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”…the world in a skater’s silence before Bach”
Historically Informed Performance
in the Perspective of Contextual Musical Ontology,
Illustrated through a Case Study of
Sonata in E major, BWV 1035, by J. S. Bach
by
Lena Weman Ericsson
Distribution
Department of Music and media/Luleå University of Technology
Box 744
SE‐941 28 Piteå
Sweden
Telephone: +46‐911‐72600
Fax: +46‐911‐72610
Original title:
”…världens skridskotystnad före Bach”
Historiskt informerad uppförandepraxis ur ett kontextuellt musikontologiskt
perspektiv, belyst genom en fallstudie av Sonat i E‐dur, BWV 1035, av J S Bach
© Lena Weman Ericsson, 2008
Cover photo © Natanael Ericsson
Translation from Swedish: Joel Speerstra
ISSN: 1402‐1544
ISRN: LTU‐DT – 08/54 – SE
Printed by Universitetstryckeriet, Luleå University of Technology, March 2010
ii
Dissertation for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Musical Performance at School of
Music, Department of Music and Media, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Luleå
University of Technology. Presented on December 5, 2008.
Faculty examiner: Professor emeritus Jan Ling, University of Gothenburg.
Abstract
Lena Weman Ericsson: ”…the world in a skater’s silence before Bach”. Historically Informed
Performance in the Perspective of Contextual Musical Ontology, Illustrated through a Case Study of
Sonata in E major, BWV 1035, by J. S. Bach. Department of Music and Media, Luleå University of
Technology, 2008.
The aim of the present study is to explore the so‐called historically informed performance movement, which also is
my own musical performance tradition, from a general perspective grounded in musical philosophy. The
discussions concerning this performance tradition have been dominated by different subjects, such as musical
works, authenticity, intention and interpretation. The study focuses on Western art music where the performance
of the music, the sounding realisation, of a notated work is central. Therefore, the performance in connection with
the above‐mentioned subjects is of prime interest. This more overarching theme gave rise to the following
questions: What factors can be considered decisive for whether a performance is a historically informed
performance or not? How can these factors be identified? Does this mean that there are instructions in the music
that I, as a musician, must obey? What does my artistic freedom look like? Where can I find it? The path to
tentative answers to these questions is taken via theoretical discussions and the application of the theory in
method and analyses as well as in interpretation.
The theoretical perspective of the study is based on contextual musical ontology. The scientific theoretical
framework, emanating from this ontology, is formulated in the field of social constructionism.
The performance can, through this perspective, be identified as an indispensable part of the musical work, which
also implies that the notated work itself is not sufficient to identify the work. Further, the emphasis on the
context’s importance for the performance in order to allow the performance to be of the work in question implies
the necessity of awareness of the context of the work. This concept is deepened in the study through the emphasis
on the importance for the performance, in a broad perspective, of the historical as well as the contemporary socio‐
cultural context. For the work itself this means that the identity of the work is unstable, it is constantly changing,
since the different performances of the work that are parts of the work can never be identical. The perspective is
based on social constructivist theories about knowledge. With contextual musical ontology as a point of departure,
a strategy is formulated concerning analysis and investigation of a musical work. This strategy focuses on the
notation, the instrumentation, and historical performance conventions. These three parts interact with one another
and in the study they are formulated as being inseparable from the performance of the work.
The theoretical part of the study is followed by a case study in which a sonata by Johann Sebastian Bach is studied
from the articulated theoretical perspective. The case study contains an investigative part and an interpretative
part. The work’s notation is always in focus in the investigative and descriptive part, with emphasis on the socio‐
cultural context connected to the notation. Through the sounding interpretations, the different performances, the
final chapter results in a summary of the study as a whole.
Keywords: Historically informed performance practice, contextual musical ontology, Johann Sebastian Bach, BWV
1035, authenticity, socio‐cultural context, social constructionism, musical work, intention, interpretation, flute,
sonata, figured bass
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The Stillness of the World before Bach
There must have been a world before
the Trio Sonata in D, a world before the A minor Partita,
but what kind of a world?
A Europe of vast empty spaces, unresounding,
everywhere unawakened instruments
where the Musical Offering, the Well‐Tempered Clavier
never passed across the keys.
Isolated churches
where the soprano line of the Passion
never in helpless love twined round
the gentler movements of the flute,
broad soft landscapes
where nothing breaks the stillness
but old woodcutters' axes,
the healthy barking of strong dogs in winter
and, like a bell, skates biting into fresh ice;
the swallows whirring through summer air,
the shell resounding at the child's ear
and nowhere Bach nowhere Bach
the world in a skater's silence before Bach.
Lars Gustafsson
from the collection Världens tystnad fore Bach
[The Stillness of the World before Bach]. (Stockholm: Norstedt, 1982)
Reproduced with permission from the author
v
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Prologue
Can a dissertation be given a poetic title? Most members of the research
community would probably say no. Why? The two reasons I heard most often when
contemplating this title were that it’s simply not traditional, and that nobody will be
able to find the dissertation in an online database. I rejected these arguments as
not strong enough to keep from following my instinct that a dissertation can have a
poetic title.
Maybe we could think like this: the title of a dissertation can be expected to both
clarify the content of the work and communicate a glimpse of the author – in this
case the former function is filled by the subtitle and the latter by the main title.
There are parts of the artistic process that analysis can never reach, and perhaps
shouldn’t reach either. There are chains of subjective and emotional references that
give artistic expression dimensions that should probably never be set down in print.
There are experiences of artistic expression that no words can reach. Lars
Gustafsson’s poem, “The Stillness of the World before Bach,” clothes a dimension of
musical meaning and content in words in the form of a poem, a form that
challenges our imaginations and our preconceptions. The process of listening to
music is always our own, as is the process of hearing a poem with our inner ears.
Allowing this dissertation to have a title from the last line of a poem is an attempt
to emphasise the personal experience borne by art in all of its forms. If you give
yourself the time, you will generate associations about what this line means
personally for you. Perhaps the experience will be different when it is placed in the
context of the whole poem, and surely the experience of the poem will be different
if the works of Bach that it names are well known to you. But who can say that your
experience is more true than someone else’s?
I am so fascinated and so deeply moved by Bach’s music, emotionally as well as
intellectually. It is a music that never leaves me untouched and that I continuously
return to. It is a music in which I discover new universes, in which I find a feeling of
safety and comfort. Without it I would hear only ice‐skate silence.
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Clarification of terms and abbreviations
BWV = Bach‐Werke‐Verzeichnis is the most common catalogue of J. S. Bach’s works.
The catalogue is built up by genre, not chronologically.
When I use the term “flute” in the following text, I am referring to the flutes that
were current during the eighteenth century. If I refer specifically to the modern
flute or the recorder, I use those terms.
Lowered tones are designated with b. Raised tones are designated with #.
Octaves are given according to the following system:
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Content
ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................................................... III
PROLOGUE .................................................................................................................................... VII
CLARIFICATION OF TERMS AND ABBREVIATIONS .......................................................... VIII
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................ 1
A personal introduction ....................................................................................................... 1
Aim ...................................................................................................................................... 5
CHAPTER 2: THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES ................................................. 7
Ontological foundation ...................................................................................................... 11
The concept of the work ..................................................................................................... 11
Contextual musical ontology .............................................................................................. 14
The concept of authenticity ................................................................................................ 16
Authenticity and contextual musical ontology ............................................................... 17
Authenticity and the Early Music Movement ................................................................. 18
Epistemological foundation ............................................................................................... 23
Summary ........................................................................................................................... 27
CHAPTER 3: A METHODOLOGICAL FOUNDATION FOR
ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION ................................................................ 29
Notation ............................................................................................................................ 32
Background to Dreyfus’s concept of inventio ..................................................................... 32
An approach for an inventio‐based analysis ....................................................................... 35
Harmonic analysis ........................................................................................................... 36
Instrumentation ................................................................................................................ 39
Conventions ...................................................................................................................... 41
Interpretive attitudes ........................................................................................................ 42
Summary ........................................................................................................................... 43
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CHAPTER 4: AN HISTORICAL SOCIOCULTURAL CONTEXT .................. 45
Sonata in E major BWV 1035 – sources and manuscripts ................................................... 46
Dating ................................................................................................................................ 50
Excursus – earlier research ........................................................................................ 52
A discussion of an alternative dating .................................................................................. 55
Summary ............................................................................................................................ 56
Genre and style ................................................................................................................. 57
Excursus – sonata as genre ........................................................................................ 58
The genre of the Sonata in E major .................................................................................... 63
Galant style and J. S. Bach .................................................................................................. 66
Excursus – galant style ............................................................................................... 67
Discussion ........................................................................................................................... 69
Summary ............................................................................................................................ 70
Instrumentation ................................................................................................................ 71
Excursus – the flute in Germany ................................................................................ 71
The flute and Bach .............................................................................................................. 74
Bach’s chamber music with flute ................................................................................... 80
Summary ............................................................................................................................ 86
Concluding reflections ....................................................................................................... 87
CHAPTER 5: ANALYSIS ....................................................................................... 89
Notation ............................................................................................................................ 89
Movement 1 – Adagio ma non tanto ................................................................................. 90
Movement 2 ‐ Allegro ......................................................................................................... 98
Movement 3 – Siciliana .................................................................................................... 104
Movement 4 – Allegro assai ............................................................................................. 109
Summary .......................................................................................................................... 114
Instrumentation .............................................................................................................. 115
The temperament of the keyboard instrument ............................................................... 117
Excursus – possible Bach temperaments ................................................................. 118
A personal temperament ................................................................................................. 121
Summary .......................................................................................................................... 121
Conventions .................................................................................................................... 122
Articulation ....................................................................................................................... 122
Tempo and time signature ............................................................................................... 127
x
Ornamentation ................................................................................................................. 131
Trills .............................................................................................................................. 131
Appoggiaturas .............................................................................................................. 136
Notated free ornamentation ........................................................................................ 144
Summary ........................................................................................................................... 145
Concluding reflections ..................................................................................................... 146
CHAPTER 6: INTERPRETATION .................................................................... 149
The interpretative process ............................................................................................... 149
Performance .................................................................................................................... 152
A number of interpretive results ..................................................................................... 154
Terms – public performance versus recording ................................................................. 154
Descriptions of the different performances ..................................................................... 155
Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 167
EPILOGUE .................................................................................................................................... 169
BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................................................................................................................... 171
Music ............................................................................................................................... 171
Manuscripts ...................................................................................................................... 171
Prints ................................................................................................................................. 171
Modern editions ............................................................................................................... 171
Literature ........................................................................................................................ 172
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Chapter 1: Introduction
A personal introduction
The idea for this dissertation grew out of my own musical practice, deeply anchored
as it is in the Early Music Movement. As a flutist, I have specialised in the music of
the late seventeenth to the mid‐eighteenth centuries, and I have been engaged for
many years in performance practice traditions most often referred to as
“historically informed.” This background has convinced me that music from this
period has the greatest possible chance to be expressive in an environment that
respects the historical context of the work. This conviction has admittedly also been
influenced by countless performance experiences that have left me dissatisfied. The
number of questions starting with “how” had reached a point where I felt I could no
longer manage them purely through performance alone. Nevertheless my basic
conviction remained unchanged that historically informed performance practice
had given me a depth of general knowledge that could be applied in practice to
reach new musical depths as well, which in turn made it meaningful – both
emotionally and intellectually – to continue to make music at all.
My music‐making is characterised by a number of strong choices held together by
the belief that it is important not to just play the right notes but also to respect the
instruments. For me this means taking into account diverse factors like pitch,
temperament, and performance practice conventions that affect everything from
the execution of ornamentation, the meanings that can be assigned to harmonic
progressions, appropriate tempo in relation to the note‐picture, to patterns of
accents – conventional as well as exceptional – and so forth.
Parallel with this focus on historicism, I can never completely separate my own
music making from my place in current culture with all of the different kinds of
music that I have internalized both actively and passively. Neither can I disregard
the influence that a number of special people have had upon my musicianship, from
the rector of the community music school in Sigtuna and Sigtuna’s church organist,
through the different teachers that have influenced me at many summer courses,
the music ensembles in which I have played, and the musical journey that I am still
making with Hans‐Ola Ericsson, my life partner. All of these people with whom I
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have made music are a part of the journey of my musical education and therefore
present in every moment of the creative process that music‐making entails.
Even in this dissertation’s more general discussions, a single piece will be my central
focus, namely Johann Sebastian Bach’s Sonata in E major BWV 1035 for flute and
basso continuo. One motive for choosing this particular sonata is that it is written in
a time (probably 1741) when Johann Sebastian Bach had reduced his compositional
output to either the composing of works that where clearly meant for, or works
that were specifically dedicated to, a particular person, as well as works that would
later be labelled speculative. On the surface, the sonata is a relatively modest work
in four movements with tendencies toward the galant style but with an inner
harmonic and rhythmic complexity. That this sonata balance between several
different traditions makes it even more interesting to study deeply, not least for my
own continuing education. The music itself mirrors, in a small format, the musically
exciting time in which it was produced. It reflects two different, and to some extent
contrasting, musical directions: the galant style dominant at the court in Berlin, and
the learned or antique style (both terms were used in Bach’s time), a harmonic and
contrapuntally more complex music that was cultivated in Leipzig, among other
places, and heavily influenced by forms proscribed by church music.
I find Bach’s E major Sonata a fairly problematical work. Before playing this sonata I
confess I have not always felt enthusiastic. A performance of this sonata has often
felt more like wandering along an uncleared forest path, with blockages
everywhere, where I have stumbled forward without any great pleasure.
When I have worked with the sonata, the technical difficulties have tended to
overshadow the musical content, and at the same time, I have the feeling, or can
we define this as understanding generated by knowledge, that the technical
difficulties of this piece should absolutely not be audible because the sonata’s style
and character is as elegant as it is ingratiating.
To a great extent, my view of the E major Sonata has also been coloured by the
summer course I took in the middle of the 1980s, where all of the Bach sonatas
were the focus of a master class with Barthold Kuijken. As an introduction, before
every sonata he presented a great deal of contextual material about the sonata’s
creation as well as his ideas about interpretation. Since Kuijken was in the process
2
of publishing an edition of the sonatas for Breitkopf, he was engaged with the
source studies as well as the history of their creation. When I look back at the
scores I used then, I see in the notations I made how deeply influential this
encounter was for me and what importance his considerations had for how I later
related to this sonata as an interpreter. In my score I found notes on tempi, on the
length of grace notes and indications of places he singled out as especially
interesting, often from a harmonic perspective. As a curiosity, the instructions
Kuijken gave on the third movement, the Siciliana, can serve as an example. He felt
compelled to point out that the movement should not be double dotted, because
the pastoral character would become lost. Today, almost twenty years later, I do
not think the idea to double dot would occur to anyone at all. This is given as an
illustration of how traditions as well as preconceptions are in a constant state of
change in the relatively young Early Music Movement.
Somewhere near the beginning of my doctoral work I was challenged, in connection
with a seminar, to document my relationship to this sonata. In April of 2007, I wrote
down the following reflections as a kind of reconstruction of this relationship as it
existed at the beginning of January of that same year:
“I have an ambiguous relationship to the sonata – it is technically difficult in the
sense that the key in which it is written demands so many fork fingerings and
thereby some rather unnatural fingering combinations. It is also audibly
problematic because E major, due to all the fork fingerings, is a weak key purely
from the perspective of tone production.
When I have played the sonata I am always filled with questions of why, and/or
how?
Adagio ma non tanto – In principle, an uncomplicated movement but with tricky
fingering combinations that make it a mess. It is singable. Tempo choice? If it goes
too slowly, the ornamentation becomes too important; if it goes too quickly then it
becomes careless. I have, however, most often played it a little too slow. Have
successively gotten a more relaxed attitude to the piece in the sense of really
treating the thirty‐second notes as ornaments and thus play after. The movement
has a tendency to be fragmentary because of all the pauses which has disturbed
me.
3
Some special moments: the deceptive cadence and the following triplets in bar 6,
the cadence in bar 8 as resting point, repeated off‐beat accents like in bars 2, 9, 10
etc, in bar 13 the G# minor passage to F# minor in bar 14 to C# minor in bar 15, that
is to say challenging key excursions. Delicious, but it can be difficult from an
intonation perspective.
Allegro – Have always understood it to be simple and dancelike in structure, but I
have also been fascinated by all the slur marks. It is unusual in a quick movement
with such long slurs as especially found in the second half. Don’t like the bass line in
bars 73‐76. Have successively moved to a more and more quick tempo.
Siciliana – HARD! I have had difficulty finding a tempo that creates flow while still
capturing the melancholy of the movement. C# minor is a difficult key because it
wants to drift even farther away harmonically. Difficult to make the legato work
with complex fork fingerings. It happens easily that the tempo becomes too slow.
Does the movement win anything by it? How should the grace notes be handled?
How much slurring should be found, or inserted, in the bass line? How can one find
a good balance with the bass line because the movement is so canonical in its
structure? I have successively used more and more legato to create both flow and
accentuations.
Allegro assai – Strange movement! Why does it begin the way it does? Why does
Bach present a figure in the flute with the bass line as only an accompaniment to
then let the bass line itself do something else and then start again? The long upbeat
gives the movement an imbalance and then come all of the syncopations in the bass
line in the second half. This creates a continuous sense of back beat. Again,
technically difficult and many slurs. Which tempo should one choose in order not to
lose all the details which happens easily in a tempo that is too fast.”
At a later date (August 2007), when I had started work with the analysis of the first
movement, I noted the following:
Adagio ma non tanto – I find myself humming this movement so often. It has a
really undulating lure about it. I would like to bring this out, it is elegant and it
would mean that all of the technical problems would just have to be solved to get it
to flow! When I read the movement I saw a clear structure with sheer sequences
and heavy fourth beats – how to make them clear?
4
Allegro – Eppstein talks about it as a Bourrée or Passepied – haven’t thought so
before, works quite well, but should this lead to a prouder character? More and
more important to feel it in one beat per bar. At the same time, it can’t go too fast
because then the accents I create through the different slurs easily disappear.
Siciliana – Nothing special.
Allegro assai – Important with pauses and bass line and articulation that uses slurs
and dots. Tested the other day playing it much slower than before − was quite
exciting.”
Aim
The overarching aim of the dissertation is to understand and express my conscious
points of view and uncover my unconscious ones using scholarly study, and
document how they all affect an interpretation process that leads to a
performance.
As I have already mentioned in the personal introduction, I am in my active music
making, a part of the performance tradition that is most often named with the
accepted term “Historically Informed Performance” (or Practice) or “early music
movement.” The most obvious mode of expression for this tradition, or movement,
is the goal of using historically relevant instruments and applying both historical
playing techniques as well as historical performance practice in music making. In
this way one aims at an interpretation that makes the music come alive from a
tradition that isn’t part of our own time.
The different terms and areas of inquiry that are contained within this performance
tradition include performance in relation to
• the musical work concept – what defines a musical work?
• authenticity – in relation to what?
• intention – whose intention and what does it intend?
• interpretation
5
By problematising these concepts in the text that follows, I have the goal of seeking
answers to the following general questions, and thereby also reaching the aim of
the study.
Which factors can be seen as conclusive for a performance in order to be
considered a historically informed one? How can these factors be identified? Does
this mean that there are instructions in the music that I as a musician must follow?
What does my artistic freedom look like? Where do I find it?
To study these questions without relating them to a sounding performance would
be to miss an important chance at integrating the theoretical and the practical,
which is why I will follow up the theoretical discussion with a case study. In this
study, I exemplify a possible way, through theory and analysis, to reach a sounding
performance, an interpretation where the choices that are made are given a
scholarly basis. Any such interpretation has naturally no ambitions to make a “final”
truth because that, from my experience, is a musical impossibility.
6
Chapter 2: Theoretical perspectives
I have a score in front of me. The score contains information about how I am
expected to relate to the work when I perform it. But is this information enough?
The answer to this question is dependent to a great extent on my performance
intentions, but even setting that aside, I can be sure that if the score represents a
flute sonata from the first half of the eighteenth century, a great deal of
information that is important for the performance is probably missing, information
that I probably would find in a score from the late nineteenth century.
What can I expect to find in the score that will help me prepare to play this sonata?
There are symbols that indicate the time signature, the pitches, the length of the
notes, as well as sharps and flats that define the key. There is probably an indication
of which instrument should be used, at least for the melodic voice. Perhaps the bass
line is figured to make it easier for the keyboard player to decide what chords
should be added to the bass line. There are also some written‐out articulations, like
slurs, dots and dynamic markings. Sometimes there are notations for trills and other
ornaments. Another issue can be made of the score itself; if the score is a facsimile
it is often originally handwritten, leading to different interpretations arising perhaps
from unclear tendencies in the handwriting style. But even a facsimile of an original
print can leave some details unclear.
What is absent from the score? There are probably no exact instructions about the
correct pitch, the instrumentation for the bass line, types of articulation in general,
as well as how each individual note should be articulated, how it should be attacked
and what dynamic it should have. There is probably no realisation of the bass line’s
figures. Often the bass line isn’t even figured, which means that I am uncertain
about what chords the composer intended. I also don’t know the exact type of flute
I should use, or which accompanying instrument was intended. Concerning the
keyboard instrument, I also can’t tell the temperament that the composer would
have considered appropriate for the work, even though it has a direct impact on
both the intonation and the affect of the performance.
These are just a few examples of the questions and decisions a musician is
confronted with.
7
A notated work’s path from creation to performance both historically and in our
time can be described with the help of Figure 1 below. The figure is intended to give
a picture of how I see the interpretive process, which also reflects my
understanding of historically informed performance practice:
Figure 1
8
This interpretation process is always present within, and influenced by, the socio‐
cultural context in which I participate. The arrows represent influence, and this
influence also represents a chain of events based on a scenario where it is my aim
as a musician to interpret the work in a way that actively relates to its historical
socio‐cultural context, including the performance practice conventions that
historically complimented an incomplete notation picture.
The figure also expresses a possible description of an interpretation process in the
present, where the musician has the intention of presenting a work from the past
with the ambition of following instructions we understand to be a part of the work.
If we look more closely at Figure 1, we see two types of geometrical shapes, an
ellipse and a rectangle. The ellipses represent the parts of the interpretive process
that a musician is able to influence and actively change. The rectangles represent
the parts of the process that wield a great deal of influence but cannot be affected
by the performer in the same way. With these rectangles, I mean to suggest areas
about which we can only speculate, even if we have some knowledge about the
content within them. How this knowledge is communicated and how we
understand and interpret it is however dependent on our own socio‐cultural
context and the meanings that different concepts have accrued in our time, which
can differ from their historical meanings.
“Contemporary socio‐cultural context” is not limited, because as I see it, this would
be impossible. All of our activities in these ellipses are constantly dependent upon
and acting upon our socio‐cultural context.
The rectangle “Historical socio‐cultural context” is bordered by a dotted line to
mark that the socio‐cultural context of the past is no longer available to us, but
precisely as in our present, all activities were included and were influenced by the
past socio‐cultural context.
The music that is the result of a composer’s compositional activity is also the result
of how a composer is affected by and exists within his or her socio‐cultural context.
Assuming that the composer also intended his or her music to be performed, each
composer is dependent on the musician’s ability to understand the notation, and,
when necessary, to fill in an incomplete notation with content from the
contemporary historical socio‐cultural perspective.
9
When we move the notation to our time, the socio‐cultural context is different, but
contemporary musicians can choose interpretations that take into account past
performance practice conventions to the greatest extent possible. We can acquire
skills so that we can understand the performance practice conventions around the
notated score, even though our musicianship is also dependent upon our own
socio‐cultural context. Therefore, a performance in our time cannot be a kind of
repetition or copy of how music sounded then. The performance will be a
reconstruction, or perhaps more accurately a contemporary construction, that
takes its sustenance from the past as much as from the present.
As I have already noted, and as the figure above expresses, it is not possible for me
as a musician to directly reach the past socio‐cultural context – or the exact
intentions of the composer. We can assume that the composer was motivated by
certain intentions to compose a work, and that the composer also had expectations
that the work would be performed in certain ways. Can I reconstruct any of the
composer’s intentions and expectations? The answer must reasonably be no, but on
a hypothetical level we can develop theories about the composer’s intentions.
This relationship is illustrated partly by the dashed line that divides the figure, and
also by the single arrow from past conventions to present knowledge. We have
good reason to presume that the composer’s interpretational intentions can be
found among the general conventions of the period’s performance practice. When
we choose to perform music from the eighteenth century and earlier, we have no
unified tradition to fall back on, as opposed to the relatively unified interpretive
practice that developed as a consequence of the rise of the conservatory tradition,
beginning with Paris just before 1800. This lack of a unified tradition before 1800
generates a number of interpretive questions. How, for instance, do I make
decisions as a musician when I know I do not have enough information? What gaps
do I choose to fill with content? How do I choose in each case what the content
should be?
From my interpretive perspective as a musician, as well as my own intuition and
experience, I do not want to create a performance that is merely a sounding
tapestry of the score’s prescribed pitches and rhythms. I am led to ask questions
about how I can ground my intuition and experience – that together constitute my
preconceptions – in theory. There are several different scholarly disciplines I can
10
turn to, but in the present study, I will choose to anchor my interpretation in music
philosophy and musicology.
Ontological foundation
Within the frame of the interpretative process there are a number of concepts.
Among the most important concepts in Figure 1, we find intention (the composer’s
as much as the musician’s), context, performance practice conventions,
performance, and notation.
The study’s theoretical perspective is based on contextual musical ontology, where
one of the most important suppositions is that the performance is a part of the
work. This supposition is a prerequisite for the study’s continued discussion of the
relationship between notation and performance in general, and the demands that
can be placed on the performance in particular. This relation also frames the other
concepts from Figure 1, which is why it can seem a contradiction that the concept
of the work is not represented; nevertheless the musical work is the central focus of
musical ontology generally, which is why I will begin by touching more closely upon
the concept of the work.1
When we speak about the “musical work,” we imagine surely that it is a piece of
music, composed by a particular composer, that it is written down on paper and
that it is intended to be performed. This description is close to the basic consensus
that was reached within the frame of the symposium about the concept of the work
1
In this study and in my argument, I focus exclusively on Western art music. This also means that I will
not take up genres like jazz, rock, or music that is handed over in different forms.
11
in Liverpool in 2000: “...a musical work, to merit the description, has to be discrete,
reproducible and attributable...”2
As I interpret this definition of the work concept, it is based on the possibility of
some form of repeatability, regardless of when the work was composed. This
implies that the work concept is coupled to the existence of a score, or some kind of
notation. To further develop this definition we can ask the question; what is it that
brings the author to compose the work in a notated form? One way to answer this
question is by touching upon the composer’s historical context in the way Lydia
Goehr does.3
Goehr’s hypothesis can be summarised as follows: historical context drives the
development of compositions before 1800, while the work concept itself is
paramount after 1800. She further suggests that when the historical context is in
the forefront, the composition cannot be called a work because the work concept,
according to her, is connected to the concept that the work is autonomous. This
independence constitutes, among other things, that the work does not have a clear
function within a rite or another social context, but rather that the work is a
separate entity and should constitute an aesthetic experience in itself for the
listener. According to Goehr, this situation is not prevalent in the period up to and
including the eighteenth century, because compositions were dependent on their
historical context for their specific creation.4 A composer’s primary motive during
this period was the premise that the music was needed in some concrete situation.
The great dividing line comes right at 1800. Only thereafter does Goehr suggest that
we can speak of the work, because the focus gradually moves from the function of
the work to a work in itself where both the work and its performance were
autonomous.5 In a parallel development, the composer’s social status also changed.
The composer was viewed first and foremost not as a part of an institution of some
2
Michael Talbot, ed., The Musical Work. Reality or Invention? Liverpool Music Symposium I (Liverpool:
Liverpool University Press, 2000), 3.
3
Lydia Goehr, The Imaginary Museum of Musical Works: An Essay in the Philosophy of Music, 2nd
edition, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007).
4
Goehr, The Imaginary Museum, chapter 7.
5
Goehr, The Imaginary Museum, 203.
12
kind, but rather became more and more autonomous from the structures of both
church and aristocracy.6
If, for the moment, we disregard any performances of the work, this is a distinction
that deeply affects how knowledge of music history can be communicated. Is music
history constructed around individual works and their analyses, or will it be written
based on music’s social function?7 In the meantime, Goehr’s hypothesis has so
fundamentally influenced music philosophy concerning the definition of the musical
work from an ontological perspective, that in principle we now avoid using the term
“musical work” for music created before 1800. The focus of this study lies in pieces
from the eighteenth century, so I need to broaden my work concept in order to
encompass more than Goehr intended. How should this be accomplished?
We established in the introduction of this section that a generally held criterion for
a piece of music to be called a musical work is its ability to be reproduced, which
implies the existence of a score. This implies, in turn, that the score has a regulating
function in relation to the performance. Stephen Davies argues for a work concept
that is based on this approach. It is thus a work concept that is based on a
sufficiently high degree of unchangeability in the notation so that the uniqueness,
the specificity, of the work will not be distorted or even risk being lost. On the other
hand, the score can be more or less precise in its instructions – the less precise it is,
the more is left to the decision of the performing musician. This is also a work
concept that includes performance and is therefore central for contextual musical
ontology.8
6
Goehr, The Imaginary Museum, 206.
7
For further discussion of this topic, see, among others, Leo Treitler, “The Historiography of Music:
Issues of Past and Present,” in Rethinking Music, ed. Nicholas Cook and Mark Everest (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2001), 356‐377, and Tobias Pettersson, De bildade männens Beethoven.
Musikhistorisk kunskap och social formering i Sverige mellan 1850 och 1940 [The Educated Man’s
Beethoven: Music‐historical Knowledge and Social Formation in Sweden Between 1850 and 1940] (PhD
diss., University of Gothenburg, 2004), 26‐31.
8
Stephen Davies, “Ontologies of Musical Works,” in Themes in the Philosophy of Music, (Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 2003), 30‐46.
13
Contextual musical ontology
Contextual musical ontology is a branch of the philosophical field of musical
ontology. Musical ontology can be briefly defined as the study of different existing
musical elements that constitute a work, and the relationships that hold them
together.9 The definition of musical ontology can also be formulated as the study of
“what kind of thing is a musical sound or a musical work?”10 Even more precisely it
can be expressed as “what exactly is a work of music. When is a work A the same as
work B…? … what is the relation between a work and a (true) performance of it?”11
A central question for musical ontology is, in other words, the relationship of the
performance to the work.12 As we could establish in the section on the concept of
the musical work, contextual musical ontology views the work as made up of equal
parts notation and performance.13 In addition to this, contextual musical ontology
put demands on the performance itself. A fundamental idea within contextual
musical ontology is, as the name implies, that the musical work is a cultural
phenomenon that is dependent on its historical socio‐cultural context, and though
the work presupposes its performance, it must take into account the context and in
particular the part of the socio‐cultural context that consists of historical
performance practice conventions.14
This can also be expressed by looking at how the specific work arises in dialog
between the score/notation and the performance.15 But it also suggests that if the
9
Andrew Kania, “The Philosophy of Music,” in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/music (accessed January 12, 2008).
10
Stephen Davies, “Ontology,” in Grove Music Online. http://www.grovemusic.com (accessed January
5, 2008).
11
Roger Scruton, The Aesthetics of Music, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), 97. Parentheses and
italics are Scruton’s.
12
For a comprehensive and clear summary of the different musical ontological points of view, I
recommend Andrew Kania, “New Waves in Musical Ontology,” in New Waves in Aesthetics, ed.
Kathleen Stock and Katherine Thomson‐Jones (Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008), 20‐40.
13
Stephen Davies, Musical Works & Performances: A Philosophical Exploration (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2001), and Stephen Davies, “Ontologies of Musical Works,” in Themes in the
Philosophy of Music, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), 30‐46, as well as Andrew Kania, Pieces of
Music: The Ontology of Classical, Rock, and Jazz Music (PhD diss., University of Maryland, 2005),
Chapters 1‐2.
14
Davies, Musical Works, Chapter 3, and Kania, “Philosophy of Music,” parts 2.1‐2.2.
15
Davies, Philosophy of Music, 31, and Scruton, Aesthetics , 109.
14
work’s distinctive character, its identity, is dependent on the performance, then the
work’s identity is changeable because the performance is changeable since every
person in every moment is dependent on their own socio‐cultural context for their
interpretation.16
I suggested above (see page 7) that notation never can communicate all the
instructions that a musician needs for a performance. To some extent, a score is
always indeterminate in relation to the performance. Davies describes this presence
or absence of instructions in the notation of a work as either ontologically thick or
thin. The more ontologically thin a work is, the more there is left to the interpreter
to express primarily by relying upon historical performance practice conventions.
Davies has formulated the role of the interpreter thus:
Works for performance, though, are always thinner than the performances that
faithfully instance them… What is added by the performer constitutes her
interpretation of the work. That interpretation closes the gap between what is
instructed and the repleteness of sounded music.17
As an interpreter of a work, I contribute important aspects to the sounding
performance of the music. In the following discussion, as an interpreter of a musical
work, I must ask which instructions – notated or inferred – can be constituted as
necessary for a performance of the work to have taken place. Which instructions
can I interpret as suggestions, where I can choose to take them into consideration
or not? Which parts are left entirely to me as an interpreter to shape myself?
When performing music from the eighteenth century, it is helpful to reflect upon
what these socio‐culturally relevant factors could have been. It is here that we can
return to the Early Music Movement once again and tie the concepts of authenticity
and intention to contextual musical ontology. I return to these concepts in the
following section, see pages 16‐18. However, I would first like to conclude this
section with a discussion around the question of the identity of a work.
16
That there can be performances that are so similar that they are experienced as identical is certainly
true, especially in a didactic context, but the question is then whether we can talk about the
interpretation of the work. It’s more a question of the reproduction of the work, in the same way that
we play a recording.
17
Davies, Philosophy of Music, 39.
15
We have already seen that the work’s identity is not permanent because it is
dependent on a changeable performance. Is there something that constitutes the
work in some permanent way, something that can be thought to constitute the core
of the work’s essential character?
In the interpretive process that I sketched in Figure 1, the notation is the only
permanent element. The notation encompasses information and instructions that
are necessary for the performance of the work. Notation waits, like a text, to be
interpreted. For a musical work, interpretation implies putting the text into practice
in a sounding form. However, notation in itself is not so simple to adhere to.
A single piece of music can exist in a great number of versions, from the composer’s
hand to a computer printout. All of these versions are constructions dependent on
their socio‐cultural context. What about the information that the notation
expresses? Again, it is subject to construction and interpretation when it is written
down, copied or reworked for any reason: an edition, for example. From this
argument is it not possible to talk about a core. A notation is more or less
approximate, which is why, to come closer to the composer’s notated intention, we
must apparently try to find the earliest possible notation for the work. This could be
a manuscript from the composer, or a print where the composer had some
influence. In this way, we can have access to a score that we can have reasons to
assume reflects the composer’s notation and instructions for performance. It is also
possible that the score that we have chosen to trust is a construction representing
later layers of influence, but we actively and consciously choose to accept it as
believable anyway. We are in precisely this situation with Bach’s Sonata in E major.
We can talk about the parameters that define the work, that consist of instructions
for the performance notated by a specific composer, but I still believe that the
notation in this score is of a non‐essential nature.
16
and the Early Music Movement” clearly has a character of historical background
description.
What does the concept of authenticity mean, when it is used in relation to
contextual musical ontology? For contextual musical ontology, the concept of
authenticity is highly relevant, because authenticity from a musical ontological
perspective is inseparable from the performance of a work. When a performance is
a part of the work, where the performance is expected to take into consideration
the instructions that the notation expresses, and those instructions in turn are
dependent on socio‐cultural conventions to be understood, authenticity is “… an
ontological requirement, not an interpretative option.”20 In this context, the
meaning assigned to the concept of authenticity is a compliance to the notated
score, the dimension of the composer’s intention that we can judge as either
notated or implied through past performance practice conventions. As the concept
of authenticity is used within contextual musical ontology, it does not concern the
part of the interpretation that is a mirror of the performing musician’s expression,
and the concept is not limited to historical music either. It also applies to
contemporary music. At the same time, it needs to be pointed out that, at least
concerning works where the author is no longer living, a completely authentic
18
The extra‐musical in this context could be exemplified by dressing in clothes typical of the period or
staging the performance in a historical setting.
19
Peter Kivy, “On the Historically Informed Performance,” in Music, Language, and Cognition (Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 2007), 91‐110.
20
Davies, Musical Works, 207. The italics are Davies’ own.
17
representation of the composer’s intentions is a utopia. It can be striven for but
never reached.
Davies emphasises that the concept of authenticity is actually value neutral,
because the type of authenticity that he speaks about is faithfulness to the part of
the work that is possible to comment upon from a contextual musical ontological
perspective. Here we also find the performance practice conventions that guide our
understanding of the composer’s instructions.21 However, Davies suggests that from
this perspective the social norms that guided the performance in the past are
irrelevant for an authentic performance in the present. In other words, he believes
that certain parts of the historical socio‐cultural context have no relevance for a
performance in the present.
To assert that the historical socio‐cultural context lacks relevance for the
performance to any degree is, from my perspective, to make things too easy for
ourselves. I am not suggesting that it is worthy or meaningful to fixate on the
outward historical trappings, but at the same time, I think it is impossible to ignore,
for example, that a sacred cantata of J. S. Bach once was a part of a Lutheran church
service, where the different parts had their prescribed places within a liturgical
framework. Even if we do not have contact with that time period’s socio‐cultural
context, it is relevant to be aware of its existence and to have as much knowledge
as possible about it, in order to deepen our understanding of the work.
It is possible, perhaps even likely, that this knowledge will have no direct bearing on
the performance, but it is fully possible that it might – and thereby cannot be
dismissed out of hand. Therefore, I seriously believe that it is meaningful to the
highest degree for my interpretive process that I try to create a picture of the
historical socio‐cultural context using the notated work as a point of departure.
18
instructions in the notation one studied theoretical texts from the sixteenth to the
eighteenth centuries. If one could follow the composer’s intentions, one could also
express oneself in terms of interpretive “truths.” By accepting these truths, one
achieved an authentic performance where one was faithful to the work.22 How did
this point of view develop?
Primarily the clues can be found in the strong development of the Early Music
Movement in Germany after World War I. Even before the war, interest in
reawakening the old music had already begun in Europe, but within the Early Music
Movement this interest would not be sparked by editions and arrangements as it
had been in the nineteenth century, but rather by returning to the sources and the
notated works and not involving the romantic viewpoint. This new philosophical
direction was also closely related to the aesthetic stream within German music
during the Weimar Republic that is characterised by the “new objectivity” where
subjective expressionism was rejected in the process of creating an objective
analysis.
The fact that the Early Music Movement as a popular movement developed during
the interwar period is not unimportant. This movement stood on the sidelines of
traditional music life and made claims that in early music one could find “pureness”
and “trueness,” ideals that coincided with the ideals of the German youth
movement.23
The early music suited this movement perfectly:
21
Davies, Musical Works, 213.
22
It is interesting that in the study of older theoretical writings, statements about emotions have been
consistently ignored, for example, that music must be able to express an emotional message to the
listener. It is equally interesting that this knowledge has still not achieved its breakthrough.
23
Nikolaus Harnoncourt, Musik als Klangrede: Wege zu einem neuen Musikverständnis (Kassel:
Bärenreiter, 1982), 92.
24
“Langsam gesungen oder gespielt, ergaben sich nur geringe technische Schwierigkeiten, durch das
Fehlen von Tempo‐ oder Dynamikbezeichnungen bot sich diese Musik geradezu an für »objektives«
Musizieren.“ Harnoncourt, Musik, 92.
19
The music that Harnoncourt refers to in this quotation is more likely Renaissance
ensemble music than the more complex music of the Baroque, and he also infers
that those that began to work with this music were not professional musicians but
amateurs. The movement practiced an “…ideologically grounded protest music,
discovered and performed by a circle of well‐read and enthusiastic dilettantes.”25
But perhaps the key word in the quotation is still “objective” (see above). This can
be said to include a musical practice whose primary relationship to historical
accuracy is faithfulness to the score, thereby allowing the music to speak for itself.
Musicians put themselves, as it were, in the service of the composer and abdicated
their own right to engage emotionally and interpretively.
Some years after the end of the Second World War, Theodor W. Adorno published
an essay that has come to be a powerful and meaningful critique of the Early Music
Movement as it expressed itself in that time.26 Adorno was deeply engaged in
questions surrounding the performance and interpretation of music, borne witness
to not least by his plans to write a substantial work on the theory behind musical
reproduction, or interpretation.27 Therefore, it was natural that Adorno, as one of
the twentieth century’s most important musical philosophers and social critics,
expressed himself about the movement that he emphasised was a monster with
fascist and sectarian tendencies, blindly led by authorities. This movement turned
Bach, “a composer for organ festivals in well‐preserved Baroque towns, into
ideology.”28 Ten years later Adorno makes an even more brutal attack on the Early
25
“…Ideologisch fundierte Gegenmusik, die von erlesenen Zirkeln begeisterter Dilettanten entdeckt
und gepflegt wurde.” Harnoncourt, Musik, 91.
26
Theodor W. Adorno, “Bach Defended Against his Devotees,” in Prisms (Cambridge Mass: MIT Press,
1981), 133‐146. The German original is from 1951. The English translation, authorised by Adorno, was
published first in 1967.
27
Theodor W. Adorno, Towards a Theory of Musical Reproduction, ed. Henri Lonitz (Cambridge: Polity
Press, 2006). The volume includes notes that Adorno made during most of his life and that should
provide a basis for the comprehensive work that never reached its conclusion. The notes do, however,
make fascinating reading about his thoughts concerning musical interpretation.
28
Adorno, “Bach Defended,” 136.
20
Music Movement. In the essay “Different Types of Musical Behavior”29 he
categorises members of the Early Music Movement as “resentment listeners.”30
[The resentment listener] scorns the official music life as watered‐down and
illusory [and] flees back to the periods that he imagines is protected from the
prevailing commodity and reification … Fidelity to the work … becomes an end in
itself.31
Does Adorno’s ruthless critique of the Early Music Movement also mean to include
the practicing musicians? On this question, one can answer yes without doubt,
because he dryly states in a subordinate clause “they also make music.”32 Adorno
continues:
Subjectivity and expressivity is the same thing as promiscuity for the resentment
listener … The compromise is meaningless, sterile music, cleaned of all mimetic
content.33
More blatantly obvious than in the previously‐mentioned article, Adorno connects
the Early Music Movement with fascist‐leaning groups and from this perspective,
his strong critique is understandable. He saw a clear connection to the German
youth movement, which during the 1930s paved the way for the Nazis’ totalitarian
Germany.
Parallel to this movement, which was dominated by amateurs driven by an ideal of
objectivity, there were a growing number of professional musicians that made
music through knowledge of both the historical context as well as performance
practice conventions, but at the same time with a personal and emotional
engagement. For these musicians, in the light of Adorno’s critique among other
things, the concept of authenticity became negatively charged and therefore
impossible to use.
29
Theodor W Adorno, Inledning till musiksociologin. 12 teoretiska föreläsningar [Introduction to Music
Sociology: 12 Theoretical Lectures] (Lund: Cavefors, 1976), 11‐29. The first German edition was
published in 1962.
30
Adorno, Music Sociology, 19.
31
Adorno, Music Sociology, 19‐20.
32
Adorno, Music Sociology, 20.
33
Adorno, Music Sociology, 20‐21.
21
Exactly when this shift happened is rather dependent on whether one looks at the
Anglo‐Saxon scene or the rest of Europe. Especially in the German‐speaking
countries, a number of texts were written and debates were arranged at the end of
the 1950s and during the 1960s; in Great Britain and the United States these
discussions didn’t begin until the 1980s.34 Perhaps the most influential critic of the
concept of authenticity within the English‐speaking world is Richard Taruskin. In an
often‐cited essay, he condemns the possibility of authentic music making as well as
the likelihood of being able to find the composer’s intentions for the performance
of the work.35 Taruskin’s point of view has been reviewed and contradicted to a
certain degree by John Butt, who, while avoiding the authenticity discussion, still
believes that the composer’s intentions are mirrored to a certain extent in the
notation and thereby accessible to us.36
When the term authenticity began to accrue negative meaning, the Early Music
Movement tried to leave it behind and began to talk instead about historically
informed performance practice, or historically informed performance.
Why can music philosophy and musical ontology use the concept of authenticity but
not the practice‐based Early Music Movement? Perhaps the primary difference is
that authenticity within the Early Music Movement became a validation of the value
of the performance itself with a substantial escalation during the end of the 1970s
and the beginning of the 1980s, something that above all can be attributed to the
promotion of the concept by the growing recording industry. If one could write on
the record jacket that a recording was authentic, which often meant no more than
that the musicians played on historically relevant instruments, it became a
sometimes‐misleading stamp of quality for the consumer.
One alternative to authenticity being tied to a realisation of the composer’s
intentions is to talk about personal authenticity in the sense that musicians who are
34
Dorottya Fabian, “The Meaning of Authenticity and the Early Music Movement: A Historical Review,”
International Review of the Aesthetics and Sociology of Music, vol. 32.2 (2001):154.
35
Richard Taruskin, “The Pastness of the Present and the Presence of the Past” in Text and Act: Essays
on Musical Performance (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), 90‐151.
36
John Butt, Playing with History: The Historical Approach to Musical Performance (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2002), 94.
22
being authentic to themselves are also making music authentically.37 It is an elegant
way to avoid the difficult dead‐end that comes as much from the authenticity that
strives for objectivity as from the authenticity of replicating the composer’s
intentions. But even this is too simplified. It might be more fruitful to find a position
somewhere between these poles, where authenticity in the sense of the greatest
possible faithfulness to the work is something to strive for – but hardly a goal that
the musician can ultimately realise.
Epistemological foundation
The epistemological viewpoint that can be deduced from the argument above on
contextual musical ontology is based on the thought tradition which came to be
called social constructionism and that above all is distinguished by a view of the
terms, “reality,” “truth,” and “knowledge” as constructions based on the socio‐
cultural context within which they are articulated.
Kenneth J. Gergen has formulated four basic suppositions that are differentiated by
a social constructionist thought tradition.38 These were later condensed by Vivien
Burr to the following four basic premises:39
‐ A critical stance toward taken‐for‐granted knowledge
‐ A historical and cultural specificity
‐ Knowledge sustained by social processes
‐ Knowledge and social action go together
Based on these premises Burr pointed out the following qualities that marked a
social constructionist viewpoint: a) an anti‐essentialist attitude in relation to things
or people, b) a questioning of realism, c) language as a prerequisite for thought, d)
37
This is a definition of authenticity that has been given primarily by Peter Kivy in Authenticities:
Philosophical Reflections on Musical Performance (Ithaca N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1995), Chapter
5, but also in Taruskin, Text and Act, Chapter 2.
38
Kenneth J. Gergen, “The Social Constructionist Movement in Modern Psychology,” American
Psychologist, vol. 40.3 (1985): 266‐275.
39
Vivien Burr, Social Constructionism, (London: Routledge, 2003), 2‐5.
23
language as a social act, e) a focus on interaction and social conventions, f) a focus
on social processes instead of on structures.40
The starting point for both Gergen and Burr, when they formulate their view of
social constructionism, is psychology as a scientific discipline; they set social
constructionism against more traditional psychological practices that depart from a
given and essential core of human personality.41 Fundamental for the social
constructionist tradition is, however, postmodernism’s and poststructuralism’s
expressed distrust of rational science and reason, an approach that among others
were represented by philosophers like Derrida, Lyotard, and Foucault, who also
wanted to emphasise a belief in the significance of the local context instead of a
belief in the universal ideal.42 As social constructionism has developed, the tradition
has had a strong influence on discussions about knowledge, which is why it comes
to be expressed within other social sciences and within the humanities.43
On the basis of this approach it is contemplated that what we experience as true
and real is constructed within the socio‐cultural context where it has arisen, where
cooperation and communication between people builds community and shared
understanding and perception. This also involves that what we experience as true
and real today, probably was not experienced as true and real during the
eighteenth century. There exists, and existed, an historical and cultural specificity.
40
Burr, Social Constructionism, 5‐9.
41
Burr, Social Constructionism, 5‐6.
42
Søren Barlebo Wenneberg, Socialkonstruktivism – positioner, problem och perspektiv [Social
Constructivism – Positions, Problems and Perspectives] (Malmö: Liber, 2000), 52.
43
Georg G. Hubry, “Sociological, Postmodern, and New Realism Perspectives in Social Constructionism:
Implications for Literary Research,” Reading Research Quarterly, vol. 36.1 (2001): 48‐62.
24
Is all knowledge continuously changing and unstable to the extent that knowledge
becomes relative? A common critique against social constructionism is that it is
experienced as relativistic, but because social constructionist thought traditions
emphasise the communal and shared understanding of knowledge and perception,
norms and value judgements are created, as well as borders for what is possible to
believe, think and say in a certain socio‐cultural context. Through these norms,
value judgements, and borders, there is an inbuilt resistance to changing the
meanings of these terms, and so we can postulate that total relativism is not
possible.44
Within this study the theoretical field of social constructionism becomes expressed
in, or serves as a basis for, every part of the process that leads to the performance
of a specific musical work through analysis and interpretation. The work is as
dependent upon the notation with its accompanying performance practice
conventions as it is on the performance. It is a part of the socio‐cultural context
where it is created, but also, in every time, a part of the context in which it is
performed. We have already established that the work is dependent on its
performance in order to have its identity. On the way from notation to
performance, a number of processes take place, processes that influence a group’s
shared and differentiated understanding of the musical work.45
As it is expressed in Burr’s premises above, maintaining a critical relationship to
knowledge is assumed to include a continual readiness to question its content. In an
artistic process, this should be self evident, but more often than not, working out an
interpretation of a musical work becomes stuck in a kind of process of interpreting
accepted “facts” that can be experienced as normative.
An important consequence of the premises and qualities that are formulated by
Burr is that social constructionism denies the existence of the essential, something
that will always be true and stable, because what we name in common parlance as
reality is a product of social processes.46 In the section on “Contextual musical
ontology” I rejected the idea that notation alone can have an essential character
44
Gergen, “Social Constructionist Movement,” 273.
45
Kania, Pieces of Music, 24.
46
Burr, Social Constructionism, 5.
25
(see page 16), which is grounded here epistemologically. For the same reasons, I
must reject the young Early Music Movement’s concept of objectivity, because this
concept presupposed that the score was essential and represented the composer’s
true intentions.
A social constructionist way of looking at what a musical work is – an activity that is
necessarily dependent on people’s actions – means also that we must contemplate
the musical work as created in a certain time and that it did not exist before that
time, which within musical ontology is an important distinction, because a strong
branch within the musical ontological debate maintains that the musical work is a
platonic ideal and therefore is discovered by the composer.47
Can a social constructionist starting point mean that the work, if it is historic in the
sense that it is from another epoch, is not accessible to us, so that an authentic
performance is no longer possible because we are not a part of the work’s socio‐
cultural context? Or are there possibilities for us, even though we are active in a
different time, to assimilate so much knowledge that we can claim that the work’s
socio‐cultural context has not disappeared but rather that it is possible to recreate
it?
In a performance of an eighteenth‐century work today, any direct contact with the
historical socio‐cultural context has disappeared. It is a dimension we can have
knowledge about through secondary sources but we cannot reach it, much less be a
part of it. However, we can recreate with some certainty one part of the historical
socio‐cultural context: the performance practice conventions. It is a knowledge that
we can dedicate ourselves to, as much as we can dedicate ourselves to a listening
that is attentive to details without which some listening habits would otherwise
pass us by.
Through communication, ground is recovered for our understanding of reality as
well as our stored knowledge. We build up our knowledge through communicative
interaction, through social interaction between people. Knowledge can, therefore,
never be “only individual but is rather to a great degree cultural, that is to say
common and shared, and is made common knowledge exactly through the creation
47
Davies, Philosophy of Music, 41.
26
of shared agreed upon meanings.”48 We are, in other words, dependent on our
socio‐cultural context for our knowledge about the world. Language should be
understood in this context in a broader perspective, which contains all forms of
communication, naturally also the normally wordless form of communication that is
music‐making.
Taken together, this expression of an epistemological foundation constitutes an
explanatory model for how I position myself in view of the actions that lead to a
performance of music.
Different versions of the E major Flute Sonata were recorded for this dissertation.
How they are experienced and understood can help illuminate the role played by a
socio‐cultural context and the perceptions created by an individual’s interaction
with this context. For some, the differences between these recordings will pass by
without any reaction, because the overlapping shared understandings are not big
enough. For others, where the overlapping shared understandings are meaningful,
the differences will be razor sharp.
Summary
In order to focus on my research questions and my overarching aim, and thereby
give the dissertation a theoretical perspective, I have written and presented
arguments around the content of contextual musical ontology. The concept of the
musical work has been discussed because it is central for the entire music
philosophical field of musical ontology. Musical ontology defines performance as a
part of the work. Therefore contextual musical ontology makes demands on the
performance to take into account the work’s historical socio‐cultural context, which
includes conventions of performance practice to the extent that striving for
authenticity within the frame of the performance is an ontological demand. I have
also expanded the view of the socio‐cultural context’s relevance for the
performance by emphasising the importance of the effect that a musician’s
contemporary socio‐cultural context has on the performance.
48
Karin Ljuslinder, På nära håll är ingen normal. Handikappdiskurser i Sveriges Television 1956‐2000
[Up Close, Nobody’s Normal: Handicap Discourses on Swedish Television 1956‐2000] (PhD diss, Umeå
University, 2002), 12.
27
Because contextual musical ontology can use the concept of authenticity, a term
that has been so negatively charged within the Early Music Movement, I have also
given an historical background of a descriptive character for how the Early Music
Movement has used the concept of authenticity and why it came to be replaced by
“historically informed performance.”
Finally, I have discussed this dissertation’s epistemological viewpoint, which from an
ontological perspective, was formulated within the frame of contextual musicology
and is based on the social constructionist thought tradition. In this way the socio‐
cultural context’s relevance for every part of the interpretive process is emphasised
– from the notated work to the performance of that same work.
28
Chapter 3: A methodological foundation for
analysis and interpretation
In the previous chapter, we reached the view that the musical work consists of the
notation as well as the performance. At the same time, the importance of the
work’s socio‐cultural context was also emphasised. This discussion was limited to
Western art music (see footnote 1, page 11). Chapters 4 through 6 are devoted
completely to the case study surrounding J. S. Bach’s Sonata in E major for flute and
basso continuo. In this chapter, I will restrict the discussion primarily to general
questions about Western tonal art music composed during the eighteenth century.
In Chapter 6, the results of the case study include a number of recorded
performances of Bach’s sonata. In order to move from the notation to a
performance that consciously takes into account performance practice conventions
in accordance with the requirements on performance set by contextual musical
ontology, I need to analyse the work’s sound structure from several points of view.
By the term “sound structure” I mean the part of the
work that is necessary in order to perform it. Note that
this term does not include the performing musician’s
Con‐ sounding interpretation of the work. Even though we
ventions distance ourselves from a part of the work through the
act of writing about and analysing the work’s sound
structure, if I am serious about viewing the work from a
Instrumentation
contextual musical ontological perspective it is
precisely the sound structure that is crucial for the
performance. This analysis of the work must, therefore,
Notation
have as its goal to locate itself within the frame of the
work’s historical socio‐cultural context. If I contemplate
Figure 2: A description of a
the work from this perspective, I have given myself the
work's sound structure
possibility of performing the work in a historically
informed manner.
The work’s sound structure can be described as a triangle, see Figure 2, where each
level is dependent on the level beneath. When we study a historical work in our
29
own time, we naturally start with the work’s notation and accompanying
instructions, written down by a specific composer. In the work’s own time, it is likely
that this dependence would have been reversed, at least from the composer’s
perspective.
From a contextual musical ontological point of view, the notation is regarded as the
basis for the musical work.
The musical notation can be defined as rhythmically articulated strings of tones
with given pitches, where “given pitches” implies that the notes are elements with
functions in a scale.49 The notation is also made up of other written instructions.
Because the functions of the notes in the scale are included in the above definition,
harmony is also included, that is to say, tones that sound simultaneously. These
tones cannot be regarded as isolated, rather they have a functionality in a process
through time. However, neither a melodic nor a harmonic process can be reduced
to a collection of pitches. Harmony as well as melody must be understood within a
socio‐cultural context and thereby must be seen as integral parts of the sound
structure.50
On the level above, instrumentation appears as a determining element for the
work. It should be pointed out that a work’s instrumentation is not always
unambiguously stated. This is most often true of the basso continuo part, but even
the solo part can be left unspecified. In such cases, the performance practice
conventions for the time play a role in combination with the interpreter’s attempts
to decide how well suited a piece is for one instrument or another.
At the top of the triangle we find performance practice conventions, which are
dependent on their historical socio‐cultural context and necessary for the
interpreter. With the help of relevant instruments and the conventions, the
interpreter should be able to transform the notation with its instructions into a
sounding performance.
49
Davies, Musical Works, 51‐53.
50
Davies, Musical Works, 54.
30
As I describe it, a sound structure is not a closed entity, but rather could be made
infinitely large depending on how close we can come to the work’s socio‐cultural
context. In Chapter 5, I will focus on the parts of the sound structure that directly
affect a performance of Bach’s Sonata in E major – the notation, instrumentation,
and performance practice conventions – while in Chapter 4, I will focus on the
Sonata’s historical socio‐cultural context using the notation as a point of departure.
An analysis of the notation identifies relationships and content, and builds up
hierarchies of supportive and communicative elements. The starting point of such
an analysis is musicological, but I always remain consciously aware that my goal is
also to interpret the work that I am analysing. In this way, I also point out that the
goal of the analysis is not to give the listener a deeper insight and understanding, or
alternatively a changed view of the work, as so often is the case in traditional
musicology, but rather to equip myself as a musician with a number of possible keys
to the actual musical work.
This focus remains the same when I move to the level that treats performance
practice conventions. Here, it can be easier to directly see the interpretive
implications, and again the goal is to equip myself as an interpreter with keys to the
work. How I utilise these keys, or perhaps more precisely which ones I finally chose
to use, will be described primarily in sounding ways in the final chapter of this
dissertation.
When I choose to formulate the shape of the analysis in this way it can be said to be
based on the concept of intention, as much the composer’s compositional intention
as the composer’s interpretational intention. These are seen from a hypothetical
and debatable perspective where the point of departure must always be the work’s
notation. It is an analysis that observes, judges, in some cases breaks down, and
draws conclusions where they can be formulated from the work’s socio‐cultural
context through the filter of my own socio‐cultural context.
31
Notation
In the analysis of the sonata’s notation, I use Laurence Dreyfus’s concept of inventio
as the composer’s basis for a composition.51 Beginning with the idea of
hypothetically finding the composer’s original idea, the inventio, I will “decompose”
in the sense of following the compositional process backwards, and make an
attempt to come to the original idea that inspired the composer to write the
musical work in the first place. In other words, we will be “taking apart what was
once put together.”52
If compositional ideas can be identified, can the same be achieved for the
composer’s intentions? In relation to the study’s epistemological perspective this
could be seen as a contradiction, but I maintain that it can be fruitful as an
interpretative challenge, admittedly from a hypothetical perspective, to try to
understand how a composer acted when composing the work, precisely because
this process can show structures that can be interesting for interpretation, but that
upon first glance are not obvious. It is, therefore, an exciting challenge to
consciously seek to try to make contact with a historical socio‐cultural context, even
though in reality it is not possible to reach it completely.
In teaching composition he focused on what was useful and rejected the dry art
of counterpoint, as is given in Fuxen and others. In the beginning, his students
had to learn to make a pure four‐part thorough‐bass. After that he turned to
chorales; first he gave the bass himself and the students had to write the alto and
51
Laurence Dreyfus, Bach and the Patterns of Invention (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press,
1996), and Laurence Dreyfus, “Bachian Invention and Its Mechanisms,” in The Cambridge Companion
to Bach, ed. John Butt (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 171‐192.
52
Dreyfus, “Bachian Invention,” 171.
32
tenor parts. After that he taught them how to write the bass voice. … As for the
invention of ideas, my late father demanded this ability from the very beginning,
and whoever had none he advised to stay away from composition altogether.53
In contrast to many contemporaries, Bach introduced counterpoint later in his
lessons. The quotation also gives the impression that Bach was not primarily a
theoretician but rather a practician. The expression “the dry art of counterpoint, as
it is given in Fuxen, among others” refers to Gradus ad parnassum by Johann Joseph
Fux from 1725, which was the pedagogical text most commonly used in studies of
strict contrapuntal composition and is, in fact, still widely in use.
The other quotation is taken from J. S. Bach’s introduction to a little notebook with
pieces for keyboard instrument that he called Inventiones: 54
Honest instruction wherein the lovers of the Clavier, and especially those desirous
of learning, are shown a clear way not alone (1) to learn to play clearly in two
voices but also, after further progress, (2) to deal correctly and well with three
obbligato parts; furthermore, at the same time not alone to have good inventions
[ideas] but to develop the same well and, above all, to arrive at a singing style in
playing and at the same time to acquire a strong foretaste of composition.55
Dreyfus points out that the introduction to Inventiones gives us many separate
reasons why Bach wrote these pieces, but that they also can be seen as a totality
where musical skills via good musicianship make the structure of the compositions
clear. In the way they are built up they give the student good ideas, and when
performed in a singing manner give “a foretaste of composition.” Bach sees his
53
“In der Composition gieng er gleich an das Nützliche mit seinen Scholaren, mit Hinweglassung aller
der trockenen Arten von Contrapuncten, wie sie in Fuxen u. andern stehen. Den Anfang musten seine
Schüler mit der Erlernung des reinen 4stimmigen Generalbasses machen. Hernach gieng er mit ihnen
an die Choräle; setzte erstlich selbst den Bass dazu, u. den Alt u. den Tenor musten sie selbst erfinden.
Alsdenn lehrte er sie selbst Bässe machen. /…/ Was die Erfindung der Gedancken betrifft, so forderte
er gleich anfangs die Fähigkeit darzu, u. wer sie nicht hatte, dem riehte er, gar von der Composition
wegzubleiben.“ Bach Dokumente III, ed. Hans‐Joachim Schulze (Kassel: Bärenreiter, 1972), nr. 803.
54
These pieces are normally called Inventions and Sinfonias BWV 772‐801.
55
”Wormit denen Liebhabern des Clavires, besonders aber denen Lehrbegirigen, eine deûtliche Art
gezeiget wird, nicht allein (1) mit 2 Stimmen reine spielen zu lernen, sondern auch bey weiteren
progressen (2) mit dreyen obligaten Partien richtig und wohl zu verfahren, anbey auch zugleich gute
inventiones nicht alleine zu bekommen, sondern auch selbige wohl durchzuführen, am allermeistern
aber eine cantable Art im Spielen zu erlangen, und darneben einen starcken Vorschmack von der
Composition zu bekommen.“ Johann Sebastian Bach, Inventionen und Sinfonien, in Neue Ausgabe
sämtlicher Werke, ed. Georg von Dadelsen, vol. 5 nr. 3 (Kassel:Bärenreiter, 1970), 1.
33
collection of two‐ and three‐voice pieces as models for how a good idea can be
developed.
In short, Dreyfus’s thought process can be described as an attempt to formulate
and execute an analytical method that allows the listener and the musician to
experience another dimension of Bach’s music and that avoids placing Bach in
different formal categories. Through this process, he wants to preserve Bach’s
differentness.56 He also tries to avoid what Adorno accused the Early Music
Movement of doing in its infancy, placing Bach in a kind of vacuum without any
relationship to the socio‐cultural context in which his music was created.57
Another source of inspiration for Dreyfus’s analytical method can be seen in
Adorno’s essay from 1951, an essay that Dreyfus had used earlier as a basis for a
well‐known discussion on the Early Music Movement.58 Adorno points out that
Bach’s compositional technique is built to a large extent upon variations on a
theme. Adorno calls him the thematically economical Bach. If one seeks to socially
decipher Bach, in order to create the context that we perhaps lack today, Adorno
suggests that this should really involve the establishment of a link between the
deconstructed, thematic material through subjective reflection of the motivic work
that it includes, and the changes in work processes that occurred parallel to
industrial revolutionary society, where processes were streamlined by breaking
them down into smaller components.59 Dreyfus does not go so far as to try to
establish this sociological link, but as far as I understand, it is from Adorno that
Dreyfus takes his idea of deconstructing Bach’s compositions and identifying the
thematic material. Bach maximally utilised this material, more studiously than any
other composer, through variations and repetitions that become building blocks in
his compositions. Variations create new possibilities and Dreyfus suggests that
there is an indwelling mechanical process in the variations where the composer can
lead us in different directions through conscious choice and action. It is these
56
Dreyfus, Patterns, 4.
57
Theodor W. Adorno, “Bach Defended Against his Devotees,” in Prisms (Cambridge, MIT Press, 1981),
136.
58
Laurence Dreyfus, “Early Music Defended against Its Devotees: A Theory of Historical Performance in
the Twentieth Century,” The Musical Quarterly, vol. 69.3 (1983): 297‐322.
59
Adorno “Bach Defended,” 139.
34
choices and actions that Dreyfus considers to be the composer’s intention with the
work.
In what way does Dreyfus’s analysis differ from a more traditional musicological
analysis? One important difference is that the musical work’s inventio is not
identical with “thematic material,” something that is central to many musicological
analyses. A compositional idea can be much more diversified than that. It can be a
musical figure, a genre, a compositional style, or, as Dreyfus says, “to compose
against the grain.”60 Another difference is that questions of form are not allowed to
take precedence over a musical progression. Dreyfus begins with a music‐historical
context relevant for the work, using the terminology of the time, which is why he
believes that the concepts of form that were formulated in the musicology of the
nineteenth century are irrelevant.61
Instead, he chooses to foreground the conscious actions that the composer
manifested in the music, rather than pressing a piece of music into a preformed
analytical construction that ignores the human being behind the composition who
lived in a specific socio‐cultural context.62
To try to establish a work’s inventio departing from the concept that ideas are
varied and repeated, my analysis must begin by identifying the different repetitions
of this material, but I also have to make decisions about what are variations of the
60
Dreyfus, Patterns, 36.
61
Dreyfus, Patterns, 27‐28.
62
Dreyfus, “Bachian Invention,” 173.
63
Dreyfus, “Bachian Invention,” 173.
35
same material. A variation can also be decorative, leaving the original idea
unchanged when the decoration is peeled away, or it can be of the kind that
changes the idea itself. When the inventio is altered as a consequence of this
change, can I expect that the piece as a whole has also changed in some way? This
can be a question of harmonic direction, a change in the pattern of accents, or
some similar process. If I break down the piece into smaller sections and identify
inventio where it exists, I have decomposed the piece. I have taken it apart and can
establish how inventio is distributed over the entire piece. But in order to
understand how the composer has treated his ideas, I need to also look at the
material that connects the different appearances of inventio. This concerns
harmonic progressions, or bridging material of other kinds, primarily different types
of sequences. I use this way of working in my analysis of the sonata’s second and
fourth movements.
One variant of this process of decomposition, which I apply to the sonata’s first and
third movements, is to reduce the music to a skeleton. The motivation for a process
like this is that the piece is dominated by notated ornamentation, something that is
normal in Bach’s slow movements, and which can also serve as a generative
compositional inventio in its own right. By successively stripping away layers of
ornamentation, the form of the intended basic structure gradually appears. It can
then be possible to identify the inventio behind the ornamentation.
Finally I observe that genre functions as an inventio for the third movement. The
concept of a specific genre – in order for it to be usable – must be based in the time
that the piece was composed when the different genres in this period were
connected, albeit loosely, to stylistic and formal schemes. The clearest example of
this can be seen in the collections of dance movements that dominated French‐
inspired music. Through this identification, we can also discover exceptions from
what was expected at that time, exceptions that are often meaningful for the
interpretation that will follow.
Harmonic analysis
I touched above on the importance of observing the bridge material between
instances of inventio, a material that is constructed on musical figures as well as
harmonic progressions, often generated by different types of sequential
36
movements. How can this structure be made more visible and analysed? And above
all, from what premises does it evolve?
Before 1800 there were no established effective ways of describing harmonic
progressions and harmonic relationships comparable to modern functional analysis
and step theory.64 At the same time, in our period, we have a need to understand
harmonic progression in order to take us to the level of compositional handcraft.
Can we use step theory, for example, to describe harmonic progressions or different
tonal levels in a musical work from the first half of the eighteenth century? Or
should we limit ourselves to models of describing harmony that began to be
formulated during the third decade of the eighteenth century and beyond, like
Rameau’s concept of basse fondamentale where a hypothetical bass line is won
from the original score and the different bass notes of the chords? Or should we
perhaps use Kirnberger’s harmonic theory where he departed from a distinction
between “essential” and “non‐essential” dissonances that lead him to a ground
bass?65
Step theory illuminates harmonic developments that are clear and observable, but I
have difficulty shaking the notion that using step theory presupposes concepts and
descriptive models that were not relevant during the first half of the eighteenth
century, and consequently may never have been a part of the original
compositional intention.
Are there alternatives to this procedure? Nicholas Cook points out that past music
theory studies were intended for compositional studies, a handcraft that departed
from practice‐based arguments related to voice leading and the handling of
dissonances. In this context we return to figured bass, which lies close to a
harmonic functional analysis, with the important exception that the figured bass
line says nothing about the relationships within the harmonic progressions. Cook
even questions whether the concept of the chord is compatible with figured bass,
because the figures do not say which chord is relevant, but rather only describe the
building up of intervals that together with the tone connected to the figure, gives
64
Ian D Bent and Anthony Pope, “Analysis,” in Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online.
http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/41862 (accessed June 26, 2008).
65
David Beach, “The Origins of Harmonic Analysis,” Journal of Music Theory, vol. 18.2 (1974): 276‐283.
37
the original chord.66 I maintain, however, that a figured bass line can say a great
deal about the harmonic progression if we take into account how music from the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was conventionally constructed. Since music
from this time is generally based on tension and relaxation – which in the harmonic
progression is manifested by the resolving of dissonance into consonance – a
dissonant chord always has a direction. There is, therefore, a progression that is
based on compositional rules. In these thoughts, there is a clear similarity with
Johann Philipp Kirnberger’s analytical method, which he formulated in Die Kunst des
reinen Satzes and Die wahren Grundsätze zum Gebrauch der Harmonie, and which I
will use to various degrees in my analysis chapter.67
In brief, Kirnberger’s concept builds on the idea that all of harmony consists of only
two basic chords, and that all chords can be related to these basic chords. The basic
chords are the consonant triad appearing in three different shapes – major, minor,
and diminished – and the dissonant independent seventh chord found in four
different constructions: minor seventh, pure fifth and major third; minor seventh,
pure fifth and minor third; minor seventh, diminished fifth and minor third; major
seventh, pure fifth and major third. The chords are enumerated in order of
completeness, from most to least complete. This gradation of chords has to do with
the amount of stillness one experience when one hears them; mathematically one
can refer to the relationship between the different intervals according to the
overtone series. The chords can naturally appear in different inversions but no
matter what the inversion, the ground bass is the same.
A central point in Kirnberger’s harmonic theory construction is the distinction
between essential and non‐essential dissonance.68 A non‐essential dissonance is
66
Nicholas Cook, A Guide to Musical Analysis (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), 17.
67
Johann Philipp Kirnberger, Die Kunst des reinen Satzes in der Musik, Berlin 1771, (facsimile rpt.,
Kassel: Bärenreiter, 2004) and Die wahren Grundsätze zum Gebrauch der Harmonie, Berlin 1773,
(facsimile rpt., Hildesheim; Olms, 1970). The relationship between these two texts is such that Die
wahren Grundsätze is a kind of appendix to Die Kunst that was a reaction to the critique that
Kirnberger got when his analysis in the larger text was built entirely on his own compositions.
Therefore in Die wahren Grundsätze – after a concentrated summary of his harmonic concept – he
makes an analysis of the Fugue in B minor from Bach’s Well Tempered Clavier I. Kirnberger himself had
rather strong bonds with Bach, and during the period between 1739 and 1741, was a student of Bach
and therefore was also strongly influenced by Bach’s teaching method of composition.
68
The German terms are wesentlich and zufällig respectively.
38
defined by Kirnberger as a suspension that stands in for a consonance. As a rule, its
resolution occurs before the next chord. An essential dissonance does not hold the
place of a consonance, and must be seen as a part of the chord. One can also tell
the difference between essential and non‐essential dissonances from their place in
the measure.
In the following analysis of the notation, I use Kirnberger’s harmonic reduction
model in order to show the harmonic progression through the resulting bass line,
especially in the parts that are more harmonically complex.
Instrumentation
As described in the introduction to this chapter, instrumentation is a part of the
sound structure. We also have established in Chapter 2 that authenticity is an
ontological requirement for performance. What does this ontological requirement
imply concerning instrumentation when we engage in music from the eighteenth
century?
If instrumentation is specified in the notation then I maintain that the
instrumentation is integral for the performance. In these cases, the composer
intended the piece to have a particular tonal colour, as important for the
compositional process as the performance. This tonal colour includes a number of
parameters that together create a whole. It is not possible to avoid the fact that the
instruments of a certain period are tonally compatible with one another, something
69
“Die wesentliche Dissonans kann sowol auf einem guten als schlechten, die zufälligen aber nur auf
einem guten Taktglied allein vorkommen.“ Kirnberger, Die wahren Grundsätze, 13.
39
that can be illustrated with an example from Bach’s second Brandenburg Concerto.
Four solo instruments are given in the concerto’s notation: trumpet, recorder,
oboe, and violin. We can imagine two different performances where one uses
modern instruments and the other uses historically relevant instruments. Is the
difference between the two performances so great that we risk distorting the piece
if we choose modern instruments?
As we see in Illustration 1 below from the concerto’s first movement, the answer is
yes. There are dialog parts between the recorder and the trumpet that work
marvellously well with historically relevant instruments because the trumpet, with
its narrow scale is not radically louder than the recorder.
Illustration 1: J. S. Bach Brandenburg concerto nr 2, measures 20‐22, trumpet and
recorder.
In Illustration 1, the trumpet has the theme but the figures that lie in the recorder in
the second system are not so irrelevant that they should be covered up completely.
Both descant voices are accompanied here by a figured bass line alone. Bach could
trust that the balance, between the two instruments would not be problematic.
This dynamic balance is surely lost with a modern trumpet and a modern flute or a
recorder.
So what do we do when instrumentation is not specified in the score? Are we free
to choose whatever instrument is at hand? I am convinced that even when the
exact instrumentation is not specified, period instruments are still an ontological
necessity, but this places even greater importance upon knowledge of performance
practice conventions and on studies of historical socio‐cultural context in order to
determine which instruments are relevant.
40
The choice between period and modern instruments is, however, not simply about
tonal colour and dynamics. Ornamentation and decoration are other examples of
how the modern equivalents of eighteenth‐century instruments deprive music of
certain qualities. For example, an eighteenth‐century French composer could
presuppose that long tones could be decorated with a kind of finger vibrato called
flattement. This ornament is easy to perform on an instrument with a completely
open finger hole like the eighteenth‐century flute, while it is basically impossible to
perform on a modern keyed flute, because it can only be achieved by trilling with a
partially covered finger hole.70 The choice of instrument will also influence the
intonation and the colour of the temperament. Older instruments, especially wind
instruments, were not equally tempered. They were more or less clearly influenced
by mean‐tone temperament.
It is possible to raise many similar examples that point toward the meaningful, and
in certain cases ontologically necessary, use of the instruments that were originally
intended; in other words, these are an inseparable part of the work’s sound
structure.
Conventions
However detailed the instructions it contains, the notated score can never convey
everything the interpreter needs in order to realise a performance. The composer
assumed simply that the musician or musicians that would perform the work were
familiar with a number of performance practice conventions that were part of the
socio‐cultural context in which the work was composed. For a performance in our
time that is as ontologically authentic as possible, we must therefore identify as
thoroughly as we can, the elements dependent upon conventions. The interpreter is
then free to make decisions about them in the interpretation.
As a contemporary musician, what I can strive after is to begin with the autograph
or the score that is most closely related to it, and gather as much knowledge as
possible so that my reading of the score takes into account the notational
conventions that were in use when the work was composed and written down. This
70
For a more complete discussion of flattement, see Maria Bania, “Sweetenings” and “Babylonish
th th
Gabble”: Flute Vibrato and Articulation of Fast Passages in the 18 and 19 Centuries, (PhD diss,
41
also means weighing different alternatives against one another to see what
consequences come from a specific interpretation.
Interpretive attitudes
The results of different analytical methods are mirrored through performance in
Chapter 6. To do this, I apply an interpretative process that can be likened to a
hermeneutic spiral. Wandering between the particular and the whole, between
preconceived ideas and understanding, I attempt to weave these perspectives
together.71 If my aim as a musician is to interpret and perform a musical work, I am
embodying a hermeneutic attitude. This attitude concerns both textual
interpretation (the original meaning of “hermeneutics”) and an interpretive process
that has to do with dialog by its very nature. A dialog with the notation is created
from our own preconceptions, but also with conventions, depending on the amount
of information in the notation. These conventions can be contemporary to the
musician or to the composition, or both. Through these dialogs a sounding
interpretation is formed.
The music in this study had a socio‐cultural context when it was composed. We
cannot recreate this context completely, but we can deepen our understanding
through a dialog with the text of the musical work by taking into account what it
means for us and what it meant for its original time, which in turn will affect the
sounding interpretation.72 In some sense, we can speak about discovering the
hidden, but not in the sense of an underlying meaning or written message. Perhaps
we uncover a more abstract plan in our search for better understanding of the
contents of the notation. Through a dialog between the work and its socio‐cultural
University of Gothenburg, 2008), 31‐39.
71
Mats Alvesson and Kaj Sköldberg, Tolkning och reflektion. Vetenskapsfilosofi och kvalitativ metod
[Interpretation and Reflection: Scientific Philosophy and Qualitative Method] (Lund: Studentlitteratur,
2008), 211.
72
Laurence Dreyfus, “Early‐Music and the Repression of the Sublime,” The Journal of Musicology, vol.
10.1 (1992): 117.
42
context and myself as a musician and my socio‐cultural context, my understanding
of the work moves to a new position that can create a fresh point of departure for
continued exploration and interpretation.
Summary
In this chapter, I have presented how I intend to work with J. S. Bach’s Sonata in E
major in the case study found in the rest of the dissertation. One central focus of
this study is the work’s sound structure, which is why an analysis of this kind should
focus on defining the parts that comprise the sound structure. Apart from the
notation, the sound structure also includes the instructions that can be found in the
score and that the musician must take into account if the performance strives
toward ontological authenticity. These instructions are dependent upon knowledge
of performance practice conventions if they are to be realised in performance. From
an ontological viewpoint, instrumentation can be seen as a part of the work, and
thus relevant for the authenticity of its performance.
In the analysis of the notation, I have allowed myself to be influenced by Laurence
Dreyfus’s thoughts about the composer’s inventio, as representative of a conscious
original idea for the composition. An advantage with this method is that it not only
focuses solely on the actual piece, but takes into account the piece’s socio‐cultural
context. Comparisons with other works are relevant primarily to the extent that the
genre can be identified as the work’s inventio, or otherwise strongly influential.
Regardless of which shape inventio takes, music contains bridging material that
often is harmonic in nature. Instead of using explanatory models for harmonic
analysis that were formulated during the nineteenth century, I have chosen, in
certain cases, to use Kirnberger’s figured‐bass model that he formulated in writing
at the end of the 1770s. This model is explained generally.
In conclusion, I have described the interpretive attitude that is dominated by the
hermeneutic spiral that encompasses inspiration as well as confirmation of an
interpretive process.
43
Chapter 4: An historical socio-cultural context
Chapters 4, 5, and 6 contain the dissertation’s case study. The focus of this case
study is J. S. Bach’s Sonata in E major BWV 1035. The socio‐cultural context of this
sonata can serve as a connecting link between the notated work and the
performance, as will be sketched out in the following text. The notation will serve as
a natural point of departure and will be treated thoroughly, but the analytical
methods will also be extra‐musical, focusing on form and structure from the outside
looking in. As we study the preserved notation, what conclusions can we draw
about the impact that the historical socio‐cultural context had on the formation of
the work? And what relevance can this context have for a performance in our time?
As I am already speaking about conclusions, it is important at this point to clarify
that this chapter can be experienced as, and to some extent actually is, descriptive.
But it also focuses on reflection and discussion. I will try to construct a possible
historical socio‐cultural context for this piece based on my own understanding of
the material that I document in the descriptive sections.
With a point of departure grounded primarily in my own perspective as a musician,
the questions raised by the notation can be divided into three main topics:
• Dating – The dating of a work gives clues to relevant socio‐cultural context.
It can also problematise stylistic questions.
• Genre and style – Dating may affect genre and stylistic questions, but the
reverse is also true: questions of genre and style can affect the discussion
about dating.
• Instrumentation – This may seem uncomplicated. Instrumentation is often
relatively clear, but through the expansion of this area, we can add
contextual depth. Here there is also an exchange of ideas between dating
and style and genre.73
73
I use two terms in this chapter, genre and style, respectively, which can be experienced differently
depending on which tradition the reader is familiar with. Common to how I use both terms is that they
relate to how they were used in the eighteenth century. Genre therefore covers different
compositional forms like the sonata, the cantata or the opera, while style covers compositional style as
chamber styles like church style, galant style or theatrical style.
45
The chapter is built around these main topics. The entire discussion departs from
the score. This physically observable object is a touchstone in my search for
knowledge about the work’s creation as I explore its historical socio‐cultural
context. Several excurses along the way will introduce descriptive material on
general musical topics necessary to move the discussion along. Naturally, the
questions from the three main topics will tangent one another and sometimes even
anticipate coming discussions.
So where do I begin my investigations? I know Bach’s chamber music with flute very
well. From time to time I have worked very intensively with it. This does not mean
by definition that I have made an analytical study of each piece at the level of the
analysis I am carrying out in this dissertation. However, I have actively played this
repertoire in periods over the last quarter century. It is a part of my musicianship
and the music continues to fascinate me and challenge me in ways that no other
music does. From this familiarity with the repertoire, here are some of the first
questions I ask as an interpreter. Why is the E major Sonata so different from the
other works? What does this difference consist of? Why did Bach write in a key that
he must have known is directly uncomfortable for the flute? Why did he write this
sonata at all? Are there obvious reasons?
How will I begin to handle these questions? As I have already said, I will primarily
address them directly to the notation, and so we begin, of necessity, with a source‐
critical review of the score.
74
For details in this section concerning manuscripts, see Hans‐Peter Schmitz, “Kritischer Bericht,” in
Johann Sebastian Bach. Werke für Flöte 6, Bd 3 (Kassel: Bärenreiter, 1963), 22‐27.
75
a) Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin, mus. ms. Bach P 621; b) Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin, mus. ms. Bach P 622
and c) Bibliothèque du Conservatoire royal de Bruxelles, XY 15.140.
46
source, a conjecture supported by the repetition of the same copying error in all
three manuscripts.76
Illustration 2: Manuscript a).
76
Schmitz, “Kritischer Bericht,” 24 as well as Barthold Kuijken’s postscript to Breitkopf’s edition of the
sonata from 1992.
77
Count Karl Voss‐Buch (1786‐1864), minister in the Prussian public administration, had a large
manuscript collection, among which, works of J S Bach, were given to the Royal Library in Berlin. See
Otto E. Albrecht and Stephen Roe, “Collections, private,” in Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online.
http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/06108pg2 (accessed August 15,
2008).
47
Illustration 3: Manuscript b).
Illustration 4: Manuscript c).
On the title page of manuscript b) we see:
SONATA / per / Traverso Solo e Continuo / del Sgre: / Giov: Seb: Bach.
Farther down on the title page, probably in count Voss‐Buch’s hand:
On the manuscript from which this copy was made is the remark: ‘after the
autograph prepared by the composer when he was in Potsdam in 17 for the
royal chamberlain Fredersdorf’.78
Schmitz suggests that manuscript b) is a copy of manuscript a),79 but this argument
is weakened by the fact that the commentary above does not appear in manuscript
a). There seems to have been yet another copy that is now lost and that served as
the model for manuscript b). Considering the written‐out figured bass realisation,
manuscript a) could be Count Voss‐Buch’s own performance copy and might have
been copied from manuscript b).
Manuscript c) has been dated to about 1850, and it is likely that it, too, was copied
from manuscript b). BWV 1035 is included, together with BWV 1034 (Sonata for
78
“Auf dem Exemplare, von welchem diese Abschrift genommen worden ist steht die Bemerkung:
‚nach dem Autographo des Verfassers welches o. 17 da er in Potsdam war, für den Geb. Kämmerir
Fredersdorf von ihm angefertigt worden‘.“
79
Schmitz, “Kritischer Bericht,” 24.
48
flute and basso continuo in E minor), in a larger collection of music. The title page
reads:
Due / Sonate /per / Flauto traverso e Cembalo di Sgr. Gio. Seb. Bach / No 1.
A subsequent addition, in a different hand‐writing style: “à Mr Fredersdorff”.80
The differences between the three manuscripts are insignificant and consist mainly
in the length of the slurs. Generally, it can be said however that manuscript b) is the
most carefully made, considering both the placement of legato slurs and the
placement of the figured bass numbers. Some copying mistakes can be found in all
three manuscripts. In Breitkopf’s edition from 1992 (edited by Barthold Kuijken)
there is a detailed overview of the differences between manuscripts a) and b).
Kuijken consciously left out manuscript c), with the rationalisation that it does not
add anything that is not already present in manuscript b).
In all three manuscripts, J. S. Bach is given as the composer of the sonata. Can this
claim be questioned? I choose to accept the attribution, but there is actually
nothing that proves Bach’s authorship with certainty. Because there is no
autograph, and no print of the sonata authorised by Bach in his lifetime, we are
obliged to accept these three manuscripts, all from a later date, and all apparently
intimately related to one another. Musicologists have never questioned whether
the sonata is by J. S. Bach, and perhaps there is no reason to, but there are several
ways in which this sonata falls outside the current view of what Bach’s music usually
contains.
Two other important details of the manuscript are the dedication to Fredersdorf
(sometimes spelled Fredersdorff) as well as the reference to Potsdam in manuscript
b). However, the copyist of manuscript b) was obviously unsure of when Bach was
in Potsdam, because an empty space was left after the two first numbers in the
year: “17 . ”
Michael Gabriel Fredersdorf was close to Frederick II of Prussia from before his
coronation in 1740, and was in service to him more or less until Fredersdorf died in
1758. Fredersdorf was also a flutist and had a special position of trust as royal
80
”No 2” represents BWV 1034.
49
chamberlain to Frederick, whose court primarily was stationed in Potsdam.81 We
have thereby a fairly strong connection between the sonata and the Berlin court, at
least according to the manuscript copyists. Whether it is real or not depends to a
great extent on what chance we have of dating the E major Sonata.
Finally, it is clear, from what has been noted in the different manuscripts, that the
sonata is written for flute and basso continuo. This raises further questions around
the instrumentation, to which I will return below, see page 71.
Dating
How important is the question of the sonata’s dating? The question of the
chronology in a catalogue of works has always engaged researchers from a music
historical perspective. From another angle, relevant for music historians as well as
interpreters, dating is also important in order to try to see the piece in its context
and to identify stylistic tendencies, and similarities as well as differences. How has
this discussion developed around the E major Sonata? What is clear from the
excursus below (see page 52) is that most music researchers have chosen to see the
dedication to Fredersdorf as definitive for the dating. In order to further this
discussion, researchers have looked for biographical information that would
support the idea that Bach really could have met Fredersdorf. And there is evidence
for two visits by Bach in Berlin/Potsdam; once in 1741 and again in 1747.
The 1741 visit is supported through a correspondence between Bach himself and
his relative Johann Elias Bach that concerns J. S. Bach’s wife Anna Magdalena’s
health during his absence.82 The other visit is much better known. In May of 1747,
Bach visited the court at Potsdam, after an invitation from King Frederick himself,83
81
Berit Gloede, “Michael Gabriel Fredersdorff” in
http://www.preussen.de/de/geschichte/1740_friedrich_ii./michael_gabriel_Fredersdorff.html
(accessed March 5, 2007).
82
Bach’s own letter has been lost but the answer he received has been preserved, as well as another
piece of information from the same Johann Elias, who lived with the Bach family at this time. (Bach
Dokumente II, nr. 489‐490).
83
Johann Nikolaus Forkel, Ueber Johann Sebastian Bachs Leben, Kunst und Kunstwerke, Leipzig 1802
(facsimile rpt. Kassel: Bärenreiter, 1999), 9.
50
to listen to court concerts at the newly built palace of Sanssouci. The visit resulted
in The Musical Offering, one of Bach’s most fascinating works.84
Christoph Wolff suggests that we can assume that Bach, aged about 55, no longer
left Leipzig except when there was an official invitation.85 This was certainly the case
in 1747, but at whose invitation did he travel to Berlin in 1741? Wolff speculates
that Bach wished to visit the court, but that it did not happen because Frederick
was at war. Chamberlain Fredersdorf was surely there, however, and Bach’s son
Carl Philip Emanuel had just officially been named as court harpsichordist.86 So the
visit could have been purely social, but it is also possible that Bach, on his own
initiative, had wished to establish a first contact with the Berlin court.
When it comes to the dating of the E major Sonata, we are still floating in a good
deal of uncertainty. There is every reason to believe that Bach really did dedicate
the sonata to chamberlain Fredersdorf, but it could have happened in 1741 as well
as in 1747. The sonata could also have been written at an earlier time and given an
appropriate dedication on the occasion of either of these visits.
Another attempt to collect evidence for dating this sonata is to make stylistic
comparisons, either with other similar works of Bach or with other composers’
works that we have reason to believe Bach knew. Two themes become important
here; musical style and genre.
In order to knit these discussions together, the following excursus summarises
earlier research surrounding this sonata, as well as discussions about its dating.
Thereafter, I will present an argument for an alternative dating where I depart from
stylistic comparisons with several other composers’ works influenced by the galant
84
The visit is referred to in the Spenersche Zeitung 11 May 1747 (Bach Dokumente II, nr 554). Two
months after his visit Bach sent the entire Musical Offering, in print, to Frederick II (Bach Dokumente I,
nr 173).
85
Christoph Wolff, Johann Sebastian Bach: The Learned Musician (New York: W. W. Norton & Co,
2001), 425.
86
Already in 1738 Emanuel Bach was connected to the court of Frederick the Great as a musician, an
offer that Emanuel saw as so tempting that he turned down an offer to follow a young noblemen on
his grand tour through Europe See Hans‐Günter Ottenberg, Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1987), 34.
51
style that dominated Dresden’s musical life, and that could have had an influence
on Bach.
87
Hans Eppstein, Studien über .J S. Bachs Sonaten für ein Melodieinstrument und obligates Cembalo
(PhD diss., Uppsala University, 1966).
88
Christoph Wolff, “Johann Sebastian Bach,” in Grove Music Online, http://www.grovemusic.com
(accessed March 28, 2007).
52
Köthen between 1717 and 1723.89 Spitta writes the following about the two flute
sonatas:
The other [sonatas], in e minor and E major, have a normal form, but their allegro
movements are often divided in two, and naturally do not show the same
richness in variation as the sonatas with obbligato harpsichord.90 But both sonatas
are of great interest and beauty.91
Hans Eppstein treats the sonatas for solo instrument and basso continuo more
specifically in his 1972 Bach‐Jahrbuch article.92 He describes the E major Sonata as a
chamber sonata, citing the binary form of the movements, and with the exception of the
prelude‐like first movement, the clear dance character of the other movements.93
Eppstein continues with a discussion where he sets the E major Sonata against the E
minor and points to the former sonata’s relatively simple tonal language and
uncomplicated structure that, according to Eppstein, would perfectly suit the court in
Berlin.94
Questions about authorship and chronology are the focus of Robert Marshall’s study of
Bach’s flute music where he is often in controversy with Eppstein.95 They are, however,
in agreement concerning the E major Sonata. Both have the same understanding of its
style, and both agree that it was composed by Bach for the Prussian court around 1741.
Wendy Ann Mehne’s dissertation combines historical research with performance
practice.96 In Mehne’s case, this means that she uses historical sources and treatises as
well as secondary literature in order to create a practical edition of Bach’s sonatas for
flute, an edition that includes interpretive suggestions for parameters like tempo,
articulation, and ornamentation. Chapter 5, “The Structure and Chronology of J. S.
89
Philipp Spitta, Johann Sebastian Bach. His Work and Influence on the Music of Germany, 1685‐1750,
trans. Clara Bell, London, 1889, vol. 2, (modern rpt, Mineola: Dover, 1992), 124 ‐125. The original
edition was published in German in 1873 and 1880.
90
Here Spitta refers to the Sonata in B minor for flute and obbligato keyboard BWV 1030.
91
Spitta, Bach, 125.
92
Hans Eppstein, ”Über J. S. Bachs Flötensonaten mit Generalbass, Bach‐Jahrbuch, vol. 58 (1972): 12‐
23.
93
Eppstein, “Flötensonaten,” 14‐15.
94
Eppstein, “Flötensonaten,” 19.
95
Robert L. Marshall, “J. S. Bach’s Compositions for Solo Flute: A Reconsideration of Their Authenticity
and Chronology,” in The Music of Johann Sebastian Bach. The Sources, the Style, the Significance (New
York: Schirmer, 1989), 201‐225. The article was first published in the Journal of the American
Musicological Society 32, no. 3 (1979): 463‐498, and in Marshall’s book a postscript is included that
specifically addresses Hans Eppstein and the critique Eppstein presented of Marshall in Eppstein’s
article from 1972.
96
Wendy Ann Mehne, A Research/Performance Edition of Johann Sebastian Bach’s Acknowledged
Flute Sonatas, (DMA diss., University of Wisconsin, 1992).
53
Bach’s Flute Sonatas,” gives short descriptions of the sonatas her dissertation touches
upon. However, she does not carry out any analysis of the music in the proper meaning
of the word.97
Ronda Miller Mains’ dissertation also focuses on creating a practically oriented edition,
and makes a thorough review of all existing sources of the sonatas with a special
emphasis on the different articulation marks.98 Her text is followed by a section with
notation that compares all the articulation markings for all the existing sources as a
basis for a practical edition with suggestions for articulation from the existing scores as
well as from secondary material. When it comes to the E major Sonata, Mains takes the
trio sonata from the Musical Offering as a model for her articulation suggestions. Her
additions are given exclusively to standardise the Sonata’s articulation marks.
Mary Oleskiewicz frames her discussion of the E major Sonata and the trio sonata from
the Musical Offering in terms of the tradition represented by Johann Joachim Quantz,
taking into account relevant instruments, pitches, time of origin, and styles for these
pieces.99 Oleskiewicz points out many similarities between the movements in Bach’s E
major Sonata and some of the flute sonatas of Quantz. Both have cantabile first
movements that make rich use of the French ornament tierce coulé100 and both
composers use the siciliana as a third movement set in the parallel key of C# minor.
According to Oleskiewicz, the Bach E major Sonata’s relatively limited range of e’‐e’’’,
and the movement’s relatively low tessitura also points to a close kinship, stylistically,
formally, and even thematically, with similar compositions by Quantz.101
Both Eppstein102 and Marshall103 have dated the sonata to 1741 based on two premises.
First, there are the inscriptions in the manuscripts that suggest Bach composed the piece
for chamberlain Fredersdorf. Secondly, there is the style of the sonata, which is strikingly
different from the other sonata compositions of Bach.
On the other hand, Schmitz suggests that simply on stylistic grounds the E major Sonata
cannot be from the 1740s, because it is essentially too different stylistically from the trio
sonata in the Musical Offering, composed in 1747.104 Schmitz would rather suggest that
97
Mehne, Bach’s Acknowledged Flute Sonatas, 130‐138.
98
Ronda Miller Mains, An Investigation of the Articulations Found in the Primary Sources of the Flute
Sonatas of Johann Sebastian Bach Resulting in a Composite Edition (DMA diss, University of Oregon
1993).
99
Mary A. Oleskiewicz: Quantz and the Flute at Dresden: His Instruments, His Repertory and their
Significance for the Versuch and the Bach Circle (PhD. diss., Duke University, 1998).
100
Originally a French ornament that filled out an unaccented falling third.
101
Oleskiewicz, “Quantz and the Flute at Dresden,” 361‐447.
102
Eppstein, “Flötensonaten,” 12‐23.
103
Marshall, “Bach’s Compositions for Solo Flute,” 463‐498.
104
Schmitz, “Kritischer Bericht,” 24.
54
the sonata dates from the Köthen period, because, at least on the surface, it has a much
simpler structure.105 Schmitz also compares the E major Sonata to other Bach pieces
from the later 1730s and 1740s, among them the Sonata in B minor for Flute and
Harpsichord, the Orchestra Suite in B minor, the Goldberg Variations, the Well Tempered
Clavier II, and the Art of the Fugue, in order to establish a date using stylistic tendencies
as criteria. These other works from the same period show a high level of contrapuntal
complexity, making it difficult for Schmitz to place the E major Sonata among them.
From 1729, Bach took over the Collegium Musicum, a collection of students from
the University in Leipzig that gave secular concerts in Zimmermann’s coffee house
almost every week.106 Secular life in Leipzig was influenced by its strong educational
institutions, but it was also a trading city. It was open to influences not only from
France, but also Italy.107 It is not difficult to imagine that the bourgeoisie also
responded to new influences on their musical taste and expected that concert
music would be a la mode, including the galant style. One could easily imagine that
the Zimmermann’s milieu might have created an environment that led Bach to
compose a flute sonata in a modern galant style. Bach led the Collegium Musicum
between 1729 and 1737, when he left its leadership for a few years. He took up the
post again in 1739, but when Zimmerman died in May of 1741, Bach left the
position for good.
105
Schmitz, “Kritischer Bericht,” 24.
106
Zimmermann’s was seen as an institution in Leipzig. The house was located in central Leipzig and
included a hall where 150 listeners could visit the concerts that Zimmermann arranged every week.
The collaboration with Collegium Musicum was already established in 1723 and continued
undiminished in size during Bach’s leadership. Zimmermann’s created conditions for a growing concert
life in Leipzig through this collaboration See Wolff, Bach: The Learned Musician, 352.
107
George J. Buelow, (ed.), Man and Music: The Late Baroque Era from the 1680s to 1740 (London:
Macmillan, 1993), 254‐255.
55
Is the E major Sonata really so stylistically innovative or unusual? Already in the
middle of the second decade of the eighteenth century, Francesco Veracini wrote a
collection of 12 sonatas for flute or violin and basso continuo that he dedicated to
the Prince of Saxony. These sonatas all have a structure that is similar to Bach’s E
major Sonata, balanced between church and chamber style: four movements (slow‐
fast‐slow‐fast), no contrapuntal movement, dance‐like movements, and a writing
style that foregrounds the melody, and the horizontal above the vertical.108 The
sonatas existed in Dresden already before Bach visited for the first time in 1717,
making his acquaintance with them entirely possible. Another Italian composer that
is stylistically interesting in this context is Pietro Locatelli, who published a
collection of 12 sonatas for flute and basso continuo in 1732. Here, there are
several characteristics reminiscent of Bach’s sonata and because the sonatas were
published, it is not impossible that Bach also knew of them.109 Locatelli’s sonatas
also have many similarities with Telemann’s Methodische Sonaten from 1728 and
1732, also widely disseminated in Europe.
What relevance do similarities of this type have on the dating of the work? Perhaps
not much, but at the same time the socio‐cultural contextual expectations in
general were highly influential upon what music was composed. The majority of
Bach’s works, like those of his eighteenth‐century contemporaries, were produced
after commissions or special assignments. From this perspective, it is equally
reasonable to suggest that Bach composed the E major Sonata in the early 1730s.
Summary
This section has focused on the question of the dating of the E major Sonata. Even if
it is possible to suggest several alternative datings, it is most likely that the sonata
dates from the time of Bach’s visit to Berlin in 1741, a claim primarily based on the
dedication that is found on the cover of manuscript b), from which the other copies
were made. This dating is further strengthened by the argument Oleskiewicz makes,
connecting the sonata to the court in Berlin in other ways than simply the
108
Daniel Heartz, Music in European Capitals: The Galant Style, 1720‐1780, (New York: W. W. Norton &
Co., 2003), 210; Francesco Maria Veracini, [12] Sonate a Violino, o Flauto solo e Basso, (Dresden: no
pub., 1716).
109
Pitero Locatelli, XII Sonate à Flauto Traversiere Solo è Basso, Opera seconda (Amsterdam: no pub.,
1732).
56
dedication to Fredersdorf. She suggests that the stylistic idiom and the purely
instrument‐specific qualities of this sonata, both acoustic and technical, and related
to specific flutes around Quantz’s Berlin, are a very strong argument that the sonata
can be dated to 1741.
My concluding argument is similar to Oleskiewicz, but rather than depending on
Berlin, it uses other composers that had a connection to Dresden. This leads to the
possibility of dating the sonata to the period when Bach was the director of the
Collegium Musicum in Leipzig. To the extent that the Sonata’s similarities with a
Sonata in E major of Locatelli are seen as equally relevant, an alternative dating
could be given as early as 1732.
Again, the notation will serve as our point of departure. The sonata can broadly be
described like this:
We have a sonata in four movements with a large‐scale structure that connects to
the tradition of church sonatas where the movements are ordered according to the
principle of slow – fast – slow – fast. On the other hand, as Eppstein has pointed
out, there are similarities to the chamber sonata, see above page 53.
57
Is it possible to say definitively what the genre and style of this sonata is? Or does it
represent a blended form both in style and in genre?
Before we go further to discuss how this specific sonata can be categorised, we
must take another excursus dealing with what is generally implied by the term
“sonata.” We will also touch upon the culturally determined expectations inherent
in the term, which was used during the eighteenth century to define an entire
genre.
110
”…ein vor Instrumente, insonderheit Violinen gesetztes gravitätisches und künstliches Stück, so in
abgewechselten adagio und allegro bestehet.“ Johann Walther, Musicalisches Lexicon oder
Musicalische Bibliothec, Studienausg. im Neusatz des Textes und der Noten (Kassel: Bärenreiter, 2001),
514.
111
Sébastien de Brossard: A musical dictionary; being a collection of terms and characters, as well
ancient as modern; including the historical, theoretical, and practical parts of music: ... The whole
carefully abstracted from the best authors ... By James Grassineau, Gent. London, 1740. Based on
information from English Short Title Catalogue. Eighteenth Century Collections Online, Gale Group
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECCO (accessed April 17, 2007). The Lexicon was first published
in 1702.
112
Brossard, A musical dictionary, 231.
58
Furthermore, he writes about the two different types, the sonata da chiesa and sonata
da camera:
Suonata da chiesa, that is one proper for Church music, which commonly begins
with a grave solemn motion, suitable to the dignity of the place and the service;
after which they strike into a brisker, gayer, richer manner, and these are what
they [the Italians] properly call Sonatas. The other comprehends the Suonata di
Camera, fit for chamber music. These are properly a series of little short pieces
named from the dances which may be put to them, yet not designed for dancing
… They usually begin with a prelude or little Sonata, serving as an introduction to
all the rest.113
The first Brossard quotation alludes to what today we would call the freedom of
absolute music, where music is governed neither by program nor dance form. In the
second quotation, we see that the early‐eighteenth‐century sonata da camera began
with a free movement, which in certain contexts was labelled a sonata. It was followed
by a number of dance movements: allemande, courante, minuet, gavotte, bourrée, and
often a concluding gigue. In the third edition of Brossard’s lexicon there is a distinction
made between the two attributes da chiesa and da camera, where he makes clearer that
the movements in a sonata da chiesa consist of adagios and largos interspersed with
fugues that make up the allegro movements.114
The sonata da chiesa also often includes at least one slow movement in another key,
often the parallel key to the main key, but, as Newman points out, this is an observation
that is built solely upon a study of surviving material, and cannot be stated as a proven
rule.115
Johan Mattheson emphasises that the sonata is an instrumental composition form, but
also gives important information on is aesthetic aims:
The Sonata, with several violins or on one particular instrument, e.g., on the
transverse flute, etc., whose aim is principally towards complaisance and
kindness, since a certain Complaisance must predominate in sonatas, which is
accommodating to everyone, and which serves each listener. A melancholy
person will find something pitiful and compassionate, a sensuous person
something pretty, an angry person something violent, and so on, in different
varieties of sonatas. The composer must also set himself such a goal with his
adagio, andante, presto, etc.: then his work will succeed. 116
113
Brossard, A musical dictionary, 231.
114
William S. Newman, The Sonata in the Baroque era (4th edition, New York: W. W. Norton & Co.,
1983), 25.
115
Newman, Sonata, 34.
116
”Die Sonata mit verschidenden Viollinen oder auf besondern Instrumenten allein, z. E. auf der
Qveerflöte etc, deren Absicht hauptsächlich auf eine Willfährig‐ oder Gefälligkeit gerichtet ist, weil in
59
A sonata’s primary function was, in other words, to emotionally confirm the listener’s
expectations. Mattheson gives this description in a section that classifies different types
of melodies and their attributes. The main purpose of this whole section in Der
vollkommene Capellmeister is to give relatively strict instructions for how one should
compose a good melody. In emphasising the quality and function of melody, he also
talks about the function of the sonata, namely that it should entertain, delight and give
a sense of fulfilment. In chapter 10 of the same book he speaks about different musical
styles – church style, theatre style, and chamber style – and points out that in principle
all genres can be adapted to all three styles.117 Mattheson does not name the
expectation that fugal movements appear in the church style, he talks instead about
serious and grave style. The definition Mattheson uses for the chamber style is to use
the adjective “häuslich” – domestic – something that emphasises its intimate
character.118
At the beginning of the eighteenth century, both sonata types blend more and more and
it became more common to find dance movements in a church sonata or fugual
movements in a chamber sonata. Chamber sonatas in their pure form, with an
introductory preludium followed by a number of dance movements, more often were
described using the French term “suite.” The term “sonata” became more exclusively
used to describe the da chiesa type, but with a relaxation of its strict form, while at the
same time it became less strictly connected to the church. Instead, this music became
more associated with the court and the home.119
Quantz describes in his Versuch einer Anweisung die Flöte traversière zu spielen the
qualities that a “solo” (which is his term for the sonata with a solo instrument and basso
continuo) should have “to do honour both to its composer and to its performer.”120 He
complains that “today one does not perceive it to be any art at all to write a solo. To a
great extent every instrumentalist is engaged in this” and if the instrumentalists do not
have any ideas of their own, they borrow someone else’s. If he does not know the rules
den Sonaten eine gewisse Complaisance herrschen muss, die sich allen beqvemet, und womit einem
ieden Zuhörer gedienet ist. Ein Trauriger wird was klägliches und mitleidiges, ein Wollüstiger was
niedliches, ein Zorniger was hefftiges u. s. w. in verschiedenen Abwechslungen den Sonaten antreffen.
Solchen Zweck muss auch der Componist bey seinem adagio, andante, presto etc vor Augens setzen:
so wird ihm die Arbeit gerathen.“
Johann Mattheson, Der vollkommene Capellmeister, Studienausg. im Neusatz des Textes und der
Noten (Kassel: Bärenreiter, 1999), 346. English translation from Johann Mattheson, Johann
Mattheson’s Der vollkommene Capellmeister, (Ann Arbor: UMI Press, 1981), 466.
117
Mattheson, Vollkommene Capellmeister, 136‐167.
118
Mattheson, Vollkommene Capellmeister, 138.
119
Dorothea Mielke‐Gerdes, “Sonate,” in Die Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart, Bd. 8 (Kassel:
Bärenreiter, 1998), columns 1573‐1581.
120
Johann Joachim Quantz, Versuch einer Anweisung die Flöte traversière zu spielen, Berlin 1752
(facsimile rpt. Kassel: Bärenreiter, 1992), 304, ch. XVIII, §48.
60
of composition, he asks someone else to write the bass line. “In this way only monsters
are produced instead of good models.”121
Quantz goes on to give examples of the qualities that a solo sonata should contain. The
sonata that he describes is a three‐movement slow – fast – fast work, a form that
became more and more common, especially in Italy, until it became the dominant model
during the latter half of the eighteenth century:
48. §
… 1) the Adagio must be singing and expressive in its own right; 2) the performer
must have an opportunity to demonstrate his judgement, inventiveness, and
insight; 3) tenderness must be mixed with ingenuity from time to time; 4) a
natural bass part, upon which it is easy to build, must be provided; 5) one idea
must not be repeated too often either at the same pitch or in transposition, since
this would weary the player, and would become tedious to the listeners; 6) at
times the natural melody must be interrupted with some dissonances, in order to
duly excite the passions oft he listeners; 7) the Adagio must not be too long.
49. §
The first Allegro requires : 1) a melody that is flowing, coherent, and rather
serious; 2) a good association of ideas; 3) brilliant passage‐work, well joined to
the melody; 4) good order in the repetition of ideas; 5) some beautiful and well‐
chosen phrases at the end of the first part which are so adjusted that in
transposed form they may again conclude the last part; 6) a first part which is a
little shorter than the last; 7) the introduction of the most brilliant passage‐work
in the last part; 8) a bass that is set naturally and with progressions of a kind that
sustain a constant vivacity.
50. §
The second Allegro may be either very gay and quick, or moderate and arioso.
Hence it must be adjusted to the first Allegro. If the first is serious, the second
may be gay. If the first is lively and quick, the second may be moderate and
arioso. ... If a solo is to please everyone, it must be arranged so that the
inclinations of each listener find sustenance in it. It must be neither entirely
cantabile nor entirely of a lively character. Just as each movement must be quite
different from the others, so each must have in itself a good mixture of pleasing
and brilliant ideas.122
121
Quantz, Versuch, 303, ch. XVIII, §46.
122
§ 48
”…1) das Adagio desselben an und vor sich singbar und ausdrückend sein. 2) Der Ausführer muss
Gelegenheit haben, seine Beurtheilungskraft, Erfindung, und Einsicht zuzeigen. 3) Die Zärtlichkeit muss
dann und wann mit etwas Geistreichem vermischet werden. 4) Man setze eine natürliche
Grundstimme, worüber leicht zu bauen ist. 5) Ein Gedanke muss weder in demselben Tone, noch in
61
Note that Quantz repeatedly emphasises the listener’s experience of a piece of music. A
composer does not write for himself, but rather in order to give the listener the greatest
possible pleasure. Quantz also does not speak especially clearly about the formal
content of a sonata, but rather emphasises the importance of contrast and change –
also here with the listener in mind. One can see a clear difference between the first and
the second allegro to the extent that the first allegro should be more thoroughly worked
out with good planning for the different entrances and with variations of its own
thoughts or themes. The description of the harmonic plan of the first allegro is also
noteworthy. Quantz describes a model where the movement ends with a recapitulation
of the ideas from the first part’s introduction. Only in the paragraphs about the slow
movement does Quantz talk about the relationship between the performer and the
composer. Here, he emphasises that the performer should have the chance to present
his good taste and expressive skill. Quantz labels this compositional style “German,”
unifying the best of the French and the Italian.123
Johann Adolph Scheibe, in Critischer Musicus (printed first in 1740), makes a different
distinction between the true sonata and the sonata “auf Concertenart,” a sonata that is
similar to a concert in its construction. The most common plan of the movements in
der Transposition, zu vielmal wiederholt werden: denn dieses würde nicht nur den Spieler müde
machen, sondern auch den Zuhörern einen Ekel erwecken können. 6) Der natürliche Gesang muss
zuweilen mit einigen Dissonanzen unterbrochen werden, um bei den Zuhörern die Leidenschaften
gehörig zu erregen. 7) Das Adagio muss nicht zu lang sein.
49. §
Das erste Allegro’ erfordert: 1) einen fließenden, an einander hangenden, und etwas ernsthaften
Gesang; 2) einen guten Zusammenhang der Gedanken; 3) brilliante, und mit Gesange wohl vereinigte
Passagien; 4) eine gute Ordnung in Wiederholung der Gedanken; 5) schöne ausgesuchte Gänge zu
Ende des ersten Theils, welche zugleich so eingerichtet sein müssen, dass man in der Transposition
den letzten Theil wieder damit beschließen könne. 6) Der erste Theil muss etwas kürzer sein als der
letzte. 7) Die brillianten Passagien müssen in den letzten Theil gebracht werden. 8) Die Grundstimme
muss natürlich gestzet sein und solche Bewegungen machen, welche immer eine Lebhaftigkeit
unterhalten.
50. §
Das zweyte Allegro kann entweder sehr lustig und geschwind, oder moderat und arios sein. Man muss
sich deswegen nach dem ersten richten. Ist dasselbe ernsthaft: so kann das letzte lustig sein. Ist aber
das erste lebhaft und geschwind: so kann das letzte moderat und arios sein. /…/ Soll überhaupt ein
Solo einem jeden gefallen; so muss es so eingerichtet sein, dass die Gemüthsneigungen eines jeden
Zuhörers darinne ihre Nahrung finden. Es muss weder durchgehend pur cantabel, och durchgehend
pur lebhaft sein. So wie sich ein jeder Satz von dem andern sehr unterscheiden muss; so muss auch ein
jeder Satz, in sich selbst, eine gute Vermischung von gefälligen und brillanten Gedanken haben.
Quantz, Versuch, 304, ch. XVIII, §48‐50.
English translation from Edward R. Reilly, Johann Joachim Quantz. On Playing the Flute (London: Faber
& Faber, 1966), 318‐319.
123
Quantz, Versuch, 332, ch. XVIII §87.
62
these sonatas is fast – slow – fast, similar to Vivaldi’s instrumental concertos. The first
movement is usually built up around a ritornello form where the ritornello is interleaved
with virtuoso sections. Bach’s clearest examples of this compositional style can be found
in the first movement of the Sonata in B minor for flute and harpsichord BWV 1030; the
second movement of the Sonata in E minor BWV 1034 for flute and basso continuo; and
the first movement of the Sonata in G minor BWV 1029 for viola da gamba and
harpsichord.124
Eppstein uses the term “pronounced chamber sonata”126 to describe the Sonata in E
major, which I find a bit too categorical. There is reason to suggest that the second
movement has the character of a rigaudon, even if it is not as clear as Eppstein
would like it to be. The movement begins with clear rigaudon characteristics such as
clear four‐measure periods with gradually accelerating harmonic rhythm,127 but
these periods are not consistently applied.128 It is, however, likely that Eppstein’s
strongest argument for claiming that the movement is a rigaudon is the clear
similarity it bears to the Rigaudon from François Couperin’s fourth Concert Royeaux,
published in 1722, see Illustration 5:
124
For further discussion concerning this movement’s form see Jeanne R. Swack, “On the Origins of
the ‘Sonate auf Concertenart’,” Journal of the American Musicological Society, 46.3 (1993): 369‐414.
Details about Scheibe were also taken from this article.
125
“ausgesprochene Kammersonate,” Eppstein, “Flötensonaten,” 15.
126
Eppstein, “Flötensonaten,” 14.
127
I use the term “harmonic rhythm” to refer to the number of chord changes per measure.
128
Meredith Little, “Rigaudon,” in The New Grove Online http://www.grovemusic.com (accessed April
,
12 2007).
63
Illustration 5: F. Couperin Rigaudon from 4e Concert Royeaux, measures 1‐4, and J. S. Bach
BWV 1035 movement 2, measures 1‐4.
The most obvious similarities are the key and the opening figure, but whereas
Couperin uses this characteristic figure consistently throughout the movement in
the melodic voice as well as in the bass, Bach embroiders it with a great deal of
sixteenth notes.
When it comes to the fourth movements of the Sonata in E major, I can find no
support for Eppstein’s contention that it should be regarded as a quick polonaise.
The movement has none of the polonaise’s proud processional character, and
nothing that looks like the rhythmical scheme typical of a German polonaise, see
Illustration 6:129
Illustration 6: Different typical rhythmical forms in a polonaise.
The fourth movement from the sonata is also demonstrably dissimilar to the other
three movements that Bach labelled Polonaise – in the sixth French Suite BWV 817,
in the First Brandenburg Concerto BWV 1046, and in Orchestra Suite No 2 BWV
1067, see Illustration 7:
129
Daniela Gerstner, “Polonaise,” in Die Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart, Band. 7
(Kassel:Bärenreiter, 1997), columns 1686‐1689.
64
Illustration 7: The introductory measures to three polonaises of J. S. Bach.
Of the three examples above, the polonaise from BWV 1067 displays the proudest
affect most characteristic of ceremonial music, but also more than the other two
examples, displays typical traits of a polonaise.
The contrast with the opening to the Sonata in E major is great, with its soft upbeat
and similarly cantabile opening measure, see Illustration 8:
Illustration 8: Movement 4, measures 1‐2.
65
The Sonata in E major could rather be seen as an example of the blending of the
older church sonata and the newer chamber one, which from the 1730s onwards
became increasingly more common than a “pronounced chamber sonata.” Bach
preserves the movement scheme of the church sonata (slow – fast – slow – fast)
and uses traditional terms for sonata movements (Adagio ma non tanto – Allegro –
Siciliana130 – Allegro assai); in addition he sets the third movement in C# minor, the
parallel key to E major. However, he gives each movement a two‐part structure,
which is not common for the church sonatas, and he avoids writing a fugal second
movement, which would normally have been the case. Oleskiewicz also points out
that many sonatas from Dresden, and later from Berlin, took just this form.131
If we depart from the idea that Bach composed the piece entirely with this view in
mind, then the Sonata in E major could be seen as more forward‐looking and
perhaps even as calculating. He composed the sonata before Quantz had come to
Berlin, but through his knowledge of Dresden and the traditions that were in
fashion, he was familiar with the style. Besides that, Bach surely knew that
Frederick II was taking lessons with Quantz. Looking at the sonata from this
perspective makes it even more likely that it was written with the Berlin court in
mind and for Frederick II’s chamberlain Fredersdorf. One can only speculate on the
reasons, but it is probably not completely impossible that Bach, who received the
title of court composer in Dresden after a conscious lobbying effort, was after a
similar title in Berlin, and that the flute sonata was a first careful step on the way to
that goal.
130
In the manuscript c) the movement is marked Siciliano.
131
Oleskiewicz, “Quantz and the Flute at Dresden,” 426.
66
Excursus – galant style
More than any other musical style, the galant style is connected to Dresden. The term
galant comes from the French, and is used within both art and literature to evoke
chivalry and charm with connotations of moderation, as well as a desire to please.132 It
is first in Germany that the term became defined in connection to musical life. One
talked interchangeably about the galant style – galantery as a genre in itself, made up
of simple keyboard pieces based on dance forms – and about the theatre style. Johann
Mattheson, based in Hamburg, was one of the very first to describe this galant style. In
addition, he did it in connection with writing about a number of contemporaneous
composers, which he saw as representatives of this style. One thing they all had in
common was that they were all engaged in composing operas in the Italian style around
1720.133 Mattheson primarily used the term “theatrical style”, which he set up in
opposition to the church or strict style, a vocabulary that he shared with Johann Adolph
Scheibe and Johann David Heinichen, among others. The music that came to be
connected to the galant style more than any other, and was also labelled as such in its
own time, was opera and chamber music in an Italian style.134 One used a French word
to describe something that was new and modern, but the “new” material was Italian in
its derivation.135
Heinichen is perhaps the most important person when it comes to the galant style and
its connection to Johann Sebastian Bach. Heinichen became the Kapellmeister in
Dresden in 1717, and as such, worked closely with important solo instrumentalists like
the violinists Pisendel and Veracini, the lutenist Weiss, as well as the flutists Buffardin
and Quantz. Heinichen believed that music should be composed in a style that combined
the Italian, French, and German musical tastes.136 He described this in his extensive
figured bass school Der General‐Bass in der Composition, oder Neue und gründliche
Anweisung from 1728, where he also was troubled over the north German predilection
for writing contrapuntally. As the title of his book suggests, it deals not only with the art
of playing figured bass, but also about the importance of figured bass for composition –
a way of viewing the role of figured bass study that was also shared by J. S. Bach. Even
if Bach did not share Heinichen’s stylistic belief that counterpoint had only two functions
132
Daniel Heartz and Bruce Allan Brown, “Galant,” in The New Grove Online
http://www.grovemusic.com (accessed n April 20, 2007).
133
Johann Mattheson, Das Forschende Orchester, Hamburg 1721 (facsimile rpt. Laaber: Laaber, 2002),
276 and 353.
134
David A. Sheldon, “The Galant Style Revisited and Re‐Evaluated,” Acta Musicologica, 47.2 (1975):
254.
135
Daniel Heartz, Music in European Capitals: The Galant Style, 1720‐1780 (New York; W. W. Norton &
Co. 2003), 19.
136
George J. Buelow, Thorough‐Bass Accompaniment according to Johann David Heinichen (Ann Arbor:
UMI Research Press, 1966), 281.
67
– to be used in compositional studies or in church music – Bach was familiar with
Heinichen’s book and the trains of thought that he presented about musical style.137
Heinichen points out that the theatrical style should not be weighed down with too
many serious ideas. The pathetic, the melancholic, and the phlegmatic were effective in
the church style or the chamber style, but not in the theatrical. The theatrical style
should focus rather on entertainment than on expressing melancholy, without being too
polished.138
According to Heinichen, it was the free treatment of dissonance that was the most
concrete distinctive feature of the theatrical and galant style that made the music, and
the composition, freer from existing rules of counterpoint.139 This could, among other
things, mean that the leading tone could resolve up in another octave, something that
was impossible in a stricter style.140
Roughly seventy years later, Hans Christian Koch describes this free and unhampered
writing style and notes:
1) through many elaborations of the melody, and the divisions oft he principal
melodic tones, through more obvious breaks and pauses in the melody, and
through more changes in the rhythmic elements, and especially in the lining up of
melodic figures that do not have a close relationship with each other, etc.
2) through a less interwoven harmony
3) through the fact that the remaining voices simply serve to accompany the main
voice and do not take part in the expression of the sentiment of the piece, etc.141
137
Buelow, Thorough‐Bass Accompaniment, 280 (counterpoint); Wolff, Bach: The Learned Musician,
333‐334 (Bach’s knowledge of Heinichen’s book). Bach was also a dealer for Heinichen’s book. See
Robert L. Marshall, “Bach the Progressive: Observations on His Later Works,” The Musical Quarterly,
vol. 62.3 (1976): 316.
138
Buelow, Thorough‐Bass Accompaniment, 282.
139
Buelow, Thorough‐Bass Accompaniment, 382.
140
Heartz, The Galant Style, 210.
141
“1) durch mannigfaltigere Verzierungen der Melodie, und Zergliederungen der melodischen
Hauptnoten, durch mehr hervorstehende Absätze und Einschnitte, und durch mehr Abwechslung der
rhythmischen Theile derselben, und besonders durch das Aneinanderreihen solcher melodischen
Theile, die nicht immer in der nächsten Beziehung auf einander stehen u. s .w.
2) durch eine weniger verwickelte Harmonie, und
3) dadurch, daß die übrigen Stimmender Hauptstimme bloß zur Begleitung dienen, und als begleitende
Stimmen mehrentheils keinen ganz unmittelbaren Antheil an dem Ausdruck der Empfindung haben u.
s. w.“ Heinrich Christoph Koch, Musikalisches Lexikon, Frankfurt/Main 1802 (facsimile rpt. Kassel:
Bärenreiter, 2001), 1453.
Translation from Leonard G. Ratner, Classic Music: Expression, Form, and Style (New York: Schirmer,
1980), 23.
68
Here Koch gives perhaps one of the clearest recorded descriptions of the typical
characteristics of the galant style. It also constitutes a good summary of what different
writers during the first half of the eighteenth century wrote about music of their own
time.142
Discussion
To what extent was J. S. Bach affected by these currents, primarily in Dresden,
where the Italian influence was obvious? Marshall suggests that contacts with
Dresden, in combination with the leadership of the Collegium Musicum in Leipzig,
led Bach to compose more and more in a style that can be described as galant, at
least when it came to music that he was asked to compose – such as the different
kinds of secular celebratory cantatas – but that the style also influenced works such
as the Mass in B minor and the Goldberg Variations.143 Perhaps it is going too far to
call Bach’s compositional style from the 1730s “galant,” at least if one considers
how contemporary writers described the style. However, in some movements, in
some pieces, the characteristics can be found.
Possibly Bach was also extra‐sensitive to different stylistic trends after the critique
that was levelled at him by Johann Adolph Scheibe in an article from 1737.144
Scheibe was a competent music critic and theoretician, but also a composer, and
strongly influenced musically by Telemann, who, like Scheibe, was based in
Hamburg. Stylistically, Scheibe argued for a musical style that was in line with the
developing Enlightenment Era philosophy and its emphasis on the natural. Scheibe
was of the opinion that Bach’s compositional style was too bombastic and complex,
which meant that the beauty of compositions was overshadowed by too much
artificial artistic skill. Bach’s compositions were, furthermore, too difficult to
perform, and since all the ornaments were written out, Bach left no freedom to the
performer. The artificial had led Bach away from the natural, from the noble to the
142
Heartz, The Galant Style, 1005.
143
Marshall, “Bach the Progressive,” 328 and 338. Marshall is strongly contradicted by Frederick
Neumann in the article “Bach: Progressive or Conservative and the Authorship of the Goldberg Aria,”
The Musical Quarterly, 71.3 (1985): 281‐294. For Neumann it is unthinkable that Bach should have
degenerated into writing in a style that would touch upon the galant. Neumann cannot even concede
that the third movement in the trio sonata from the Musical Offering BWV 1079 has galant influences,
something that is commented upon for example by Wolff in Bach: The Learned Musician, 430.
69
obscure. Scheibe concludes his article by saying that even if one admires Bach for
his work and his toil, that admiration is wasted because the music fights against
nature and reason.145 If one relates this critique to a Telemannian compositional
style, or, for that matter, even to that which is described by Mattheson at this time,
it is clear that Scheibe criticised Bach precisely because he retains the old, learned
style – instead of turning toward the beautiful surfaces of the galant style in the
same way that, above all, Telemann had done.
This critique can have affected Bach, and may have led to the writing of the Sonata
in E major in the way that he did. I suggest that the sonata can be described as
galant, but at the same time that the sonata balances between different genres, it
also balances between a learned and a galant style. The decorations in the first
movement are connected to the galant style, but at the same time, they are rather
too extensive to be typical – not least, if we compare them with the ornamented
slow movements of Telemann’s Methodische Sonaten.146 In Telemann, we find
short, fairly simple ornaments, but in Bach’s sonata there are many more notes in
the ornaments and they are more complex. Bach also uses rich rhythmic variation in
the way that Koch describes (see page 68), and at the same time, breaks
conventions by letting the syncopations and the pauses on accented parts of the
measure primarily lie in the bass voice. According to conventions of the galant style,
the bass voice should have neither obvious traits of imitation nor any particularly
important rhythm.
Summary
In this section on genre and style, I have touched upon how the Sonata in E major
has been categorised by previous research from the perspective of the sonata
genre, and where it has been seen to fall between the church sonata and the
144
Bach Dokumente II, nr 400. The critique that Scheibe put forth is built on the fact that he was
mainly familiar with Bach’s vocal works since his childhood and school days in Leipzig.
145
George J. Buelow, “In Defence of J. A. Scheibe against J S Bach,” Proceedings of the Royal Musical
Association, 101 (1974‐1975): 87‐88. Bach did not respond to this critique personally, it was done by
professor of rhetoric at the University of Leipzig Johann Abraham Birnbaum, who was a good friend of
Bach. It has been generally accepted that the pamphlet that gave an answer to Scheibe’s criticism was
formulated and written by Birnbaum, but that Bach was perfectly aware of and influenced what was
written. The pamphlet is published in Bach Dokumente II, nr 409.
146
Georg Philipp Telemann, Methodische Sonaten, ed. Max Seiffert (Kassel: Bärenreiter, 1965).
70
chamber sonata. Furthermore, connections to the dominant musical preferences in
Dresden and Berlin were also discussed.
As we have established in the excursus on the galant style, this style is known for its
various decorations of the melody, short phrases, changeable rhythms, dominance
of the melodic voice over the less important bass, and by its simpler harmonies,
often in combination with a slower harmonic rhythm.
From both a stylistic and genre perspective, the sonata is more incongruous than it
first seems, even though the galant style dominates in the same way as the
characteristics of a chamber sonata.
Instrumentation
The choice of instrumentation is another factor dependent on the socio‐cultural
context. Perhaps this choice is especially important with the Sonata in E major if we
assume from the dedication to Fredersdorf that this sonata must have eventually
landed on the music stand of the flute‐playing Frederick II. Which instrument was
intended? What did it look like? How was it used? How did Bach write for the flute?
Which function, what meaning, did the instrument have? Some of these questions
are too large to be properly addressed here, and perhaps they are not even decisive
for the discussion of the Sonata in E major. At the same time, I would suggest that if
we speak of a socio‐cultural context that somehow leads Bach to write a particular
sonata intended for a particular instrument, it is relevant to look at the question of
instrumentation. From the interpreter’s perspective, the question of which flute we
should use is relevant to the highest degree.
147
For a more thorough discussion, see among others, Hans‐Peter Schmitz, Querflöte und
Querflötenspiel in Deutschland während des Barockzeitalters (Kassel: Bärenreiter, 1952); Ardal Powell,
The Flute, (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002); Paul Carroll, Baroque Woodwind Instruments: A
Guide to Their History, Repertoire and Basic Technique (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1999); and Jonathan
Wainwright and Peter Holman, eds., From Renaissance to Baroque: Change in Instruments and
Instrumental Music in the Seventeenth Century (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2005).
71
one piece, to the baroque flute, conically bored in three pieces, took place primarily in
France. It was also there that the instrument experienced its first golden age at the end
of the seventeenth century.
We have an extensive extant repertoire of pieces and suites for different numbers of
flutes and basso continuo written by composers like Marais, Philidor, de la Barre, and
Hotteterre, dating from the period around the turn of the eighteenth century and
forward. At first, it was normally noted that the music was written for recorder, violin,
oboe, or flute, but composers became successively more instrument‐specific, leading to
more specific instrumentation instructions.
Apart from his compositions, Hotteterre also wrote an instruction book originally
intended for amateurs that had great success when published in 1707. As the flute
spread through northern and central Europe, the book was translated into many
languages and became stylistically influential for how one played on the instrument.148
One of the first notations that a flutist was present in a German orchestra or ensemble
comes from Dresden, where French flutists had been present from 1709. In 1715, the
French virtuoso Buffardin came to Dresden but only a few years later the account books
give flutists with German names, among them Johann Martin Blochwitz and Johann
Joachim Quantz.
The unique music culture that happened around the court in Dresden affected the
German music scene in general and played a decisive role for how the instrument and its
repertoire developed in Germany. Besides Quantz, both Telemann and J. S. Bach were
influenced by this culture, not least when it came to music written for flute.149
Mattheson was among the first in Germany to publish music specifically written for flute
with the collection Der Brauchbare Virtuoso,150 composed in 1717 and published in
1720.151 Stylistically, these pieces are clearly influenced by Italian violin music with its
continuous sixteenth‐note or eighth‐note motion in arpeggiated figures (see Illustration
148
Jaques Hotteterre, Principes de la Flûte traversière ou flûte d’Allemagne; de la flute à bec, ou flute
douce; et du haut‐bois, (Paris: no pub., 1707). After Hotteterre’s book, several similar instruction books
were published, especially in England, Holland, and France, but before Quantz’s Versuch, no
instruction book had any substantial material different from Hotteterre’s publication.
149
Mary Oleskiewicz, “The Flute at Dresden,” in From Renaissance to Baroque: Change in Instruments
and Instrumental Music in the Seventeenth Century, ed. Wainwright and Holman (Aldershot: Ashgate,
2005), 145‐165.
150
Johann Mattheson, Der Brauchbare Virtuoso, Welcher sich (nach beliebiger überlegung der Vorrede)
mit Zwölf neuen Kammer‐Sonaten auf der Flute Traversiere, der Violine, und dem Claviere/ beij
Gelegenheit hören lassen mag (Hamburg: no pub., 1720).
151
In the epilogue to the sixteen‐page‐long foreword Mattheson writes that the sonatas were
composed already three years earlier, 1717, and if had the opportunity to write new sonatas he would
have written them in a more elegant style.
72
9). This is a style that affected Quantz’s compositions and that he maintained during his
entire active period, as did Frederick II in his own compositional output.
Illustration 9: Sonata III from Der Brauchbare Virtuso of J. Mattheson, opening of
movement 2.
In order for music written with continuously arpeggiated movements that often take
advantage of the c’ octave to function acoustically on the flute, it is necessary that the
lowest register is as strong as possible. This was also a prominent sonic feature among
the French flutes from around 1700, instruments that were taken as models when the
German instrument builders began building flutes during the beginning of the
eighteenth century. By using a strongly conical boring, they achieved an acoustically
strong lowest register, at times at the expense of the highest register in the third octave
that could be unclear and difficult to use. This type of boring became the dominant one,
even when the flute’s construction changed in a decisive way shortly after 1720.
Because the different courts of Europe used different pitch standards, it was necessary
to be able to adapt wind instruments to a pitch that could vary from a’ ≈ 390 Hz to a’≈
422 Hz. This was solved by dividing the three‐part flute into four parts instead. Because
the part that was used by the left hand lay closest to the mouthpiece, it had the greatest
affect on the pitch, and could easily be changed out for another with a different length
that gave another pitch.
Johann Joachim Quantz, apart from being a flutist in Dresden and teacher of the crown
prince who later became King Frederick II of Prussia, was also a flute maker. Some
characteristics that distinguished his instruments included the strong conical boring,
thick walls that gave room for a large inner diameter, low pitch (the preserved flutes
from his production all have a pitch of a’ ≈ 390 Hz) and an extra key in order to produce
the enharmonic difference between d# and eb. Taken altogether, this made Quantz’s
flutes very appropriate for music with a low tessitura and an arpeggiated motion. In
73
addition, because of this extra key, his instruments were especially appropriate for keys
like E major and Eb major.152
Around Europe in general, however, flute builders began to reduce the conical angle of
the flute boring step by step, which made the higher register more effective, something
that was important for an increasingly elegant sound ideal that often used the flute as a
kind of acoustic crown at the top of the soundscape. These instruments were also much
more easily played and did not demand as much air. The pitch was raised successively,
and during the 1730s there was a general rejection of the original French low pitch of a’
≈ 390 Hz (more or less a whole tone under modern pitch) and more standardisation
around a’ ≈ 410 – 420 Hz.
The flute won popularity quickly in Germany and the rest of Europe in general and had
soon overtaken the recorder. Until the middle of the eighteenth century, the size of the
repertoire grew substantially, including the moderately difficult repertoire for
“Liebhaber.”
Bach’s first acquaintance with the flute could have been in 1717, just before he
began his position in Cöthen, when he was in Dresden to play an organ competition
against Louis Marchand, a competition that was arranged by Volumier, the
Konzertmeister in Dresden.153 In Dresden at this time, the French flutist Buffardin
occupied the first chair (see page 72); it is possible that Bach became acquainted
with Buffardin in connection with this visit, and through him had a first introduction
to the instrument’s possibilities and limitations.
152
Mary Oleskiewicz, “The Trio in Bach’s Musical Offering: A Salute to Frederick’s Tastes and Quantz’s
Flutes?” in The Music of J. S. Bach, Analysis and Interpretation, ed. David Schulenberg (Lincoln Neb.:
University of Nebraska, 1999), 96.
153
Marshall, “Bach’s Compositions for Solo Flute,” 479. Marchand never came to the competition. He
disappeared from Dresden the day before.
74
The first compositions of Bach in which the flute figures prominently are the
cantatas BWV 173a and BWV 184a, as well as the Fifth Brandenburg Concerto BWV
1019. Besides the fact that the cantatas can clearly be traced to Bach’s time in
Cöthen, since both cantatas celebrate Prince Leopold of Anhalt‐Cöthen, it is
impossible to say with certainty when they were written. Most current writers date
at least BWV 173a to 1722, for several reasons, including the autograph’s
handwriting, as well as the content of the libretto, and its execution.154
Were there any flutists in Cöthen? The only flutists that are named in connection
with Bach and Cöthen are the “Cammer Musicus” Johann Heinrich Freytag, and
Johann Gottlieb Würdig.155 Freytag died sometime in 1720, and Würdig became the
director of the city pipers in 1717, and cannot be traced after 1722.156 It seems,
therefore, unfruitful to try to date the cantatas using the documented presence of
the flutists.
Besides the cantatas, the only other preserved composition that requires a flutist,
and that can definitely be connected to Bach’s time in Cöthen, is the Fifth
Brandenburg Concerto in D major, scored for a solo group with flute, violin, and
harpsichord, as well as a tutti group. Both the flute and violin voices have a
moderate level of difficulty, while the harpsichord part is highly virtuosic. The
concerto was performed in its entirety in 1719 on the occasion of the inauguration
of a new harpsichord for the court in Cöthen.157 The middle movement of the
concerto, scored for a chamber music combination of flute, violin and harpsichord,
could have been composed as early as 1717, before Bach’s above‐mentioned visit
to Dresden. It should also be noted that the flute part of the preserved celebratory
cantata for Prince Leopold BWV 173a has a very moderate level of difficulty, and
even though the flute part in BWV 184a is more technically demanding, it does not
154
Marshall, “Bach’s Compositions for Solo Flute,” 480; Ulrich Prinz, Johann Sebastian Bachs
Instrumentarium. Originalquellen, Besetzung, Verwendung (Kassel: Bärenreiter, 2005), 247; Hans‐
Joachim Schulze, Die Bach‐Kantaten. Einführungen zu sämtlichen Kantaten Johann Sebastian Bachs
(Stuttgart: Carus Verlag, 2006), 670.
155
Prinz , Bachs Instrumentarium, 258‐259.
156
Ardal Powell with David Lasocki, “Bach and the Flute: the Players, the Instruments, the Music,”
Early Music vol. 23.1 (1995): 19‐20.
157
Christoph Wolff, “Johann Sebastian Bach,” in The New Grove Online http://www.grovemusic.com
(accessed on March 28, 2007).
75
have the solo role. Rather, Bach uses the flutes either as a sound colour together
with the violin or in more simple descant parts.
Bach took up his appointment 1723 as cantor of Leipzig’s St. Thomas Church and
began his career by composing cantatas for all of the Sundays of the church year. Of
the five cycles of cantatas he is documented to have composed, only three cycles
are extant today, of which only the first two are complete; they come from the
period between June of 1723 and May of 1725.158
In the first cycle, there is a flute part in four of the cantatas, all from the spring of
1724: BWV 67 performed on April 16th, BWV 172 on May 28th, BWV 173 on May 29th
and BWV 184 on May 30th. The concentration of cantatas around the end of May
coincides with the dates of Pentecost in 1724. These three Pentecost cantatas are
based on previously composed works; BWV 173 and BWV 184 are based on BWV
173a and BWV 184a (see above) with the addition of new text; BWV 172 was
written in 1714 in Weimar and performed there in another key. It is possible to
suggest that Bach had two flutists available for this Pentecost festival, but it is
equally possible that this was an exception. Cantata BWV 67 requires a flute that
has an independent voice in one movement; otherwise the flute plays colla parte
with the oboe or violin, or in octaves with the viola. It seems to be an exceptional
event that Bach had access to a flutist for this cantata. The question of how the St.
John Passion was first scored still remains, since it was performed for the first time
just one week earlier, on April 7, 1724.
The St. John Passion that we know today engages two flutes, and has two arias
where they serve as obbligato instruments.159 Whether Bach actually scored the
158
Every annual cycle of cantatas began with the first Sunday after Holy Trinity Sunday, which had the
practical aspect that Bach began his position on that Sunday in 1723. Otherwise, it would perhaps have
been more natural for Bach to follow the liturgical year, from the First Sunday of Advent to Christ the
King Sunday.
159
The movements are numbered 9 and 35 respectively in the Neue Bach‐Ausgabe, which is the
edition that is used regularly for most performances of the St. John Passion today. It is based on the
changes made in 1739 and the fourth version from 1749 in combination with the score that was
completed about ten years after Bach’s death. Movement number 9 is played by two flutes in unison
and number 35 is often played by one flute against one oboe da caccia, but there is a notation in the
posthumously completed score, that even number 35 should be played by two flutes in unison and
also two oboes da caccia in unison. See Hans‐Joachim Schulze and Christoph Wolff, Bach Compendium:
76
first version of the work for two flutes has been questioned by Alfred Dürr, among
others.160 Dürr points out that we only have the vocal ripieno parts from the first
version, and doubled parts from the string group. There is no surviving score, and
there are no preserved parts for wind instruments, and none of the vocal or
instrumental solo parts have survived either.161 In 1725, when the work was to be
performed anew in the St. Thomas Church, (the 1724 performance occurred in the
St. Nicolai Church) Bach wrote new material, and made substantial changes. In this
version, there are two clearly separate flute parts that contain soloistic material.
In general, one can say that the role of the flute in the most commonly performed
version of the St. John Passion is relatively insignificant. Either the flutes are used as
sound colour, in so much as they play colla parte or octavate the viola or tenor
voice, or the keys are such in the more soloistic movements that the instrument’s
sound is obscured.162 The one exception is the short movement numbered 23f in
the Neue Bach‐Ausgabe where the flutes play in a range and a key that suits the
instrument.
Can it simply have been that the St. John Passion was performed without flutes in
1724? How then would the version from 1724 have been scored in the movements
that we know today to be arias with flute (“Ich folge dir gleichfalls mit freudigen
Schritten” and “Zerfließe, mein Herz, in Fluten der Zahren”)? The alternatives are
limited; solo oboe or violin are both possible since these two melody instruments
already appear in the orchestra. Perhaps it is most likely that both of these arias
were played by the violin, an idea that can be supported by looking at Aria 35 in the
1749 version, where the violin doubles the flute part – something that is rarely
heard in contemporary performances.
Analytisch‐bibliographisches Repertorium der Werke Johann Sebastian Bachs, Band 3, (Leipzig: Peters,
1988), 985‐1023.
160
Alfred Dürr, St John Passion. Genesis, Transmission, and Meaning (Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2000).
161
In vocal and instrumental solo parts from this time, the entire work is included, not only the solo
voices as is the common practice today. Soloists played or sang everything while the instrumentalists
and singers of the ripieno joined and strengthened the parts the needed larger numbers of musicians.
162
The arias are in B major and F minor respective, two keys that are acoustically weak on the flute
compared with sharp keys with few sharps. See page 115 for a deeper discussion of the way different
keys affect the flute’s sound.
77
Further support for the idea that the first version from 1724 was scored without
flutes can be seen in the revision that Bach had intended to make before the
performance of the work in 1739 – again in the St. Nicolai Church. Here, he gives
the following instrumentation at the beginning of the score: oboe 1 and 2; violin 1
and 2; viola, and basso continuo. This version, which was never finished because the
performance was cancelled since the city did not give its permission, was based on
the score of the 1724 version. Bach wrote down ten movements in a revised form
before the cancellation, regularly scoring for oboe, but nowhere did he notate that
the flute should play.163
We do not have any evidence that Bach had a flutist available on a regular basis
before August of 1724. Up until the middle of November of the same year there is
at least one movement in almost every cantata from this period that demands a
high level of skill from a flutist, often in a style that is reminiscent of that which
Mattheson used in the examples above (see page 73). No other period in Bach’s
production has such a concentration of works with flute than the fall of 1724.
It is striking that during this period Bach seems to have treated the flute exclusively
as a solo instrument. Only in rare cases does the flute play in movements with a
larger orchestration, and even then, it is used in a solo capacity. One example of this
is the first movement of Cantata BWV 94, where the chorale is set against an
instrumental movement clearly exemplifying characteristics of a flute concerto, see
Illustration 10:
163
For further discussion of this instrumentation question, see Schulze and Wolff, Bach Compendium,
985‐1023. It should also be added that the viola da gamba is missing from this accounting despite the
fact that the aria “Es ist vollbracht” in the versions that we know require a gamba. The lute part is not
in the same way exclusively for written for lute, because Bach replaces the lute with the organ in some
versions.
78
Illustration 10: BWV 94, measures 15‐17.
It is only later that Bach uses the flute also as a sound colour in orchestral
movements.
After 1724 the flute appears more sporadically in Bach’s preserved production,
which is in agreement with the idea that Bach clearly saw the flute as an instrument
that was not completely necessary but desirable for its ability to create contrasts.
The wind instruments that Bach himself saw as necessary were the trumpet (three),
the oboe (three of which one could be an oboe da caccia), as well as the bassoon
(one).164 In March of 1729, Bach takes over the directorship of Leipzig’s Collegium
Musicum, which coincides with the period where his use of the flute increases
164
Bach Dokumente I, nr 22.
79
markedly. It is possible that he could use these musicians, the majority of whom
were students at the University of Leipzig, in the different performances that took
place in the city’s churches.165
Partita (Solo) A minor, flute, BWV 1013, ca 1724
Sonata E minor , flute and basso continuo, BWV 1034, ca 1724
165
Prinz, Bachs Instrumentarium, 259.
80
Sonata B minor, flute and obbligato keyboard instrument, BWV 1030, ca 1736
Sonata A major, flute and obbligato keyboard instrument, BWV 1032 ca 1736
Trio sonata G major, flute, violin and basso continuo, BWV 1039, ca 1736‐1741?
Trio sonata c minor , flute, violin and basso continuo, BWV 1079, 1747
81
Previous Bach research suggested that most chamber music works were composed
during Bach’s period in Cöthen between 1717 and 1723, but the only instrumental
work with flute that can be dated with any certainty to this period is the Fifth
Brandenburg Concerto from 1719. Concerning the other works, convincing evidence
has been shown that they were produced in the Leipzig period between 1723 and
1750. As we have already seen, it was not likely that there were flutists in Leipzig
before April of 1724. On the other hand, Bach must have had access to a very
capable flutist during the fall of 1724; it is because of this that the Solo Partita in A
minor BWV 1013, and the Sonata in E minor BWV 1034, are now considered to be
from 1724 – even if this is not possible to prove with certainty.166 However, we can
say with complete certainty that the E minor Sonata was written before 1727, the
year from which we have a score copy written by Johann Peter Kellner, who was
one of the most prolific copyists of Bach’s music.167
Both of these four‐movement works make great demands on the flutist. In its form,
the partita is a relatively typical German suite, consisting of four movements with
dance movement titles. All of the movements are also bipartite with reprises. The
partita is one of the few works, perhaps the only one, for flute from the eighteenth
century that takes advantage of the entire range of the flute from d’ to a’’’.
The Sonata in E minor BWV 1034 for flute and basso continuo is a sonata da chiesa
with a harmonically complex first movement with continuous suspensions between
the flute voice and the bass. The opening walking bass in the style of an andante
movement later becomes clearly imitative. The sonata’s second movement is one of
the earliest examples in Bach of what Scheibe described as a Sonate auf
Concertenart (see page 62), that is, the composition of a sonata movement as if it
was a part of a solo concerto. Here the solo and tutti sections can be discerned
more clearly than in perhaps any of the other examples from Bach’s production.
The third movement, in the parallel key of G major, is built up over an ostinato bass.
166
Christoph Wolff, “Johann Sebastian Bach, in The New Grove Online http://www.grovemusic.com
(accessed on March 28). These ideas surrounding the dating are also discussed in Marcello Castellani,
“J. S. Bach’s ‘Solo pour la flûte traversière’: Köthen oder Leipzig?” Tibia 14 (1989): 567‐573. BWV 1013
is given the general title of Partita but in the only surviving manuscript, not an autograph, the piece is
titled Solo pour la Flute Traversiere par J S Bach. See Schmitz, “Kritischer Bericht,” 8.
167
Russell Stinson, The Bach Manuscripts of Johann Peter Kellner and His Circle: A Case Study in
Reception History (Durham: Duke University Press, 1990), 166.
82
The sonata concludes with a bipartite allegro, which despite its obvious clarity and
simplicity shows a great deal of dialog between the voices.
The Sonata in B minor BWV 1030 and the Sonata in A major BWV 1032, both for
flute and obbligato keyboard instrument, were probably composed in the middle of
the 1730s. For both of these sonatas there are autograph manuscripts to consult.
The dating to 1736 is based on when these autographs were written down, which
probably only gives the latest possible date for when they could have been
composed.168 It is, however, relatively likely that both the sonatas were written
during the period when Bach led the Collegium Musicum. The Sonata in B minor is
also one of Bach’s most extensive and intricate chamber music works, and Marshall
further suggests that it could have been planned for Buffardin who was still in
Dresden in the middle of the 1730s.169
This trio structure for two instruments, where the keyboard instrument’s right hand
has an equally important function as the solo instrument, led to a further
development of the sonata genre manifesting in the late‐eighteenth‐century
sonatas for keyboard with accompanying melodic instrument. Bach works are a
precursor to this compositional style where the keyboard instrument is said to be
freed from its accompanying role and made independent; it is during the Leipzig
period that Bach develops this technique. The six violin sonatas BWV 1014‐1019 are
the first composition of this type, originally written in this form and for this
combination of instruments. An earlier version of the harpsichord part for the
Sonata in B minor BWV 1030 survives notated in G minor. It has, therefore, been
discussed whether the sonata was originally written for oboe and keyboard, or
whether the G minor version was originally for flute or even existed as a trio sonata
for two flutes.170
It is also possible that the sonata could originally have been a trio sonata reworked
by Bach, as he clearly did in the six trio sonatas for organ BWV 525‐530. At least
some of the movements of the organ sonatas exist in previous instrumental
168
Schmitz, “Kritischer Bericht,” 29.
169
Marshall, “Bach’s Compositions for Solo Flute,” 217.
170
See, among others, Barthold Kuijken’s introduction to Breitkopf’s edition of the sonata, and Michael
Heinemann, ed., Das Bach‐Lexikon. (Laaber: Laaber Verlag, 2000), 193.
83
versions from cantatas and other similar works.171 Bach notated these six organ
sonatas in a strict trio structure for two manuals and pedal. In comparison to this
structure, the Sonata in B minor is much more complex. It is interesting to note that
by composing a written‐out harpsichord part, Bach again can be seen to limit the
freedom of the musician in relation to the notation. With a figured bass line, the
innovative capacity of the keyboardist was important since he was expected to be
able to translate the bass line and figures into a multi‐voice setting with correct
voice leading. With an obbligato keyboard part, one can say that Bach takes
command over the performance.
The opening andante of the Sonata in B minor has a contrapuntal and harmonic
complexity like no other chamber music work from this period. The movement is
another example of a sonata movement written in the ritornello form of a concerto.
It is followed by a richly ornamented siciliano movement (although it is titled Largo
e dolce) where the obbligato keyboard part is a de facto written‐out figured bass
line, far from our often relatively thin figured bass realisations. Here the figured
bass realisation is often in five voices, and the highest voice is regularly in the same
tessitura, or even higher than the flute part. Near the end of the movement he
writes an octave doubling of the bass line.
The sonata’s final movement is bipartite and consists of a strict introductory fugue,
in what can be called stile antico, followed by a gigue built around imitation
between the two upper voices.
The autograph for the Sonata in A major is found on the three systems that were
blank at the bottom of the score to the Concerto in C minor for two harpsichords
and orchestra. After the end of the concerto score, the flute sonata takes up the
rest of the systems on the following page of the notebook. Why Bach notated it this
way can only be speculated on, but one possibility is that both the harpsichord
concerto and the flute sonata were intended for the same concert with the
Collegium Musicum in Leipzig, and that they appear together simply for practical
reasons. The sonata is not complete; about 46 measures from the first movement
171
Siegbert Rampe, ed., Bachs Klavier‐ und Orgelwerke. Das Handbuch, (Laaber: Laaber Verlag, 2008),
799.
84
are missing. They were simply cut out of the autograph sometime during Bach’s
lifetime.172
The incomplete introductory movement as well as the concluding third movement
are based on ritornello structures, but in a much simpler compositional style than in
the Sonata in B minor. The second movement, called Largo e dolce, is a siciliano‐like
movement in the somewhat surprising key of A minor. It would have been natural
to use F# minor, the parallel key to A major. The key of the middle movement has
led to speculations about an original version of the sonata with the outer
movements in C major.
The preserved chamber music that includes flute and is considered to be definitely
by Bach, also includes two trio sonatas, the Trio Sonata in G major BWV 1039 for
two flutes and basso continuo and the Trio Sonata in C minor from the Musical
Offering BWV 1079 for flute, violin, and basso continuo.
BWV 1039 is a sonata da chiesa in four movements, slow – fast – slow – fast, that
possibly originally was a trio sonata in G major for two violins and basso continuo.
Later, around 1740, Bach reworked the sonata and adapted it for gamba and
obbligato keyboard.173 As a trio sonata for two flutes, the work is not particularly
successful acoustically. The tessitura of the flute parts lies in a relatively low range,
making little use of the arpeggiated figures that are so effective in both of the solo
partita’s first two movements and in three of the Sonata in E minor’s four
movements.
The four movements of the trio sonata from the Musical Offering BWV 1079 are
based on the so‐called royal theme from Bach’s famous visit to the Berlin court of
Frederick II. The key of C minor is unfavourable to the flute at first glance, but with a
flute from the tradition represented by Quantz (see page 73), the work functions
172
That it was done during Bach’s time can be confirmed since a number of bass notes of the concerto
were also cut off and Bach wrote them in himself in letter notation. For a more thorough discussion on
the reason and possible reconstructions see Michael Marissen, “A Critical Reappraisal of J. S. Bach’s A‐
Major Flute Sonata,” The Journal of Musicology 6.3 (1988): 367‐386, and Jeanne R. Swack, “J. S. Bach’s
A Major Flute Sonata BWV 1032 Revisited,” in Bach Studies 2, ed. Daniel R. Melamed (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1995), 154‐174, as well as the editions of Bärenreiter (Schmitz), Breitkopf
(Kuijken) and Henle (Eppstein) that all three present their own attempts at reconstruction.
173
Eppstein, J. S. Bachs Sonaten, 73.
85
very well, even though it demands a high level of technical ability. Stylistically, the
sonata is a kind of homage to Frederick II with clearly galant characteristics,
especially in the third movement.174
Apart from the sonatas that briefly have been presented here, there are three other
flute sonatas where there still is a great deal of uncertainty about authorship: the
two three‐movement sonatas for flute and obbligato keyboard instrument in Eb
major BWV 1031, and G minor BWV 1020, respectively, as well as a sonata in four
movements for flute and basso continuo in C major BWV 1033.
How can we relate the Sonata in E major to the writing of the other chamber music
works? As we have already seen in the section on genre and style, the Sonata in E
major is simple in its harmonic structure with a generally slower harmonic rhythm.
The sonata also has relatively few instances of imitation or dialog between the two
voices, something that is so common in Bach’s other compositions. Instead, melody
voice of the Sonata in E major dominates completely over the bass voice.
Summary
In the section on instrumentation, I focused on the flute as an instrument,
beginning with its early‐eighteenth‐century construction when it became an
increasingly common part of German ensembles and orchestras. The centre of this
development was Dresden; it was also in Dresden that an instrument‐idiomatic
compositional style developed that was a further development of violin‐idiomatic
writing with it’s continuously arpeggiated motion.
I have also established that Bach did not seriously begin to use the flute before the
autumn of 1724, but when he did begin, he wrote solistically for it in a way that is
more technically demanding and more advanced than other flute music of the time.
The very first performance of the St. John Passion took place in April of 1724, and
even though today we take for granted that the work is scored with flutes, I present
174
The literature concerning the Musical Offering in general is very rich. The trio sonata in particular is
treated, among others, by Oleskiewicz (see Oleskiewicz, “The Trio in Bach’s Musical Offering,” 79‐110)
who lays particular focus on the function of the flute in the work. See also the present dissertation’s
section on the galant style, page 66‐69.
86
an argument that suggests that the flutes were not introduced to the score until the
performance in 1725.
The amount of Bach chamber music that includes flute is not extensive, but it is
stylistically interesting. And it is highly likely that the development of these works
covers a time period of almost 25 years – from the Partita in A minor from 1724 (or
possibly earlier) to the trio sonata from the Musical Offering from 1747. In this
section, I have briefly examined the different sonatas from a structural standpoint,
and it can be established that the Sonata in E major is relatively different from the
other works, perhaps primarily concerning the simple harmonic structure, and the
dominance of the melodic voice over the bass voice, as well as the insignificant
degree of imitation between the voices.
Concluding reflections
I have tried to construct a historical socio‐cultural context of the Sonata in E major
in this chapter. Many of the threads in this discussion lead to the conclusion that
the E major Sonata is a work that was written for a special recipient in a specific
milieu. This idea was strengthened by a review of Bach’s other chamber music with
flute. Among these works, only the E major Sonata uses an idiom that sets the
melody before the harmony to the high degree that Scheibe wished for, Telemann
composed, and Mattheson taught. In the other Bach flute repertoire, a
contrapuntal attitude always shines through, and we find the ritornello form and an
unbroken dialog between different voices. In the E major Sonata, only the Siciliano
even comes close to this contrapuntal ideal. Perhaps it is exactly for this reason that
the sonata is so challenging. Perhaps it is also the key itself that is most challenging;
even for Bach, E major is a rare key, often used in the vocal works when the text
and music describe emotional pain or sorrow.
There are many aspects of a historical socio‐cultural context that I have not touched
upon in this chapter; I have tried to restrict myself to a context that stems from a
study of the score to see where it can lead me. In this way, the chapter can be seen
as the description of one historical socio‐cultural context.
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Chapter 5: Analysis
To begin, I will discuss the notation175 from the perspective of its inventio, and how
this possible inventio manifests itself differently in each movement. I will also look
at how each movement is constructed, both from a horizontal – melodic –
perspective as well as a vertical – harmonic– one. Here, we also find written‐out
ornamentation, among other things, used as bridging passages.
Secondly, I will shed some light on different aspects connected to the
instrumentation specified by J. S. Bach. In this second section, I will also discuss
questions of temperament as well as the significance that the choice of keyboard
instrument has on the tonal development and articulation of the flute.
The third section will take up performance practice conventions relevant for
interpreters. Apart from the ornamentation, I also discuss other performance
practice elements like tempo and articulation marks.
The chapter is, thus, organised according to the model of the work’s sound
structure discussed in chapter 3 (see page 29). The sources for Bach’s Sonata in E
major BWV 1035 were discussed in Chapter 4 (see page 46). From the conclusions
reached there, I will be using manuscript b) as the basis for this chapter.
Notation
In this section, we will focus on the sonata from an internal musical perspective,
looking for possible inventio in each movement. Inventio is not necessarily the same
as thematic melodic material. A tonality key can be an inventio. An inventio for a
movement could just as easily be a rhythmical figure, a compositional technique, a
genre, a harmonic pattern, or a combination of different elements from more than
one of these categories. Inventio constitutes, hypothetically, the musical material
that drives the composer to make compositional decisions that leads to a certain
composition. Fundamentally, inventio represents the work’s generative idea.
175
I use the term “notation” in this chapter to refer to the work’s notated form.
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Movement 1 – Adagio ma non tanto
The sonata’s opening movement is only 20 measures long. The movement is
characterised by a rich ornamentation in the flute part, but behind these ornaments
there is a clear structure. The movements are bipartite without repeats, but with a
concluding coda. After eight measures, a cadence in the dominant of B major
concludes the first part. After another nine measures, the movement cadences in E
major, followed by a three‐measure coda.
The structure of the movement is reminiscent of a prelude to a French suite. Such a
movement was expected to have an improvisatory character, giving the musician a
chance to warm up and, at the same time, establish the tonality for the rest of the
suite. There are no clear stylistic requirements for a prelude, but to provide a
movement of this type with repeats would be counterproductive, because the
improvisatory character would be lost. We can naturally turn the tables on this
argument and see the absence of repeats as an indication that the rich notation
really is just ornamentation that should be heard only once and, therefore, we have
the option of handling it relatively freely.
Bach, in relationship to his contemporaries, was generally extremely careful to
notate ornamentation (or diminutions, as it was also called), and he was even
criticised for this in his own time (see page 69). It was much more common from
this period to have slow movements that gave the skeleton of the piece for the
performing musician to decorate with ornamentation. Bach did this only rarely. He
chose to notate more than was common, at least within the frame of an Italian‐
influenced tradition. We could attribute this to his richer harmony and tighter
texture with a moving bass voice, two aspects that make it much more difficult for a
musician to freely ornament without the risk of destroying the music.176 It is also
possible that Bach was following the established practice of many French
composers who notated everything to keep musicians from involving themselves in
the composition process itself.
There are ornaments in the flute part as well as in the bass part, although the
character of these ornaments is different. The flute’s ornamentation consists of
176
Frederick Neumann, Ornamentation in Baroque and Post‐Baroque Music, with Special Emphasis on
J. S. Bach (Princeton N.J.; Princeton University Press, 1978), 544.
90
many notes, while the ornaments in the bass part can be described as various kinds
of written‐out simple short trills.
If we look at the movement as a prelude, is it possible to suggest that genre can
have been the movement’s inventio? How did Bach compose in relation to the
conventional expectations of a prelude? And what are these expectations? Is it
possible to define them at all? A quick survey of the other movements for which
Bach used the label “Preludium” [Prelude] is enough to see that it is impossible to
generalise. In the French Suites for harpsichord, there are no preludes at all: in the
lute suites, the preludes lead into a quick section, often in 3/8 time. In the Well‐
Tempered Clavier, we can see many preludes, but they have a completely different
character, and also do not look much like one another. It seems as if the Well‐
Tempered Clavier’s goal is to give as many different models of preludes as possible,
where the prelude is not tied to any expected form. If we, however, look at French
music, for example the suites of Marain Marais, we can find a striking resemblance
to the Sonata in E major. That similarity begins to dissipate though when Bach
consistently uses sequences in this short movement, and even if the free character
is present, it is broken by the triplet motion in the flute voice in measures 6‐7 and
15‐16. In these short passages the movement, in combination with a figure in the
bass voice that requires rhythmical stability, develops a regular and sequential
structure that begins to argue against the concept of the prelude. In these sections,
the movement is clearly guided instead by the harmonic development. The fact that
both voices take turns dominating the texture also makes it difficult to see the
movement as a prelude in the French suite tradition. As we shall also see, and as
was already hinted at in Chapter 4, the entire sonata becomes characterised by an
ambivalence toward genre, style, and tradition.
The movement’s character of an improvised prelude can be a possible source of
inventio. Bach could also have begun with a skeleton that he ornamented in
different ways – and probably the inventio is somewhere in between these two
things, where processes occurred fairly directly and simultaneously.
In the following section, I look more closely at the movement, starting with the
assumption that the compositional process began with a simple idea that
progressed stepwise to a complex realisation. Whether or not it is reasonable to
make this assumption, it is illustrative to make a reduction of the note picture. The
91
reduction has been made in several steps, and is illustrated with the help of the
movement’s first four measures, Illustration 11:
Illustration 11: Movement 1, measures 1‐4, with different levels of reduction.
Systems 1 and 4 reproduce the original note picture, while system 2 consists of the
notes found in both the original flute part and in the figured bass part, a reduction
that was made to give a clearer picture of the harmonically important tones. System
3 is a reduction of system 2, where all the passing notes are removed, even if they
are a part of a chord. System 5 is a similar reduction of the bass part departing from
the original in system 4.
Of course it is possible to continue with further reductions. In Illustration 12, I show
a reduction where all of the suspensions and notes that can be judged to be filling
out chords are taken away:
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Illustration 12: Reduction of movement 1.
The goal with this reduction is to simplify the music to a skeleton without loosing
the feeling for the music’s content. Therefore, some passing and repeated notes
have been kept. What we have left has a regular structure and is far from a free
prelude character. If we now back up in the process and return to the flute part in
Illustration 12, adding the ornamented flute line and the bass line by Bach, it is even
more clear what decorative role the ornamentation plays:
Illustration 13: Movement 1, measures 1‐5, reduced movement plus the original flute part.
The visual impression of Illustration 13 is also very much like a slow ornamented
movement from Georg Philipp Telemann’s Methodische Sonaten, published in 1728
(sonatas 1‐6) and 1732 (sonatas 7‐12).177 I illustrate this with the first measures from
177
In the section on the dating of the sonata, see page 56, I suggested an influence of Telemann on
Bach.
93
the opening slow movement from the Sonata in A major, see Illustration 14:
Illustration 14: Movement 1, measures 1‐6, from Telemann’s Sonata in A major from the
Methodische Sonaten.
Telemann wrote his sonatas as didactic material to study different styles, and as
essays in the art of ornamentation, which is why he provided one movement in
every sonata with an extra system where he notated a maximally ornamented
version of the melody line. However, we can establish a difference in character
between the ornamentation of the two composers. Telemann’s is short and a little
fragmentary, while Bach notates longer lines. Again, this can be connected to
Telemann’s purpose with these sonatas, which is why these long movements tend
to be overburdened with ornaments. From my own experience of playing
Telemann’s sonatas, I rarely sense his ornaments to be free, which I often
experience with Bach’s ornamentation.
94
It is possible to reduce Bach’s introductory movement further, but then the musical
content becomes lost. In the most extreme case one can, for example, reduce the
two first measures to the following note‐picture, as seen in Illustration 15:
Illustration 15: Movement 1, measures 1‐2, reduced skeleton.
In one way, it is possible to say that what is shown in Illustration 15 is really the
movement’s inventio, but it is so completely uninteresting musically that it begs the
question: how does Bach create something interesting from this? One way could be
to build up tension through the introduction of uncertainty and irregularity, which is
what Bach does through the written syncopations within the fourth beat, a part of
the measure that normally has no accent. In the opening eight measures, we find
these syncopations twice before the first cadence, in measure 2 and 7. Thereafter,
they appear much more often, namely in measures 9, 11, 12, and 13 and to some
extent in measure 16, see Illustration 16:
Illustration 16: Movement 1, measures 9‐12, flute part.
These unexpected syncopated accents not only create a feeling of motion, they also
lead to the first beat of the next measure, a place that also needs an accent.
Additionally, they have a harmonic function through intensification of the harmonic
rhythm. Bach treats these accents in a slightly different way in the coda, using them
to prepare dissonances on the following accented first beat in both measures 18
and 19, as can be seen in Illustration 17:
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Illustration 17: Movement 1, measures 17‐20.
Could these accents in the fourth part of the measure have been interpreted in the
reduction as an eighth note preceded by an eighth‐note rest, in analogy with
measure 4 in the example from the Telemann sonata (see Illustration 14)? In most
of the measures it would be possible, while it is more difficult to imagine this
solution in measure 2, because then there would be an unprepared dissonance on
an unaccented beat, which is not in accordance with the traditional method of
handling dissonances from this time period. In the other measures a more regular
structure is retained.
Bach also uses the bass voice in order to achieve forward motion in the movement;
the figure in Illustration 18, see below, returns 19 times in the bass part.
Illustration 18: The bass part’s rhythmic figure.
This figure makes it basically impossible to find resting points in the movement, and
it contributes also to the character of irregularity, despite the movement’s
completely traditional structure of 8 plus 8 measures followed by a coda.
The large‐scale harmonic progression in the movement is uncomplicated, with three
authentic cadences as well as a deceptive cadence in measure 6.
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On the micro‐level, the harmonic development in measures 9‐14 is more complex,
travelling far from the normal and comfortable keys even if the harmonic motion
itself is not complex. I have chosen here to illustrate this with a bass line according
to Kirnberger’s concept, see Illustration 19:
Illustration 19: Movement 1, measures 9‐14 with added bass line (system 3).
This added bass line clearly illustrates how the harmonic movement in this section
is built up around a circle of fifths, where a seventh is added to a bass chord to
continue the forward motion. If we return to the reduction of the entire movement
(see Illustration 12), it looks like a completely homogenous construction. In the
work itself, there is an unbroken oscillation between agogic freedom and rhythmic
regularity, something that I suggested concerning the triplet figures (see page 91).
Bach uses thirty‐second notes to denote free ornaments, usually accompanied by a
bass voice softer in character and devoid of any clear eighth‐note upbeats.
However, when the bass voice has clear upbeats preceding the next accented beat,
the flute part is also more strict. One example of this can be seen in Illustration 19
in the bridge from measure 12 onwards. This oscillation from free material to more
strict is one of the movement’s most comprehensive characteristics.
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Movement 2 - Allegro
The sonata’s second movement is 80 measures long (32 + 48, with double
repeats).178 If we take a bird’s‐eye view of the movement, the tonal range and
construction share similarities with fast movements in sonatas by Carl Philipp
Emanuel Bach composed around 1740: two sections with repeats, the second
roughly one and a half times as long as the first. Another similarity with C. P. E. Bach
sonatas is that the introductory theme returns near the end of the second half,
although slightly changed in order to reach a final cadence in the tonic of the
movement.179 This is certainly no new compositional concept, but J. S. Bach uses it
exclusively in dance movements, lending support to the idea that the movement –
despite the way it’s marked – is based on a dance concept.180 For C. P. E. Bach
however, this form became common, especially for a first movement in a sonata
written in the period from about 1740 until 1760 in Berlin when he composed
chamber music. Schulenberg points out that C. P. E. Bach surely met the form in his
father’s dance movements and preludes, but that he perhaps was even more
influenced by other composers that worked in a more typical galant style, like
Telemann.181 This technique later developed into what we now call sonata form
where the recurring theme is called recapitulation.
Which figure comprise Bach’s primary inventio? Is it the introductory measure with
its upbeat, or is it a variation of this? Both figures appear so often and in so many
variations, that the question is justified (see for example measures 26‐27,
Illustration 23, page 102). The introductory theme is still the more obvious and
because of its quarter notes, easily recognisable.
178
In the analysis, I choose to use the term “part” in the section on movements two, three, and four.
With “part one,” “first part,” etc., I am referring to the section from the beginning of the movement to
the repeat sign, with “part two” and “second part,” I mean the music from the repeat sign to the end
of the movement.
179
See, for example, the Sonata in D major, H 505, of Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach.
180
For J. S. Bach, this involves the Sarabande and Bourée anglaise, movements three and four from the
partita for flute, as well as a number of movements from the English Suites and the French Suites for
keyboard. This compositional convention occurs where the movement is binary with double repeats
and the second part is longer than the first. One also sees a clear cadencing to the movement’s tonic
before the introductory theme returns, a similar harmonic progression as in the E major sonata.
181
David Schulenberg, “C. P. E. Bach through the 1740s: The Growth of a Style,” in C. P. E. Bach Studies,
ed. Stephen L Clark (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988), 219.
98
As has been pointed out earlier (see page 63) a rigaudon is characterised by two
beats per measure, successively shorter note values, as well as an accelerating
harmonic rhythm in the period. All of these features can be seen in the first four
measures, a period that is then repeated with ornamentation of the quarter notes.
Later, the movement is characterised by sixteenth‐note motion with careful
articulation marks where the long slurring marks are conspicuous. The bass part is
obviously rhythmical and harmonically driving but has no real melodic character,
which is rather unusual for Bach. It is unexpected, therefore, that Bach allows the
bass part to present the introductory theme in a short sequential passage in the
final eight measures.
The bass part’s characteristic rhythmical figure is important for the movement’s
sense of drive, see Illustration 20:
Illustration 20: Movement 2, rhythmic figure in the bass part.
This figure returns in different guises through the whole movement and gives,
through the missing first beat, a clear direction forward to the next measure’s first
beat as well as producing a complementary rhythm to the simple theme of the
melody. The unaccented character of the first measure is also underlined by this
figure, see Illustration 21:182
Illustration 21: Movement 2, measures 1‐4.
182
I also discuss this measure in the section on appogiaturas, see page 140.
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The figure in the bass creates an accent on the first beat of the following measure, a
pattern that persists throughout. In the flute part, however, we do not see the same
patterns of accents, especially when the flute part has longer sixteenth‐note motion
and where the first tone has a staccato mark; see, for instance, the bridge between
measures 17 and 18 in Illustration 22 below. Do the parts need to have the same
accents? According to my experience, it is not at all necessary: rather, both voices
can even create excitement through contrasting patterns of accentuation, and
break away from the habitual and expected to create a certain amount of
uncertainty and therefore heightened attention in the listener.
These two elements – the flute’s introductory upbeat and following quarter notes
and the bass’s eighth‐note motion, including the pause on the first eighth note in its
most basic form – are so crucial for the movement’s construction that they can be
seen as the movement’s basic idea, its inventio.
The first part of the movement has a cadence to the fifth, B, and establishes a stable
tonal level there. Precisely according to convention, the first part finishes with a
cadence to B major.
The establishment of B major as a tonal level is preceded by a motion through the
circle of fifths in measures 13 to 18, based on a sequential motion repeated three
times that is carried out completely in the bass voice while only twice in the melodic
voice.
One reason that Bach chooses to break the sequential motion in the solo part,
besides the fact that he rarely chooses to repeat the same figure three times in a
row, could be that he needed the eighth‐note upbeat to measure 19. This upbeat is
the seventh in the dominant chord, which strengthens the modulation to B major,
see Illustration 22:
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Illustration 22: Movement 2, measures 12‐22 with deceptive cadence in measure 20.
The expansion that Bach carries out in measures 20 and 21 delays the
establishment of B major as a tonal level. He could have gone directly from measure
19 to measure 22 with no problem.
In measures 22‐25, the inventio returns, now in B major, as an ornamented version
of the simple quarter‐note figure. The following sixteenth‐note motion is inverted,
but in order to avoid parallel octaves against the bass voice, the inversion is not
completely carried out. In these measures there is, however, no sign of the bass
voice’s rhythmically ornamented inventio. Bach prioritises the harmonic motion,
which makes it possible for him to repeat the figure from the melodic voice in
measure 24, but now on the third of E major, see Illustration 23:
101
Illustration 23: Movement 2 measures 22‐32.
At the end of the first part, Bach again departs from the expected simple route to a
conclusion. He could have gone directly from measure 25 to measure 31, without
the harmonic digressions he undertakes via the arpeggiated and decorated
diminished dominant chord in the flute part in measures 26 and 27.
The second part begins with the inventio in sequence with a circle of fifths from B
major to F# minor. Here we have an important change in the way Bach uses his
inventio. In the first part, the figure consisted of a rising fourth from the chord’s
fifth to its root. In the beginning of the second part, measure 33, the figure consists
of a rising fifth from the newly established root to the chord’s fifth. In this way, Bach
creates a clear sense of motion away from a stable tonal level. This is strengthened
in measure 37 where the circle of fifths motion allows Bach to shape the inventio as
a rising sixth. In measures 5 to 8, where Bach repeats the inventio with minor
ornament‐like changes, he uses the repetition of the inventio in order to start a
modulation to F# minor. A similar opportunity appears in measure 34 with the
minor third f#´´‐a´´, as well as the figure in measure 35 that takes the movement to
E major in measure 36. With an identical figure, apart from the introductory leap of
a sixth h’‐g#´´, he reaches F# minor, see Illustration 24:
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Illustration 24: Movement 2, measures 33‐40.
As a tonal level, F# minor is temporarily strengthened through a sequential motion
in measures 43‐47, a parallel place to measures 13‐18. The motion ends with a
cadence in F# minor.
In measure 48, a motion begins back toward establishing E major as a tonal centre.
Bach takes the melodic material from the first half, and through alterations, he
modulates by way of several seventh chords back to E.
In measure 57, the recapitulation of opening material starts, with minor melodic
changes in the flute part but no harmonic changes.
From measures 66 to 70, there is a complete three‐part sequential motion followed
by a section where the harmonic rhythm is reduced to a rate of one harmony every
two measures. In this last section, the movement’s melodic inventio appears
unexpectedly in the bass part, at least the first bars of it. The movement ends with a
kind of coda, where a sort of accent displacement develops through the legato slurs
in the melodic voice, see Illustration 25:
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Illustration 25: Movement 2, measures 64‐80.
The movement is characterised by the rhythmically distinct introductory figure that
moves the accent from measure 1 to measure 2 through the staccato notes. It is
remarkable how many measures begin with staccato notes. This leads to a limited
number of accented first beats, which in turn gives the impression that the
movement is always on the move, that it never rests. The relatively slow harmonic
rhythm also makes it easier to create a pattern of fewer accents. Another
characteristic of the movement is the bass part’s rhythmical figure with an eighth‐
note rest followed by three eighth notes; it returns many times in the movement,
with varying harmonic functions.
Movement 3 – Siciliana
The third movement is the only one with a dance title. It is necessary to point out,
however, that very little is known about the siciliana as a dance. There are a few
choreographies dating from the 1500s of a dance titled Siciliano, but strangely
enough none from Italy, despite the fact that the vocal form clearly indicates a song
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from Sicily. One other choreography is preserved from eighteenth‐century England,
but it is difficult to judge whether it is related to any Italian dance.183
Still, among eighteenth‐century theoreticians, it was known and written about as an
Italian dance. Walther calls it “Sicilianische Canzonetta” and calls it gigue‐like with a
time signature that usually is either 12/8 or 6/8.184 Mattheson also talks about
“Sicilianischer Styl,” by which he means that the iambic rhythmic pattern is obvious.
He goes on to describe that the style “has something endearing about it and an
innocent nobleness of feeling.”185 It is difficult to find support for the iamb as a
rhythmic characteristic in the instrumental music that was labelled siciliana. The
rhythmical patterns of the instrumental sicilianas are closer to Illustration 26, or
variants thereof:
Illustration 26: Different rhythmical models for an instrumental siciliana.
It is also this type of rhythmical pattern that shows up in the few movements where
Bach used the terms Siciliana or Siciliano.186
The Siciliana of the Sonata in E major is 12 + 16 measures long with repeats of both
parts. Bach uses the traditional 6/8 time signature and also makes use of the
traditional rhythmical figure with the dotted‐eighth‐note upbeat, followed by the
dotted eighth – sixteenth – eighth. Here Bach follows the expectations that we have
183
Meredith Little, “Siciliana,” in Grove Music Online, Oxford Music Online.
http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/25698 (accessed August 9, 2008).
184
Walther, Musikalisches Lexikon, 139‐140.
185
“hat was zärtliches und eine edle Einfalt an sich.“ Mattheson, Volkommene Capellmeister, 165.
186
Koch, Lexikon, 1383. Koch describes the siciliana, in not terribly flattering terms, as a country‐dance
that differs from the pastorale in its slow tempo, and was common as an adagio movement in sonatas
and concerti. Koch continues: “This sluggishness, whose presence can begin to be felt if the melody is
played broadly, is without a doubt the basic reason why, for quite some time, this genre has been
totally ignored because of its perceived decorative character.”
[“Das Schleppende, welches dabei zum Vorscheine kommt, wenn die Melodie weit ausgeführt wird, ist
ohne Zweifel die Ursache, warum man seit geraumer Zeit dieses Tonstück von so merklich sich
auszeichnendem Charakter gänzlich vernachläßiget hat.”]
105
of the siciliana genre. These expectations also naturally include a clear one‐ or two‐
measure phrasing and a simple harmony. Against these expectations of the genre,
Bach builds up the movement around imitation between the flute and the bass
voices. In this way, we can say that his ınventio is bipartite. One structural concept
of a genre that predefines some aspects is set up against another structural concept
that determines the breaking of some of the genre’s conventions.
The movement is harmonically uncomplicated, but becomes complex when set in
the keys that the movement uses (see also the discussion on page 96).
In the introduction to the movement, the bass voice imitates the solo voice exactly
one measure later. This pattern is broken with the bass voice’s upbeat to measure
6. Even if the figures are still similar, the intervals are slightly shifted in relation to
the flute material. In this way, the listener retains the feeling that the imitation has
continued, but at the same time, Bach creates a meaningful harmonic progression.
Measures 5‐8 build up a harmonic sequence using inventio material that elegantly
moves the movement’s tonal level along to E major, something that is achieved in
measure 9, see Illustration 27, and further strengthened in the following measures
concluding the first part.
Illustration 27: Movement 3, measures 5‐9
The second part begins precisely like the first with an exact imitation between flute
and bass, but already after two measures, the bass voice changes pitch, preparing
for the sequence in measures 17‐18 that leads the movement to a cadence in F#
minor in measure 20. Measures 21‐24, the movement’s most singable section, are
reminiscent in part of measures 5‐9, with the difference that Bach does not
complete a clear sequence to return to C# minor. Instead, with the help of
sixteenth‐note motion in the flute voice and a seventh chord on b#, measure 25
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becomes the key measure to return to the tonal area of C# minor in measures 26
and 27, see Illustration 28:
Illustration 28: Movement 3, measures 16‐28.
The movement consists of two‐ and four‐measure periods exactly as the genre
describes, but through imitation the periodicity is disturbed, and the periods keep
coming out of synch with one another sharpening a feeling of unease. The only
resting points are the final tone of both parts; everywhere else there is a feeling of
constant motion in the movement.
What about the many sixteenth‐note figures? Are they connecting material or are
they ornamented inventio figures? Are they independent units, bearing their own
meaning? In the other siciliano movements of J. S. Bach there are sixteenth‐note
figures, most clearly in the first movement of the Sonata in C minor BWV 1017 for
violin, and other movements in the Sonata in Eb major BWV1031 for flute.187 The
sixteenth‐note motions have a double function in these movements, partly
harmonic arpeggios, partly melodic material. It is possible to look upon the
sixteenth‐note motion in the Sonata in E major in the same way, that is to say, both
as melodic and as harmonic. If, however, we choose to see them as ornaments of
an underlying structure, it could be interesting to see how such a structure might
107
look. If I use a similar reduction method as in the first movement, it could look like
this, see Illustration 29:
Illustration 29: Movement 3, measures 1‐12, in a reduced shape.
I have chosen to let the siciliana’s rhythmical pattern serve as the point of
departure for the reduction, and when the movement turns toward a cadence, I let
the rhythmical pattern leave the siciliana rhythm in the same way that the original
notation suggests.
Compared to the reduction of the first movement, it can seem that this reduction is
not clarifying in the same way, because the comparatively active bass line regulates
the structure. I do suggest, however, that the reduction shows that the sixteenth‐
note motion in this movement does have a double function, melodic as well as
ornamental. They can be seen as ornaments, but through their connection to a
rhythmical pattern in the opposite voice, they can never be as free as in the first
movement. There is no reason to take away more, because then the inventio of the
siciliano rhythm would be altered or removed completely.
As in the rest of the sonata, Bach is careful with articulation marks through the
entire movement in the flute part; at the same time, it is striking how few
articulation marks there are in similar figures in the bass voice. Why is this? A
hypothetical possibility is that Bach himself played the bass part using the
187
It is not completely clear whether BWV 1031 really is a sonata by J. S. Bach.
108
autograph from which the surviving manuscripts are somehow related. If this is so,
he wouldn’t have needed articulation marks for the performance, while the flute
part might, equally hypothetically, have been performed by Fredersdorf, suggesting
that Bach wanted to exert more control over the soloist’s interpretation. In any
case, there is ample reason to weigh how much of the articulation marks should be
transferred to the bass voice. There are many decisions left for the musicians to
make, especially considering that articulations are dependent on the instruments
used.
The sequence of an upbeat consisting of three eighth notes before the next
measure’s first beat is so ubiquitous that it can be seen as the movement’s inventio,
see Illustration 30:
Illustration 30: Movement 4, measures 1‐4.
This figure returns in both the flute and bass parts many times through the entire
movement. The figure creates a forward motion towards the first beat of the next
measure, as well as a relatively strong third beat.
109
In Bach’s production, a similar introductory upbeat occurs only three times: in the
second movement of the Sonata A major BWV 1025 for violin and keyboard, (with
unclear authorship), the second movement of the French Suite No 2 in C minor
BWV 813 for keyboard – both of the movements are courantes – and “Et
resurrexit…” in the B minor mass, BWV 232, see Illustration 31:188
Illustration 31: Other movements by J. S. Bach with introductory upbeats consisting of
three eighth notes.
The upbeat of the flute sonata does have a different character than the other three
examples in Illustration 31. In the first complete measure, both the quarter‐note
upbeat in the bass and the legato figure in the flute give information for the choice
of tempo and the character: soft and inviting in a reasonably fast tempo. In a faster
tempo, the double accents in each measure become lost. Later in the movement,
there are strong syncopations parallel to the unusually clear articulation markings,
also supporting the idea of a reasonably relaxed tempo.
The presence of this upbeat makes it very difficult to accept Eppstein’s idea that the
movement is a polonaise in form or character.
188
Wolfgang Schmieder, Thematisch‐systematisches Verzeichnis der Werke Joh. Seb. Bachs,
(Wiesbaden: Breitkopf, 1980).
110
Considering the two examples in Illustration 31, it is tempting to draw the
conclusion that the fourth movement in BWV 1035 could be related to the
courante, but the character of the movement is not similar to a French courante
with its continuous movement between 6/4 and 3/2. Other dance types that could
be relevant are the Italian corrente, normally in 3/4 with arpeggiated, sometimes
virtuosic, passages and relatively slow harmonic rhythm, or the passepied that
could be notated in 3/8 or 3/4, and precisely like the Italian corrente, consists of a
flood of fast note values with an underlying slow rhythm with added rhythmical
changes.189
Another alternative could be to see the movement as purposely playful.190 In that
case, one could imagine the following division of the meter in the introduction, a
pattern that could be repeated for all of the parallel places, see Illustration 32:
Illustration 32: Movement 4, measures 1‐4, with alternative mensural divisions.
To see the movement in this way gives a completely different pattern of accents,
but to make this work consistently the interpreter has to ignore some slurs; for
example, measure 2 should be the same as measure 10 where the slur is over only
two eight notes. To view the movement as a joke is an attractive alternative that
makes it easier to see the idea behind certain measures as in Illustration 32, above.
189
Meredith Little and Natalie Jenne, Dance and the Music of J. S. Bach, (Bloomington: Indiana
University Press, 2001), 83‐91 (Passepied), and 114‐142 (Courante and Corrente). Koch writes that the
Passepied is a minuet‐like dance that must contain two equally long parts with cheerful and noble
character. See Koch, Lexikon, 1142.
190
This interpretive idea comes from Cecilia Hultberg, who also made an interesting comparison to the
fourth movement of the coffee cantata (BWV 211) for flute, soprano and basso continuo. The
movement is in 3/8 throughout but both phrasing and text works very well in a constant change
between 3/4 and 3/8.
111
The movement’s harmonic progression mostly follows the same pattern as in the
second movement, with the exception that a stable tonal level in the piece’s
dominant, B major, is not reached in the first half until the final cadence. In the
second half there is a cadence to C# minor in measures 38 to 39, but afterwards
there is no clear movement to a new tonal level. New sequences of inventio‐
material connect the sixteenth‐note motion which leads us back to E major. The
sequential motion tied to the circle of fifths dominates the movement harmonically.
The part that is most difficult to understand is the opening 8 measures, see
Illustration 33. Why does the bass part break in with a completely new figure in
measure 5 with its upbeat? Why does Bach suddenly let the bass part have a
melodic function in a way that it does not have anywhere else in the movement?
And why didn’t he use this figure in the flute voice at this point?
Illustration 33: Movement 4, measures 1‐10.
If we look at the last question first, it could have been possible for the flute to have
this four‐measure period. With inspiration from the parallel place in measures 16‐
19, the introduction could look like Illustration 34:
112
Illustration 34: Movement 4, measures 1‐8 with an adaptation of measures 5‐8 including
the upbeat.
Bach must have sought to create a contrasting effect in the introduction, which
completely disappears in the illustration above. This is the only time in the sonata
that the bass voice is heard without the flute. Because the figure first appears two
octaves lower than the flute’s cadential tone in measure 4, the figure is experienced
as divided from the introductory figure. What has Bach thereby created? When the
different figures are presented for the first time, in measure 1‐4 for the flute and 5‐
8 for the bass line, they do not form a whole – they are of a completely different
character and lead to clear contrasts – but when they appear the next time, they
create an obvious whole. Is this simply another example of Bach’s joking affect?
The material in measures 4‐8 also has a clear harmonic function because it returns
the movement to E major so that the inventio can be presented once again in the
tonic. In measures 16‐19, the harmony moves forward toward an establishment of
B major as the tonic near the end of the first part, see Illustration 35:
113
Illustration 35: Movement 4, measures 16‐19.
Sequences harmonically decorate the second part of the movement. These
sequences move within the same harmonic area as in the previous movements.
However, no stable alternative tonal level is ever established. From the cadence in B
major in the first part, the harmony swings toward a cadence in C# minor in
measure 39, but there is an immediate motion away from C# minor to E major,
reached after new sequences in measure 48.
Summary
In different ways in this section of the chapter, I have tried to identify and describe
possible inventio of the sonata’s various movements. Three principles have guided
this search: a reduction of a visible complex note picture to a simple note picture in
order to try to show underlying ideas; a focus on the repetition of recognisable
figures and how they are distributed over the movement; and, finally, a test of the
concept of genre itself as an inventio. One unifying factor for this part of the
analysis has been to see how Bach could have worked with compositional
intentions and goals, and to compare this with a possible historical‐cultural context.
The bridge material for the movements are built primarily on sequential motion
manifested harmonically in the many circle of fifth paths, but also on the changing
pattern of accents that in some cases include a break against normal conventions,
even if the alternative reading of the fourth movement (Illustration 32) allows the
movement to follow the pattern to a lesser extent. The different sequential
patterns and circle‐of‐fifths motions represent a typical harmonic compositional
pattern for the time period, a pattern that has consequences for the way the
melodic material is altered, and the way the harmonic movement is supported.
114
Instrumentation
Bach’s choice of instrument for the sonata sets practical limits for the range, but
also affects certain sounding parameters, even if I would characterise the latter case
as both limitations and possibilities. The flute’s most natural key is D major, where
an upward‐moving scale is created by lifting one finger at a time. The farther one
gets from D major moving around the circle of fifths, the more one is forced to use
compromise fingerings. What is common for all of these compromise fingerings,
more often called forked fingerings, is that they are weak in sound and often
problematic in intonation. E major is not so far away from D major in the circle of
fifths, but it is as far away on the sharp side as the flute repertoire of this period
normally goes.
In Figure 3, I have illustrated the form of the circle of fifths and marked the keys
that function best on the flute with white boxes. The keys that work less well for
different reasons are marked with lighter to darker gray boxes, and finally the keys
in black boxes, below the line in the circle of fifths, are almost unusable. E major
moves easily below this line to its dominant B major and B major’s dominant F#
major, in other words, to the problematic keys that create clearly noticeable
consequences for the sound.
C
F G
D
Eb A
Ab/G# E
C# B
#
F
Figure 3: A circle of fifths to illustrate more (white boxes) or less (gray to black boxes) suitable
keys for the flute.
115
The problematic thing with E major is the major third, the tone g# in both octaves,
that is g#´ and g#´´. There are several fingerings for these tones, all fork fingerings
that create a compromise between g and a and thereby making them weak in
volume.191 Even if a completely equalised sound is not an ideal during the
eighteenth century flutes of that time, it is not possible to avoid compensations for
notes surrounding g# in the musical context. Also, g#´ and g#´´ are a little sharp,
which means that one has to compensate the intonation downwards. The tone f#
can also create problems where f# in D major becomes a low major third –
completely in line with a meantone temperament – but in E major, f# is the scale’s
second tone and in that function, f# should not be low in the same way as in D
major. This means that one has to compensate f# upwards, not least when the tone
is followed by a sharp g#.
Taken together, this makes E major a technically difficult key with problematic
intonation and sound properties. In some aspects, it is harder than Eb major, even
though there are more fork fingerings in the latter. The sound is easily obscured,
since many tones have to be compensated for in different ways. As I see it, Bach
was completely aware of this sound affect and uses it on purpose. The most obvious
place can be found in the third movement that uses the parallel key of C# minor
with the dominant on G# major.
From the above discussion, the key for this sonata is of great importance for the
sounding realisation, providing that one chooses a flute that basically corresponds
to the flutes available between 1710 and 1760 in Leipzig, Dresden, or Berlin. If I use
a modern flute with its equalised sound and basically equal‐tempered intonation, all
of the elements that I have treated above would be eliminated.
191
Forked fingering means that one or more finger hole is open between closed holes. In order to
make a consistent and strong sound, for example in a rising scale, one finger at a time should lift so
that the sounding length is shortened successively. This is, in fact, the case only in D major. In all other
keys there are forked fingerings. Forked fingerings depart from the fingerings in D major and by closing
#
one or more holes the original note is lowered to the desired pitch. For example, the fingering for g ’ is
in reality the fingering for a’ but with three closed holes after an open one. This produces a relatively
quiet and veiled sound quality.
116
The choice of keyboard instrument is also important for the work’s performance,
but here I would suggest that the interpreter should refer to performance practice
conventions. Even if Bach probably intended the harpsichord, as it states in the
manuscript, it is still possible to choose another instrument, provided that it is part
of the time period and can function well with the flute. The instruments in question
are the harpsichord, the clavichord (although tonally quiet), the chamber organ, or
the fortepiano. To use a modern equally tempered grand piano is not an option,
however, because it would effectively overpower the flute, as well as obliterating
the character of the different keys.
Each one of these keyboard instruments has its own character, and they have an
impact on the interpretation. Above all, they affect how the individual tones are
formed in relation to the keyboard instrument, and how the flute sound can follow
the keyboard instrument or contrast with it.
With the organ, it is almost necessary to play with a more supported sound. I could
further claim that it isn’t especially meaningful to use the so‐called messa di voce, a
crescendo followed by a diminuendo on a sustained note, because the ornament is
more or less eaten up by the organ sound.
With a harpsichord as the keyboard instrument, however, the situation is different.
The harpsichord’s sound is more percussive in attack and then quickly dies away,
which leaves a greater space to vary the flute sound. Simply put, I can choose to
follow the harpsichord’s natural diminuendo or support the flute sound and make a
contrasting crescendo that claims a place in the sounding picture.
117
temperament is determinative for the performance. From a historical socio‐cultural
perspective, we can at most say that it is likely that the instrument should be
unequally tempered. We can only speculate about what type of temperament Bach
favoured, but there are enough suggestions in the literature about Bach in order to
exclude some types of temperaments, and also make some hypotheses about
appropriate ones in relation to his harmonically complex music.
In the following excursus, I go deeper into this topic and also treat some current
theories. After this excursus, I will give an overview of how I tune myself.
192
Die Clavicymbale wusste er [Bach], in der Stimmung, so rein und richtig zu temperiren, dass alle
Tonarten schön und gefällig klangen. Er wusste, von keinen Tonarten, die man wegen unreiner
Stimmung, hätte vermeiden mussten. Bach Dokumente III, nr 666.
193
“Selbst in der Mathematik so gelehrte Johann Sebastian Bach habe sich in diesen Fragen nach der
Natur, nicht nach der Regel gerichtet, und die ganze Mathematisiererei habe noch nicht einmal der
Erfolg gehabt, die Durchführung einer einwandfreien Temperatur zu gewährleisten.“ Bach Dokumente
III, nr 772.
118
Purely tuning both his own instruments as well as the instruments of the entire
orchestra was something he undertook himself. Nobody else could tune or quill
his instruments to his satisfaction.194
In 1776, Marpurg wrote a critique of Kirnberger’s analyses of some fugues of Bach
where Marpurg reflected on Kirnberger’s suggestion for a temperament that includes a
pure third C‐E:
Mr. Kirnberger has more than once told me as well as others about how the
famous Joh. Seb. Bach, during the time when the former was enjoying musical
instruction at the hands of the latter, confided to him the tuning of his clavier,
and how that master expressly required of him that he tune all the thirds sharp.195
From these citations we can compose the following picture of how Bach wanted to have
his instruments tuned, at least the more easily tuned ones, like the clavichord and the
harpsichord. The temperament should allow music‐making in all keys and all the major
thirds should beat above pure. There seems also to have been a dominating attitude of
practicality, where the mathematical formulas were not so interesting. The demands
that Bach set fall precisely in line with an equally beating temperament. At the same
time, we can conclude that if we chose equal temperament, all differences between the
keys are lost – meaning that the music loses something as well. It is also possible to
temper an instrument so that all the keys are useable but that the characteristic
differences remain. Are there any signs that point to what Bach wished from an
unequally beating temperament? Mark Lindley sees the Well Tempered Clavier as a
form of evidence for these wishes, because this work uses all 24 major and minor keys,
where Bach uses more chromaticism in the keys that are more complex in order to
rhetorically use tones that are influenced by the unequal temperament, while pieces in
the simple keys are built on purer and more simple intervals.196
A speculation about how a Bach temperament could look was presented in 2005 by
Bradley Lehman in a two‐part article published in Early Music.197
194
“Das reine Stimmen seiner Instrumente so wohl, als des ganzen Orchestres war sein vornehmtes
Augenmerck. Niemand konnte ihm zu seine Instrument zu Dancke stimmen u. bekielen.“ Bach
Dokumente III, nr 801.
195
“Der Hr. Kirnberger selbst hat mir und andern mehrmahl erzählet, wie der berühmte Joh. Seb. Bach
ihm, währender Zeit seines von demselben genossnen musikalischen Unterrichts, die Stimmung seines
Claviers übertragen, und wie dieser Meister ausdrücklich von ihm verlanget, alle großen Terzen scharf
zu machen. Bach Dokumente III, nr 815. English translation from Hans T. David, Arthur Mendel and
Christoph Wolff (editors), The New Bach Reader: a Life of Johann Sebastian Bach in Letters and
Documents, (New York: Norton, 1998), 368.
196
Mark Lindley, “J. S. Bach’s Tunings,” The Musical Times, vol. 126.1714 (1985): 724.
197
Bradley Lehman “Bach’s Extraordinary Temperament: our Rosetta Stone [1 & 2],” Early Music, vol.
33. 1 and 2 (2005); 3‐23 and 211‐231.
119
Lehman, like Lindley, takes his starting point from the Well Tempered Clavier from 1722
(part 1), but not the music itself, rather the decoration that appears on the title page of
the autograph, see Illustration 36:
Illustration 36: From the title page of J. S. Bach’s Well‐Tempered Clavier from 1722.
I will not go into detail in reviewing how Lehman came to this schematic description of
Bach’s method of temperament, but the key to Lehman’s hypothesis is the number of
loops per eye in the figure above, where every eye represents one of the octave’s twelve
tones, ordered after the circle of fifths. Read from right to left, the order of the tones is
the following: F‐C‐G‐D‐A‐E‐B‐F#‐C#‐G#‐D#‐A#.
If it is a simple eye, the fifth is pure. An extra loop represents a 1/12 Pythagorean
comma and two extra loops mean that the interval is different from a pure interval by
1/6 Pythagorean comma. The tuning system we get is:
F‐1/6‐C‐1/6‐G‐1/6‐D‐1/6‐A‐1/6‐E‐0‐B‐0‐F#‐0‐C#‐1/12‐G#‐1/12‐D#‐1/12‐A#
In this way of counting fifths, it is simply a question of narrowing the fifths by a part of a
Pythagorean comma. However, if we add the different fractions we get 13/12 which is
why the final fifth Bb/A#‐F has to be too large by 1/12 in order for the number of loops to
add up.
Apart from whether this teasing hypothesis has any truth in it, the temperament is
attractive in itself with a relatively large usefulness. Lehman points out that F major and
C major are purest, that E major becomes more brilliant with a relatively high g#, and
that some thirds that are common in Bach’s music are not so hard and obvious as in
other temperaments. And yet, the individual keys still have different characteristics.198
As expected, this hypothesis has been criticised; most of the criticism has been focused
on how Lehman reached his conclusion about how the decorations on the title page of
the Well Tempered Clavier could be used as a temperament scheme. Another area of
critique concerns the assumption that fifths only are allowed to be either pure or beat by
a 1/6 or 1/12 Pythagorean comma, the alternatives seem to be too few.199 A decisive
198
Lehman, “Bach’s Extraordinary Temperament,” 211.
199
Mark Lindley and Ibo Ortgies, “Bach‐style keyboard tuning,” Early Music, vol. 34.4 (2006): 613‐623.
120
subject for Lindley’s and Ortgies’ critique, apart from the fact that Lehman lays such a
great deal of his argument upon a type of ornament that is found fairly widely in many
manuscripts from this time, is the resulting large major third E‐G#. At the same time,
they agree with Lehman about the basic principle that it results in a possible
temperament that Bach could have accepted, a temperament that primarily focuses on
the quotation above, in which Bach wished for all of the major thirds to be larger than
pure.
A personal temperament
The temperament that I tune myself departs from Kirnberger III with a quarter‐
Pythagorean comma between the fifths C‐G‐D‐A‐E and the rest of the fifths tuned
pure. This temperament gives a purely tuned third C‐E. Musically this temperament
functions beautifully in keys with zero or few accidentals, but really badly with
string instruments that have an e string, which when tuned to the harpsichord is too
low to be usable as open string. Even for the flute, this low e becomes problematic.
One variant that solves the problem is Werckmeister III with a 1/4 Pythagorean
comma divided between the fifths C‐G‐D and B‐F#. Here, the fifth A‐E is pure which
reduces problems for string instruments. I have successively chosen to temper more
fifths so that I can divide the Pythagorean comma between F‐C‐G‐D‐A‐E‐B‐F#. The
largest beats are between the fifths C‐G‐D‐A, in order to have relatively modest
beating between F‐C and A‐E‐B‐F#. I am speaking here consciously imprecisely about
the division and of larger or smaller beating. I tune from a tuning fork and then only
from what I hear, which is why one tuning is never identical with the previous one,
but sufficiently near in order to be stable and recognisable.
The result of this temperament is a mild unequally beating temperament that has
characteristics but still allows keys with many accidentals, which becomes more
important in the later eighteenth‐century repertoire, not least when it comes to
Bach’s music.
Summary
The focus of this section has been on the flute as an instrument with its possibilities
and limitations, as well as what consequences the choice of E major has on the
sounding result and on the type of flute for which the sonata was written. Because
of the many forked fingerings in E major, the sound is easily covered and relatively
121
weak. In relation to the flute, I have also touched upon what differences there are if
the continuo instrument is an organ or a harpsichord, primarily from an acoustical
perspective.
Further, I have discussed the importance of the temperament and, via an excursus
about possible Bach temperaments, I have been able to suggest that the
temperament I tune myself, a personal modification of historical temperaments,
harmonises with the type of temperament that Bach could have preferred.
Conventions
In this section I primarily treat articulation, ornamentation, and tempo. I choose to
treat these themes separately, even if they often tangent one another. All of these
aspects of music making are dependent on the performance practice conventions of
the period, whether notated or not. This sonata is ontologically thick, that is to say,
the notation is detailed and in many cases determinative for the performance.
However, even though articulation, ornamentation, and tempo are notated, their
interpretation is still dependent on un‐notated performance practice conventions.
Articulation
The Sonata in E major is markedly richer in articulation marks than the other
chamber music works for flute (with the exception of the trio sonata from the
Musical Offering BWV 1079). Two types of marks appear: (legato) slurs and staccato
dots or wedges. It is not possible to say with certainty if these markings originate
from Bach himself, but if we start with the assumption that manuscript b) is a copy
of the autograph (the arguments for this idea are given on page 46) it is reasonable
to assume that these articulation markings really were intended by Bach. How one
chooses to relate to these articulation marks as an interpreter has direct
implications for the interpretation and performance of the sonata in a way that is
not as clear in other sonatas of Bach.
As an interpreter, one must continually pose questions like: What does a slur mean?
Is it just legato or is it a phrasing indication? What consequences does a slur have
for the hierarchy of beats in a measure or in a phrase? What does this mean,
therefore, for the musical direction of a phrase? Can I take away or add slurs? Why
122
is the slur there? Should the same type of figure have the same type of articulation,
even if it is not given in the note picture? Is an articulation mark written there in
order to mark that an articulation should be made there as an exception to the
conventions? Do these questions apply to the staccato marks, and to what extent?
Furthermore, a slur over two or more notes does not necessarily mean the same
thing for a wind instrument as for a stringed instrument or a keyboard instrument.
Slur marks can be a signal as to how the bow should be set, an up or down stroke.
Where a wind instrument can have a stable sound, and even crescendo, a down
stroke more or less forces a string instrument player to diminuendo for purely
mechanical reasons. A violin bow was unevenly based during the first half of the
eighteenth century, with its weightiest point at the frog. This means that the closer
one comes to the tip of the bow, the quieter the tone becomes. If one plays tones
under a slur with an upstroke, the first tone cannot easily be accented, while a
crescendo is possible.
There is an extremely rich literature around the theme of articulation, but because
this study does not have articulation as its main focus, I will only mention a few
studies, ones that are relatively new and that are all broad overviews of the subject.
Ruth Miller’s dissertation focuses on articulation marks in Bach’s flute sonatas, but
because she chooses to not discuss the interpretive implications more than
cursorily, her study is of less interest for this dissertation.200 More relevant is Ludger
Lohmann’s study on articulation at keyboard instruments grounded in historical
sources,201 and John Butt’s work, which has as its stated goal to complete
Lohmann’s work by conducting a discussion of articulation set in a historical context
of the baroque period’s intellectual world around music that uses J. S. Bach’s
surviving autographs as a touchstone.202
As an example of the importance of slurs and staccato marks for the musical
content of a movement, I would like to return to the first movement, Adagio ma
200
Mains, Articulations, chapter 3.
201
Ludger Lohmann, Die Artikulation auf den Tasteninstrumenten des 16.‐18. Jahrhunderts
(Regensburg: Bosse, 1990), 18.
202
John Butt, Bach Interpretation: Articulation Marks in the Primary Sources of J. S. Bach (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1990), 5.
123
non tanto, and the fourth movement, Allegro assai, and thereby shed some light on
the changing function of the slur mark in different kinds of movements.
Butt points out that slurs primarily relate to figures of an ornamental character.203 In
the first movement of the Sonata in E major, this theory becomes extra clear if one
reduces the note picture to a skeleton with only harmonically structural notes in the
same way that was done above (see page 92‐94) and under that system give the
original notation, see Illustration 37:
Illustration 37: Movement 1, measures 1‐4, reduced melody voice (system 1) and original
(system 2).
In viewing the reduced note picture and the original side by side, one can see
support for Butt’s thesis, also promoted by Quantz among others, namely that the
slurs indicate ornaments that give the interpreter a signal about important and
stressed notes.204
The first note under a slur automatically gets an accent because of the necessary
clear attack. It is also possible to argue that tones that do not lie under a slur are
somewhat more important because one expects them to be articulated. The
movement is labelled Adagio ma non tanto, which also supports the assumption
that the fastest note value in a movement like this should not be of too great
importance, something that easily might happen if the tempo is too slow. Departing
from the idea that at least the thirty‐second notes are notated ornaments, one
should chose a tempo that maintains this ornamental character, creating an illusion
of improvisatory decoration.
203
Butt, Bach Interpretation, 49‐50.
204
Quantz, Versuch, chapter 8.
124
In the sonata’s fourth movement, Allegro assai, we meet a slightly different
scenario. The second half is especially rich in both slurs and staccato dots, and
“Allegro assai” has implications for the choice of tempo that frame our
understanding of what these slurs and dots could mean. A central question is
whether assai should be interpreted as the word is normally understood from the
nineteenth century and onwards, that is “very,” or according to Brossard’s
definition: “…middle degree of quickness or slowness; quick or slow enough but not
too much of either.”205
This denotation is not unambiguous. Does it mean “very fast” or “reasonably fast”?
A very fast tempo would mean that the slurs are a technical aid rather than
interpretive instructions. This interpretation will also risk losing the unique rhythm
that appears primarily in the movement’s bass voice with syncopations that give the
movement its uneasy character – or playful one. “Reasonably fast” can open up
possibilities to chisel out all the details that the notated articulation can offer.
In a fast movement, it is reasonable to assume that the musician should prioritise
clarity. This can be achieved, for example, through a clear attack on the first note
under a slur and a shortening of the last note under the slur so that it will be
possible to achieve a clear attack on the next note. To interpret slurs like this means
that the slurs indicate accents, more pronounced in a fast movement than in a slow
one, even if the principle seems to be similar, see Illustration 38:
Illustration 38: Movement 4, measures 33‐35. The small bows indicate unaccented tones,
the line, accented.
205
Brossard, A musical dictionary, 6.
125
With accents according to this description, the section becomes really rich in
accents that, in combination with the syncopated bass voice, mean that the
traditional baroque hierarchy of beats in a movement in 3/4 time – heavy accent on
the first beat, light accent on the third and minimal accent on the second – is set on
its head. The feeling of being constantly offbeat dominates, both for the musician
and for the listener. If these measures did not have all these slurs and dots, the
accent pattern would surely be the traditional one with exceptions made for the
syncopated bass voice, see Illustration 39:
Illustration 39: Movement 4, measures 33‐35 without articulation marks but with accent
marks. Two lines mean a stronger accentuation than one line.
In the “clean” example above – without slurs or staccato dots – one would gain
clarity when it comes to the musical direction, because the dissonances in every
measure are given a clear resolution, in the sense of relaxation, on the first beat of
the next measure.
When it comes to the meaning of the staccato marks, the historical sources are
unanimous that a staccato tone, whether marked with a dot, a line, or a wedge,
should be played separated from the surrounding notes, but not overemphasised.206
On the other hand, opinions diverge about whether the markings imply that the
tone is stressed or not, or if it even indicates the accentuation of a note. Here, one
206
Quantz, Versuch, chapter XVII: §27, 201‐202, speaks about how note values in general should be
halved and that if a note with a staccato point is followed by several notes with a shorter note value
the tone should be accented. C. P. E. Bach speaks in Versuch über die wahre Art das Clavier zu Spielen,
Berlin 1753. (Facsimile rpt. Wiesbaden: Breitkopf, 1986), chapter III:§17, 125, also about shortened
note values but points out at the same time that tones are separated from one another with regard to
note length, tempo and nuance. Generally, separated notes exist, detaché, in interval movements and
in fast tempi.
126
must use the note picture as a whole in order to understand what might be relevant
in the specific case. What is striking, however, is how often staccato marks appear
in eighteenth‐century music in places where the normal procedure would be to play
a long note, and thus an accented one. There seems to be a tendency to add
markings in the score to signal that the composer expected something else than
what is expected according to tradition.
From an over‐arching perspective, the placement of the movements within the
sonata affects the choice of tempo. We have already established that the
movements have the basic pattern slow – fast – slow – fast. Further, we can
conclude that the first movement is a prelude, granting a fairly free relationship to
tempo – at least at certain points. The third movement is set in a minor key, which
often signals a certain kind of thoughtfulness within the context of lighter
movements. A concluding movement is often lighter in its character than the first
fast movement, but what that actually means is difficult to state more precisely.
In this way, we can gain some guidance for our tempo choices from the placement
of the movements in the sonata, but perhaps mostly from the sonata as a whole. It
is, however, difficult to get away from the idea that the whole is a construction, and
the individual interpreter creates her own picture.
We can also look upon the movements of the sonata as separate entities, and
reflect on possible tempo choices from the tempo indications that, together with
the time signature – and in certain instances the given note values – lend decisive
clues for tempo choice, but also for the pattern of accents. At the same time, it is
actually not possible to separate the question of tempo from all the other elements
that are important for the performance. The choice of tempo is intimately related
to the intention that the composer had, and what the interpreter wants to clarify
127
and communicate. Ido Abravaya talks about finding “tempo‐determining factors”
that can be rhythmical elements or harmonic rhythms.207
Tempo is not only important quantitatively. In combination with the chosen time
signature, it is also a musically qualitative dimension because the time signature
defines the accent pattern to a large extent. A fast tempo does not give space for
too many accents, while a slow tempo can. In this way, the choice of tempo has
huge importance for the agogic freedom within a measure.
Abravaya makes a review of historical treatises on tempo, and it becomes clear that
what Quantz and others have described is a simplification in order to make different
areas of the field clear for amateurs. From a simplified description of different
classes of tempo, it is a large leap to the huge variation of tempo‐related terms in
Quantz’s own compositions.208 Quantz uses a spectrum of 1:16 for the different
tempo indications he sees as correct, where the relationship between two tempo
choices lying next to one another is always 1:2. Abravaya suggests that this
spectrum and its internal relationships should be seen as the tolerable borders that
delimit the different classifications of tempo that Quantz gives. The beginner needs
clarity, while the more experienced can modify this structure through intuition and
knowledge.209
While Quantz’s guide basically is seen as intended for not very advanced flutists –
and in some cases other musicians – Johann Philipp Kirnberger’s theoretical writings
are intended primarily for composers.210 Where Quantz describes a fixed form for
tempo choice whose goal is that the fastest note values in different pieces always
have the same duration, Kirnberger chooses instead to emphasise the flexibility and
adaptability to a specific piece’s emotional affect.211
According to Kirnberger, the piece’s time signature and the note values determine
the tempo, and this tempo is in turn modified by words like adagio or allegro.
Kirnberger’s most important contribution to theories around tempo is his concept
207
Ido Abravaya, On Bach’s Rhythm and Tempo, (Kassel: Bärenreiter, 2006), 2.
208
Abravaya, Bach’s Rhythm, 128.
209
Abravaya, Bach’s Rhythm, 129.
210
Abravaya refers to Kirnberger, Die Kunst.
211
Abravaya, Bach’s Rhythm, 130.
128
of tempo giusto. For the aspiring composer, Kirnberger emphasises the importance
of creating the right feeling for the natural tempo for every time signature, tempo
giusto, through the study of various dances.212 Through similar studies, an
interpreter can build up an experientially based knowledge, which can give
indications for appropriate tempo choices, even if the actual music is not specifically
a dance movement. Kirnberger also suggests that it is important to not only look for
how fast or slow a work should be performed, but also the emotional content, or
affect, that the piece bears, and which tempo is best for communicating that
content.213
A basic principle that was current already in the 1500s was: the shorter the note
value, the slower the tempo. With Bach, however, it is not so simple, because he
uses short note values clearly in both fast tempos and slow ones.214 Bach is also
inconsistent in his use of tempo indications since he does not always notate a
tempo word. It is also not possible to draw general conclusion like whether allegro
always indicates a certain tempo. When it concerns instrumental music for more
than one musician, Bach is more generous with tempo indications, and they also
appear in other contexts where an unexpected change occurs. In general, he leaves
the tempo indication to the interpreter, which is in line with the performance
practice conventions of the time.
In the Sonata in E major, every movement has a heading or a title; in three of the
movements this consists of tempo words. The third movement is marked with the
name of a specific dance, siciliana (or siciliano) that Quantz, among others, defines
as a slow gigue with a pastoral feeling. The other movements have indications that
give more general information about the choice of tempo. More conclusive for the
choice of tempo is the movement’s structure, and what I as an interpreter try to do
is to determine what I think Bach considered to be most important in the musical
structure, and what is less meaningful. Of course, this process involves the
interpreter’s own preferences as well.
212
Johann Philipp Kirnberger, The Art of Strict Composition, (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982),
376.
213
Kirnberger, Art of Strict Composition, 377.
214
Abravaya, Bach’s Rhythm, 139.
129
The first movement, Adagio ma non tanto, is notated in C or common time. The
bass part consists mainly of eighth‐note motion, often called a walking bass‐line,
which primarily appears in andante movements. Both the tempo markings as well
as the time signature possibly indicate a relaxed but not too slow tempo, and this is
also how the movement indication can be interpreted: “slow but not excessively
so.” Bach used such combinatory tempo indications relatively often, and one could
interpret this as sensitivity for nuances in tempo choice, even if, as we have already
seen, Bach is not particularly liberal in his use of tempo indications.215 Even though
the melody is notated with thirty‐second notes, this does not contradict this choice
of tempo if they are interpreted as ornaments. It is, however, not so simple that the
presence of thirty‐second notes indicates a slow tempo in music by Bach. Rather,
one could argue that thirty‐second notes either indicate a rather fast tempo with
virtuoso passages or a slow tempo where the thirty‐second notes have the
character of an ornament.
Allegro, the second movement, is notated in 2/4 with sixteenth notes as the fastest
note value, and a bass part that almost exclusively consists of eighth notes. As
discussed earlier (see page 98), the movement has the character of a rigaudon, a
fast variation of the bourrée. In combination with the relatively slow harmonic
rhythm, this suggests a fast tempo.
The sonata’s third movement, Siciliana, follows entirely the expected scenario of
this typical dance movement, both in its time signature and rhythmical patterns
(see page 104 for a more detailed description). What deviates from the norm is that
Bach gives the bass part the same importance as the melody; the same melodic
material appears more or less in both parts. In combination with the complex
harmony, these factors argue for a slow tempo.
Finally, we turn to the sonata’s last movement, Allegro assai. I have discussed this
movement relatively thoroughly from a tempo perspective in the section on
articulation (see page 125), where I pointed out several possibilities from the
pattern of accents departing from the title of the movement; against the
background of this argument, I interpret Allegro assai in this context as “relatively
215
Abravaya, Bach’s Rhythm, 141.
130
quick,” a tempo that makes it possible to make the rhythmical finesses meaningful
and recognisable from one another.
Ornamentation
The ornamentation present in this sonata is limited to only a few types: trills and
appoggiaturas of various characters, as well as the written out ornamentation in the
first movement.
Trills
The notated and un‐notated trills in this sonata serve both cadential and decorative
functions. The cadential trills will be treated briefly at the end of this section, in
order to discuss them more fully in relation to different types of appoggiaturas,
because a cadential trill is so intimately tied to the appoggiatura. Here I will first
treat trills of a decorative or melodic character.
In the fifth measure of the first movement, the flute part moves to e´´ on the third
beat of the measure, a seventh in F# major, see Illustration 40:
Illustration 40: Movement 1, measures 3‐5.
If Bach had chosen to complete the sequential movement he began with the upbeat
of measure 4, he would have allowed the melody line to go to the fourth in A#
major, d#´´, in order to resolve downwards to the third, c##´´. That he has chosen a
seventh chord in the first inversion makes way for e´´ that he then resolves to f#´
but in a downward leap of a seventh. Bach has marked this f#´ with a trill sign. If I
choose to see the trill as an ordinary trill starting from the upper neighbour note,
from g#’ in this case, the leap from an intense seventh chord to a much milder sixth
131
is weakened, but at the same time it creates a motion from a dissonance in the
chord to another dissonance in the same chord, a second.
There is also another sounding quality in the relation between g#´ and f#´, where g#´
is a weak tone on the flute because it needs a fork fingering. On the other hand, f#´
is a strong note that also has to be raised in pitch because it is naturally too low and
that involves giving it extra wind pressure. If I choose to see the trill as unimportant
I can go directly from e´´ to f#´ and thereby emphasise the leap of a seventh. If the
trill is important for the movement it will be a weakly sounding trill where f# must
be voiced to agree with g# in the trill itself. Furthermore, the trill is quite special
itself due to the shift between the fingerings that demand too many fingers, making
the performance of the trill a kind of compromise. If one does not compensate with
wind pressure as well as how high the trilling finger is lifted above the flute, one
produces a trill between a´ and a low f#´, a minor third instead of a second. By
emphasising g#´ as the appoggiatura and then not lifting the trilling finger too high
one can create the illusion of a trill at the interval of a second. The remaining
question is only how all of this is going to be achieved in the space of an eighth
note. From this discussion I would like to suggest that this trill marking can be seen
as a free choice, where I as an interpreter have the liberty to decide what I think is
important – the leap of a seventh or the trill.
A similar trill is also found in measure 16 of the last movement. Does this trill have
its own function or is it an elegant decoration of the F# major chord? Alternatively,
is it maybe so that the trill generates a momentum in order to bridge the
presentation of the figure in the flute part, a figure that the bass part presented in
the movement’s introduction? The same kind of bridge can be found in the parallel
place in the movement’s third part; compare measure 16 (Illustration 41) with
measure 44 (see Illustration 42):
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Illustration 41: Movement 4, measures 12‐17.
Illustration 42: Movement 4, measures 40‐45.
Similarities between measures 16 and 44 give some support for the idea of a
bridging trill in measure 16 that keeps the motion going. However, if the trill in
measure 16 is technically time consuming to perform and tonally weak, then the
motion that was intended will not be realised.
In both illustrations above, in measures 12 and 40, a trill is also seen as a part of the
melody of the inventio as well as a decoration. It is a passing trill with a melodic
rather than harmonic function. However, here again there are alternative ways to
interpret this trill, which have consequences especially for the stress pattern.
Illustration 43 renders the opening measures of the last movement. Without the
trill, it is easy to stress the third beat in the upbeat, which the bass note in the
introductory upbeat measure also supports.
133
Illustration 43: Movement 4, measures 1‐4.
If the trill is important, it is not possible to stress the third beat, because a trill
automatically involves a certain accentuation due to the trill’s percussive effect,
even if in this case it is found on an unstressed part of the measure. If one still
wants to stress the third beat, it is possible to interpret the trill as a mordent or to
choose a tempo that makes it possible to have several stressed notes per measure.
A mordent would make it possible to emphasise the third beat of the upbeat
measure, since the mordent would have a passing character.
Neumann points out that even though Bach is careful in his notation when it comes
to so‐called free ornamentation, he is not especially careful with how he notates
trills – with the possible exception of the keyboard music. For example, it is only in
the keyboard music that Bach uses the mordent sign,216 but this does not mean that
there are no mordents in his other works. Among the places in his keyboard works
where the mordent is marked, the vast majority occurs in stepwise ascending
motion, precisely as in this place in the fourth movement.217
The sign that Bach used for the mordent was M.
216
217
Neumann, Ornamentation, 441.
134
Below we see four variations for how the trill could be realised:
Illustration 44: The trill interpreted as a Illustration 45: The trill interpreted as
mordent. a trill from above.
Illustration 46: The trill from above with an Illustration 47: Trills interpreted that J.
after‐beat. S. Bach himself called “Cadence.”
If, as in Illustration 45, we interpret the ornament as an ordinary trill – starting on
the upper note in this time period, in this case b – it will have the most percussive
effect. Illustration 46 shows an Empfindsamkeit practice from only ten years later
that Bach’s son Carl Philipp Emanuel described as the correct way of executing a
trill, with a termination.218 In this case, a trill with a termination would create a
softer character because it has a bridging function. Illustration 47 is a variant of
Illustration 46 where the alternations that create the trill itself are left out.
218
Bach, Versuch, 74‐75.
135
How important is this trill? Bach, or more accurately the copyist, has notated it with
“tr” every time the figure appears. Without this notation the most likely
interpretation of the three eighth notes would be to make them short in order to
prepare for a stressed first beat in the next measure, or to stress beat three and
then the following first beat. It is reasonable to assume that Bach, by notating the
trill on this tone, wished to avoid these interpretations.
The other trills in the sonata are found in connection to the various cadences.
However, they are not constructed like the most normal kind of trill, with an
appoggiatura that creates a dissonance with the given chord, or as a part of the
suspension in the harmonic cadence pattern, after which the trill becomes softer
and leads to the resolution on a consonant chord. This kind of trill has a clearly
harmonic function. Here, however, the appoggiaturas are part of the chord and
written out, and therefore do not present any problems in terms of performance. It
can be noted that Bach also uses ornamental trills in the cadences, primarily in the
second movement.
Appoggiaturas
In the sonata, the appoggiatura is notated in two different ways, sometimes with
small notes and sometimes with notes of a normal size.
Illustration 48: Movement 1, measures 3‐4.
In both measures 3 and 4 in Illustration 48, a normal‐sized notated appoggiatura
appears on the third beat of each measure, notes that also correspond to the
figured bass numbers. These appoggiaturas do not create any interpretive
problems. Bach has simply written out the appoggiaturas that have clear harmonic
136
meaning in normal notation and they appear also in various cadential patterns. The
intention is clear, and I see no reason to deviate from the notation.
Rather, it is the small notes that raise questions. Should they be played on the beat
or before it? Do they have a harmonic function or a melodic one, or simply a
combination of the two? What length should they have? Since appoggiaturas, both
notated and un‐notated, are very common in eighteenth‐century music, they are a
common topic in the didactic literature of the period.219 In our time, these
appoggiaturas are a constant source of interpretive discussions, between musicians
as well as in the published literature, where every book on interpretation of
eighteenth‐century music reviews appoggiaturas of different kinds and traditions.
I would also like to question whether the small notes might represent a later
addition. We have no autograph to rely on. The manuscript we have was produced
at least 50 years after Bach’s death, and we do not know how many layers of
copying lie between the autograph and the preserved manuscripts. It is possible, for
instance, that a flutist could have added them as extra ornaments. Does the sonata
work without the small notes? I would like to suggest that it is possible, but in some
movements the character is changed from somewhat reserved and elegant to
something that could perhaps best be described as a more straight‐forward tonal
language. I will not comment upon what is more Bachian, except that this could be
seen as a hypothetical, perhaps fantastical thought.
Below, I go through the different appoggiaturas movement by movement. The fact
that this section needs to be so comprehensive and detailed mirrors the
interpretative plethora that this ornament represents.
Movement 1 – Adagio ma non tanto
First, I will carefully go through the different appoggiaturas in the first eight
measures of the first movement. The arguments will be similar for the final 12
measures.
219
For example Bach, Versuch, 62‐70; Quantz, Verusch, 77‐83 and Leopold Mozart, Versuch einer
gründlichen Violinschule, Augsburg 1756. (Facsimile rpt. Kassel; Bärenreiter, 1995), 193‐217.
137
Illustration 49: Movement 1, measures 1‐3.
On the third beat of the first measure, there is a melodic filling‐in of the third
interval. In the French literature this figures is called a tierce coulé, which also gives
a clear guide to the performance – rolling thirds. According to the French tradition,
the appoggiatura is expected to come exactly before the following tone to which it
is slurred, with or without a legato slur mark. Almost all the other variants of the
performance of the small notes leads to trouble for the flutist to keep in time with
the bass voice – presupposing that the figure should sound freely from impulses
from the bass voice, which I personally believe. One alternative, however, is to see
the figure on beat three in measure 1 as another way of writing what is notated on
the parallel place in measure 2. Then measure 1, beat three, could be read as four
thirty‐second notes followed by an eighth note.
The small note in the third measure can be performed in several ways. If I choose to
play it on the beat, it becomes stressed and creates at least the illusion of a short‐
lived dissonance against the A in the chord. However, the chord is diminished, and
according to Kirnberger among others, should be interpreted as a dominant chord
with a missing root, in this case b, and thus it is hardly possible to call the
appoggiatura a dissonant one, because it creates more of a consonance.
Alternatively, I can choose to allow the appoggiatura to be unstressed and thereby
be a part of the ornamental figure, which would mean that the appoggiatura would
be short and come before the beat.
On the third beat of the measure there is a cadence with a written‐out
appoggiatura that has been dealt with already above (see page 136).
138
Illustration 50: Movement 1, measures 4‐5.
It is possible to make the f#´´ on the first beat of the fourth measure a little longer in
order to create a dissonance, but at the same time g#´´ is a resolution of the
dissonant a´´, which would argue against doing this. Also, the resolution from A to
G# is given in the figured bass, so the keyboard instrument will play this suspension.
On the third beat in the measure there is a parallel place to the written out
appoggiatura in measure three.
Measure five begins the same as measure four; with the difference that measure
five begins with an introductory appoggiatura. Both in terms of the time needed
and thinking of the musical flow, the appoggiatura can be seen as melodically
dependent, which would mean that it is more significant for the melody line but
that it does not have any harmonic consequences.
Illustration 51: Movement 1, measures 6‐8.
On the second beat of the sixth measure, there is a typical example of an
appoggiatura before a trill written out in normal notation. The appoggiatura on the
fourth beat of the measure is not dependent on its harmonic surroundings thus far,
as the figured bass line has a pause, so from this perspective it can be made long or
short. However, the flow and the regularity of the triplet movement would be
139
interrupted if the appoggiatura is not played short and before the beat, like a
passing ornament.220
On to the movement’s seventh measure. On the third beat of the measure, Bach
has written an interesting appoggiatura from e´´ to d#´´´, an augmented seventh.
The interval itself creates tension; furthermore the appoggiatura creates a
dissonance to B major. In order to capture all of this, it is reasonable that the
appoggiatura is played on the beat and also given time. It is less clear with the case
of the appoggiatura on the fourth beat of the measure. The musical phrase moves
toward the cadence in measure eight, so an emphasised appoggiatura in measure
seven can give rise to an unnecessary stop in the musical flow. At the same time,
the dissonance a#´´ against E7 major has been prepared in the figure that precedes
beat four, which is why a#´´ should sound on the beat in order to not lose the
dissonance.
Finally, we turn to the appoggiatura in measure 8, written out in normal notation on
the first beat, creating a dissonance against B major in second inversion as well as
an appoggiatura written in small notation to the un‐notated, cadential trill. The trill
should be performed in agreement with the performance practice conventions in
cadences, and the appoggiatura d#´´ is equally important according to the
conventions. The appoggiatura also creates the sixth in the normal cadence formula
I64 Æ V Æ I. This means that the appoggiatura should be played on the beat with a
consciously formed length in order for the harmonic pattern to be clear.
Alternatively, one can see the first and second beats of the measure as a single
figure, which would mean that the appoggiatura before beat two would be
unstressed, and only used as a beginning of the trill. What is attractive about this
solution is that there are fewer accents, and the melodic motion can dominate over
the harmonic, something that already was a sign of the galant style and defended
by Mattheson among others.221
220
Neumann, Ornamentation, 141.
221
Mattheson, Volkommene Capellmeister, 219‐221.
140
Movement 2 ‐ Allegro
The appoggiaturas are unproblematic in the second movement of the sonata. It is
possible to see them as short appoggiaturas before the beat. In measures 5, 22, 24,
and 61 there is a kind of appoggiatura that later writers described as
Zwischenschlag222 (Intermediate notes), which is a good descriptive term for these
ornaments, see Illustration 52:
Illustration 52: Measure 5, original notation.
In Illustration 53, the appoggiatura is placed under a slur mark that connects the
two main notes. As has already been noted (see page 98), the whole figure is a
variant of the introductory figure. If Bach had not notated the figure as he had, he
could have notated it with the symbol for a mordent, see Illustration 53:
Illustration 53: Measure 5, with mordent.
What would the difference be? The point of departure is the notation as it appears
in measure 1, see Illustration 54:
Illustration 54: Measure 1 with original notation.
Here the two staccato points signal that both tones should be played detaché,
separated, and unstressed. If the basic concept of the notation in Illustration 52 is
kept, the different slurs have a softer character than in measure 1, according to
Illustration 54. Bach then also adds this appoggiatura, or Zwischenschlag. What is
222
Neumann, Ornamentation, 125 and 143.
141
interesting with this kind of appoggiatura is that it can create an extra accent in the
beat, if one chooses as an interpreter to play it as a further development and
clarification of the introductory simple figure. If, as an interpreter, I choose to play a
trill, rather than softening the passage, I create an active, energetic interpretation.
If I, as in Illustration 53 have a mordent, it would automatically lead to a stressed
first beat. A “cadence” on the second beat would also have involved an accent
(compare with Illustration 47). If I play a mordent instead of a soft appoggiatura,
this also has consequences for the speed of the repetition of tones, where a
mordent would clearly be faster.
Because Bach did not choose the notation form with a mordent, but rather wrote it
out in normal‐sized notes, it is possible to suggest that he wanted to avoid accents
in this figure and that he possibly was trying to create softness.
Finally there is an appoggiatura in this movement’s last measure that has a clear
harmonic character, and that is not written with ordinary‐sized notes but rather as
grace notes. Because there is no harmonic movement here, it is actually the only
place in the movement where the convention of the time‐period can be applied,
where the length of the appoggiatura should be at least half the length of the main
note, see Illustration 55:223
Illustration 55: Movement 2, measures 79‐80.
Movement 3 – Siciliana and Movement 4 – Allegro assai
In the third movement, Siciliana, and also in the fourth movement, Allegro assai,
there are several examples of appoggiatura where, apart from the harmonic
223
Quantz, Versuch, 78, Chapter 8, §7‐8.
142
meaning of the dissonance or consonance, it is also important to look at what
happens in the counterpoint, and avoid parallel fifths or parallel octaves in the
voice‐leading. A clear example of this can be seen in the fourth movement, see
Illustration 56:
Illustration 56: Movement 4, measures 39‐40.
If the appoggiatura b#’ is held for two thirds of the main note’s value in measure 40
a hidden parallel octave is created, even if there is nothing in the harmony that
argues against a long appoggiatura. Quite the reverse is true, because a desirable
dissonance is created. There are, however, cases where the appoggiatura saves the
voice‐leading from parallel octaves just like the example in measure 20 in the third
movement. Without the appoggiatura e#´´ we would get a hidden parallel octave on
f#, see Illustration 57:
Illustration 57: Movement 3, measures 19‐20.
If the appogiaturas are seen in a harmonic, vertical context, interpreters can get
clues as to how the other appoggiaturas in the third movement should be
understood. From a harmonic perspective it is possible to say that the grace notes
in the Siciliana are of two types; either chordal or dissonance‐generating. In the
143
latter case they are quite often prepared; meaning that the appoggiatura is the
same as the tone that precedes it, see Illustration 58:
Illustration 58: Movement 3, measures 5‐8.
In the illustrations above, all of the appoggiaturas that follow the normal pattern of
an accented first beat in every measure are prepared from the previous measure.
According to compositional rules, this is the most correct way to prepare a
dissonance in a movement. In measure 8 beat 6, we see the other type of
appoggiatura, which I called harmonic in the previous discussion. An even clearer
example can be found in measure 2 in the melody voice and measure 3 in the bass,
see Illustration 59:
Illustration 59: Movement 3, measures 1‐3.
144
as accidentally omitted because one could hardly perform the movement in any
spirit of galant cantabile if these measures were articulated. The sixteenth notes
that appear in these figures give some information about phrasing, but this occurs
only in the first four measures.
The other type of figure that attracts attention to itself is the triple motion in
measures 6‐7 (see Illustration 52 on page 139) as well as the parallel place in
measures 15 to 17. In contrast to the scalar passages that fill in intervals, where an
interpreter can take great freedom, here one gets a feeling of regularity and
rhythmical stability. But, as I showed above in the reduction of the movement,
these triplets can also be seen as ornaments.
In neither the second nor the fourth movements can we really talk about any kind
of notated free ornamentation. In the third movement it is possible, as I suggested
in the analysis of the note picture (see above, page 104), to view the sixteenth‐note
motion as ornamental, but at the same time it is difficult to apply the same free
attitude to the figures as in the first movement. In addition, the imitation between
soprano and bass voices make other demands on the performance, limiting agogic
freedom.
Summary
This third section has focused on performance practice conventions in relation to
the notation of the sonata. An important goal with this section has been to avoid
the normative, where it is so easy to wind up. Therefore, this section provides a
number of arguments around alternative possibilities for articulation,
understandings of tempo indications and time signature markings, as well as the
performance of ornaments.
When it comes to articulation questions, I have primarily concentrated on the
notated slur and staccato articulation marks, and here I have argued that the slurs
are as valuable at indicating patterns of accents as at indicating ornaments. The
staccato marks, like the slurs, are unusually richly indicated in the sonata, and are
also not entirely unambiguous. Through the context within which the staccato
marks are notated, we as interpreters can draw conclusions about whether they
indicate stressed or unstressed notes; on the other hand, it is not possible to
145
generalise more than to state that the dot signals a tone that should be short (but
not how short).
The question of tempo is also handled in a non‐normative fashion. I have, therefore,
chosen to not give any metronome recommendations for the different movements.
I suggested in the text that the choice of tempo can be seen primarily as a
consequence of time signature and notation, where the length of the note value is a
guide, but I also argued that it is not possible to be more definitive.
Finally, in this section dealing with performance practice conventions, I have
discussed different types of ornament that appear in the sonata: trills, grace notes,
and notated free ornamentation. I have discussed the possible interpretations of
different notated trills, both cadential and decorative,.
The appoggiaturas that appear in the sonata are also of two main types, depending
on whether they are notated as grace notes or as ordinary notes. The appoggiaturas
that are notated with ordinary notes are all part of cadential patterns and relatively
unproblematic. It is the small notes that raise questions. It is possible to see the
small notes as short grace notes that generally can be placed before the beat, but
they can also be given more importance through length and placement. In an
alternative reading, I suggest that the grace notes might have been added later.
From the three surviving manuscripts, the oldest is from about 1800, and we do not
know how many copies lie between it and the autograph, or what might have been
added by later copyists.
Notated free ornamentation appears primarily in the slow first movement and
possibly in the third movement. The thirty‐second‐note passages in the first
movement demonstrate this most clearly, but I argue that one could also see the
triplets in the first movement and sixteenth‐note passages in the third movement
as ornaments, even though both of these figure types are generally rhythmical
regular.
Concluding reflections
In this chapter, I have considered some elements that define this work at a detail
level that are of importance to the performance of the sonata. By looking for
compositional intention in the analysis of the notation, I have constructed an
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understanding of the compositional process of the work. As has been pointed out
earlier, the score’s instructions are not exactly exhaustive from an ontological
perspective. In this score, even some basic musical elements need interpretation.
Sometimes this interpretation concerns fairly simple decisions, sometimes
interpretation is so subtle that it cannot even be formed into a conscious thought.
How ontologically thin or thick is Bach’s Sonata in E major? Firstly, we can establish
that the frequency of instructions is unevenly distributed through the manuscript.
The flute voice has a rich notation that shows articulation and ornamentation
including trills and grace notes. Minor inconsistencies can be found in parallel
places, and there we must decide as interpreters whether we will understand the
inconsistencies as conscious variation or as mistakes. The articulation in the bass
voice, on the other hand, is not noted in any detail, and leaves considerably more to
the interpreter to decide. Is this lack of articulation marks bothersome, or is the
bass voice in general so much simpler in relation to the flute voice that Bach trusted
conventional articulation? In the third movement these questions become most
evident. Even though there is much imitation between both voices, with few
exceptions, only the flute voice has notated legato slur marks and staccato dots.
In one aspect the score is obviously thin. Like many sonatas from this time period,
the bass voice has figured bass numbers, and that means that the keyboard player
must interpret how the chords will be filled out. Figured bass numbers only give the
tones that are found in the chord, not the octave, or the voice leading from chord to
chord. In this way a substantial part of the work’s sounding structure is left by the
composer for the interpreter, which means that there is a substantial dimension of
improvisation in the work.
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Chapter 6: Interpretation
In this final chapter, I intend to connect the case‐study in the two text‐based
chapters (4 and 5) to the analysis in performance recorded on the accompanying
CD. In this way, Chapter 6 serves as a kind of report on the results for the
dissertation as a whole.
Our collaborative work began in 1993, and since then we have played a great
number of concerts together, sometimes a combination of flute and organ or
harpsichord, sometimes as continuo performers in many contexts where I have
played viola da gamba and Hans‐Ola organ or harpsichord.
Our shared fascination with the music of Johann Sebastian Bach has always
accompanied our work. But because we come from very different points of
departure we often meet in “empty spaces, unresounding,” to use Lars Gustafsson’s
words. In these spaces, we look for a common language and a common
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understanding in the musical interpretive process where our contemporary shared
socio‐cultural context is most evident and meaningful.
Our musical collaboration is based on listening and a feeling of safety in the
knowledge that we can rely on one another’s competence and that we will be
attentive to one another and will respond. This means that we rarely discuss
specific interpretive questions, but rather play our way toward an interpretation
where we are both satisfied. When we discuss something it is because we clearly
don’t agree.
This way of working gives us a great amount of freedom as interpreters to do
something completely different than we did the time before. We are also both
consciously sparse with notations in the score in order to avoid locking ourselves
into one specific interpretation.
Through this doctoral project we have both, in different ways, worked with the text
of the dissertation. The division of labour has been clear: the text is mine, and it
mirrors my reflections and thoughts, while Hans‐Ola’s role has been as the
reflecting, and sometimes questioning, reader. During the process, we have had
discussions about different musical questions, but even so, we have rarely had to
discuss the kinds of questions of interpretation that I documented in Chapter 5. This
is not meant to imply that our music‐making is without reflection. Just the opposite.
We have lived with the text portion of this dissertation together, as writer and
critical reader, and incorporated these tools into our own music‐making. Exactly
which tools each of us have used when is not possible to verbalise; it is even
unlikely that we used the same tools or experienced them in the same way. This
interpretive process can also be described through the use of a part of Figure 1 that
was given in the dissertation’s introduction, see page 8, but with a few changes:
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Figure 4
In Figure 4, the solid arrows now represent questions that are directed towards the
score and the socio‐cultural context, whereas originally in Figure 1 these arrows
represented influences. This is why the arrows have now changed direction when it
comes to the contemporary socio‐cultural context. The score can be brought into
the present for the same reason, because it is the score that is used in the actual
work of interpretation. The three ellipses that illustrate different aspects of the
musician are reciprocally dependent upon one another in the form of a continuous
dialog that is characterised by questions. Here, we also return to the interpretive
attitudes that I briefly described in Chapter 3, see page 42.
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Performance
The concept of the composer’s intentions has been treated in several ways earlier in
this text, in Chapter 2 – primarily in relation to the concept of authenticity – and in
Chapter 3, in connection with the description of an inventio‐based analytical
method, but also within the frame of the analysis in Chapter 5. Because the
composer’s intention is something we are only capable of developing theories
about, it is difficult to come to terms with, but I maintain that we should continue
to search for it. Within the frame of the analysis, I pointed out that the notation can
be seen to illustrate the composer’s compositional intention, at any rate a possible
intention. At the same time, notation is also a possible expression of the composer’s
interpretive intentions, where both the instrumentation and the performance
practice conventions play a role in the composition, as well as for the
interpretation.
It is also this conscious intention that we must relate to as musicians in an
interpretive work that results in a performance with claims to authenticity. It is
impossible to say how near or far the assumed intentions lie from the composer’s
actual intentions; it is not even possible to be sure that the composer really had an
interpretive intention, even though it is probably the case during the eighteenth
century, where the composer was also the interpreter in the vast majority of cases.
Chapter 3 introduced the concept of the sound structure, a concept that is central
for the work and for our understanding of it, and therefore the sound structure can
be seen as central for our ability to perform the work. The primary categories that
are contained within the frame of the sound structure are: the notation, the
instrumentation, and the performance practice conventions. How I as a performing
musician choose to relate to these three categories can be seen to determine the
level of authenticity of the performance.
If it is possible to state that the performance has reached a high degree of
authenticity, is it then automatically historically informed? From the perspective I
have described in the study the answer is no, because the sound structure does not
take into account the historical socio‐cultural context in a perspective that is wider
than the performance practice conventions themselves. If we are going to be able
to speak about a historically informed performance, I believe that the link between
the notated work and the performance that goes through the historical socio‐
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cultural context is necessary, as well as the link from the notation through analysis
of the sound structure to the performance. Even if we cannot reach the historical
socio‐cultural context, we can, through a pursuit of historical studies, allow it to
have an influence over our shared understanding of the work’s performance
aspects. Only then am I persuaded that it is possible to speak about a historically
informed performance.
However, if a performance is seen as authentic from an ontological perspective, or
if it is to be labelled historically informed, this says nothing about the quality of the
performance. It says nothing about its artistic content, nothing about
interpretation. Nothing ever prevents an “authentic” or “historically informed”
performance from being artistically dead.
So where does a performance find life? The key, as I have tried to express in the
previous chapters, lies in seeing the musical work as dependent on its performance,
and that the performance consists of interpretive processes, that in every aspect
are dependent upon and influenced by the socio‐cultural context. Through the
musician’s artistic freedom to interpret, to make decisions and choices, the
performance accrues life. With an imaginary backpack full of knowledge generated
from studies of the various parts of the sound structure and the music’s historical
socio‐cultural context, the musician can fill in the gaps by interpreting them from
the perspective of her own socio‐cultural context. Here is where artistic freedom
can be found and can give the performance life.
However, there is still nothing that can generally determine whether the
performance will be good or bad. It is a value judgement, which only musicians and
listeners can make from their own perspectives; perspectives that are themselves
based on socially constructed knowledge.
What happens to the work if I choose to ignore elements or instructions that can be
seen to be determinative for the performance from a contextual musical ontological
point of view? Do we still have a performance of the work? I mean to suggest that
we are discussing degrees of difference of authenticity; depending on which
tradition we belong to and which tradition the work belongs to, some elements are
more important than others. Even here we rest on our own socio‐cultural context,
because in some cases we have expectations of how the music should sound. We
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are, therefore, returning to the shared understanding of the least common
denominators necessary for us to accept that a performance of a specific work has
taken place. If we choose, for example, to ignore the historical instrument in the
performance and use a modern example instead, we lose many dimensions, but I
think one could still say one had a performance of the work, even though it would
have a strong reduction in its degree of authenticity. A relevant choice of
instrument is an important precondition to be able to apply certain performance
practice conventions that are a part of the work’s sound structure.
In order to accept the approach of what a musical work is within the framework of
contextual musical ontology – that is, as a social construction where the
performance, historically as well as in the present moment, is a part of the work – I
have provided myself as a musician with certain preconditions for my interpretation
that are a part of a larger striving after an authentic relationship with the work.
This relationship points out the importance of reflecting on the consequences that
come with interpretive decisions. The same can be said for certain general
performance practice conventions. I can consciously choose to not follow certain
instructions in historical writings when I am performing – these could concern
breathing and articulation among other things – but as I see it, it is absolutely
necessary that I am conscious that these are decisions that I have made, and that I
am aware of the consequences.
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the recording will not sound exactly the same on different equipment used to
replay it, but the interpretation of the piece will not change.
In this discussion, I choose to take myself as a musician as a starting point and
consciously not ground my thoughts in any theoretical discussion. In the moment
that I play a musical work I play two roles: I interpret, but at the same time I am also
a listener. In this way the character of the performance is not dependent on the
presence of a public. The performance is a creative process, and this process is one
that I go through every time a play a work.
But what happens when there are a number of performances, a plethora of
versions, combined through editing? Even in these cases I think we can talk about a
performance; this is true of each individual take, but also in the editing together of
different ones. It is clear that differences can appear between different takes, which
are so clear that they cannot be combined, and somewhere there is a border that
can not be crossed, but generally I experience that a practicing musician in
recording situations is so focused and so present in a specific context that parts of
different takes absolutely can be brought together into a single whole. In our case it
is remarkable how few edits we have in the slow movements, if any, while in both
fast movements there are a number of edits. It is also the slow movements that are
most sensitive to multiple takes because they are more dependent on the
interpretation in the moment in the work process that Hans‐Ola and I have
practiced. The fast movements, on the other hand, provide substantially fewer
moments for obvious interpretive differences.
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Department of Music and Media. The discussion concerned whether, in order to
describe my interpretive process, I should try to document how my relationship to
the sonata had changed over time, or not changed. I began a journal, and it is that
attempt that appears in Chapter 1. What focus did I have in my doctoral studies
when I wrote this? The aim for the dissertation at that time was to perform a
musicologically oriented analysis in order to increase my understanding of the
structure of the sonata, and thereby achieve a more satisfying interpretation of the
work.
I chose to not make further notes in that journal because I directly began work on
the analysis chapter, which in itself mirrors a relationship to the sonata, a
relationship that is even more characterised by questions without answers. At the
same time, it is possible to see the entire text of this dissertation as a kind of journal
of my relationship to this sonata, as it has been central the entire time.
The notes can however give a picture of where I found myself in the spring of 2007,
and how I saw the sonata, and therefore serve as a point of departure for the
dissertation’s recorded material, a material that consists of different moments in
our interpretive journey, in our relationship with Bach’s Sonata in E major over the
last year. At the same time, it must be said that we have performed the sonata
earlier several times, but in comparison with the other sonatas of Bach, the Sonata
in E major is the one that we have played least often. Perhaps it is most fair to call
these “re‐studies,” taking place as preparations before the performances that fell
within the scope of this dissertation work.
A conscious decision was made for all of the performances where I play the flute to
not strengthen the bass line with a gambist or ‘cellist. The reason for this was that
we wanted to maintain our own interpretation process, and not be forced into
another kind of process that might have demanded more verbal communication or
clearer agreements.
One might think it would be interesting to revisit the notations in our scores from
the different recordings where one could expect that our different interpretive
choices might be documented. But as I have already mentioned, we do not work
this way. We simply do not add notes in our scores. To study our interpretations
involves listening. Within the frame of this specific case study, it also means taking
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into account the text that was formulated parallel to the interpretive process, which
was manifested in a number of performances, all but one of which was documented
through recording. These recordings can be found on the CD that was produced as a
part of this dissertation. For the same reason I am not presenting any analysis of the
interpretive decisions that are the basis of our different performances. If the
listener has read the text, then the text is a part of the listening process, but the
listening can also happen without the text. As an interpreter, I do not want to steer
the listening process through analytical texts, where such a relationship could
become normative for the listening. As I wrote in the prologue, the experience of
the artistic expression is our own, and just like the experience of a poem, it is also
influenced by its socio‐cultural context. No experience is more true than any other.
June 2007
In June of 2007 we performed the sonata in connection with a concert in
Östhammar Church in Norduppland. The musical‐interpretive preconditions were as
I described them in the opening notes to Chapter 1. We performed the sonata at a’
≈ 440 Hz because the instrument that was available was the choir organ in the
church.224 The pitch is not a major factor for either of us as we do not have absolute
pitch. The most important consequence of the high pitch was that I had to use a
flute that I would not otherwise have chosen.
Baroque flutes built today are almost all copies of existing historical flutes that
normally had a pitch somewhere between a’ ≈ 390 – 425 Hz. For purely practical
reasons, a consensus has developed in our time around a pitch of a’ ≈ 415 Hz
(approximately a half tone under the normal modern pitch of a’ ≈ 440 Hz). With few
adjustments, wind instruments built today according to baroque models are all
suited to a’ ≈ 415 Hz.
When Hans‐Ola and I recorded the sonatas of C. P. E. Bach in 1995, the organ we
wanted to use for the recording forced me to find a flute at a’ ≈ 440 Hz.225 The
builder that I order flutes from, Alain Weemaels in Brussels, created an instrument
at this pitch by reducing all of the dimensions proportionally instead of only
224
The choir organ in the Östhammar Church is built by Karl Nelson.
225
The recording is published by BIS, BIS‐CD‐755/756. The organ we used is built by Mads Kjersgaard
and stands in the Masonic Temple in Uppsala.
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shortening the left‐hand part, which would have given an inbuilt bad intonation.
The result was good, but still not as good as a flute with a lower pitch. It is a
compromise instrument that requires more compensation for sounding unevenness
as well as constant adjustments for the intonation of individual notes. I am less free
in relation to this instrument, which often leads to situations where I cannot
completely trust the instrument and have to focus an unnecessarily large amount of
energy just on intonation. Intonation is also a more sensitive issue with the organ
than the harpsichord because of the organ’s sustained sound. Against an organ
sound, the flute’s tones must be intonated against the same tone in the organ – in
unisons or octaves – no matter how the organ is tempered. As I have already
mentioned, the flute can be seen as a meantone instrument with a centre on d,
which leads to cases where it can be quite problematic to intonate against, for
instance, an equal‐tempered organ.
In this concert in Östhammar, we consciously tried to allow the fast movements to
have a slower tempo, a tempo I would characterise as held‐back. I am not
completely convinced whether it was successful, and the movements developed a
cautious character. I remember a feeling from this performance of being held back,
where the focus landed on controlling the tempo. There is no recording of this
performance but I mention it here anyway, as it was part of the interpretive process
that this dissertation illustrates. Our discussion around tempo in connection with
the concert also had importance for later performances. Testing different tempi, or
alternative interpretations of different elements like ornaments or articulations, is
an important part of our interpretation process. Through this process we define the
limits of what the music can bear and we can achieve, in order to build up an
experiential bank of possible alternatives.
November 2007
The next time we performed the sonata was in connection with a seminar in
November of 2007, where Hans‐Ola and I gave a public lunch concert in Studio
Acusticum in Piteå. The same program was repeated two days later at a public
concert in Piteå Church.
The conditions for the two concerts were quite different, and this also influenced
the interpretation in different ways. The concert in Studio Acusticum developed a
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sense of representation because the Norrbotten Academy attended the concert.
Because we knew that the Academy’s board was pressed for time, we chose to
ignore some of the repeats. For the Sonata in E major we cut the repeats from the
second half of each of the fast movements, as well as both of the repeats from the
third movement. We made the same cuts at the concert in the Piteå Church.
These performances appear on tracks 1‐4 (Studio Acusticum) and 5‐8 (Piteå
Church).
For the concert in Studio Acusticum, we used our chamber organ built by Henk Klop
in 2004 as a keyboard instrument. It is an organ with four registers: Principal 8’,
Gedackt 8’, Flute 4’ and Flute 2’. The organ was tuned for this concert in a
temperament close to Neidhardt “für eine große Stadt” (quite close to equal
temperament). For the concert in the church we used the church’s harpsichord built
by William Dowd around 1980, a one‐manual instrument in Flemish style with two
8’‐registers. I tuned the harpsichord myself for the concert in the way that I
described on page 121.
I used the same flute for both concerts, a copy of a flute built originally by August
Grenser. It is a type of flute that can be described as light in tone colour, with a
quick response, but that does not have the strong lower register of the flutes that
Quantz had built for the court in Berlin. It was mainly for practical reasons that I
chose this flute. Acoustically it falls between the two other alternatives, a copy of a
flute by G. A. Rottenburg and one by I. H. Rottenburg, where the I. H. Rottenburg
would have been preferable. The latter, however, has a large left hand grip, which I
have difficulty managing at times, which is why I chose the second best alternative
acoustically.226
The differences between the organ and the harpsichord as keyboard instruments
are not only acoustical as I have already pointed out in Chapter 5 (see page 121);
226
What mainly separate these three flutes from one another are their periods of construction. Exact
dates of construction must remain relative, based on when the builders were active and which
instruments we have preserved. I. H. Rottenburg lived from 1672‐1756 and built flutes primarily
between 1700‐1735; preserved flutes from v G. A. Rottenburg (1703‐1768?) are most likely from 1750
onward; August Grenser (1720‐1807) began building flutes in 1744 and all of his preserved instruments
are from after 1750 Information taken from Ardal Powell and David Lasocki, “Bach and the Flute: the
Players, the Instruments, the Music,” Early Music vol 23 nr. 1 (1995): 22‐23.
159
the different instruments also affect how the figured bass line can be formed. The
figured bass line itself does not need to change; articulation possibilities, however,
are affected greatly because the harpsichord allows a more diversified playing
technique, particularly in how chords are broken. Arpeggiating chords are an
element that is effective to give accents but also a tool for creating dynamics. Both
the harpsichord and organ lack the possibility of making dynamic differentiation
within the register.
Besides the different articulation possibilities, sensitivity in respect to the
intonations can be seen as an important factor, something that is strengthened in
these two concerts through the use of different temperaments. My relationship to
intonation was more relaxed at the concert in the Piteå Church because the
temperament that we used is the one we use most often.
Another difference between these two performances lay in the different venues
themselves. In Studio Acusticum, the adjustable ceiling was set in its highest
position, which meant that there was a reverberation of about two and a half
seconds, while in the Piteå Church, a wooden church with many textiles, the
reverberation time is around 0.2 seconds. The acoustic response of the room has a
quite obvious effect on the interpretation and therefore a performance, in this case
perhaps not so much in terms of choice of tempo but in the experience of one’s
own sound, and how we as musicians can rest in it. The timing is also affected. One
example could be how long a suspension can be allowed. If the acoustic is dry, it can
be difficult to maintain a musical tension in a suspension or in a pause, but such
agogics can be experienced as completely natural in rooms with a longer
reverberation time.
The audience naturally affects a performance, but here it is much more difficult to
pinpoint what that might mean. The audience was markedly larger in Studio
Acusticum, but a large number of them were more or less forced to be there. At the
same time we felt a great interest and enthusiasm. In Piteå Church there was a
small audience, but even though those who were there had chosen to be there,
they were more restrained in their reactions.
When these recordings took place, my dissertation text was in a phase where the
analysis of the notation was primarily completed and written, but the dissertation
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was lacking a theoretical framework, which is why I saw the inventio‐based analysis
as my main tool for a deeper understanding of the sonata’s structure as a key to
interpretation.
12‐13 June 2008
On the 12‐13 June 2008 we recorded three more versions (tracks 9‐12, Sonata in E
major with harpsichord; 13‐16, Sonata in E major with organ; as well as 17‐20,
Sonata in G major with harpsichord). We were once again in Studio Acusticum, but
this time it was a recording session without a live audience. We had limited time for
both extra takes and editing.
These recordings were meant to be a time capsule of how we viewed the sonata
just then on the 12‐13 June, 2008. I was in a phase of my doctoral work where many
parts of the text existed in some form, but where a number of theoretical
arguments needed to be sharpened in order to create a whole out of the text.
Why did we record the sonata in a different key? It was a sounding experiment
inspired by a question that I have often posed to myself: Why did Bach choose the
key of E major? The choice of key makes the piece technically difficult because E
major and its related keys mean many forked fingerings, often in troublesome
combinations. The sound of the flute is influenced greatly by a key with many
sharps. Even if the goal isn’t an equalised sound, it isn’t possible to play all the tones
in E major or C# minor with full strength, because the notes that are not played with
forked fingerings stick out and are much stronger than the others. It would create
an unwanted acoustic picture in ensemble with an accompanying keyboard
instrument. Both the organ and harpsichord have an equalised sound.
Because this sonata has a modest range from e’‐e’’’, the sonata can be transposed,
with no octave transpositions or similar exercises, to D major, Eb major, F major,
and G major. It will still be playable within the flute’s range of d’‐a’’’. In reality, F#
major would also be possible, but I more than gladly skipped that experiment as F#
major consists almost solely of forked fingerings. The possibility that was most
attractive was to transpose to G major. With G major it was possible to experience
more freedom without direct technical problems, and a more open sound. A
transposition up a small third also affects the range and gives a more open and light
sound.
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For these three recordings we had planned to use the same flute, a copy of a flute
by I. H. Rottenburg whose acoustic qualities are reminiscent of Quantz’s flutes and
should therefore lie fairly close to a type of flute for which the sonata might have
been designed. The flute is built in grenadilla wood, a hard and resilient type that I
experience gives a somewhat darker sound than boxwood, which is another typical
wood for flute builders. I use this flute for both versions with harpsichord, but in the
recording with the organ I was forced to use a different flute. Due to the climate,
the organ had risen in pitch to a’≈ 418 Hz, a pitch that only a few of my flutes can
manage. Therefore, the choice fell on the G. A. Rottenburg, a flute built in boxwood
with a softer and more intimate sound. The organ in this case was a smaller version
of the instrument we used in November, with only two registers, Gedackt 8’ and
Flute 4’, built by Henk Klop in 2006. The harpsichord built by Stig Lundmark in 1988,
is a two‐manual copy of an instrument built by Taskin in 1769.
24 and 26 June 2008 – Båstad Chamber Music Festival
The recording from the concert in Förslöv Church on the 24th of June is different in
many ways from the other recordings. The flute line was played by Kerstin Frödin
on the recorder. The key is F major, a key that suits the recorder perfectly, so we do
not have the complicated relationship that develops between the flute and E major
and we also do not have the G major version’s perhaps slightly strained high
tessatura. Hans‐Ola and I play the basso continuo together in this recording: I play
the viola da gamba and Hans‐Ola the harpsichord. I have chosen to include this
recording in order to show how an interpretation can change when yet another
musician joins the ensemble, and in a situation where we had not met before and
had to look for a shared way of expressing the piece the evening before the concert.
What happens in a situation like this is that a pragmatic approach is taken. One
achieves a spoken or unspoken agreement about who will dominate the
interpretation, and in this specific case it went without saying that Hans‐Ola and I
tried to adapt ourselves as much as possible to how Kerstin Frödin wanted to
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interpret the sonata. Perhaps the differences between this version and the others
are most clear in the slow movements.
I play on a seven‐stringed gamba – a copy of a gamba by Collichon, built by Norman
Myall in 2006 – and Hans‐Ola performs on a two‐manual harpsichord built by Mats
Arvidsson, date of building unknown to me.
The concert was recorded by Sveriges Radio P2 [Swedish Broadcast Channel 2] and
can be found on tracks 21‐24 on the CD.
The CD’s last four tracks, 25‐28, were recorded by Sveriges Radio P2 [Swedish
Broadcast Channel 2] two days later, where Hans‐Ola and I introduced a varied
chamber music concert with this sonata. Now we play again in E major, I on the
flute and Hans‐Ola on the organ. The organ was of the same type as our own Klop
organ, and I played a copy by G. A. Rottenburg, in principle the same sounding
combination of instruments as in the recording from June 13th.
In both of these concerts, the audience was completely different than the earlier
public concerts. Over the course of the week we met a public with a great passion
for chamber music that visited thirty concerts, and took part in what we had to say
as musicians with interest and attention. It is naturally inspiring but also
challenging, when expectations in these cases can be quite high.
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CD – contents
Total duration: 79:57
Recording 1 – Studio Acusticum 15 November 2007, a’ ≈ 415 Hz
Flute: Copy by A. Grenser, A. Weemaels 2006
Keyboard instrument: chamber organ, H Klop 2004
1 Adagio ma non tanto 2:18
2 Allegro 2:06
3 Siciliana 2:05
4 Allegro assai 2:35
Recording engineer: Johannes Oscarsson and Sebastian Lönberg
Recording 2 – Piteå City Church 17 November 2007, a’ ≈ 415 Hz
Flute: Copy by A. Grenser (ca 1760), A. Weemaels 2005
Keyboard instrument: harpsichord, Flemish model, W. Dowd ca 1980
5 Adagio ma non tanto 2:15
6 Allegro 2:06
7 Siciliana 2:03
8 Allegro assai 2:22
Recording engineer: Johannes Oscarsson and Sebastian Lönberg
164
Recordings 3 – Studio Acusticum 12 June 2008, a’ ≈ 415 Hz
Flute: Copy by I. H. Rottenburg (ca 1730), A. Weemaels 2005
Keyboard instrument: harpsichord, based on Taskin (1769), S. Lundmark 1988
9 Adagio ma non tanto 2:29
Recording engineer: Johannes Oscarsson
Recording 4 – Studio Acusticum 13 June 2008, a’ ≈ 418 Hz
Flute: Copy by G. A. Rottenburg (ca 1750), A. Weemaels 1985
Keyboard instrument: chamber organ, H. Klop 2006
Recording engineer: Johannes Oscarsson
165
Recording 5 – Studio Acusticum 12 June 2008, a’ ≈ 415 Hz, G major
Flute: Copy by I. H. Rottenburg (ca 1730), A. Weemaels 2005
Keyboard instrument: harpsichord, based on Taskin (1769), S. Lundmark 1988
Recording engineer: Johannes Oscarsson
Recording 6 – Förslövs Church, 24 June 2008, a’ ≈ 415 Hz, F major
Kerstin Frödin – recorder
Lena Weman Ericsson – viola da gamba, Copy by Collichon (1691), N. Myall 2006
Hans‐Ola Ericsson – harpsichord, M. Arvidsson
Recording engineer: Hans Larsson and Bo Kristiansson
Producer: Pia Bygdéus
Sveriges Radio P2
166
Recording 7 – Torekovs Church, 26 June 2008, a’ ≈ 415 Hz
Flute: Copy by G. A. Rottenburg (ca 1750), A. Weemaels 1985
Keyboard instrument: chamber organ, H Klop 2006
Recording engineer: Hans Larsson and Bo Kristiansson
Producer: Pia Bygdéus
Sveriges Radio P2
Conclusion
In the overarching aims of this study, I discussed on page 5 how to understand and
communicate my interpretive choices, which in turn lead to a performance.
Through the process of formulating the theoretical framework as it has developed, I
have achieved this, but the results of this study reach further than that. The
dissertation balances between the academic and artistic, and in this balancing, not
least through the epistemological approach that is based on the social
constructionist tradition, I have been able to experience artistic freedom and
security.
The key to this experience lies in the view of the performance as a part of the work,
where the work draws its identity from the moment in which it is performed, an
identity that is a result of the socio‐cultural context in which I find myself as a
musician. To accept the importance of my own socio‐cultural context is to accept
my own artistic freedom.
Is there any substantial difference between this view and historically informed
performance practice, which above all emphasises the historical context? I would
argue that a historically informed performance requires knowledge about both the
167
historical and the current socio‐cultural context. A basic idea is that knowledge is
constructed in communication with others. Historical knowledge is valuable, but
there are insights that are equally valuable: the insight that reconstruction is
impossible and that it is only possible for us to interpret the historical socio‐cultural
context from the norms, value judgements, and performances that are a part of our
current socio‐cultural environment.
The different sounding versions are to be seen as results of the work with theory
and method as analytical tools, but are equally meant to be seen as a mirror of an
interpretive process over time, where Hans‐Ola and I have been influenced by the
work with the text of the dissertation.
There are audible differences between the different recordings. The most obvious
differences are the different locations with their varying acoustics and
atmospheres, and the different instruments that we have used: different flutes as
well as different organs and harpsichords. There are other differences between the
recordings that touch on everything from the formation of individual tones to the
direction of a phrase, how a trill is formulated, or if it is played at all, and so forth. It
is a list that could be never‐ending, precisely because no performance is identical
with another. They can be experienced as similar or different, as better, or less
good, but all this belongs to the listener. In her role, the listener is also dependent
on her socio‐cultural context and knowledge.
For me as a musician, and as the author of this dissertation, the greatest difference
has been the knowledge and insights that this work generated for me. For me,
these are mirrored in the recordings, but these insights are also important for my
music‐making in general. The work with this dissertation has shown me the artistic
possibilities that open up for me when I allow myself to view and process music‐
making and performance from a scholarly theoretical perspective. It has, at the
same time, shown me the theoretical possibilities that can be found within an
artistic process. In addition, through the process of understanding and formulating
the importance of the socio‐cultural context in which we take part, I also accept
that there are many emotional influences that are not possible to express in words.
And perhaps, it is also the absence or presence of excitement, conflict, sorrow, love,
lust, joy, happiness, calm that in the end is the most conclusive for what we as
musicians manage to communicate.
168
Epilogue
The financial support needed to complete a doctoral project within a field like music interpretation, where even
one’s home university has difficulty finding full economic support, I would like to begin by thanking the
philosophical faculty board at LTU for approving prefect Karin Ljuslinder to allocate support for my professional
development, as well as my home institution that assigned some strategic funds also for this project.
Writing a dissertation in two years as a little special. It takes patience from more than the author. It requires will‐
power from more than the author. But above all it requires that there are people on the side of the author that
believe it is possible. Without this support and validation it would not have been possible. I have been given a
fantastic chance that I have tried to use to the best of my ability.
Thanks to Yvonne, Helen, Matts and Johan at the library of the Institute for Music and Media ‐ you simplified a
doctoral student’s life immensely. Your concept of service and support can only be wondered at.
Thanks to Pia for your unfailing support. Many were the times I sank into a chair in your office, often without
knocking, and I never felt I was in the way, quite the reverse.
Three other offices I often barged into in the same way were Kristina’s, Kicki’s and Annika’s. Your open doors were
inviting and I took the invitation and felt welcomed. It was more valuable than you would know. To be able to talk
about other things. To be able to discuss the institution in general, or educational programs or budgets sometimes
felt more real and just the down‐to‐earth release I needed, but what reality really is we could discuss another time.
Thanks also to Johannes who in a fantastic way helped me, and us, with recordings and editing. You always
volunteered with an enthusiasm and gladness that was invaluable.
Thanks to my father Gunnar for his proofreading.
Thanks to Natanael for his cover art.
Thanks to Lars Gustafsson that you so enthusiastically gave me permission to use your poem and to use the final
lines of that poem as the title of this work.
Thanks to the doctoral student group and the research seminars for valuable input to a sometimes halting text.
Thanks to Sverker for your advising.
Everyone that I have named are invaluable for me. Your support made me believe that his might be possible.
Patience, will and faith.
Karin Ljuslinder and Hans‐Ola Ericsson, you both in different ways made this project possible by personifying will
and patience to complete what you believe in – and you also have the capacity to communicate this and in your
own ways have led me farther on my way, and for that I am eternally and lovingly thankful.
Piteå 25 October 2008
Lena Weman Ericsson
169
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