Page 1 of 7 Original Research

Philosophical counselling: Towards a ‘new approach’ in

pastoral care and counselling?
Author: The practice of pastoral counselling was dominated for several decades by the Rogerian
Daniel J. Louw1 techniques of empathetic listening. To a large extent, healing was predominately related to
the realm of feelings (the affective dimension). Rational Emotive Therapy opened up other
Affiliation:
1
Department of Practical avenues. However, besides Logotherapy, the realm of meaning and its connectedness to
Theology & Missiology, world views and ideas (Plato: forms) remained uncharted in many theories for pastoral care
University of Stellenbosch, and counselling. In this article it was argued that philosophical counselling opens up new
South Africa
avenues for pastoral care and counselling. Philosophical counselling probes into the realm of
Correspondence to: different schemata of interpretation. A model for the making of a spiritual existential analysis
Daniel Louw was proposed in order to detect the impact of the Christian spiritual schema of interpretation
on the dynamics of existential networking.
email:
djl@maties.sun.ac.za

Postal address:
Introduction
Private Bag X1, Matieland Theory formation is the main endeavour in any form of scientific research and academic
7602, South Africa enterprise. It is the task of the academic researcher to design and produce the ‘tools of the mind’
Dates:
(paradigms and theories) to be applied within the reality of the academic, scientific field. One can
Received: 24 June 2009 call this academic reality the ‘objects’ of research. Inappropriate theory leads to inappropriate
Accepted: 25 Jan. 2011 models, projects and practices. The reason for this assumption resides in the fact that theories are
Published: 12 May 2011 carriers and containers of the attempt of the human mind to grasp the meaning of daily living in
How to cite this article:
terms of patterns of thinking (paradigms; rational constructions). Theories represent the rational
Louw, D.J., 2011, categories of understanding that try to schematise ideas and link them with the realities of the
‘Philosophical counselling: existing world.
Towards a “new
approach” in pastoral
care and counselling?’,
Theories, schemata of interpretation, paradigms and rational patterns of thinking determine
HTS Teologiese Studies/ the networking of human mind and processes of interpretation (hermeneutics). The theory,
Theological Studies 67(2), paradigm or idea behind a human action plays a decisive role in dispositions or attitudes [habitus]
Art. #900, 7 pages. DOI: and the human attempt to come to grips with the demands of life1. They determine processes
10.4102/hts.v67i2.900
of healing, but can also lead to ‘spiritual illnesses’ and pathology. They can become outdated,
inappropriate and irrelevant (zombie categories)2. The idea embedded in theory and expressed in
rational categories or paradigms, can change human behaviour. ‘Ideas’ can promote meaningful
perspectives and actions but on the other hand, also instigate the ‘the illness of the human mind’:
that is, skewed perceptions, unrealistic expectations and irrational thinking. In a nutshell: ideas
(Plato3: the form as pattern of reality) shape and determine human self-understanding within
existential realities.

The articulation of hermeneutics in theological theory formation and in the quest for methodology
in practical theology underlines anew the importance of philosophy. Philosophy is actually the
most primary and fundamental science in terms of theological theory formation. For example,
the language of the early Christian church on the Trinity was shaped by the metaphysics of
substance, with concepts such as homoousios [of one substance] and hypostasis [reality]. Even
psychology developed from philosophy. In this regard, going back to our philosophical roots
can help practical theology and very specifically pastoral theology, to discover new avenues for
theory formation in counselling.

1.Reader (2008:6) aptly points out that the field of practical theology was for many times dominated by the clerical and official
paradigm. On the other hand, practical and pastoral theology has been overtaken by ideas from the fields of psychology and sources of
therapeutic knowledge. In the meantime the ‘hermeneutical model of pastoral engagement’ (Reader 2008:6) surfaced and is putting
new challenges before practical and pastoral theological reflection.

© 2011. The Authors. 2.In his book, Reconstructing Practical Theology, Reader (2008:1) warns against the danger of ‘zombie categories’ (Ulrich Beck), that is
the continued employment of concepts that no longer do justice to the world we experience and yet, are difficult to abandon because
Licensee: OpenJournals of tradition and also because they are not yet totally redundant. Zombie categories are therefore described as the ‘living dead’, the
Publishing. This work tried and familiar frameworks of interpretation that have served us well for many years and continue to haunt our thoughts and analy-
is licensed under the ses, although they are embedded in a world that is passing away before our eyes.
Creative Commons 3.According to Plato, knowledge probe into the reality of the form or idea that determines the meaning of appearances. In this regard,
Attribution License. Plato referred to, for example, the ‘Form of Beauty’ as the ‘unchangeable’ essence of things that have a real existence, independent
of our minds (Plato 1946:183).

http://www.hts.org.za DOI: 10.4102/hts.v67i2.900

 Page 2 of 7 Original Research

In order to change people, this framework or form needs Gender issues (as indicated by the aforementioned
to be disputed in terms of the human quest for meaning, philosophical developments in male images) are closely
therefore the role of philosophy in counselling, that is the linked to stereotypes and in this the regard the media plays
need for philosophical counselling. a decisive role. For example, Gauntlett (2002:38) refers to the
phenomenon of scopophilia.
This need can be illustrated when the practice of counselling
deals with several existential issues in life. For example, Scopophilia is the voyeuristic gaze directed at other people
people enter marriage with a very specific ‘idea’ about as part of the pleasures of cinema. The pleasure in looking
‘marriage’ and ‘love’. Influenced by the ‘philosophy of leads to the male gaze projecting its fantasies onto the female
romantic love’ as projected by film and media, couples figure, which is styled accordingly and vice versa. In their
behave according to the following ‘illusion’: the proof that he traditional exhibitionist role, women are simultaneously
or she loves me resides in the emotion of ‘I-am-wanted’ and looked at and displayed, with their appearance coded for
the impression that love exits without conflict and within strong visual and erotic impact so that they can be said to
the possibility of an unqualified ‘yes’. Nowadays, marriage connote to-be-looked-at. In this regard, the role of magazines
is portrayed as a ‘living partnership’ within the form of in stereotyping should be emphasised. According to Gauntlett
‘experiential cohabitation’. The traditional idea of a church (2002:187–191), men should be handsome and self-confident.
or official marriage is becoming outdated. The Hollywood The ideal is that men should be well built with muscles, good
notion of ‘instant love’ and ‘sex-on-appro’ become the in bed, happy in relationships, witty, considerate, skilled in
normative ‘idea’ that shapes the emotional needs of couples. all things and have sex with many attractive women.

Within the gender debate, a very specific idea and philosophy Personal self-esteem, for a male, required public
determine male or female identity. For example, the crisis of performance. In this regard, boys grew up with the notion of
male identity within the social construction of ‘masculinities’, the pre-eminence of men. Men should therefore be the head
of everything (Driver 1996:43–65). Notions such as ‘male
points in the direction of the influence of public images
supremacy’, ‘male chauvinism’ and the cultural archetype
shaped by the philosophy of masculinities as projected by
of the ‘super-macho’ refer to the dominant positions of men
the social media. In the counselling of men, these normative
in society. Super-macho, violent body contact sports such
philosophies and ideas about masculinity should be disputed
as wrestling, football, rugby and boxing enforced this rigid
and changed in order to ‘heal’ men. Healing and therefore
macho image, because in the eyes of viewers the crowds
counselling males has become a systemic issue.
will respond to a player coming back onto the field after an
injury: ‘What a man!’ (Goldberg 1976:112–113).
A good example of the impact of communication technology
and the mass media on being male or female is the
Within the gender debate, what should be changed in order
philosophical concept of hegemonic masculinity4: the athletic
to heal men is the cultural and philosophical concept of
male body as a mark of power and moral superiority. It has
‘patriarchalism’. Without a paradigm switch individual men
become a dominant, global idol in Western thought: White,
are not going to change their lifestyles and sexual behaviour.
middle-class heterosexuals (Dworkin 2004:158). Therefore, counselling men are in need of different and
appropriate male images, in order to address many
Other variations include the Adonis Complex, which describes relational and social issues. Within the HIV and AIDS debate
male image and masculinities in terms of a preoccupation the necessity for philosophical counselling has become
with building muscles, a lean body, appearance and good paramount.
looks in terms of clothing and grooming and often in terms
of the size of the penis.
Forms (ideas): The shaping of the
Another social philosophy is the concept of metrosexuality,
where the male individual is in contact with the female
human mind
component of his being, but freed from the strict categories and Ideas as the basic form and structure of the human mind
classifications of masculinities of the past. The metrosexual can be seen as the driving factors of human behaviour.
person lives in the metropolis within the different options Theories are structured and evolved around ideas. Sigmund
of ‘a Man’s World’. The David Beckham icon opens up the Freud’s book, The Interpretation of Dreams (1900), changed
world for the metrosexual from the gym to the hairdresser. psychological anthropology in a radical way. Freud’s idea
Metrosexuality, within a postmodern paradigm beyond any about the essence of our being human was expressed in the
past ‘isms’ and stereotypes, nowadays even becomes the theory that the human nature consists of the unconscious,
Übersexual, where men are portrayed in terms of categories repression, infantile sexuality (leading to the Oedipus
such as the quality of their status and the positive aspects complex) and the tripartite division of the mind into ego,
of being male; maleness as excellence and something to be the sense of self; superego, broadly speaking, the conscience
proud of. and the id, the primal biological expression of the conscious
(Watson 2000:12–13).
4.According to T. Carrigan et al. (2004:151–165), the differentiation of masculinities is
psychological, but also institutional and an aspect of collective practice. Hegemonic In his book on people and ideas that shaped the modern
masculinity is to impose a particular definition on other kinds of masculinity
(2004:154). mind, P. Watson (2000:29) refers to Hugo von Hofmannsthal’s

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remarkable statement in 1905 that the nature of our epoch is notion of therapeutic perspectivism (the theoretical angle
multiplicity and indeterminacy. Everything is slipping and and under girding life view in experiences and observation)
sliding. What generations believed to be firm is in fact ‘das and philosophical counselling: the healing of attitudes and
Gleitende’. intentionality (noetic healing) in the light of the critical
question regarding the appropriateness of existing rational
Einstein shattered the Newtonian worldview of solid categories, belief systems and paradigmatic frameworks of
substance with his notion of relativity. His theory that interpretation for daily human behaviour.
all mass has energy as hypothesised in his paper on the
electrodynamics of moving bodies, which became known Philosophical counselling: The
as the Special Theory of Relativity, modified the Newtonian
cosmology, based on the straight lines of Euclidean geometry dimension of paradigms and
and Galileo’s notions of absolute time (Johnson 1983:1). The schemata of interpretation in a
theory, namely that there is no absolute motion, changed pastoral diagnosis
cosmology and paved the way for the so-called cultural
interpretation of ‘postmodernity’. ‘Philosophical counselling’ could be viewed as a quite ‘new’5
trend in the practice of counselling. In his book Plato not Prozac,
The arrival of Max Planck’s quantum physics was a Marinoff (1999:24) refers to the relatively recent scientisation
remarkable break with the mechanistic and deterministic of psychology and the psychological industry with the
paradigm of interpretation. Planck described an ‘atom’ of emphasis on talk therapy6 and the human need for dialogue.
radiation, which he called a ‘quantum’. He confirmed that With reference to psychoanalysis in psychotherapy, most of
nature was not a continuous process, but moved in a series of the theories are built on the notion of post hoc ergo propter hoc.
extreme jerks (Watson 2000:25). It means that because one event happened before another,
the earlier event caused the later one. This cause and effect
In a more popular style, N. Ferreira (2009:4) accuses the approach, combined with empathetic counselling, leads to
church of holding on to metaphors derived from what he calls the practice of emotional probing and memory analyses. But
the mythological period of reflection. With reference to trans- knowing the cause of one’s pain does not necessarily take the
personal psychology and the three phases of pre-rational pain away or comforts one.
(archaic, magical, mythological), rational and post-rational,
The shift towards philosophically counselling7 is a shift
he contents that we are living in a pluralistic-holistic stage
towards wisdom and its connectedness to meaning, future
that operates according to post-rationalism. The category
orientation, life views and the realm of ideas or convictions.
post-rational refers to holistic and integral reflection, the
Its aim is to help you apply the narrow insights that you learn
mode of networking.
about yourself to the big picture of your life; ‘to integrate
every conceivable insight (psychological insights being just
In the light of the previous, it is urgent that pastoral
one kind) into a coherent, workable outlook on and approach
theologians, as well as practical theologians, pose the
to life’ (Marinoff 1999:30–31). It is therefore the contention
question: What is the under girding theory behind my
of Marinoff (1999:31) that if the root of your problem is
practice and which idea is shaping my mind within the
philosophical, nothing on your pharmacist’s shelves is going
practice of counselling?
to give lasting relief:
Drugs don’t do anything in the outside world – even with a
Therapeutic perspectivism mood softened by Prozac, you’ll still have to deal with a sadistic
If one can assume that pastoral care is indeed a theological boss or a cheating partner or a bureaucratic bank.
endeavour, embedded in the Christian tradition of caring (Marinoff 1999:33–34)
and spirituality (the tradition of cura animarum), a critical Philosophical counselling is aware of the fact that for healing
discussion on theory formation in pastoral care and to take place, the outside world and the framework for
counselling in South Africa has become paramount. If meaning, as well as the interpretation of events, need to be
we want to move into the paradigm of community care changed. Healing implies more than empathetic listening
and the pastoral healing of life (an integrative approach); and talking (verbalising). Healing also implies paradigmatic
to opt for a paradigm switch from an exclusive societal changes and the development of a functional philosophical
approach (see in the past the notion of racial discrimination) disposition toward your situation. Rather than dwelling on
to inclusivity; from gender prejudice (see the impact of the question: How do you feel? Philosophical counselling
hierarchy and patriarchy on cultural models for masculinity poses the questions: What is your framework for meaningful
and femininity) to equality; from stigmatisation in the HIV
pandemic to destigmatisation; even in our ecclesiology 5.‘Philosophical counselling is a relatively new but rapidly growing field of philosophy’
(Marinoff 1999:7).
from denominationalism and institutionalism to ecumenical
6.‘Counseling psychologists have a virtual monopoly on government licensing of talk
communality, healing and therefore therapy, urgent therapy …’ (Marinoff 1999:24).
attention should be paid to the demand for paradigm shifts 7.See Sperry (2002:15–16). Philosophical counselling entails a process involving
and the healing of paradigms, perspectives, perceptions a logical, analytical and noetic evaluation of the meaning dimension of different
concepts and how they are related to basic existing paradigms and ideas or
and ideas. It is within this context that I want to opt for the ideologies, as well as to different existential dimensions of life.

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living? What meaning, purpose, or value is implied? What The value of philosophical counselling in pastoral care is
is motivating you to decide for a very specific direction or that it helps a person to differentiate between meaning
definite goal? How do you envision a possible outcome and as the pursuit of happiness (the optimistic approach) and
what are realistic options? What are the factors preventing spiritus (‘logos’): options to instil a vivid hope in terms of a
you to act according to the eventual goal? What do you hope different approach to the future (pro-spection) (the hopeful
for? approach). As a spiritual endeavour in a Christian approach
to life it poses the question of ethos: ‘What are you intending
All of these questions cannot be separated from their to sacrifice?’
philosophical context, which is determined by different
schemata of interpretations and patterns of thinking Schemata of interpretation: The hermeneutical
(paradigms).
background of philosophical counselling
In philosophical counselling, aesthetics is more fundamental In the tradition of Christian theology, nine philosophical
than ethics and morality. It is about the beauty of life, which schemata of interpretation9 can be identified that played a
is the mode by which one interprets the challenges in life in decisive role in theological theory formation:
order to grow into a deeper sense of significance and gratitude. • The Hellenistic schema and the connection to the paradigm
Aesthetics is the existential mode of thanksgiving in terms of of cause-and-effect thinking. Its impact on theology was
grace and not in terms of fate. In this regard, philosophical the notion of the immutability of God.
counselling probes into the human art of daily living and
• The metaphysical schema (substantial thinking and the
wisdom decision-making. ‘Philosophical counselling is a
ontology of beyond) and its connection to the dualistic
practical application of what has been largely an academic
schism between the seen world and the unseen world.
pursuit; it is a contemporary pragmatism whose goal is to
As a result of the subject-object split, the spiritual realm
deal with what actually matters in people’s everyday lives
became removed from the secular realm. Its impact on
and to re-establish theory as a useful instrument to a higher
theology was the schism between God (vertical approach
philosophical practice: the art of living wisely well’( Raabe with the emphasis on transcendence) and the cosmos
2001:4). (horizontal approach with the emphasis on the empirical
phenomena).
In essence, philosophy is a passion for healing in order to
• The mechanistic schema and its connection to rational
use astonishment and amazement [verwondering] as a vehicle
explanations. For all the unsolved problems of life, God
or tool to bring about a profound transformation of the
should be introduced as a Deus ex machina. In terms of a
individual’s mode of seeing and being, a transformation
cause-and-effect schema, God operates as the instigator of
of our vision of the world and a metamorphosis of our
all life events and suffering. God becomes the unmovable
intentionality8. It is called a ‘worldview interpretation’ or first logic and rational explanatory principle within the
wise therapy (LeBon 2001:9). Schuster (1999:72–74) refers chain of life events (movements) emanating from the
to philosophical care. He is so convinced of the value of blueprint of Gods provision and deterministic election
philosophy in care and counselling that he even admits as (theological positivism).
a psychologist that it seems to be ‘preferable to choosing a
• The imperialistic schema and its connection to the paradigm
theologian for philosophical talks’ as a result of the tradition
of power as expressed in dominionship (authority or
of pastoral healing in cura animarum.
omnipotence as force). According to the Constantine
paradigm, God’s Kingdom should be understood in
Philosophical counselling can be described as the method terms of a militant or ruling power. God reigns as a
of transcendent inquiry (trans-spection and pro-spection) ‘Superman’ or ‘Ceasar’ and determines every sphere of
into the realm of meaning and significance. It investigates life. The church becomes a cultural institution with God
a person’s network of believes and facilitates progressive as the official head of a powerful establishment. God’s
clarification of life-ordering values, commitments, conceptual omnipotence was seen as the exercise of power (force);
orientations and meaningful connections. It describes a God became The Pantokrator.
process of philosophical and transcendent inquiry (Raabe
• The patriarchal schema and its connectedness to the
2001:206) into a person’s ‘theory’, paradigms or worldview,
paradigm of status: from the top, down to the bottom.
very specifically how this worldview is related to human
God acts as the great Patriarch. He dominates human
suffering and the problem of theodicy. In this regard,
beings and instructs them according to the pedagogic
philosophical counselling is a method for helping people to
principle of judgement and punishment.
live and to look at the world in a more thoughtful way (Raabe
2001:217). It probes into the realm of ‘conceptual vicissitudes’ • The hierarchical schema and its connection to superiority
(Schefczyk in Raabe 2001:164) and helps to identify a gap (the monarchic tradition). Life is viewed as an ordered
between a person’s actual way of life and any potential ways system. At stake are position and differentiation. The
of life that could foster hope and encourage a person to take latter is structured in terms of importance, status and
responsible decisions [respondeo ergo sum]. position along the same lines of class differences. In such

8.For a discussion on the realm of the unconscious, see Raabe (2006). 9.For the role of schematism in a pastoral hermeneutics, see Capps (1984:53).

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a model, the tension between superiority and inferiority • The hermeneutical schema of interpretation and meaningful
determines people’s understanding of God: God as royal networking: the integrative approach. Hermeneutics
King and ruling Judge with his prescriptions formulated (derived from hermeneuein) refers to the art of explanation
in unchangeable laws. and interpretation as the attempt to understand the
meaning of different texts within the vibrant fibre of
• The economic and materialistic schema of wealth,
inter-textuality. This process includes verbalisation,
achievement, development and affluence. The paradigm at
speech, translation and the communication of a message
stake is management: Life is to be managed in terms of
(Smit, 1998:276). In this regard, the interpretation of
materialistic goals driven by money, profit, development
metaphors and symbols in terms of the interrelatedness
and progress. God becomes an official and public idol: the
of systemic networking becomes important. Its impact
God who safeguards prosperity. God is then high-jacked
on God-images is that theology becomes involved in
to serve our selfish needs. Belief becomes a religion; it
the quest for meaningful God-images that can promote
is misused as a good investment to bypass tragedy. The
meaningful (hopeful) norms and structures for a humane
Kingdom of God becomes a stock exchange: God as
living. For example: God as a Covenantal Partner and
Director and Manager.
Soul Friend for life; the God-with-us embodied (the
• The schema of communality and interconnectedness: the pneumatological inhabitation of the Spirit) in human
‘ubuntu’ philosophy. This is why Kahiga (2005:190) asserts bodies and existential categories13.
that traditional African epistemology cannot be isolated
The previous examples indicate a close connection between
from life events.10 The African paradigm is therefore
philosophical schemata and the paradigmatic issues implied
about life and human events of interconnectedness and
in theory formation and fundamental views on the value
relatedness. Life never stands on its own, but is embedded
and meaning or significance of life. It does not mean that the
in the dialectics between life events and death. ‘Life is a
schemata are in themselves necessarily good or bad. They
thesis and death is its antithesis. Life is to embrace and
should not be assessed in terms of morals. They should be
death is to depart and to isolate. The synthesis between
assessed as necessary cultural and philosophical paradigms,
life and death is becoming’ (Kahiga 2005:190). Human life
noetic frameworks of interpretations, to be used in all forms
is seen as an infinite becoming or progression and each
of theory formation.
human person ought to be an agent of this traditional
cultural reality:
The importance of the recognition of schemata of interpretation
The spirit of Ubuntu – that profound African sense that is that it creates a noetic awareness that can help care givers
we are human only through the humanity of other human to probe into the realm of the patterns of thinking and ideas
beings – is not a parochial phenomenon, but has added
that shape human actions. Schemata of interpretation reveal
globally to our common search for a better world.
the praxis within the practice. With praxis14 is then meant
(Mandela 2005:82)
the intention within an action that serves as the motivational
J. Gathogo (2008:42–43) links the notion of ubuntu11 to factor for human behaviour. Schemata of interpretation
hospitality and the generosity of giving freely without imply more than merely intra-psychic factors that can be
strings attached. It can be seen as a philosophy and way detected by psychoanalyses. Schemata of interpretation
of life, ‘an unconditional readiness to share’ (2008:42). It
reveal the commitments that reveal significance and the
describes interdependence as described in the proverb that
human quest for meaning. They are the containers of ideas
says: Gutri gigatuirie kingi, ‘All things are interdependent’
that even transcend the rational categories of the human.
(Gathago 2008:43). Ubuntu is basically both a philosophical
To a certain extent, they are connected to what can be called
and religious concept that defines the individual in terms of
the spiritual realm of our human existence: the realm of
his or her relationship to others. It is supposed to articulate
a basic respect and compassion for others. According to ideas, norms, values, wisdom and life views (philosophical
Gathogo (2008:44), ubuntu illustrates that Africans were not patterns of reasoning). In order to deal with the question of
incapable of philosophising as G.F. Hegel maintained. Instead appropriate God-images for example, it becomes vital for
of Rene Descartes’s cogito ergo sum [I think therefore I exist], the making of a pastoral diagnosis (to differentiate between
the African asserts ‘I am because we are’, or ‘I am related,
therefore I am’ [cognatus ergo sum] or an existential cognatus 13.More schemata could be identified: for example the democratic schema of
individual self-actualisation and its connectedness to human rights; the systemic
sum, ergo sumsu [I am related, therefore we are]. As indicated schema of global networking (globalistion), intersubjectivity and interrelatedness.
by Gathogo (2008:46), this parallels with the concretisation
�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
.Thus, for Aristotle, praxis is guided by a moral disposition to act truly and rightly;
of Heidegger’s Being as Being-with in his Dasein-analyses12. a concern to further human well being and the good life. This is what the Greeks
called phronesis and requires an understanding of other people. Practical wisdom
[phronesis] involves moving between the particular and the general. The mark of
a prudent man [is] to be able to deliberate rightly about what is good and what is
10.The present is the arena of life in its fullness and as such, it is to be celebrated now. advantageous for himself; not in particular respects, e.g. what is good for health or
The fullness of life lies on earth in the present (despite the threat of evil, disease, physical strength, but what is conducive to the good life generally (Aristotle). We
pain, chaos and death). See Twesigye (1996:216). can now see the full quality of praxis. It is not simply action based on reflection. It
is action which embodies certain qualities. These include a commitment to human
11.In defining ubuntu, Gathogo points out that it is critical to underline that it is well being and the search for truth and respect for others. It is the action of people
described differently amongst the various African communities. ‘For instance it is who are free, who are able to act for themselves. Moreover, praxis is always risky. It
called Uhu among the Shona of Zimbabwe; Ubuntu among the Ngunie speakers requires that a person ‘makes a wise and prudent practical judgment about how to
of Southern Africa; Utu among the Swahili speakers of East Africa; and Umundu act in this situation’. We can say that word and action, action and reflection, theory
among the Kikuyu of Kenya, among others’ (2008:45). and practice are all facets of the same idea. This action is not merely the doing
of something, what Freire describes as activism and Aristotle as poiesis. Poiesis
12.Gathogo (2008:51) pointed out how tribalism, the abuse of women, bribery and is about acting upon, doing to: it is about working with objects. Praxis, however,
corruption and the reducing of an individual to nothing in the community, can is creative: it is other-seeking and dialogic. (Smith 1999:http://www.infed.org/
harm and discredit the whole principle of ubuntu. biblio/b-praxis.htm).

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appropriate or inappropriate convictions of faith) to probe in [meaning-identification]. Within Christian spirituality, one
pastoral counselling into the noetic realm of life. can identify the theological categories of grace (unconditional
love); forgiveness and reconciliation; resurrection hope; the
The practice of philosophical support system of koinonia [fellowship] and diakonia [service]
and the sacraments as indication of God’s faithfulness and
counselling fulfilled promises emanating into a life of joy and gratitude.
It should be made clear that philosophical counselling is
Table 1 (see bottom of page 6) can be viewed as a kind of graphic
less a ‘technique’ or ‘skill’. It is more about processes of
portrayal of the network of existential realities and how it can
understanding. In order to relate philosophical counselling
be connoted to the spiritual realm of the Christian faith. The
to the practice of counselling, the following four approaches
method implied is hermeneutics, which wants to illuminate
or models can serve as examples of what is meant by
the possible connections between life issues and spiritual
philosophical counselling in the counselling practice pastoral
paradigms. It is not an explanatory model in the sense that it
care.
reveals causes; it only displays possible connections between
intention, attitude, existential realities and belief systems.
The making of a spiritual, existential analysis in a
For example, Table 1 helps pastoral caregivers in the making
pastoral diagnosis of a pastoral diagnosis to understand how existential issues,
In an existential analysis the presupposition is that existential possible compulsions and basic life needs, are connected to
experiences which shape human responses and habitus is one another. It is now the task of a pastoral hermeneutics to
fundamental to life experiences and conceptualisation. With link the relevant spiritual issue with the need, compulsion
reference to the contribution of existential philosophy, one and related existential reality. If the existential issue at stake
can identify five existential categories that are general and is anxiety (the fear for loss and rejection), a pastoral caregiver
universal and therefore existent in all cultural activities and should probe into the possible compulsive realm of honour
human behaviour. and pride (the obsession to maintain oneself at the cost of
somebody else and the selfish demand to be acknowledged
They categories include anxiety; guilt or shame; doubt by all means). The deflection should be in the direction of
and despair or dread; helplessness or vulnerability and intimacy: the need for acceptance within relationships.
frustration, anger or aggression. Related to them are the The appropriate spiritual category that is applicable here
following compulsions: is God’s grace (the knowledge of faith that I am accepted
• the urge to be validated and acknowledged unconditionally for whom I am by God without the fear of
• the urge to be successful and perfect rejection). This spiritual perspective can bring about change
• the urge for absolute control over future events and healing in the sense that it creates a sense of dignity and
• the urge for independence and power and the urge to identity despite the existing anxiety. One can say, it brings
possess (greed). about a different perspective (philosophical mindset) and
changes the fixed perception and idea created by the anxiety.
In an existential model, the following existential needs can The focal point becomes intimacy as guaranteed by grace.
be identified:
• intimacy (the need to be accepted unconditionally for From the previous discussion, one can indeed conclude
whom one is without the fear for rejection) that, in terms of the spiritual realm of our being human,
• freedom (deliverance) worldviews are playing a fundamental role in our attitudes
• hope and the anticipation of something new or different and intentionality and thus, the reason why pastoral care
• the need for sustainable support systems should take philosophical counselling seriously within
• life-fulfilment, satisfaction or happiness. processes of communication and verbalising.

In philosophical counselling, the pastoral question is whether

the spiritual framework for life can be connected meaningfully Reframing
to the existential issues that can become a threat to sinduiding Another example of philosophical counselling is the

Table 1: Network of general and universal existential categories within the realm of Christian spirituality.
Existential issues: Compulsions: Existential life needs Christian spiritual dimensions:
The threat to dignity Excessive human quests and being needs: Courage to be Spiritus
To be acknowledged and validated; Intimacy:
Anxiety: experience of loss or rejection Grace: unconditional love; role of God-images
seeking honour and pride (Plato) affirmation and self-actualisation
To be perfect; success; achievement
Guilt or shame Freedom or deliverance Forgiveness or reconciliation
(avoid failure)
Eschatological realm of hope determined
The quest for absolute security, safety or
Despair or doubt Anticipation: meaning and trust by the belief in the cross and resurrection
certainty
of Christ
To be independent and in control
Helplessness or vulnerability Support system Fellowship, koinonia or diakonia
(power: to dominate or abuse)
Frustration or anger (disappointment and Gratitude and joy or promissio-therapy or
Life fulfilment or direction or
frustration; structural issues: poverty, To possess and to have (greed) ethics; see the role of the sacrament of
transformation
unemployment, violence or crime) baptism and holy communion

http://www.hts.org.za DOI: 10.4102/hts.v67i2.900

 Page 7 of 7 Original Research

reframing model proposed by D. Capps (1990:10). His the realm of ideas or forms, paradigms and their relationship
argument is that when we change the frame, we change the with different schemata of interpretation as embedded in
meaning. Changing the frame in which a person perceives and influenced by, cultural settings and different worldviews
events in order to change the meaning is called reframing. and cosmologies. In order to understand human attitude
When the meaning changes, the person’s responses and [phronēsis, habitus] one has to make a pastoral diagnosis of
behaviours also changes. the belief systems that determine human behaviour directly
or indirectly, as well as the intentionality as related to a vivid
Renaming hope and the anticipation of a meaningful future.

Renaming is the attempt to deconstruct existing

Table 1 is designed to clarify the notion of a pastoral
inappropriate names (labels) a person is giving to life events
hermeneutics. It can be applied in the making of a pastoral
and to introduce a different category that represents the
diagnosis. It furthermore links the spiritual realm of the
meaning and significance of the existing problematic area in
a more appropriate way. For example, a couple is planning Christian faith with the existential realities of life, and can
for a family. The wife resigned her job. At the same time the be used as an assessment tool in order to bring about change
husband moved into another job and is spending a lot of time regarding skewed perceptions and inappropriate paradigms.
to get it from the ground. After the birth of the first child, the The impact of the Christian spiritual categories on existential
wife interprets her spouse’s investments in the new business realities and fixed belief systems or inappropriate ideas
as a loss of love. The message she received is: he does not about life and our being human can be viewed, on the level
love me; we do have a marriage problem. After a counselling of a pastoral methodology, as philosophical counselling.
session, the husband was totally surprised to hear this,
because his intention was to provide an income for his family
and to create financial security. He did that as an act of love
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http://www.hts.org.za DOI: 10.4102/hts.v67i2.900