UNIT I: INTRODUCTION TO PROTECTIVE SCHEMES

 Realise the basic protective schemes applied in power system protection.

 Evolution of protective relays - Zones of protection - Primary and Back -up

Protection.

 Essential qualities of Protection - Classification of Protective schemes .

 Concept of reset, pick up, inverse time and definite time characteristics,
over current, over voltage, directional relay

 Differential relay .

 Distance relays on R-X diagram

 Static Relays: Introduction, advantages and limitations of static relays,

static over current, directional relays.

 Negative sequence relays

 Realise the basic protective schemes applied in power
system protection
 Electrical power system consists of generators, transformers, transmission
and distribution lines, etc. Are required to be operated under both normal
and abnormal conditions.

 The heavy current associated with short circuits or faults is likely to cause
damage to equipment if suitable protective relays and circuit breakers are
not provided for the protection of each part of the power system.

 Whenever fault occurs somewhere in the system, an automatic protective

device is needed to isolate the faulty part as quickly as possible to keep
the healthy section of the system in normal operation.
 The fault must be cleared within a fraction of a second. If a short circuit
persists on a system and damage a part of it. Short circuit current may
cause fire.

 The system voltage reduces to a low level and individual generators in a

power station or groups of generators in different power station may lose
synchronization. Thus an unclear heavy short circuit may cause the total
failure of the system.

 It is very much necessary to protect the power systems, equipment's,

motors, generators etc. from the dangerous fault conditions in an electric
supply.
 Relay
 It is a device which senses the abnormal condition on the protection
system by constantly monitoring the electrical quantities of the system.

 The function of relay is to detect and isolate the fault and issue a
command to the circuit breaker to disconnect the faulty element.

 An examples of other abnormal conditions are overspeed of generators

and motors, under frequency.

 It detects all these abnormal conditions and issue alarm signals to alert or
trip circuit breaker.
Evolution of protective relays
 Attracted armature type electromagnetic type relay were first
introduced.they were fast ,simple,and economical.

 Later induction disc type inversion time current relay were developed
in1920.they were used for over current protection.

 For directional and distance relay ,induction cup type units were used.it
was fast and accurate due to high torque/inertia ratio.

 For greater sensitivity and accuracy polarised dc relays are being used

since 1939 .
 Evolution of protective relays

Attracted Armature Induction Type

Hinged Armature, Induction Cup,

Plunger, Induction Disc
Balanced Beam,
Reed,
Polarised MI,
MC,
 Attracted armature type Relay
Construction
Hinged armature
Electromagnet
Gap Spring
Contact
Principle of Operation
The actuating quantity of relay may be
either A.C. or D.C. current or voltage
electromagnet produces magnetic flux in turn the
force in the gap which is proportional to square of
current(flux)
Restraining force by spring

EM Force
1 1
KI max cos 2t
2 2
Phase KI max
shifting Coil
2 2
Constant Time dependent
Pulsating
Overcome by two coils
03-01-2018 (by actuating qty. and7 phase
shiting)
 Balanced Beam Relay:
Robust & Fast Operation,
1 Cycle,
Not accurate for DC transient

Plunger Type Relay:

Require more current,
Plunger controlled by spring

Reed Type Relay:

Nickel-iron strips sealed in a
closed glass capsule,
Reliable & Maintenance free,
Service Point of view – Static
Relay, Slave Relay,
Input – 1 W to 3 W
03-01-2018 8
1 or 2 ms
 Polarized Moving Iron Relay:
Polarization (PM) – increases sensitivity,
DC only,
Modern Relay – 0.03 to 1 mW,
Operating time – 2 ms to 15 ms,
Polarity is must.

Moving Coil Relays:

Most Sensitivity Relay,
Modern relays – 0.1 mW,
Costlier,
VA burden is very small,
Slave Relay,
Inverse operating time/current char,
Rotating MC:
Damping torque – Al former,
2 Cycles,
Axial MC:
30 msec,
03-01-2018 0.1 mW 9
 THEORY OF TORQUE PRODUCTION
Theory is Common for both disc and cup
type

03-01-2018 10
 Induction Disc Relay
Construction
Shaded Pole type Wh meter Type
‘C’ shaped EM Upper Magnet
Shaded ring Lower Magnet
Rotating Disc Al. Disc
Spindle Brake magnet(PM)
Spring Control Spring
Shaded Pole Type Brake magnet
Principle of Operation (Shaded Pole Type)
The two alternating fluxes (shaded and
unshaded) displace in space and time causes
eddy current on disc.
the interaction of fluxes cause resultant torque
to make the disc to rotate
Principle of Operation (Wh meter Type)
Alternating flux produced by two magnets cuts
the disc
Energized with phase difference supply
when operating quantity exceeds driving torque
Watt hour meter type
accelerates disc to speed proportional to torque
03-01-2018 11
 Induction Cup Relay
Construction
Stationery iron core
Two pairs of coil
rotating inverted cup (rotor)
contacts
Spindle
Spring
Principle of Operation
works in the principle of induction motor
Magnetic system reduces the The coil produces rotating magnetic field
resistance of current path which induces current in rotor.
The interaction of fluxes cause rotation
Due to low inertia magnetic leakage is
minimum
When two quantities applied, one produces
operating torque and other produces
restraining torque
Spring produces resetting torque

03-01-2018 G.Santhoshkumar, AP(OG)/EEE 12

Zones of Protection
 An electric power system is divided into several zones of protection. Each zone of
protection, contains one or more components of a power system in addition to
two circuit breakers.

 When a fault occurs within the boundary of a particular zone, then the protection
system responsible for the protection of the zone acts to isolate (by tripping the
Circuit Breakers) every equipment within that zone from the rest of the system.

 The circuit Breakers are inserted between the component of the zone and the rest
of the power system. Thus, the location of the circuit breaker helps to define the
boundaries of the zones of protection.

 Different neighboring zones of protection are made to overlap each other, which
ensure that no part of the power system remains without protection. However,
occurrence of the fault with in the overlapped region will initiate a tripping
sequence of different circuit breakers so that the minimum necessary to
disconnect the faulty element
Zones of Protection
Primary Protection
 The primary protection scheme ensures fast and selective clearing of any
fault within the boundaries of the circuit element, that the zone is
required to protect. Primary Protection as a rule is provided for each
section of an electrical installation.

 However, the primary protection may fail. The primary cause of failure of
the Primary Protection system are enumerated below.

1. Current or voltage supply to the relay.

2. D.C. tripping voltage supply

3. Protective relays
4. Tripping circuit

5. Circuit Breaker
Back-up Protection
 Back-up protection is the name given to a protection which backs the
primary protection whenever the later fails in operation.

 The back-up protection by definition is slower than the primary protection

system.

 The design of the back-up protection needs to be coordinated with the

design of the primary protection and essentially it is the second line of
defense after the primary protection system.

 Remote Back-up:- located at neighboring station, cheapest and simplest

used in transmission line protection.
 Relay Back-up:- additional relays provided for back up protection, costly,
operation takes place with out a delay. can be used where back up
protection is not available.

 Breaker Back-up:- mainly used in bus bar protection.

Essential qualities of Protection
• Selectivity or discrimination

• Reliability

• Sensitivity

• Stability

• Fast operation
Selectivity or discrimination
 Selectivity is a quality of protection relay by which it is able to discriminate
between a fault in a protected section and normal condition.

 Also it should be able to distinguish whether a fault lies within its zones of
protection or outside the zone.

 The relay should be able to discriminate between a fault and a transient

conditions like power surges (the flow of heavy current)or inrush of a
transformer ‘s magnetising current(5 to 7 times the full load current).

 The protective relay should be able to distinguish between a fault or power

surges either by its inherent characteristic or with the help of auxilary relay.

 It must be able to discriminate between those condition for which

instantaneous tripping is required and those for no operation or time delay
operation is required
Reliability
 Protective system must operate reliably when fault occurs in its zone of
protection.

 The failure of PS may be due to failure of one or more element

(relay,CB,P.T,C.T,wiring ,battery,etc).

 To acehive high degree of reliability design, installation, maintenance,

testing is also very important.

 The contact pressure,contact material of the relay,and prevention of

contact contamination are also very important.

 The typical value of reliability is 95%.

Sensitivity
 The protective relay should operate when magnitude of current exceeds
the preset value.

 This value is called pickup current.

 The relay should not operate when the current is below its pick up value.

 A relay should be sufficiently sensitive to operate when the operating

current just exceeds its pickup value.
Stability
 A protective system should remain stable even when a large current is
flowing through its protective zone due to an external fault, which does
not lie in its zone.

 The concerned CB is supposed to clear the fault.

 But the protective system will not wait if the protective scheme of zone in
which fault has occurred fails to operate.

 After a preset delay the relay will operate to trip the circuit breaker.
Fast Operation
 A protective system should be fast enough to isolate the faulty element,to
minimise the damage,to maintain the system stability.

 The operating time of PS should not exceed the critical clearance time to
avoid the loss of synchronism.

 The operating time of a PS is usually one cycle.

 For distribution system the operating time may be more than one cycle.
Classification of protective Schemes
Over current

 Protection of distribution lines, large motors.,etc

 Includes one or more over current relays

Distance Protection

 Protection of transmission or sub – transmission lines ie., 33,66,132 kV.

 Requires no. of distance relays of the same type or different type.

 Distance relay measures the distance between the relay location and the
point of fault in terms of impedance , reactance.

 Impedance , reactance, mho type.

Carrier – Current Protection
 Protection of EHV and UHV lines i.e., 132 kV and above.

 Carrier signal in the range of 50 – 500 kc/s is generated.

 Transmitter and receiver

 Relays at both ends

Differential Protection
 Protection of generator, transformers, motors, bus zones.

 Relay comparison at the entering and leaving side

Reset

The value of current or voltage below which a relay opens its contacts
and comes in original position.

Reset Time of Relay

The time which elapses between the instant when the actuating
quantity becomes less than the reset value to the instant when the relay contacts
returns to its normal position.

Pick up time

The pickup point is the current or voltage at which the plunger or

armature begins to move and, in a switchgear relay, the pickup value can be set
very precisely. These relays are usually instantaneous in action, with no
intentional time delay, closing as soon after pickup as the mechanical motion
permits.
Inverse time

An inverse-time relay is one in which the operating time is

approximately inversely proportional to the magnitude of the actuating

quantity.
Definite time

The definite time elapse between the instant of pickup and the

closing of relay contacts. This particular time setting is independent of the

amount of current through the relay coil ; being the same for all values of
current in excess of the pickup value.

Over Current Relay

Over Voltage Relay

Directional Relay
Over Current Relay
Directional Relay
Differential Relay
A differential relay is one that operates when the phasor difference
of two or more similar electrical quantities exceeds a pre-determined value.
(i) Current balance protection
(ii) Voltage balance protection
Current Differential Relay
Biased Beam Relay
Percentage Differential Relay
Voltage Balance Differential Relay
Distance Relays on RX diagram

 Generally the term “impedance” can be applied to resistance

alone, reactance alone, or a combination of the two.

 Terminology – impedance includes both resistance as well as

reactance
 Operating Characteristic
Electromagnetic relay – Characteristic is slightly bent near
the origin
Microprocessor - Characteristic will be straight line.
Operating characteristic of an impedance relay on an R-X
diagram
Z=K, Zone , relay setting
Z<K – Area within the circle
Static Relay
 Comparison or measurement of electrical quantities can be performed by
a static circuit which gives signal to the circuit breaker for tripping.

 Comparator

 Slave relay or a thyristor circuit

 Static relay containing a slave relay is a semi static relay.

 Slave relay does not perform the function of comparison or measurement.

It simply closes contacts.

 Relay using thyristor circuit is wholly a static relay.

 Superior in protection compared to electromechanical relays and protect

lines, power station and substations.

 Always static are treated as additional realy, since the cost is very high.
 Instantaneous Over Current Relay – Static
• The input transformer has an air gap in the iron core to give linearity in
current/voltage relationship up to the highest value of current expected
and is provided with tapings on its secondary to obtain different current
setting.

• A limiter made of zener diode is also incorporated in the circuit to limit the
rectified output voltage to safe values even when the input current is very
high under fault condition
Definite Time Over Current Relay – Static
Inverse Time Over Current Relay – Static
Directional Over Current Relay - Static
Negative Sequence Relay

 Phase unbalance relay

 Protection against negative sequence component of unbalanced current

due unbalanced load or phase to phase fault

 Overheating

 Generators and motors

 It has a filter circuit and operate only for negative sequence current.
03-01-2018 48
NEGATIVE SEQUENCE RELAY:

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03-01-2018 50
03-01-2018 51
 UNIT II : PROTECTION OF EQUIPMENT
 Types and detection of faults and their effects
 Alternator protection schemes (stator, rotor, reverse power
protection etc.)internal faults protection), generator-transformer
unit protection scheme
 Transformer protection (External and internal faults protection),
Buccholz relay, generator-transformer unit protection schemes
 Bus bar protection
 Transmission line protection (current/time grading, distance)
 Pilot relaying schemes.

 Power line carrier protection

Faults
 Any abnormal operating state of a power system is known as FAULT.
Faults in general consist of short circuits as well as open circuits. Open
circuit faults are less frequent than short circuit faults, and often they
are transformed in to short circuits by subsequent events.
Short circuit fault- current
 Three phase faults (with or without earth connection)
 Two phase faults (with or without earth connection)
 Single phase to earth faults
Open circuit fault- voltage
 Single Phase open Circuit
 Two phase open circuit
 Three phase open circuit
 Damage to the equipment due to abnormally large and unbalanced
currents and low voltages produced by the short circuits

 Explosions may occur in the equipments which have insulating oil,

particularly during short circuits. This may result in fire and
hazardous conditions to personnel and equipments

 Individual generators with reduced voltage in a power station or a

group of generators operating at low voltage may lead to loss of
synchronism, subsequently resulting in islanding.

 Risk of synchronous motors in large industrial premises falling out

of step and tripping out.
Nature and causes of faults
 Breaking of conductors

 Failure of insulation

 Mechanical failure, accidents, excessive internal and external

stresses.

 The impedance of the path in the fault is low and the fault currents
are comparatively large.

 When a fault occurs on a system, the voltages of the three phases

become unbalanced. As the fault currents are large, the apparatus
may get damaged. The flow of power is diverted towards the fault
which affects the supply to the neighboring zone.
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1/3/2018 G.Santhoshkumar, AP(OG)/EEE 57
 Types of Faults
Symmetrical faults: These are very severe faults and occur
infrequently in the power systems. These are also called as balanced
faults and are of two types namely line to line to line to ground (L-L-L-
G) and line to line to line (L-L-L).
Unsymmetrical faults: These are very common and less severe than
symmetrical faults. There are mainly three types namely line to ground
(L-G), line to line (L-L) and double line to ground (LL-G) faults.
Effects of faults
Over current flow
 When fault occurs it creates a very low impedance path for the current flow.
This results in a very high current being drawn from the supply, causing
tripping of relays, damaging insulation and components of the equipments.

Danger to operating personnel

 Fault occurrence can also cause shocks to individuals. Severity of the shock
depends on the current and voltage at fault location and even may lead to
death.

Loss of equipment
 Heavy current due to short circuit faults result in the components being burnt
completely which leads to improper working of equipment or device.
Sometimes heavy fire causes complete burnout of the equipments.
Disturbs interconnected active circuits

 Faults not only affect the location at which they occur but also

disturbs the active interconnected circuits to the faulted line.

Electrical fires

 Short circuit causes flashovers and sparks due to the ionization of

air between two conducting paths which further leads to fire as we

often observe in news such as building and shopping complex fires.

Protection of Alternators
Stator Protection

– Percentage differential protection

– Protection against stator inter turn faults

– Stator over heating protection

Rotor Protection

– Field ground fault protection

– Loss of excitation protection

– Protection against rotor over heating because of unbalanced

three phase stator current

– Protection against voltage regulator failure

Miscellaneous
– Over voltage protection

– Over speed protection

– Protection against motoring

– Bearing over heating protection

– Protection against auxiliary failure

– Protection against voltage regulator failure

The important faults which may occur on an alternator are

 failure of prime-mover

 failure of field

 overcurrent

 Over speed

 overvoltage

 unbalanced loading

 stator winding faults

Differential Protection of Alternators
Merz-Price circulating current scheme
Modified Differential Protection for Alternators
Stator Inter-turn Protection

- Turn to turn fault protection

- Protection is unnecessary
for inter turn faults because
they develop into earth
faults
- Multi turn generators
Stator over heating protection
 Failure of cooling system, overloading, core faults, failure of core bolt
insulation.
 Method 1: comparing cooling medium temperature (inlet and outlet
temperature)
 Method 2: Temperature sensing elements on the stator slots to sense the
temperature
 Temperature detector unit (thermistor, thermocouples, resistance
temperature indicator)
 Relay
 Wheatstone Bridge
 Small generators – bimetallic strip heated by secondary current of CT placed in
stator circuit. (this will not operate in case of cooling system failure)
 Thermocouples are not embedded in rotor windings (makes complicate in slip
ring connection) and the rotor temperature can be measured by the winding
resistance.
Rotor Protection

 Field ground fault protection

 Loss of excitation protection

 Protection against rotor over heating because of unbalanced

three phase stator current

 Protection against voltage regulator failure

Field ground fault protection
 Single rotor fault  stress increases in field

 Extra voltage induced in field winding

 second ground fault

 part of the field winding bypassed

 Current increased in the remaining portion

 Unbalance in the airgap fluxes

 Vibrations in rotor
Rotor earth fault protection
 DC injection method or AC injection method.

 The dc or ac voltage is impressed between the field circuit and

ground through a sensitive overvoltage relay and current limiting
resistor or capacitor(in case of ac).

 But dc source is generally used as over-current relay in case of dc is

more sensitive than ac.

 A single earth fault in rotor circuit will complete the path and the
fault is sensed by the relay.
Loss of excitation

 Excitation lost  speeds up Induction generator  current

induced over heating

 Round rotor no damper winding over heating

 Salient pole rotor  damper winding carry induced current

When the excitation of generator is lost it operate as a Induction
generator. It derives excitation from the system and supply power
at leading power factor.

Which may cause-

 A fall in voltage & so loss of synchronism & system instability.

 Over heating of rotor due to induction current on it.

A protection having MHO characteristic is used to detect loss of field.

Loss of excitation
 Protection against rotor overheating because of unbalanced three
phase stator currents
 Occurrence of fault in the stator winding
 Unbalanced external faults which is not cleared quickly
 Open circuiting of phase
 Failure of one contact of the circuit breaker
Negative sequence component of unbalanced stator current  double
frequency rotor current  overheating
I22 t = K
I2 = negative sequence component of current
K = 7 turbo generator
K= 60 salient pole hydro generator
Protection of Transformer
Buccholz relay
Generator Transformer Unit Protection Scheme
 Earth-Fault or Leakage Protection
 An earth-fault usually involves a partial breakdown of winding
insulation to earth.

 The resulting leakage current is considerably less than the short-

circuit current.

 The earth-fault may continue for a long time and cause

considerable damage before it ultimately develops into a short-
circuit and removed from the system.

 An earth-fault relay is essentially an overcurrent relay of low

setting and operates as soon as an earth-fault or leak
develops.
core-balance leakage protection
Combined Leakage and Overload Protection
 Circulating current System to Transformers
 Merz-Price circulating -current principle is commonly used for the
protection of power transformers against earth and phase faults.

 In a power transformer, currents in the primary and secondary are to be

compared. As these two currents are usually different, therefore, the use
of identical transformers (of same turn ratio) will give differential current
and operate the relay even under no load conditions.
 Most transformers have means for tap changing which makes this problem

even more difficult. Tap changing will cause differential current to flow

through the relay even under normal operating conditions.

 Another complicating factor in transformer protection is the magnetising

in-rush current. Under normal load conditions, the magnetising current is

very small. However, when a transformer is energised after it has been

taken out of service, the magnetising or in-rush current can be extremely

high for a short period.

Circulating-Current Scheme for Transformer Protection
Bus bar protection
 Bus bars in the generating stations and sub-stations form important link
between the incoming and outgoing circuits.

 If a fault occurs on a busbar, considerable damage and disruption of

supply will occur

 The busbar zone, for the purpose of protection, includes not only the
busbars themselves but also the isolating switches, circuit breakers and
the associated connections.

 In the event of fault on any section of the busbar, all the circuit
equipments connected to that section must be tripped out to give
complete isolation.
The two most commonly used schemes for busbar protection are

(i) Differential protection

(ii) Fault bus protection

Differential protection
Fault Bus protection
Transmission Line Protection
 greater length and exposure

 to atmospheric conditions

 requirements of line protection

(i) In the event of a short-circuit, the circuit breaker closest to

the fault should open, all other circuit breakers remaining in a closed
position.

(ii) In case the nearest breaker to the fault fails to open, back-
up protection should be provided by the adjacent circuit breakers.

(iii) The relay operating time should be just as short as possible

in order to preserve system stability, without unnecessary tripping of
circuits.
The common methods of line protection are :

Time-graded overcurrent protection

Differential protection

Distance protection
Time-Graded Overcurrent Protection
1.Radial feeder
Definite time Relays
Inverse Time Relays
2.Parallel Feeders
3.Ring Main System
Differential Pilot-Wire Protection
Merz-Price voltage balance system
Translay scheme

Merz-Price voltage balance system

Translay scheme
Distance Protection
Pilot Relaying Schemes
 It is used for the protection of transmission lines.

 Electrical quantities at the two end of the transmission line

are compared and hence they required some sort of
interconnecting channel over which the information can be
transmitted from one end to other.

 Such an inter connecting channel is called pilot.

 Wire pilot (30km)

 Carrier current pilot (50kHz – 700kHz), (150km-flat country)

 Micro wave pilot (450MHz – 10,000MHz), (Exceeding in

technical & economical capabilities of Carrier current pilot).
Wire Pilot Protection
 Two wires used to carry information signals from one end of the protected
line to the other.
 It may be buried cable or a pair of overhead auxiliary wires other than the
power line conductor.
 Comparisons is made between CT’s secondary current at the two end of
the transmission line.
 As pilot channels are very expensive a single phase current is derived from
the three phase currents at the each end of the transmission line.
 Wire pilot scheme are less expensive than carrier current scheme
(terminal equipment is simpler and cheaper).
 More reliable because of simplicity. From cost consideration the break
even distance 15-30km, it is recommended for short lines.
 Limited due to attenuation of the signal caused by the distributed
capacitance and series resistance.
 Circulating current principle and balanced voltage principle are used for
most practical schemes.
Circulating Current Scheme
Suitable for pilot loop resistance upto 1000Ω and inter core capacitance upto
2.5μF.
Balanced Voltage (Opposed voltage) Scheme
 Suitable for 7/0.029 pilot loops upto 400Ω.

 Capacitor is used to tune the circuit to the fundamental frequency.

Transley Scheme (AEI)
 Balanced voltage scheme with the addition of directional
feature.

 An induction type disc relay is used.

 Secondary – interconnected in opposition as a balanced

voltage scheme.

 Upper magent – summation winding to receive the output of

CT.

 Suitable for fairly long pilot having loop resistance upto 1000Ω
Transley S Protection

 Latest wire pilot protection employed with solid state technology.

 Very compact system, superior to other wire pilot schemes.
 Phase comparator are employed for measurements.
 Used upto pilot loop resistance 1000Ω.
 When pilot Isolation transformer are employed which is an optimal
feature to introduce an insulating barrier capable of withstanding
15kV, this scheme can operate upto loop resistance 2500Ω with the
help of primary tap range available on the isolation transformer.
Half Wave Comparison Scheme

 Similar to that of circulating current scheme but operating

principle is different.

 An operating coil & No restraining coil.

 Rectifiers are connected so as to allow the current through

the operating coil only during internal fault.

 RA & RB slightly greater than RP.

 CT’s are connected in such way that the polarities of the

voltage applied to the relay.
 A → +ve, fig. (b) RB is short circuited by the rectifier connecting across
it, voltage applied to the coil B is negative.

 Theoretically the voltage applied to OC – A is zero, but practically it

becomes slightly negative because of RA slightly greater than RP.

 B→ +ve, fig. (c) RA is short circuited by the rectifier connecting across

it, voltage applied to the coil A is negative.

 Theoretically the voltage applied to OC – B is zero, but practically it

becomes slightly negative because of RB slightly greater than RP.

 No relay operates for external fault or during normal condition.

Incase of internal fault
 Voltage applied to both relays is positive during the positive half
cycle fig. (d). Both the relays will operate in this condition

 During negative half cycle, the voltage applied at the both ends of
the pilot is negative fig. (e).

 An additional half wave rectifier is placed across each relay coil to

perpetuate current during the dead half cycle.

 Non linear resistors are used to protect CT’s from over voltage
during the dead half cycle when the two CT’s would other wise be
open circuited.
 Carrier current protection

 Used in EHV and UHV lines.

 Carrier channel at high frequency (50kHz-700kHz)

 Power level 10-20W.

Types

Phase comparison carrier current protection

Carrier aided distance protection

Phase comparator carrier current protection
 Line trap is parallel resonant circuit tuned to the carrier

frequency connected in series with the line conductor on both

ends.

 Carrier transmitter and receiver at both ends and connected

to the power line through a coupling capacitor.

1/3/2018 G.Santhoshkumar, AP(O.G)/EEE 123
Optical Fibre Channels
 Fine strands of glass
 Wave guides of light
Bulk oil Circuit Breakers
 large quantity of oil.

 two purposes.

it extinguishes the arc during opening of contacts and secondly, it

insulates the current

conducting parts from one another and from the earthed tank.

 (a) Plain break oil circuit breakers.

 (b) Arc control oil circuit breakers.

Plain Break Oil Circuit Breakers
 process of separating the contacts under the whole of the oil
in the tank
 The arc extinction occurs when a certain critical gap between
the contacts is reached.
 earliest type
Circuit Breaker Ratings
 Under fault conditions, a circuit breaker is required to perform the
following three duties :
(i) It must be capable of opening the faulty circuit and breaking
the fault current.
(ii) It must be capable of being closed on to a fault.
(iii) It must be capable of carrying fault current for a short time
while another circuit breaker (in series) is clearing the fault.
 the circuit breakers have three ratings viz.
(i) breaking capacity
(ii) making capacity and
(iii) short-time capacity.
Breaking capacity

It is current (r.m.s.) that a circuit breaker is capable of breaking

at given recovery voltage and under specified conditions (e.g., power
factor, rate of rise of restriking voltage).

Making Capacity

The peak value of current (including d.c. component) during

the first cycle of current wave after the closure of circuit breaker is
known as making capacity.

Short-time rating

It is the period for which the circuit breaker is able to carry

fault current while remaining closed.
Fuses
A fuse is a short piece of metal, inserted in the circuit, which
melts when excessive current flows through it and thus breaks the
circuit.
Advantages

(i) It is the cheapest form of protection available.

(ii) It requires no maintenance.

(iii) Its operation is inherently completely automatic unlike a circuit breaker

which requires an elaborate equipment for automatic action.

(iv) It can break heavy short-circuit currents without noise or smoke.

(v) The smaller sizes of fuse element impose a current limiting effect under
short-circuit conditions.

(vi) The inverse time-current characteristic of a fuse makes it suitable for

overcurrent protection.

(vii) The minimum time of operation can be made much shorter than with the
circuit breakers.
Disadvantages
(i) Considerable time is lost in rewiring or replacing a fuse after
operation.

(ii) On heavy short-circuits, *discrimination between fuses in series

cannot be obtained unless there is sufficient difference in the sizes of
the fuses concerned.

(iii) The current-time characteristic of a fuse cannot always be co-

related with that of the protected apparatus.
Characteristics of Fuse Element
(i) low melting point e.g., tin, lead.

(ii) high conductivity e.g., silver, copper.

(iii) free from deterioration due to oxidation e.g., silver.

(iv) low cost e.g., lead, tin, copper.

Types of Fuses
(i) Low voltages fuses

(ii) High voltage fuses

Low Voltage Fuses
(i) semi-enclosed rewireable fuse

(ii) High rupturing capacity (H.R.C.) cartridge fuse.

(iii) H.R.C. fuse with tripping device.

High Voltage Fuses

i. Cartridge type.

ii. Liquid type.

iii. Metal clad fuses.

High-Rupturing capacity (H.R.C.) cartridge fuse
H.R.C. fuse with tripping device

Over voltages
 External
 Atmospheric disturbance

 Causes

 Direct lightening strokes

 Electromagnetically induced over voltage

 Changing atmospheric conditions

 Internal
Switching over voltages

Temporary overvoltage
Lightning Over voltages
 Direct Stroke
 Indirect Stroke
Overvoltage due to lightning
Klydonograph and magnetic link
 Measurement of surge voltage on transmission lines by
lightning
 Litchtenberg figures
Magnetic Link
 Surge Currents
 Small bundle of laminations made of cobalt steel
Protection of transmission lines against direct lightning strokes
 Protective methods needed to avoid flashover or breakdown of insulators
due to overvoltage caused by direct lightning strokes.

 General method for protection is use of overhead ground wires.

 Also known as shielding method.

does not allow an arc path between the line conductor and ground.

 Ground wires -----parallell to lines-----same tower----adequately grounde

 Galvanised steel wires

 Strucking of ground wires --- impedance is reduced---reduced voltage drop

 Current is divided
Ground wire requirements
 Adequate clearance between line and ground or tower
 Tower footing resistance always be low.
Terms
Protective Ratio

Protective angle

Protective zone

Height of ground wire

Coupling factor

Reduction of tower footing resistance

Peterson Coil
 Ground fault neutralizer

 Mainly used to prevent acing grounds

 It makes arcing ground faults as self extinguishing and in sustained

ground fault reduces fault current to a very low value

 Capacitance to be neutralized
Insulation Coordination
 Correlation of the insulation of the electrical equipment and lines.
 Main aim is the selection of insulation level for different
components.
Basic Impulse Insulation Level
Numerical Over current relay
Numerical Distance relay
Numerical Differential Relay
Adaptive Protection
 Complex interconnected power system
 Change in topology
 Settings of the relay are dependent on the assumed conditions
 Relay adapt themselves
 Adaptive protection
Functions
 Respective zone protection
 In case of two relays, shorter time delay operates
 Relay automatic switchover
 FPGA(Field Programmable Gate Arrays) Relays

 New and exiting device

 Programmable logic integrated circuit which logical
 Wider application
 Rewired and reprogrammed repeatedly in a microsecond
 Advantages
Multitasking
Better Speed
Use of less peripherals
Easy software handling
Flexibility and Re – Configuration
Increased Reliability
Application of AI Techniques to power system protection
 ANN

 Fuzzy

 Expert Systems

 Genetic Algorithm
Applications of AI to power system protection
 Suitable for many applications in real time control, operations and
operations planning.
Neural Network properties and abilities
1. Nonlinearity
2. Input – Output Mapping
3. Adaptivity
4. Evidential Response
5. Contextual Information
6. Fault tolerance
7. VLSI Implementability
8. Uniformity of Analysis and design
9. Neurobiological Analogy
Application of ANN to Overcurrent Protection

Application of ANN to Transmission line Protection

Neural network based directional relay

ANN module approach for fault detection, Classification and

location

Wavelet fuzzy combined approach for fault classification

Application of ANN to power
transformer Protection
Application of ANN to power
Generator Protection