’S FIVE LIVES AND CAREER of stages of moral development.
DEVELOPMENT STAGES  James W. Fowler III was an American
Stage 1: Growth (0–14yrs) theologian. He is best known for his
 Development of self-concept, attitudes, book Stages of Faith, published in 1981,
needs and general world of work. in which he sought to develop the idea
Stage 2: Exploration (15–24yrs) of a developmental process in "human
 “Trying out” through classes, work faith". These stages of faith
experience, hobbies. Tentative choice development were along the lines of
and skill development Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive
development and Lawrence Kohlberg's
Stage 3: Establishment (25–44yrs) stages of moral development.
 Entry-level skill building and  Abraham Maslow was an American
stabilisation through work experience. psychologist who was best known for
Stage 4: Maintenance (45-64yrs) creating Maslow's hierarchy of needs, a
 Continual adjustment process to theory of psychological health
improve position. predicated on fulfilling innate human
Stage 5: Decline (65+yrs) needs in priority, culminating in self-
 Reduced output, prepare for actualization.
retirement.
NEUROSCIENCE
Developmental tasks at the different stages Neuroscience, also known as Neural Science, is
the study of how the nervous system develops,
its structure, and what it does. Neuroscientists
focus on the brain and its impact on behavior
and cognitive functions. Not only is
neuroscience concerned with the normal
functioning of the nervous system, but also
what happens to the nervous system when
people have neurological, psychiatric and
neurodevelopmental disorders.