Part II:

Critical Factors in
Exploration
 Critical Factors in Exploration
Geology
• Source rock
• Reservoir rock
• Trap
• Seal or cap rock
• Migration
• Proper timing in the development of all the
above elements

Most ideal scenario: oil or gas generated at a time when it already has access to a pre-
existing reservoir rock and a trap which is sealed by an impermeable rock layer, a fault
or any structure or type of rock that will prevent it from being dispersed
SOURCE ROCK
I. INTRODUCTION

The maturation and generation process begins with

the formation of organic matter (OM) on the
earth’s surface as influenced by the factors that
control the amount of and preservation of organic
matter at the depositional environment.

Chemical changes after burial converts plant and

animal tissue into complex organic molecules that
will eventually yield smaller hydrocarbon
molecules of oil or natural gas.
II. FORMATION AND PRESERVATION OF
ORGANIC MATTER

1.) Process begins with photosynthesis where

plants converts water (H2O) and Carbon
Dioxide (CO2 ) into glucose (C6 H2 O6 ),
water and oxygen.

6CO2 + 12H 2O æsunlight

ææÆ C6 H12O6 + 6H 2O + 6O2

Glucose (a Carbohydrate) – is the starting material

† for the synthesis of more complex polysaccharides
and other compounds, either in plants or animals
that eat them.

Solar Energy is trapped in the process.

According to Wapples ( 1981 ) – only about one
CO2 molecule out every million initially is taken up
through photosynthesis eventually is converted to
oil and gas.

Therefore, the concentration and accumulation of

fossil fuels is highly selective.

Eventually, when we burn fossils we are actually

releasing the energy tapped from sunlight during
the photosynthetic process.
 Source Rock

Path of organic matter from where it formerly lived to

its final resting place – the sedimentary basin
2.) Selective conditions begin with the supply of
organic matter to sediments by a.) Marine
plants and animals; b.) Terrestrial plants.

3.) Organic matter stay in suspension in warm

agitated matters and winnowed out to deep
sea where it is precipitated with fine grain
sediments.
Hydrocarbon Source Requirements

GRAIN SIZE
ENVIRONMENT
Sand Silt Clay
Shelf 0.73 1.35 2.06
Slope 0.44 0.83 0.85
Foot of slope 0.27 0.37 0.42
Ridge 0.47 0.12 0.41
Pelagic areas 0.62 0.92 1.16

B. Relationship
between % organic
matter and grain size
and distribution in
terms of
depositional
environment
Figure 2
4.) Environments where sediments settle are in
a.) Quiet waters
b.) Low energy
c.) Reducing environments

Therefore in terms of rock types and

environments, organic matter (OM) is found
in shales, lime muds, deposited in oceans,
lake, and swamps, all of which are
characterized by low energy conditions.

5.) Organic rich shale however is favored by:

a.) High rate of production of organic
matter.
b.) High preservation potential.
6.) In oceans – the main producers of organic matter
are:
a.) Phytoplanktons – floating plants like
diatoms, dinoflagellate and blue green
algae.
b.) Benthic algae also contribute.
c.) Organic matter production in these
environments is through photosynthesis in
the photic zone (light penetration zone)
which in the tropics is 100 meters deep.

7.) The second important factor in organic

productivity is the rate of nutrients supply to
the photic zone.

Nutrients are a.) Phosphates and b.) Nitrates both

these are release by bacterial decomposition of
organic matter and are vital for both plants and
animals growth.
8.) Oxygen is vital for the existence of animals that
form links in the food chain.

Oxygen content of surface water increases as a

result of photosynthesis and phytoplanktons.

9.) High organic productivity is found also in

shallow waters mixed with water over
continental shelves particularly where large
rivers enter the oceans and supply abundant
nutrients (could change with time-with plates
drifting).
Figure. 3
10.) As noted before – areas of high productivity of
organic matter are not necessarily those best
suited for their preservation in the seafloor.

11.) Very important! Complete destruction of OM

must be prevented, and the optimum conditions
for this requirements are
a.) Rapid rate of deposition
b.) Stratified – oxygen poor water bodies with
anoxic bottoms.
Fig. 4
III. SOURCES OF ORGANIC MATTER IN
LIVING THINGS

BIOPOLYMERS – organic compounds produced by

living systems. (Fig 4)
These are composed of:

a.) Protein – built up from amino acids e.g. sponges,

composed of muscle fibers, e.g silk and sponge
formation of shells – as organic matrices in the
form of enzymes, etc.

b.) Lipids – applies to all organisms that are

practically insoluble in water, but are
extractable by one or more fat solvents lipids
encompass fat substances such as a.) Animal
fats; b.) Vegetable oils; and c.) Waxes.
c.) Carbohydrates – collective term for individual
sugars and their polymers e.g. glucose and
saccharides.

Must abundant constituent of plants and

animals.

Source of energy and form supporting tissues of

plants and animals.

Source of Cellulose.

d.) Lignins – occurs as a 3-dimensional network

located between cellulose micelles, of
supporting tissue of plants.
IV. THREE STEPS IN THE GENERATION OF
HYDROCARBONS

(Fig. 5)

1.) DIAGENESIS – alteration process within

a few centimeters from surface after
sediments are laid down.

Result in

a.) Formation of humic acids humic acids/

humic material these are dark-colored
organic substance found in soils and is
responsible for soil’s dark colors.
b.) During early diagenesis – it is the most
stable among complex biopolymers,
broken down into smaller, simpler
molecules called Geomonomers.
 Fig. 5
Generalized scheme of
petroleum formation
c.) Breakdown process is accomplish through
a.) Microbial degradation ( high Eh (+))
b.) Polymerization
c.) Condensation
Result = Fulvic acid – which is soluble in
acid; Humic acid is not.
Note: The most active of the geomonomers
will react with each other to yield stable
complex Geopolymer.
d.) With increasing depth of burial – organic matter
loses its oxygen, sulfur, some hydrogen and carbon.
Note: Most nitrogen, sulfur and oxygen (NSO)
is lost, together with small molecules of CO2,
Ammonia (NH3 ), nitrogen, oxygen, water.
e.) The result is the formation of MACERALS which
are collectively called KEROGEN.

f.) Kerogen defined as insoluble residue in the

transformation of organic to hydrocarbons.
It is insoluble to organic solvents and is
composed of four types.

Type I (Alginite) - from algae of marine, lacustrine

boghead coal environments.

Type II (Mixed Marine) – exinite, liptinite mostly of

marine source.

Type III (Vitrinite) – coaly material debris of

continental vegetation wood, spores, and resin, wax,
and plant products – gas.

Type IV (Inertinite) – Origin is fossil charcoal, and

other oxidized material of continental vegetation.

No-gas and oil can be produced from this material.

(Figure 1.7 , Table 1 and Figure 6)

Fig 1.7 The four Kerogen types in relation to petroleum
generated from them.
Fig. 6
2.) CATAGENESIS – main stage of oil generation.

Factors

a.) Temperature – oil window = 60-175˚C

Wet gas = 60˚- 225˚C
Dry gas = near surface to 315˚C.

b.) Time can make up for low temperature.

c.) Pressure = little effect.
d.) Depth = function of temperature vice versa.

Generally higher temperature – greater depth of burial.

However – local geothermal gradient is more important.

(Read section on surface heat)

3.) METAGENESIS – changes that take place
beyond or below the oil window. All previously
formed hydrocarbon are thermally cracked to
produced methane (dry gas) as the only
hydrocarbon product.

(Fig. 7 and Fig. 8 Tissot & Welte, 1984 )

 Fig. 7
Generation of
Petroleum in
relation to
temperature
 Fig. 8
Generation of
Petroleum in
relation to
average. Maximum
and minimum
burial depth.
 HYDROCARBON SOURCE ROCK REQUIREMENTS

• Quantity of Organic matter

organic richness (Total Organic Content - TOC %)

•Certain Quality of Organic Matter

organic matter type (Kerogen Type I, II, III);

oil prone or gas prone?

•An Attained level of Maturity

have hydrocarbons been generated?

oil or gas?
 Hydrocarbon Source
Requirements

Quantity of organic matter

Percentage Organic Carbon Used in Source Rock Ratings

Shale Carbonates
Poor < 0.5 < 0.25
Fair 0.5 - 1.0 0.25 - 0.50
Good 1.0 - 2.0 0.5 - 1.0
Very Good 2.0 - 4.0 1.0 - 2.0
Excellent 4.0+ 2.0+
 Kinds of Source Rocks

Shale, siltstone, claystone

• fine-grained rocks, usually
dark in color because of the
color of organic matter
present
• light colored source rock
due to light component
organic matter, e.g., Monterey
shale of Ca, USA
Carbonate / Limestone – rock
consisting of the mineral calcite
or calcium carbonate
Marl – a muddy or clayey type of
carbonate rock
Coal – a readily combustible rock
containing more than 50% by
weight and more than 70% by
volume of carbonaceous material
Maturation of Petroleum
Maturation is the complex process through which
biological molecules, created by living organism, are
converted into petroleum. In the early stages of this
alteration, or diagenesis, an intermediate form of
organic matter, called Kerogen, is formed. Kerogen is
created by the; a.) breakdown of complex biological
molecules, b. ) reaction between some of the newly
created simpler molecules, and the c.) loss of most
non-hydrogen and carbon atoms like NH3, CO2 and
H2O.

Microscopically, kerogen can be seen as yellow-orange

to brown-black particles or amorphous material. Since
this material originated from different kinds of living
organism, with different kinds and proportions of
biological molecules, kerogen will not all have the
same chemical compositions and amount of petroleum.
Geologist have found it convenient to group kerogen
into four fundamentally different classes (Figure 1.7).
• Type I kerogen is derived mostly from the remains of
algae, and when it matures it yields mainly crude oil. It
is also capable of generating the most petroleum of all
the kerogen types.
• Type II kerogen consist mostly of amorphous material,
derived from the bacterial and mechanical breakdown
of a mixture of marine, one celled plants and animals.
This kerogen is also oil-prone but yields more natural
gas than type I.
• Type III kerogen, derived from the higher land plants,
is sometimes known as coaly kerogen. The humic
material in type III kerogen has a low capacity to form
oil and yields mostly natural gas.
• Type IV kerogen consists mostly of inert particles that
have been highly oxidized before burial, like charcoal.
It is the rarest kerogen type and has practically no
ability to generate either oil or gas.
 Fig. 7
Generation of
Petroleum in a
relation to
temperature.
 Fig. 8
Generation of
Petroleum in a
relation to average,
maximum and
minimum burial
depth
 Hydrocarbon Enrichment and Depletion:
Dependence on Organic Matter Composition
Elemental Composition (%wt)
C H S N O
Carbohydrates 44 6 50
Lignin 63 5 0.1 0.3 31.6
Proteins 53 7 1 17 22
Lipids 76 12 12
85 13 1 0.5 0.5
Petroleum (Oil)
Enrichment Depletion
The chemistry of crude oil can also be linked to
kerogen type and original organic matter. Usually land-
derived, non-marine organic matter deposited near
continental drainage areas (Type III coaly kerogen) will
form mostly gas, but any oil formed will be low sulfur,
paraffinic to paraffinic-naphthenic crude oils. Marine
organic matter, particularly protein-rich types derived
from marine animals (Type II mixed marine kerogen)
tends to yield high sulfur aromatic-intermediate crude.
Petroleum is generated when kerogen is subjected to
the increased temperatures that accompany sediment
burial (Figure 8). The alternation of kerogen to
petroleum is similar to other thermal cracking
reactions. Large kerogen molecules decompose upon
heating, to yield smaller molecules of petroleum.
These reactions usually require temperatures greater
than 60˚C. At lower temperatures, during early
diagenesis, natural gas, called biogenic methane or
marsh gas, is generated through the action of
microorganism that live near the earth’s surface. Vast
quantities of biogenic methane are probably generated,
but most of this will not encounter a trap and will be
lost to the atmosphere.
Fig. 8
The temperature range between about 60˚C and 175˚C
is commonly called the “oil window” (Figure 8). This is
the principle zone of oil formation. It begins at burial
depths of 1 to 2 km and ends at depth of 3 to 4 km in
most areas, depending on factors such as the
geothermal gradient. The first oil generated is heavy
and tends to be richest in aromatic and NSO-
compounds. As burial and temperature increases, the
oil becomes lighter and more paraffinic. At
temperatures much above 175˚C, the generation of
liquid petroleum ceases and gas formation becomes
dominant. When formation temperatures exceed 225˚C,
most kerogen has used up its petroleum-generating
capacity. Source rocks become over mature. However,
some methane can still be created, even at these very
high temperatures, by the breakdown of the larger,
heavier molecules of previously generated crude oil.
Since the conversion of kerogen to petroleum is
basically a series of chemical reactions, time must also
play a major role in this process. Young, Tertiary-age
rocks must be deeply buried or have high geothermal
gradients in order to generate significant amount of
petroleum. Although generation, migration and
entrapment have been documented in rocks as young as
1.0 to 1.5 million years old, major petroleum
accumulations have not been found in rock less than
10 million years old (Halbouty et all., 1970). On the
other hand, some older Paleozoic and Mesozoic source
rocks may not have been buried very deeply, perhaps
only to the uppermost part of the “oil window”, but
have still generated petroleum because of the time
factor.
Subsurface Heat
SUBSURFACE HEAT

The temperature of the earth increases with depth from

the surface. One observes this specially when going
underground in mines.

The temperature can be measured by lowering self-

recording thermometers into the borehole during
drilling operations when conducting logging runs.

The rate increase of temperature at various levels

defines the Geothermal Gradient.
Geothermal Gradient – Rate of increase in
temperature of the earth with depth.
(Fig. 10)

This is usually given in terms of degrees centigrade per

kilometer or degrees of Fahrenheit/1000 ft.

ß The average geothermal gradient worldwide - 26°

C/km (14 °F/1000 ft.)
ß Thermal gradients measured in sedimentary
basins worldwide range from a low of 18 °C/km
to high of 55 °C/km.
Figure 10 Depth /temperature graph of a hypothetical well
with a constant geothermal gradient of 20 degrees
Centigrade per km.
Effect of Heat on the Oil Window
(Fig. 1.9)

a.) Low Geothermal Gradient – causes the first

formation of oil to begin at deeper levels, but
causes the oil window to be quite broad.

b.) High Geothermal Gradient – enhances oil

formation relatively shallower depths of burial,
but the depth range of the oil window tends to be
narrow.

N o t e: At the periphery of hot igneous intrusive bodies

emplaced near sedimentary sequences with abundant
organic matter, the resulting oil window will occur at
shallower depths.
c.) Oil formation is more efficient in young source
rocks, where the geothermal
gradient is high and can form early at shallow
depths.

d.) The magnitude of a petroleum basin’s geothermal

gradient is most often directly related to the
Earth’s Heat Flow.
1.)Heat Flow (HF) – Geothermal Gradient (GTG)
x Thermal Conductivity

(TC)
HF= GT x TC

• World’s average HF = 1.5 cal/cm2.sec.

2.) High GTG is found where Heat Flow is high

e.g. Basins that are associated with active

deformation, sea floor spreading (mid-Atlantic
Ridge, Red Sea) and mountain building
(Tectonic processes) inforeland thrust regions,
Zagros mountains of Iran, etc.

(Fig. 15)
Figure 15
3) High GTG in Backarc basins, e.g. Sumatra Basin
(Fig. 16) where super giant fields are found.

4.) Low GTG in basins associated with old stable

interiors are continental cratons but here
residence time of source rocks becomes an
important factor in maturation of organic matter.

5.) Low GTG in areas insulated by cool underlying

rocks or thick rapidly deposited sediments as in
the forearcs basins in the Arcs-trench region of
subduction complexes.
Fig .16
6.) GTG will be be influenced by the surface rocks
through which the earth’s heat will be
transmitted.

• Thermal Conductivity = capacity of rock to

transmit heat

HF= GTG x TC

TC = HF (Heat Flow)
GTG (Geothermal Gradient)

Thermal Conductivity varies inversely as

Geothermal Gradient.
• TC – varies with rock type, and the amounts of
pore-filling fluids.

• GTG will normally vary vertically through a

stratigraphic sequence.

[Fig. 12 A & B)

Evaporite > L.S. > S.S. > SH

Coal is least conductive.

[Fig. 11]
Fig. 12A and 12B
Fig. 11 Thermal conductivities of common sedimentary rock types.
Note :

a) Evaporites (NaCl + CaSO4. H2O) = High TC

b) Coal = Low TC

c) L.S.,S.S.,SH = have wide range of TC largely due

to variations in porosity (Ø)

e.g. = Pore space with water (H2O) tend to have

lower conductivity. However, with deeper burial,
water is expelled so Thermal Conductivity
increases.
d) On Fig. 12a – note that where T.C. is low as across coal,
the local GTG increases when passing from one rock
type to another.
e) Evaporate rich layers with high T.C. display low GTD.
f) Rocks with pronounced reduction in porosity (Ø) with
depth, for example shales usually increases thermal
conducting (TC) with depth.
Thus = In shale dominated sedimentary sequences that
are normally compacted, they will have normal pore
pressures and GTG may show a fairly smooth decrease
with depth due to constant decrease in porosity (Ø).
Heat Flow (HF) associated with a single hole at a
particular location in the earth’s crust is constant, and
does not vary significantly down the hole, despite
downhole variations in rock conductivity.
g) As previously mentioned, there is variations in
Thermal Gradients
regionally and can be categorized as follows:
1) Movement of deep hot material near the earth’
surface in active spreading centers in oceanic
basins on continental areas that went through
this history in the past, or is actually such a
change in the present, e.g. Red Sea.
2) Large scale movements of relatively cool,
originally shallow rocks going down to deeper
levels displacing hot rocks at depth causing
low Heat Flow e.g. subduction complexes.
3) Rock masses of great vertical extent but only
limited lateral extent causing significant
lateral contrasts in thermal conductivity – also
causing lateral variations in heat flow as
shown in stable cratons.
h) What is really more important is to look at
Paleotemperature.

1) Present day geothermal gradient may be

less important to maturation than
paleogeothermal conditions particularly in
areas that have undergone large scale uplift
and erosion.

Chemical reactions completed at higher

temperature are normally not reversible. It is
most important to establish the highest
temperature attained at some time in the
geologic past.
2) Some questions worth considering :

• Was the past history of the basin such that HF

or GTG were developed to the extent that HC
had gone thru the oil window (OW) or not?

• Was there early or late generation?

• When did the basin attain adequate depth of

burial for hydrocarbon generation; i.e.
assuming that the right kind and amount of
organic matter was available?
 TIME

As a factor in petroleum generation and maturation.

A. Time – has a secondary role in the diagenesis or

organic matter.

[See Fig 5.1, Fig. 16, 14 and 18]

Fig. 5.1
1. Doubling the available time of sediment burial
has the same effect as increasing temperature
by approximately 10OC.

Thus, the amount of products increase linearly

with increasing time, but, exponentially for
increasing temperature e.g. Philippe’s diagram
[Fig. 5.1, in Tissot, et.al 1975 – included in the
Handout] shows that for 12 MY old Miocene
sediments, generation started at about 120 OC,
while the Jurassic sediments of the Paris Basin
started at 60 OC.

[Fig 5.1]
Also the example of the Hassi Massaud Field in Algeria
Fig. 5-6 (Bolduckhi & Pommier, 1970) included in the
handout or the topic of migration, shows that:

a) Generation of oil took place only during the

Triassic post unconformity because Silurian
and Permian sediments never attained the
necessary depth of burial to attain the window
oil. The source rock, here has been definitely
established as Silurian shales (430 MY). The
burial of 5,000 feet of sediments was attained
in the Late Triassic, therefore over 200 MY
lapsed between oil generation and burial.

An early generation of the oil from the

Silurian shales would have probably leaked
out to the surface during the time of formation
of the unconformity.
Reservoir Rocks
RESERVOIR ROCKS

Rocks that contain petroleum (oil or gas) because

of their Porosity (f), and Permeability (K).

I. TWO FUNDAMENTAL PROPERTIES THAT

MAKE EITHER GOOD OR POOR RESERVIOR
ROCKS.

A . POROSITY

Definition
f - ratio of volume of interparticle space to total
bulk volume of space to total bulk volume of
space and volume of particles (bulk x 100).

f - is given in percentage (%).

Quality of porosity (f) in Reservoir
Rocks

< 5% = Poor
10 – 20 % = Good
> 20 – 30% = Excellent
Types of Porosity (Fig. 1.19)

• PRIMARY - (f) acquired originally when sediments

were deposited in the seafloor, or any surface, but
decrease on compaction.

Porosity (f) is derived from Intergranular particulate

components or Intragranular because of the presence of
Vugs or Voids in the fossil particles or in the inorganic
clasts, e.g. voids in pumice, etc.

In sand grains, (f) depend on:

a.) Package of grains.
b.) Shape of grains.
c.) Degree of sorting.
Fig. 1.19 Major types of reservoir porosity
PACKING OF GRAINS

Assuming perfect spheres

Cubical packaging = 47% f
Rhombohedral packing = 25% f

However, nature does not provide

the very ideal packing because of
compaction.

(Fig. 39 from Graton & Fraser

1935; p796 in Sedimentary
Rocks by Pettijohn)
 SHAPE OF GRAINS

Shapes sorting most well sorted quartz – rich sands are

well rounded to subrounded; situation approaching this
condition are oolites and pisolites where grains are
nearly spherical.

Well-rounded, subrounded grains or clasts is more a

reflection of textural maturity of clasts (fragments)
which is a function of its history, origin (provenance),
and environment.

Degree of sorting with respect to size and shape is

again a function of the same function.

Mineralogical composition is a function of provenance

(source) and transportational history.

Texture and Mineralogy – defines the sediments

maturity in terms of its history.
 Grain-to-Grain Contacts

Sediments Textural
Maturity

Porosity
• SECONDARY POROSITY (f) – is brought about by
changes after the sediments have been deposited
through diagenesis.

How is Secondary (f) attained?

a.) SOLUTIONAL – in carbonate rocks like

Limestone and dolomite.

e.g. CACO3 + H2O + CO3 Ca (HCO3)2

Creates voids, solution cavern.

The order of solubility in acid solutions

Aragonite Calcite Dolomite Magnesite

b.) FRACTURING – microfracturing of shales in
overpressured conditions of brittle rocks like cherts and
diatomites which can be caused by;

a.) crustal movements associated with

folding and faulting;

b.) erosional stripping;

c.) overpressuring – as in shales or mudstone;

d.) intrusion of igneous rocks.

C.) Through chemical change like

DOLOMITIZATION – a recrystallization process

involving molecular replacement of calcite (in
limestone) by dolomite [Ca Mg(CO3) 2 ].

Result – shrinkage in volume which opens up cavities

by 12 – 13%.

e.g. West Linapacan field in NW Palawan produced

from fractured dolomitic limestone.
CAUSES OF POROSITY REDUCTION
a.) CEMENTATION AND COMPACTION
• Cementation through reprecipitation of CaCO3
reduces (f) as well as compaction
In the case of Silica (SiO 2 ) recrystallization of
quartz sand results in formation of overgrowths
which lead to reduce (f).

• Compaction comes from increase load

pressures and leads to further grain to grain
contact of both reservoir – types rocks like sands
and shales.
In the case of sands, this could lead to pressure
solutions at the contact of grains and suture the grains

Or compaction of reservoir fluids.

Fig. 17 Porosity of carbonates
Permeability
PERMEABILITY

Definition

Ability of porous medium to transmit fluids. It is

a measure of fluids conductivity through pores of
a rock. Fundamental requirement – pores must
be interconnected so that fluids, e.g. gas, oil,
and water can effectively flow.
Measurement of Permeability
Darcy -- a porous medium has a permeability of one (1)
darcy when a single phase of fluid of one centipoise
viscosity that completely fills the voids of the medium
will flow through it under conditions of viscous flow at a
rate of 1 cm/sec/cm2 of cross-sectional area under a
pressure or equivalent hydraulic gradient of one (1)
atmosphere (7.6 cm of Hg)

Where:
Q = volume/unit time in cm/sec for
horizontal flow
kA dP k = permeability constant in darcy's
Q= x A = cross-sectional area in cm2
m dx dp/dx = hydraulic gradient
(differential pressure) in the direction
of flow
m = fluids viscosity in centipoises
Note: A rough idea of one (1) DARCY (=1,000 MD) is
obtained if a cube one (1) foot on the side 91 cub.ft.) of
sand will pass 1 barrel of oil/day (BOPD) with one (1)
pound (1b) pressure drop.

Note: Commercial production is possible with

permeability is as low as 0.1 millidarcy.

Rough appraisal:
Fair = 1.0 – 10 MD
Good = 10 – 100 MD
Very Good = 100 – 1,000 MD (or 1 Darcy)
Quality of Reservoir Permeability
(Fig. 1.18)

a.) Coarse grained, well sorted – good.

b.) Fine grained – poor.
c.) Poorly sorted – poor.

Source of Permeability

a.) Primary – pores in original rock.

e.g. Interparticle, joint, etc. as long they are

interconnected.

b.) Secondary – due to fracturing and weathering or

any result of processes that would loosen a tight
rock.
Fig 1.8 Quality of Reservoir Permeability
 Source of Permeability
Primary – pores in original rock
-- e.g., interparticle, joints, etc., as long as they are
interconnected
Secondary – due to fracturing, weathering, solution or
any other natural process that would loosen a tight
rock
-- can be artificially-induced by acidizing or
fracturing

Major Types of Reservoirs

Sandstone – 60%
Carbonates – 30%
Fractured rocks of other types –
1%

Note: Any type of rock (igneous, metamorphic, or sedimentary)

can be a reservoir rock as long as they have effective
porosity and interconnected permeability
II. MAJOR TYPES OF RESERVOIRS
 ENVIRONMENT
OF
CLASTIC ROCK DEPOSITION
ENVIRONMENT OF CLASTIC ROCK
DEPOSITION

Table 1

a.) NON – MARINE – fluvial, alluvial fan.

b.) TRANSITIONAL – fan deltas, deltas.
c.) BARRIER ISLAND SYSTEM – offshore bars.
d.) MARINE CLASTIC SHELF - siliciclastic sheets
and sand waves.
e.) SUBMARINE FAN ENVIRONMENTS – Turbidite
fans.
 ENVIRONMENT
OF
CARBONATE – SEDIMENTATION
ENVIRONMENT OF CARBONATE –
SEDIMENTATION

Table 2

a.) Platform interior and margin.

b.) Shoreline.
c.) Platform slope and basin.

HOW TO IMPROVE POROSITY AND

PERMEABILITY

a.) Acidization – HCl, HF.

b.) Sand Fracturing – “sand frac” i.e. hydraulic

fracturing by driving a liquid containing sand
grains into pores of a reservoir rock under high
pressure when pressure is released, liquid drains
out and leaves the sand grains behind.
TRAPS
TRAPS

The configuration of rocks bodies or layers of

sedimentary rocks that will constrain the movement
of fluids within the reservoir.
Traps may have acquired their fluid constraining
geometry and capability at the time of their
deposition or subsequently when they have been
subjected to either tensional or compressional stress,
weathering, erosion and eventual burial by
impervious rocks layers.
Traps must have closure.

Closure are those factors which prevent the

escape of oil and gas.

Structural closure – produced by the dip of the

reservoir rocks in all directions away from a
high point or be in a combination of dips with
impervious seal at a fault. It must have 4 – way
dip.
E.g. - A Doubly plunging anticline or dome.
Amount of closure
- is the vertical distance from the lowest contour to
the highest point in the structure.

Closure = (80 +) – (50) = ~ 30 m

Structural Relief – the height to which a folded bed
rises above the regional slope.

Dip
Closure – can be provided by one or more faults.
Pinch out or Wedge out Closure – the thinning out of
reservoir rock within an enveloping impervious unit
towards the basin’s margins or against a structural or
topographic high.
Trap Nomenclature

A. Simple Structural

B. Stratigraphic
TYPES OF TRAPS
 Trap
Trap (def’n): the configuration of a rock body or layer of
rocks that constrain the movement of fluids within the
reservoir

Types of Traps:
1. Structural –
formed by
deformation of
the rock

a. Anticlines –
fold with 4-
way closure
1.) Structural – Fig. 13.3; Biddle, K and
Wielchowsky AAPG Memoir – 60)

a.) Folds
b.) Fault
c.) Piercement
d.) Combination Fold / Fault
e.) Subconformity has structural components
but generally classified
f.) Subconformity as a secondary
stratigraphic trap.
 Fig 13.3

Major categories of
structural traps :
(A) Fold,
(B) Fault,
(C) Piercement ,
(D) Combination
fold-fault,
(E) and (F)
Subunconformities.
The situation in (E) is
commonly excluded
from the structural
category.
FAULT RELATED

a.) Fault Bend

b.) Fault Propagation
c.) Fault Drag
d.) Fault Drape
Fig 13.4 Types of Traps in which folding dominates the reservoir-
seal interval. Fault-related types include (A) Fault bend (B) Fault
Propagation (C) Fault drag and (D) Fault drape.
ß FAULT FREE

e.) Lift Off

f.) Chevron / Kink Bend
g.) Diapir (Shale or Salt)
h . ) Differential Compaction
(supratenuous folding also drape).
Fig 13.4 Fault-free types include (E) Lift off (F) Chevron/kink band
(G) Diapir and (H) Differential compaction.
ß BASEMENT – involved normal fault, trap
door.
ß SYNTHETIC DETACHED LISTRIC
NORMAL FAULT
ß STRIKE SLIP FAULT (normal reverse
and negative normal) flower structures in
section, plan view are en-echelon to main
strike slip fault.
Figure 13.6 Types of traps in which faulting dominates the
reservoir-seal interval.
Figure 13.6 Types of traps in which faulting dominates the
reservoir-seal interval.
2.) Stratigraphic –
(Fig. 13.7 – same article)
Primary or depositional traps.
a.) Lateral depositional – facies change
b.) Buried depositional Reef
(shelf margin build up or
pinnacle reef – as in Nido,
Malampaya).
c.) Depositional pinchout
d.) Eolian dune
Submarine fan
(e.g. Galoc Field,
NW Palawan)
Fig 13.7
3.)Unconformity Traps

(secondary)
(Fig. 13.8 )

a.)Beneath
unconformity

b.) Above
unconformity
4.) Diagenetic Traps

(Fig. 13.9)

a.)Porosity /
permeability loss
by cementation.

b.)Porosity /
permeability
enhancement by
dolomitization.
5.) Combination
Traps

(Fig. 13.10)

a.) Fault with

updip pinchout of
reservoir
section.

b.) Folding of an
updip pinchout of
reservoir
section.
6.) Hydrodynamic or fluid traps
(Fig. 13.11 – same article)

a.) Hydrostatic trap

b.) Hydrodynamic trap
c.) Hydrodynamic trap with
increased water flow
d.) Hydrodynamic trap without
static closure by downdip water flow.
e.) Same situation as d, but with updip
water flow.
f.) Tilted oil – water contact in
fold – dominated trap with downdip
water movement.
g.) Tilted oil- water contact in
fold-dominated trap with updip water
movement.
Fig 13.11
Seal or Cap Rock
 Seal or Cap Rocks

Seal or Cap Rock (def’n): rock layers, generally

impervious on top, or enveloping a potential reservoir
rock, or any barrier (structural or stratigraphic) to
migration of hydrocarbons outside of the reservoir
system.
Type of Seals
• Thick sequence of impermeable rock like shale on
top or enveloping a folded reservoir rock
• Impermeable shale abutting against a fault providing
barrier to upward and lateral migration of oil in the
tilted reservoir rock
• Stratigraphic pinchout of a sandstone sandstone
reservoir within a shale sequence
• Post unconformity sequence of impervious rocks
sealing tilted reservoir rocks
• Evaporite (salt) piercement body or shale diapir
• Dense faciers in a carbonate (limestone or dolomite)
reservoir
• Tight fault with gouge
 Seal or Cap Rock

Percentages of World Petroleum

Occurrences in Terms of Seals
Shale 65%
Evaporite 33%
Carbonate 2%
MIGRATION
Migration def’n): expulsion of generated hydrocarbons
(oil or gas) from the source rock to the reservoir rock
or carrier beds

Types of Migration
Primary Migration – expulsion of petroleum or
protopetroleum from the source rock (shale,
limestone, or fractured rocks)
-- also refers to movement of hydrocarbons
within non-reservoir rocks
Note:
Primary migration is
much more difficult to
understand because
there are many
variable factors
affecting the process
Secondary Migration – movement of oil or gas within
reservoir-rock type rocks like sandstone or limestone, but
could also include igneous (e.g.,
Types granite
of Migrationor basalt) or
(cont’n)
metamorphic rocks (e.g., schist, slate, marble) as long as
they are fractured and have good permeability
Types of Migration (cont’n)

Constraints to Primary Migration

• Movement of oil in an aqueous medium.
Remember that oil and water do not mix
because –
• Hydrocarbons have low solubilites in water
• Movement of oil through very small pores in
fine-grained rocks
• Effect of particle composition
• Effect of capillary pressures
• Exsolution of hydrocarbons from migrating
aqueous solutions, i.e., how does nature
separate the oil and gas from migrating water-
based solutions?
 Migration: Speculative Primary Migration Mechanism

A. True Aqueous Solution

Although hydrocarbons have

low solubilities in water –
even a low solubility may be
enough to move large
amounts of petroleum if
sufficient volumes of water
is available

Notes: Movement of oil in an

aqueous medium; remember that
• In general, aromatic
hydrocarbons are more soluble; • Increase in salinity and
paraffins (waxy HCs) are the pressure – high temperatures
least, i.e., the larger the size of increases solubility
the molecules, the solubility • Accommodation by
decreases colloidal suspension
 Migration: Speculative Primary Migration Mechanism

A. True Aqueous Solution (cont’n)

• Accommodation by colloidal suspension

E.g., role of micelles – role of organic molecules
that form small colloidal aggregates with water,
compatible polar ends oriented out into the water

Note:
This works out like the
detergent effect of some
soaps to remove grease
on oily substances
 Migration: Speculative Primary Migration Mechanism

A. True Aqueous Solution (cont’n)

• High solubilities of organic acids and alcohols
in water

E.g., what is
way to remove
the ink left on
your index
finger after
casting a vote,
or removing oil
stain in clothing
 Migration: Speculative Primary Migration Mechanism
B. Change in Mineralogy of Clays – effect of change in
particle composition
E.g., when smectite (a form of montmorillonite clay) is
converted to illite (a marine clay) there is sudden
expulsion of large amounts of water which presumably
might carry with them early-formed hydrocarbons

This expulsion takes

place at depth and
temperature
conditions consistent
with maturing
hydrocarbons attain
the oil window
Migration: Speculative Primary Migration Mechanism

C. Overpressuring of Shales

-- due to rapid sedimentation rates could cause

microfracturing, thus allowing large volumes of
water with oil or protopetroleum to be expelled
into the reservoir rock

D. Development of a Pore Center Network

It is conceived that in the matrix of particle, space

and water, kerogen may develop tiny droplets of oil
which may later coalesce to form bigger oil patches
and with buoyancy overcome capillary pressures,
resulting from small pore openings and move as a
single separate phase
 Migration: Speculative Primary Migration Mechanism

D. Development of a
Pore Center Network
 Migration: Secondary Migration Mechanism

• In secondary migration, petroleum occurs as discrete oil

droplets that migrate through a porous, permeable, water-wet
conduits
• Because pore diameters are large, even relatively large oil
droplets can be accommodated
• The three (3) main factors that influence secondary oil
migration are:
_ buoyancy
_ capillary pressures
_ hydrodynamics
 Migration: Secondary Migration Mechanism (cont’n)
Buoyancy

• Oil is buoyant and oil droplets move upward

through carrier beds with a force dependent
mainly on the density difference between oil and
formation water

• Oil is lighter than water, so it will always float

• This process will continue until the droplet

reaches a pore space that is smaller than its
diameter

• Further motion occurs only by deforming the

droplet and sequencing it through pore space
Capillary

• Force required to squeeze deformed droplets

through pores

• Pressure becomes higher as pore diameters

decrease until capillary pressures become so
high that buoyancy cannot overcome it, thus
entrapment or accumulation of oil takes place
 Migration: Secondary Migration Mechanism

Hydrodynamic Forces
• Force due to movement of water and oil in
the reservoir rocks

Three Scenarios
1. Trapping
Mechanism of
Anticline
2. Effect of water flow
directed downdip and
through a barrier zone of
higher displacement
pressure and decreased
permeability

3. Direction of fluid
potential same as
buoyancy
• Secondary migration occurs along layers of carrier
beds
• Therefore, lateral migration can take place over a
wide range of distance – may be short or long, maybe
lateral or vertical
• Example of long migration
Colombia’s Caño Limon Field (a giant) – migration
distance is over 100 kms from oil kitchen
 Short migration -- common where reservoir is in close
proximity to source beds

E.g. Carbonate
reefs found at the
updip flanks of
muddy basins;
also in turbidite
lobes, shoestring
sands of marine
origin: or, in cases
where the source
rock itself also
acts as the
reservoir rock.
Semi-Diagrammatic Cross-Section
Through Nido Reef Complex
Proper Timing
 Proper Timing

Timing in the development of:

• source rock and oil generation
• available reservoir rock
• trap and seal (or cap rock) in place during oil
migration and accumulation

All these factors must have their proper position

in space and time for a petroleum system to exist

There is little chance of oil accumulation if oil is

generated in the source rock and there is no
available reservoir and trap nearby. Generated
hydrocarbons (oil or gas) will simply leak at the
surface where the formation is exposed.
 Proper Timing
An early-formed trap and a seal will have a better
chance if accumulating petroleum is accessible to the
generative basin or “kitchen”

Diagrammatic section illustrating the relative time when

the trap was formed
 Proper Timing

There are cases when the oil was generated late in the
history of the region, and migrated only when the trap
and seal were formed at a later time
Field Examples: A. Hassi-Messaud Field
Field Examples: A. Hassi-Messaud Field
(cont’n)
 Proper Timing: A. Hassi-Messaud Field (cont’n)
1. Huge dome with reserves of 25 B bbls; considered as a
Facts:
supergiant
2. Main accumulation is in Cambrian-Ordovician sandstone
(about 500 million years old) below the Triassic-Silurian
unconformity formed about 245 million years ago (MYA)
3. Geochemistry of oil suggest oil sourced from Silurian shale
(ca. 428-438 MYA
4. Late Paleozoic uplift (post-Permian –- 245 MYA), an erosion
removed all but the Cambrian-Ordovician sandstone from
the area and any oil generated from Silurian shale before
that time would have been lost
5. Since the nearest subcrop (underlying formation) of Silurian
shale is 40 kms away oil must have migrated long distances
along unconformity after Mesozoic burial, i.e., from Triassic
to Cretaceous (from 245 to 65 MYA), with thick salt deposit
acting as seal directly over the truncated (eroded) late
Paleozoic sequence
 Proper Timing: A. Hassi-Messaud Field (cont’n)
Facts:
6. If oil had been generated during Paleozoic time (cambrian to
Permian time, i.e., 505 to 245 MYA) and trapped in the
anticlines formed about 245 MYA, it would have been
weathered during all of Permian time (286 to 245 MYA)
because the reservoir rock (Cambro-Ordovician was exposed
to the atmosphere
7. If oil was generated in both Paleozoic and Mesozoic-Tertiary
cycles of deposition, oil trapped during the early cycle was
lost by weathering and only oil makes up present
accumulation
8. On the other hand, the oil could have been generated and
migrated only during Mesozoic and the Tertiary, when the
thick salt provided an adequate seal
9. Consideration of the thickness of the Paleozoic sediments
(i.e., from Cambrian to Permian) below the Triassic salt seal
shows that these sediments were not buried deep enough to
cause maturation of the Silurian source rock, i.e., deep
enough to attain the oil window
 Proper Timing: A. Hassi-Messaud Field (cont’n)

Facts:
10.Therefore, the most logical explanation for this oil
occurrence is that oil generation did not take place until
Cretaceous time – 144 to 65 MYA – and oil migration
took place subsequent to oil generation in a secondary
mode to traps formed during episode of Late Paleozoic
folding
∆ This is a case of late generation and late migration into a
folded eroded anticline (combination type trap) formed
much earlier in the history of this region

Summary:
Time of Trap Formation = ~ 245 MYA
Time of Seal Formation = ~ 245 - 65 MYA
Time of Oil Formation = possibly from ~ 144 -
65 MYA
Time of Migration = possibly within Cretaceous
time or after
 Proper Timing

Field Examples: B. Malampaya (NW Palawan)

 Proper Timing: Field Examples: B. Malampaya (NW
Palawan)
Facts:
1. Oil is trapped in Late Oligicene to Early
Miocene Nido Limestone (~23 to 21 MYA).
Reefal buildups on carbonate platform of
Late Eocene (~36 – 40 MYA) to early
Miocene (~23 MYA)
2. Nido carbonate reservoir is enveloped by
Middle Miocene (11 – 15 MYA); Pag-asa
Clastics, which in turn is overlain by Late
Miocene (11 – 6 MYA) Matinloc Clastics
3. Peak oil generation is believed to be Late
Miocene (11 – 5 MYA) and migration took
place after between Late Middle Miocene to
Late Miocene time
 Proper Timing: Field Examples: B. Malampaya (NW
Palawan)
Facts:
4. Source rock could be:
• Pre-Nido Eocene fluvial or lacustrine (lake)
sediments, migrating vertically into carbonate
reservoir
• Nido Limestone itself
• Basal portion of A Pag-asa Clastics, the
principal seal
• (11 – 6 MYA) Matinloc Clastics

Secondary migration may have taken place with

westward tilting of the Palawan Basement during
regional Late-Middle Miocene unconformity about
11.2 MYA
PETROLEUM CHEMISTRY
 Petroleum is composed essentially of carbon and Hydrogen molecules
collectively are called Hydrogen.
1.) They are organic compounds formed from the transformation of complex
biopolymers like lipids, carbohydrates, protein, and lignin into one that consist
only of hydrogen and carbon and minor impurities.

The impurities are Nitrogen, Sulfur and Oxygen – otherwise called NSO
compounds.

2.) Sulfur ad Nitrogen are undesirable elements in petroleum. Sulfur is most

abundant in heavier crude oil and in asphalt. It can also occur in natural gas as the
toxic, corrosive gas H2S. When present in significant amounts the gas is called “sour
gas”, and “sweet gas” when is low and absent in crudes, it is similarly called ‘sweet crude” if
non- existent or is low, and “sour crude” when present in large amounts.

3.) Nitrogen in natural gas occurs as the inactive gas, N2 which lowers the healing
capacity (BTU) of natural gas.
4.) Carbon Dioxide (CO2) and inert gases like helium can occur in natural gas
mixtures. Some of the CO2 could have been derived from a volcanic source.

5.) The basic hydrocarbon series in petroleum consists of 4 groups based on the
arrangement and structure of carbon and hydrogen atoms. These two elements exhibit
covalent bonding or electron sharing.

Shows the four basic series and the typical structures

Figure 4
 A. PARAFFIN SERIES

Chain like structure with the general formula CNH2N+2 where N – is carbon
number ranging from one (1) in Methane (CH4), the basic building block. There
could be branched chains too.

Natural gas is composed of nearly pure methane (CH4) and is called Dry Gas.
When natural gas contains small amounts of liquid hydrocarbons it is called “wet
gas” (about 1-2%/v).

Paraffins with carbon number higher than 5 are normally liquid. Higher
molecular weight paraffins become viscous, waxy solids.

B. NAPTHENES

Hydrocarbons with closed ring structures with basic formula CNH2N.They are
considered, like Paraffins saturated hydrocarbons. They form the major
components of crude oil.
C. AROMATIC

Hydrocarbons with a structure based on a hexagonal ring of carbons with

alternate simple and double bonds. General formula CNH2N-6.

The basic unit is called the Benzene Ring, after Benzene. They have a
characteristics smell or aroma, and some compound derivatives are toxic.
The benzene ring can be fused, with other groups, contain NSO
compounds, linked to paraffinic chains, napthenic rings, etc. From these
few examples, it is obvious that there is no end to the number and
complexity of hydrocarbon structures. By introducing other elements like
Oxygen, Nitrogen and Sulfur. The number of possible organic chemical
based on a carbon skeleton increases tremendously. From these
analyses, they can determine what are the likely industrial products that
can be derived from refining the crude oil.

Figure 1.6
 D. RESINS AND ASPHALTHENES

These are composed of fused benzene – Ring structures (rings) networks but
contain impurities of atoms of Nitrogen, Sulfur and Oxygen. They have less
than 40 carbon atoms, they are the heaviest components of crude oil, and
major components of natural tars and asphalts.

6.) Table 2.1 – shows the common names and physical constant of normal
alkanes (straight chain paraffins).

7.) Figure 1.8 shows the composition of a typical crude oil.

8.) Fig. 1.10 (Tissot & Welte, 1984) is a ternary diagram showing the
classification of crudes.

Note: When crude oil is discovered they are subjected to chemical

analysis to determine composition, physical and chemical properties.
Figure 1.8