Concept of

Embedded Systems
Design
 Definition
• Embedded system: any device that includes a
programmable computer but is not itself a
general-purpose computer.
• Take advantage of application characteristics
to optimize the design:
– don’t need all the general-purpose bells and
whistles.
 Embedding a computer

output analog

input analog
CPU

mem
embedded
computer
 Examples
• Personal digital assistant (PDA).
• Printer.
• Cell phone.
• Automobile: engine, brakes, dash, etc.
• Television.
• Household appliances.
• PC keyboard (scans keys).
 Early history
• Late 1940’s: MIT Whirlwind computer for real-
time operations; Originally designed to control an
aircraft simulator.
• First mP was Intel 4004 in early 1970’s.
• HP-35 calculator used several chips to implement
a microprocessor in 1972
• Automobiles used microprocessor-based engine
controllers starting in 1970’s.
– Control fuel/air mixture, engine timing, etc.
– Multiple modes of operations: warm-up, hill climbing..
– Provides lower emissions, better fuel efficiency.
Embedded Computing-5
 Microprocessor varieties
• Microcontroller: includes I/O devices, on-
board memory.
• Digital signal processor (DSP): microprocessor
optimized for digital signal processing.
• Typical embedded word sizes: 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-
bit.
 Application examples
• Simple control: front panel of microwave
oven, etc.
• Canon EOS 3 has three microprocessors.
– 32-bit RISC CPU runs autofocus and eye control
systems.
• Analog TV: channel selection, etc.
• Digital TV: programmable CPUs + hardwired
logic.
 Automotive embedded systems
• High-end automobile may have 100 mPs:
– 4-bit microcontroller checks seat belt;
– microcontrollers run dashboard devices;
– 16/32-bit microprocessor controls engine.
• BMW 850i
– Anti-lock brake system (ABS): pumps brakes to
reduce skidding.
– Automatic stability control (ASC+T): controls
engine to improve stability.
– ABS was introduced first--> ASC+T needs to
interface to existing ABS module.
 BMW 850i, cont’d.

sensor sensor

brake brake

hydraulic
ABS
pump

brake brake

sensor sensor
 Characteristics of embedded
systems
• Sophisticated functionality.
– Often run sophisticated algo. or multiple algo.
• Cell phone, laser printer.
– Often provide sophisticated user interfaces.
• Real-time operation.
– Must finish operations by deadlines.
• Hard real time: missing deadline causes failure.
• Soft real time: missing deadline results in degraded
performance.
– Many systems are multi-rate: must handle
operations at widely varying rates.
Characteristics of embedded systems
• Low manufacturing cost.
– Many embedded systems are mass-market items
that must have low manufacturing costs.
• Limited memory, microprocessor power, etc.
• Low power.
– Power is critical in battery-powered devices
• Excessive power consumption increases system cost even
in wall-powered devices.
• Designed to tight deadlines by small teams.
– 6 month market window is common.
– E.g., can’t miss back-to-school window for calculator.
 Why use microprocessors?
• Alternatives: field-programmable gate arrays
(FPGAs), custom logic, etc.
– Intuition: Microprocessors use much more logic to
implement a function than does custom logic.
• But, microprocessors are often efficient,
because
– can use same logic to perform different functions
– heavily pipelined
– large design teams
– aggressive VLSI technology
• Microprocessors simplify the design of
families of products.
 Although power is a concern,
• Custom logic is a clear winner for low power
devices.
• Modern microprocessors offer features to
help control power consumption.
• Software design techniques can help reduce
power consumption.
Challenges in embedded system design
• How much hardware do we need?
– How big is the CPU? Memory?
• How do we meet our deadlines?
– Faster hardware or cleverer software?
• How do we minimize power?
– Turn off unnecessary logic? reduce mem. accesses?
• Does it really work?
– Is the specification correct? Is the spec met?
– How do we test for real-time, real data?
• How do we work on the system?
– Observability, controllability? development platform?
 Design methodologies
• A procedure for designing a system.
• Understanding methodology helps you ensure
you didn’t skip anything.
• Compilers, computer-aided design (CAD)
tools, software engineering tools, etc., can be
used to:
– help automate methodology steps;
– keep track of the methodology itself.
 Need to consider design goals
• Performance.
– Overall speed, deadlines.
• Functionality and user interface.
• Manufacturing cost.
• Power consumption.
• Other requirements (physical size, etc.)
 Work with levels of abstraction
requirements

Top-down
design specification

architecture Bottom-up
design
component
design
Real design uses
both techniques system
integration
 Stepwise refinement
• At each level of abstraction, we must:
– analyze the design to determine characteristics of
the current state of the design;
– refine the design to add detail.
 Level 1: Requirements
• Plain language description of what the user
wants and expects to get.
• May be developed in several ways:
– talking directly to customers;
– talking to marketing representatives;
– providing prototypes to users for comment.
 Functional vs. non-functional
requirements
• Functional requirements:
– output as a function of input.
• Non-functional requirements:
– time required to compute output;
– size, weight, etc.;
– power consumption;
– reliability;
– etc.
 requirements form
name
purpose
inputs
outputs
functions
performance
manufacturing cost
power
physical size/weight
 Example: GPS moving map
requirements
• Moving map
obtains position
from GPS, paints I-78
map from local

Scotch Road
database.

lat: 40 13 lon: 32 19
 GPS moving map needs
• Functionality: For automotive use. Show
major roads and landmarks.
• User interface: At least 400 x 600 pixel screen.
Three buttons max. Pop-up menu.
• Performance: Map scroll smoothly. Less than 1
sec power-up. Lock onto GPS within 15 sec
• Cost: $500 street price = approx. $100 cost of
goods sold.
• Physical size/weight: Should fit in hand.
Embedded Computing-23

• Power consumption: 8 hours on 4 AA

GPS moving map requirements
form
name GPS moving map
purpose consumer-grade
moving map for driving
inputs power button, two
control buttons
outputs back-lit LCD 400 X 600
functions 5-receiver GPS; three
resolutions; displays
current lat/lon
performance updates screen within
0.25 sec of movement
manufacturing cost $100 cost-of-goods-
sold
power 100 mW
physical size/weight no more than 2: X 6:,
12 oz.
 Level 2: Specification
• A more precise description of the system:
– should not imply a particular architecture;
– provides input to the architecture design process.
• May include functional and non-functional
elements.
• May be executable or may be in mathematical
form for proofs.
• UML (Unified Modeling Language)
 GPS specification
• Should include:
– What is received from GPS;
– map data;
– user interface;
– operations required to satisfy user requests;
– background operations needed to keep the
system running.
 Level 3: Architecture design
• What major components go satisfying the
specification?
• Hardware components:
– CPUs, peripherals, etc.
• Software components:
– major programs and their operations.
• Must take into account functional and non-
functional specifications.
GPS moving map block diagram

GPS search display

renderer
receiver engine

user
database interface
 GPS moving map hardware
architecture

display frame CPU

buffer
GPS
receiver

memory
panel I/O
 GPS moving map software
architecture

database pixels
renderer
search

position user
timer
interface
 Level 4: HW and SW components
• Must spend time architecting the system
before you start coding.
• Some components are ready-made, some can
be modified from existing designs, others
must be designed from scratch.
 Level 5: System integration
• Put together the components.
– Many bugs appear only at this stage.
• Have a plan for integrating components to
uncover bugs quickly, test as much
functionality as early as possible.
 System modeling
• Need languages to describe systems:
– useful across several levels of abstraction;
– understandable within and between
organizations.
• Block diagrams are a start, but don’t cover
everything.
 Object-oriented design
• Object-oriented (OO) design: A generalization of
object-oriented programming.
• Object = state + methods.
– State provides each object with its own identity.
– Methods provide an abstract interface to the object.
• Class: object type
– Defines the object’s state elements but state values
may change over time.
– Defines the methods used to interact with all objects of
that type.
• Each object has its own state.
 OO implementation in C++
class display {
pixels : pixeltype[IMAX,JMAX];
public:
display() { }
pixeltype pixel(int i, int j)
{ return pixels[i,j]; }
void set_pixel(pixeltype val, int i, int j)
{ pixels[i,j] = val; }
}
 OO design principles
• Some objects will closely correspond to real-
world objects.
– Some objects may be useful only for description
or implementation.
• Objects provide interfaces to read/write state,
hiding the object’s implementation from the
rest of the system.
 UML
• Unified Modeling Language
• Developed by Booch et al.
• Goals:
– object-oriented;
– visual;
– useful at many levels of abstraction;
– usable for all aspects of design.

Embedded Computing-37
 UML object
object name
class name
d1: Display

pixels is a pixels: array[] of pixels

2-D array elements
menu_items

comment
attributes
 UML class
• The operations provide the
Display abstract interface between
class the class’s implementation
name and other classes.
pixels
• Operations may have
elements
arguments, return values.
menu_items
• An operation can examine
and/or modify the object’s
mouse_click() state.
draw_box
operations
Relationships between objects and
classes
• Association: objects communicate but one
does not own the other.
• Aggregation: a complex object is made of
several smaller objects.
• Composition: aggregation in which owner
does not allow access to its components.
• Generalization: define one class in terms of
another.
 Class derivation
• Define one class in terms of another.
– Derived class inherits attributes, operations of
base class.

Derived_class
UML
generalization
Base_class
 Class derivation example
Display
base
pixels class
elements
menu_items
pixel()
derived class set_pixel()
mouse_click()
draw_box

BW_display Color_map_display
 Multiple inheritance
base classes

Speaker Display

Multimedia_display

derived class
 Association
• Association: describes relationship between
classes.
• Example:
# contained messages # containing message sets

message message set

0..* 1
msg: ADPCM_stream
contains count : integer
length : integer

association name
 Links
• Link: describes relationships between objects.
• Example: Link defines the contains
relationship
message
msg = msg1 message set
length = 1102
count = 2
message
msg = msg2
length = 2114
 Behavioral description
• We have discussed how to specify structure
• Now consider describing behavior of the
system:
– internal view
transition
– external view
• Use state machines a b

state state name

 Event-driven state machines
• Behavioral descriptions are written as event-
driven state machines.
– Machine changes state when receiving an input.
• Events may come from inside or outside of the
system
– Signal: asynchronous event.
– Call: synchronized communication.
– Timer: activated by time.
 Types of events
• Signal event:
<<signal>>
mouse_click a

leftorright: button
mouse_click(x,y,button)
x, y: position

b
declaration

event description
 Types of events
• Call event:
draw_box(10,5,3,2,blue)

c d

tm(time-value)
• Timer event:
e f
 Example state machine
start input/output
mouse_click(x,y,button)/ region = menu/
find_region(region) which_menu(i) call_menu(I)
region got menu called
found item menu item
region = drawing/
find_object(objid) highlight(objid)

found object
object highlighted

finish
 Sequence diagram
• Shows sequence of operations over time.
• Relates behaviors of multiple objects.
m: Mouse d1: Display u: Menu

mouse_click(x,y,button)
which_menu(x,y,i)

time
call_menu(i)
 Model train setup

rcvr motor

power
supply
console

header address command ECC

 Requirements
• Console can control 8 trains on 1 track.
• Throttle has at least 63 levels.
• Inertia control adjusts responsiveness with at
least 8 levels.
• Emergency stop button.
• Error detection scheme on messages.
 Requirements form
name model train controller
purpose control speed of <= 8 model trains
inputs throttle, inertia, emergency stop,
train #
outputs train control signals
functions set engine speed w. inertia;
emergency stop
performance can update train speed at least 10
times/sec
manufacturing cost $50
power wall powered
physical console comfortable for 2 hands; < 2
size/weight lbs.
 Conceptual specification
• Before we create a detailed specification, we will
make an initial, simplified specification.
– Gives us practice in specification and UML.
– Good idea in general to identify potential problems
before investing too much effort in detail.
• Can start with message definitions, which
determines what the controller can do
Command Parameter
set-speed speed (positive or negative)
set-inertia inertial-value (nonnegative)
estop None
 Message classes

command

set-speed set-inertia estop

value: unsigned-
value: integer
integer
 Subsystem collaboration
1..n: command
:console :receiver

:console :train_rcvr
set-inertia
set-speed
• Sequence
diagram set-speed
estop
set-speed
 Major subsystem roles
• Console:
– read state of front panel;
– format messages;
– transmit messages.
• Train:
– receive message;
– interpret message;
– control the train.
 Console system classes
console
1 1
1 1 1
1
panel formatter transmitter

1 1
1 1
receiver* sender*
 Console class roles
• panel: describes analog knobs and interface
hardware.
• formatter: turns knob settings into bit
streams.
• transmitter: sends data on track.
 Train system classes
train set

1 1..t
1 1
train
1 1 motor
receiver interface
1 1
1 1 controller 1 1
detector* pulser*
 Train class roles
• receiver: digitizes signal from track.
• controller: interprets received commands and
makes control decisions.
• motor interface: generates signals required by
motor.
 Detailed specification
• We can now fill in the details of the
conceptual specification:
– more classes;
– behaviors.
• Sketching out the spec first helps us
understand the basic relationships in the
system.
 Train speed control
• Motor controlled by pulse width modulation:

duty
cycle +
V
-
 Console physical object classes

knobs* pulser*
train-knob: integer pulse-width: unsigned-
speed-knob: integer integer
inertia-knob: unsigned- direction: boolean
integer
emergency-stop: boolean
sender* detector*

send-bit() read-bit() : integer

 Panel and motor-interface classes
• panel class defines the controls.
– new-settings() behavior reads the controls.
• motor-interface class defines the motor speed
held as state. panel
motor-interface

speed: integer train-number() : integer

speed() : integer
inertia() : integer
estop() : boolean
new-settings()
 Transmitter and receiver classes
• Transmitter: 1 behavior for each type message
• Receiver function provides methods to:
receiver
– detect a new message, decide
current: command
type, read parameters
transmitter new: boolean

send-speed(adrs: integer, read-cmd()

speed: integer) new-cmd() : boolean
send-inertia(adrs: integer, rcv-type(msg-type:
val: integer) command)
set-estop(adrs: integer) rcv-speed(val: integer)
rcv-inertia(val:integer)
 Formatter class
• Formatter class formatter
holds state for each
current-train: integer
train, setting for current-speed[ntrains]: integer
current train. current-inertia[ntrains]:
unsigned-integer
• The operate() current-estop[ntrains]: boolean
operation performs
send-command()
the basic formatting panel-active() : boolean
task. operate()
 Control input cases
• Use a soft panel to show current panel
settings for each train.
• Changing train number:
– must change soft panel settings to reflect current
train’s speed, etc.
• Controlling throttle/inertia/estop:
– read panel, check for changes, perform command.
 Control input sequence diagram
:knobs :panel :formatter :transmitter
change in read panel
change in change in speed/

control panel-active
train number inertia/estop

settings panel settings send-command

read panel
send-speed,
panel settings send-inertia.
read panel send-estop
change in
train panel settings
number new-settings
set-knobs
 Formatter operate behavior

update-panel()

panel-active() new train number

idle
send-command()
other
 Panel-active behavior

T current-train = train-knob
panel*:read-train() update-screen
changed = true
F

T
panel*:read-speed() current-speed = throttle
changed = true
F
... ...
 Controller class

controller
current-train: integer
current-speed[ntrains]: integer
current-direction[ntrains]: boolean
current-inertia[ntrains]:
unsigned-integer

operate()
issue-command()
 Setting the speed
• Don’t want to change speed instantaneously.
• Controller should change speed gradually by
sending several commands.
Sequence diagram for set-speed
command
:receiver :controller :motor-interface :pulser*
new-cmd
cmd-type
rcv-speed set-speed set-pulse
set-pulse
set-pulse

set-pulse
set-pulse
 Controller operate behavior

wait for a
command
from receiver
receive-command()

issue-command()
 Refined command classes
command
type: 3-bits
address: 3-bits
parity: 1-bit

set-speed set-inertia estop

type=010 type=001
type=000
value: 7-bits value: 3-bits
Embedded System:
• Embedded system is a system that has embedded
software and hardware, which makes it a system
dedicated for an application or product or a part
of a larger system.
• Embedded system are electronic systems contain
a microprocessor and microcontroller.
• 3 main components :
1. Hardware 2. Application Software
3. RTOS
RTOS (Real Time Operating System)
• RTOS supervises the application software
running on hardware and organizes access
to a resource according to the priorities of
task in the system.
Components of embedded system hardware:
 Memories

made of
Bits stored registers
is the
capacity.

Location Storage
accommodate
bits. location

Address
Volatile Memory Non Volatile Memory
 Read Only Memory
Nonvolatile memory

Can be read from but not written to, by a

processor in an embedded system

Traditionally written to, “programmed”, before

inserting to embedded system

Uses
Store software program for general-purpose
processor program instructions can be one or more
ROM words
Store constant data needed by system
 Read Only Memory Internal view

 Horizontal lines = words 8 × 4 ROM

 Vertical lines = data word 0

3×8
 Lines connected only at enable decoder word 1
circles word 2
 Decoder sets word 2’s line to A 0
word line
1 if address input is 010 A1

 Data lines Q3 and Q1 are set to A2

1 because there is a “programmed”

connection with word 2’s line data line
 Word 2 is not connected with data
lines Q2 and Q0 programmabl
e connection wired-OR
 Output is 1010
Q3 Q2 Q1 Q0
 Look Up
Tables

0
3X8
1 Decoder

1 0 1 0
Erasable Programmable Read Only
Memory
Transistor has “floating” gate surrounded by an insulator
(a) Negative charges form a channel between source and
drain storing a logic 1
(b) Large positive voltage at gate causes negative charges
to move out of channel and get trapped in floating gate
storing a logic 0
(c) (Erase) Shining UV rays on surface of floating-gate
causes negative charges to return to channel from floating
gate restoring the logic 1
(d) An EPROM package showing quartz window through
which UV light can pass
Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only
Memory

 Erased cell in EPROM contains 1

 Selective Programming 0s in desired
bit location.
 Only 0s will be programmed.
 Program duration 11.5v to 25v
 Possible program – individually ,
sequentially, Random.
Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only
Memory
Programmed and erased electronically
typically by using higher than normal voltage
can program and erase individual words
Better write ability
can be in-system programmable with built-in circuit to
provide higher than normal voltage
built-in memory controller commonly used to hide details
from memory user
writes very slow due to erasing and programming
“busy” pin indicates to processor EEPROM still writing
can be erased and programmed tens of thousands of times
Similar storage permanence to EPROM (about 10 years)
Far more convenient than EPROMs, but more expensive
Structural units in Embedded Processor:
Processors is an important unit of an Embedded
System
Processors are classified based on the bit size :
• Small scale embedded system
• Medium scale embedded system
• Large scale embedded system
R.Hariharan AP/EEE
R.Hariharan AP/EEE
R.Hariharan AP/EEE
Structural units in Embedded Processor:
Processors is an important unit of an Embedded
System
Processors in an Embedded System:
Processors has two essential units:
1. Program Flow Control Unit (CU) – Fetch Unit for
fetching instruction.
2. Execution unit (EU) – data transfer operation and
data conversion.
EU includes the ALU and also the circuit that executes
instruction for program control task, halt, interrupt,jump
instruction.
Processors in an Embedded System:
• What is a machine cycle?
 Machine cycle is a unit that refers to the time required
by the microcontroller to execute instructions.
Step 1. Fetch
Obtain program instruction
or data item from memory

Memory
Step 2.
Step 4. Store Decode
Write result to memory Translate
instruction into
Processor commands
ALU Control Unit
Step 3. Execute
Carry out command
Important Consideration of a system designer
to selecting processor:
• Instruction set
• Maximum bits in an operand (8 or 16 or 32).
• Clock Frequency in MHZ and processing
speed in Millions Instruction Per Second
[MIPS].
• Processor ability to solve complex
algorithm.
Design Process for Embedded System
 Selection of Processors
• High Clock speed.
• High Computing performance – Pipeline
• Processors with registers - multitasking
• Power – efficient – auto shutdown
• Processors –Burst mode - external memory.
• Processor – Atomic Operation
• Processor – coding – Big Endian, Little Endian
 Selection Of Memory Devices
• Actual memory requirement is known only after
coding.
• ROM & RAM allocation for various segments,
data & structures will be available from the
software design.
• Prior estimate of memory type and size can be
made.
Direct Memory Access (DMA)
Least Processor Intervention
• DMA transfer is controlled by a DMA controller, which
request control of the bus from CPU.
 A bus with DMA Controller
DMA requires 2 bus signals : (i). Bus Request (ii). Bus Grant
Data transfer occurs between hard disk & system
memory.
• Single Transfer at a time - (bytes transfer) –
release the IO bus hold in each transfer.
• Burst Transfer at a time – (Kilobytes transfer) -
release the IO bus hold in each transfer.
• Bulk Transfer at a time – release the IO bus
hold after transfer is completed.
DMAC is first initialized,
i). Read or write.
ii). Mode of DMA transfer.
iii). Total number of bytes
to be transferred
iv). Starting memory
address.
• 8086, 8085 processors doesn't have DMAC
units.
• 8051 family member 83C152JA & MC68340
microcontroller have two DMA channels on
chip.
 Memory Management
• Memory is the important resource, there is a
constant interaction and communication
between the processor.
• Semiconductor memory is the primary
memory
• Hard disk is the secondary memory
• All programs run with the data and code in the
RAM
 VIRTUAL MEMORY
• Virtual memory is a concept by which the
application is made to believe that it has much
more memory than in physically available.
• Enlarged Address space which is also a virtual
address space.
 Timer and Counting Devices
• Counter / Timer is used for many count based
measurements solutions.
Used for frequency measurements.
Used for edge or event counting.
Used for pulse – width measurement.
Used in event time stamps.
Timing Device or Timer :
Timer device is used to count the regular interval
clock pulses at its input.
Timer is a dedicated hardware for timing events.
• For example 8051 timer register TMOD & TCON.
• In timer count register, a number is loaded and
then the timer is started.
• Count keeps increasing until its reaches the
maximum value.
Counting Device or Counter :
Counting device is used to count the irregular
interval clock pulses at its input.
 Watch Dog Timer (WDT)

A Watch Dog Timer is an additional timer that does

a monitoring job resets the system.
“Self- Reliant System”
• Software getting stuck in infinite loop.
• Dead lock
• Noise Voltage is some pin leads to – Wrong
triggering
Watch Dog Timer – it can be loaded with a count
which decrements down to zero.
8051 doesn't have inbuilt WDT but PIC ,ARM
microcontrollers have WDT.
Reset by WDT is called as “Soft Reset or Warm
Boot”
 Real Time Clock (RTC)
• System needs a clock which refers for REAL TIME.
• There are specialized ICs for keeping time which
can be programmed to count time in terms of
second, minutes and hours.
• For example ARM Microcontrollers have On-Chip,
Real Time Clock (RTC).
 IN-CIRCUIT EMULATOR(ICE)
In Circuit Emulator is an emulator of microprocessor or
microcontroller of target circuit in a target emulating
circuit.

Ease of developing various application in a single

system.

Independent of a particular targeted system processor.

Motorola provides M68HC11EVM & M68HCEVB as

the emulator for 68HC11 micro controlled based target
system.
 Target Hardware Debugging
• Monitor is a debugging tool for actual target
microprocessor in ICE ROM emulator in target
development board.
 Summary
• Embedded computers are all around us.
– Many have complex embedded HW and SW
• Many design challenges: design time, deadlines,
power, etc.
• Methodologies help manage design process.
• Object-oriented design helps organize a design.
• UML is a transportable system design language.
– Provides structural and behavioral primitives.
• Separate specification and programming.
• Can’t completely separate specification and
architecture.
– Make a few tasteful assumptions.