PHASM/G442 Particle Physics

Dr. Ryan Nichol

Prof. Ruben Saakyan
http://moodle.ucl.ac.uk/course/view.php?id=2589

Enrolment is automatic if you are registered on the

course via (i)Portico.

http://www.hep.ucl.ac.uk/~rjn/teaching/PHASM442
Logistics

Contact Details
Office: C20, 2nd floor physics building, UCL
Email: r.nichol@ucl.ac.uk
Web: http://moodle.ucl.ac.uk/course/view.php?id=2589

Office Hours
In principle anytime, in practice Thursday and Friday mornings work best - in C20.

2
Books

• W. Cottingham, D. Greenwood : “An Introduction to the Standard Model of Particle

Physics" (2nd edition)
• D. Griffiths : “Introduction to Elementary Particles”
• M. Thomson: “Modern Particle Physics”
also:
• F. Halzen, A. Martin : “Quarks and Leptons”
• R. Cahn, G. Goldhaber : “The Experimental Foundations of Particle Physics”

Assessment

• 90% 2.5 hr exam (3 questions from 5) + 10% problem sheets

• Module incomplete unless mark > 1.5/10 achieved on 4-problem sheets for MSci & MSc.

3
4 Problem Sheets
• Posted on web. It’s up to you to check the course moodle web-page.

Lecture & Course Notes
• This course uses a combination of powerpoint slides and old fashioned writing on the
(white) board.
• Lecture slides will be on Moodle in pdf format
• Working / examples and additional material at lectures
• YOU SHOULD take notes during the lectures
• Some places where derivations or examples are given are marked with **
• lecture slides + annotations = full course notes.

Lecture Breaks
• at least one - 20 min in middle of 3 hr spot.

Experimental Methods (beta)

• Last 15 minutes of each lecture devoted to discussing experimental method
• Intention is to finish with a little less mathematical rigour (as I certainly tire by the end of a
lecture) and provide experimental examples that reinforce some of the concepts covered in
the course. 4
• As an added bonus we cover some of the historical foundations of modern particle physics.
Course Outline

• Recap, formalism, reaction rates, Feynman Rules

(Module 1)
• Symmetries and conservation laws (Module 2)
• The Dirac equation (Module 3)
• Dirac + Maxwell (Module 4)
• QED & QCD (Module 5)
• Weak Interactions + Electroweak Unification (Module 6)
• Neutrino Phenomenology + Beyond the Standard Model
(Module 7)
• Revision (Term 3)

5
Module 1: Outline
• BSc recap : particles & forces
• Natural units
• Four Vectors
• Fermi’s Golden Rule : Rate of reactions
• Feynman diagrams recap
• Feynman rules
• A first calculation : phase space, density of states,
Matrix Element
• Renormalisation / Running Coupling constants

6
Prerequisites
• 3rd year/BSc Quantum Mechanics
• Special Relativity (4-vector notation)
• 3rd year/BSc Electromagnetism
• 3rd year/BSc Particle Physics

• Without BSc Particle Physics – you may struggle

(please discuss with me) - it’s certainly possible to catch
up quickly by reading a BSc Particle Physics textbook
eg.
– “Nuclear and Particle Physics - An Introduction” : Brian R.
Martin

7
Elementary Matter Particles

Q Strong Weak EM

u,c,t +2/3

d,s,b -1/3

nu’s 0

e,mu,
tau
-1

Mass

Particles of same type but different families are identical except for mass.
8
Where do you put the Higgs?

9
Elementary Matter Particles
• Properties:
– Fundamental point-like particles (i.e without size)
– Fermions -- spin ½
– Obey Dirac Equation
– Have anti-particles (but do the neutrinos?)

• Questions (well some of them):

– Why 3 families?
• Need 2 for any matter/anti-matter asymmetry
– Why mass hierarchy?
– Where does mass come from?
– Are neutrinos Majorana particles?

10
Force Particles
Force Carrier Symbol Number Mass (GeV) Coupling

EM Photon ɣ 1 0 𝜶EM=1/137

Weak W±, Z0 W±, Z0 3 80.4, 91.2 𝜶W≈𝜶EM

Strong Gluon g 8 0 𝜶S~0.1-1

Gravity Graviton ? ? ? ~10-42

All bosons with spin=1 (except graviton : spin = ? )

Photon massless & no-charge : so doesn’t self-interact

Strong/Weak “mediators” carry their own “charge” and so do self-interact (they are NON-
ABELIAN) - this has important ramifications.

SM provides a unified treatment of EM & Weak forces (and implies unification of electroweak
with strong force), but needs the Higgs boson…

11
Natural Units
Natural Units

• SI units not used in particle physics

• More practical to use a “natural” system where:

• Energy, Mass, Momentum all have units of energy (eV, GeV)

• Time, length have units of inverse energy (eV-1, GeV-1)
• Examples **

• Why time, length are inverse energy **

• The conversion factors are:
• 1 GeV-1 = 0.1973 fm = 1.973 x 10-16 m = 6.582 x 10-25 sec

• Cross sections : What is 1 GeV-2 in mb ? **

• What are dimensions of angular momentum (L) or spin (S) in
natural units ? **
12
Four Vector Notation
• Relativistic effects are critical in particle physics, we will
commonly use four vector notation
• Four Vector Definition: “An object that transforms like 𝑥𝜇
between inertial frames”
• Invariant Definition = “A quantity that is unchanged in all
inertial frames”
• Example four vectors: Example Invariants:
⇣ ! ⌘
xµ = time, position Rest mass
⇣ ! ⌘
pµ = energy, momentum
⇣ !⌘
jµ = density, current

• 𝑥𝜇 is the contra-variant four vector 13

 = energy, 1
momentum !1
pµ == energy,
q =p
momentum
Four Vector v Cheat-sheet 2 1 p~1= E m ~= m
2
1
⇣ ⇣ 1 c2!⌘ ⌘ =q =p
µ µ
j •= Special
!
1 ~ p~
2 E
Relativity Reminder 1 c2
2
j density,
= current
density, current v =
m=
E= m m
v = v =v X 3
= =vc E E = mµ 0 p~µ⌫ x=⌫ m µ~⌫
= (x ) = ⇤ = ⇤ ⌫x
c
m E
⌫=0
p~ 1 0 1
1 1 0 01 0 ~
1= q
p
~ =
=1p ~ 2
m t= =0 0 t
= q =
1 c2 pv 2
1 Bx0 C B m m
v2 1 2 B C B 0 0C C
BxC
B C
1 c2 =
~ = p~ @ A @ 1 0 @y A
A
0
p
~ =y m~ 0 0
X 3
• Lorentz Transform:
E = m m z • Covariant
0
0
µ 0
0 metric
0µ 1⌫ tensor
z µ ⌫
E= m E p
~(x 0) = ⇤⌫ x 1= ⇤⌫ x
=3 ~= 1 0 0 0
0E
X m m B 0
⌫=0
1 0 0C
µ µ ⌫ µ ⌫
=
(x ) = ⇤~⌫ x = ⇤⌫ x 0 0g1 µ⌫ = @
B00 0 C
A 10
mp~ = m 1 0
⌫=0 X3 t 0 0 0 1
0 0
0 0 1p~ = 0m ~~ = p~ 1 0µ 01 Bx0 C µ ⌫ B µ ⌫ 0 0C Bx
t 0 0 (x )
t = B 0C ⇤ x
⌫ = B ⌫= ⇤ x CB
m @y A @
Bx0 C ~ =Bp~ C B C ⌫=0 xµ =0gµ⌫ x 0 ⌫
1 0A @ y
B 0C = B 0 0C BxC 0
@y A @m 0 0 1 0 z 0 1 0 01 0 1 z
0 1 t0 0 A @ y A 0xµ0=0 (t, ~x) t
z 0
0 0 B 0 x0 C
1 z
B C B C 1
B 0C = B 0 0 1C B0 C x
0 0
@y A @ 0 0 B
x1µ B
=00
A @ 1A
(t, ~x)y 0 0C C
z0 0 0gµ⌫ =0 @1
0 0z 1 14 0
A
0 01 0 0 1
 xµ = (t, ~x) xµ x = t |~x|
Four Vector Cheat-sheet II
• Scalar Product
x·x= t02 0 ~x · ~x ~ x · Pxµ = µ t2 ( 4 ~ ) 2· ~
a·b= a b ~a2 · b P = Px x
(1)
µ 2
x x = 2 t
x · x == t2 g~x · ~x
µ |~µ
x| ⌫ Pµ P µ(4)=
xµ x µ =(4) t 2 ( 5 E) 2 2 |~
|~x|(2)
p |
2
x·x= t ~xµ⌫ · ~xa b
2 µ
xµ xµµ = t22 |~x|2 ⌫ Pµ P(5)(5)= m2
xµ x == t |~xa|⌫ b (3) “length”
4-vector
>0 “time like”
Pµ P µ = P2 ✓ (6 ◆ like”
) <0 “space
µ @ =0 ~
“light like”
PPµPP µP = = P 21E 2
µ µ 2
|~
p |
2 = ( 7 ,) r
@ (6)
µ Pµ = P (6) @t
PPµµPP µ
µP µ= = E22 m2|~
p 22
| Invariant Rest Mass (7) ✓ ( 8 )
Pµ = E |~
p| (7) ◆
PPµµP µ
µ = m22 (8)
@ ~
P = m @µ(8)= , +r
• Differential 4-vector (“four-derivative”) @t
✓
✓ ◆
◆
@ ~ Note - sign (c.f Q.M.)
@@µµ = , r~r
@t @a0 ~
@ µ aµ = + r · ~a
✓ ◆ @t
@ ~
@µ = , +r 0 @
@t bµ @ µ = b + ~b · r
~
@t
15
Observables: What can we measure?
• Particle decays : A → B + C + …
– Lifetime, τ
– Width, Γ
– Branching Ratios
– Angular Distributions

• Reactions/Interactions : A + B → C + D + …
– Rate
– Angular Distribution

• Bound states (typically strong force)

– Peak in rate vs energy

16
 Aside: Bound States
REVIEW LETTERS
week ending
13 APRIL 2012

70 ATLAS
-1
Ldt = 4.4 fb
60
Candidates / (25 MeV)

Data
50 Fit
Unconverted Photons
Background
40

30

20 Bound states are still being discovered

+ -

10

0 𝜒b(3P) is a bound state of b-bbar

.0 9.6 9.8 10.0 10.2 10.4 10.6 10.8
+ - + -
m( ) - m( )+m [GeV]
(1S)
Analogous to the energy levels in the
(a)
uon hydrogen atom, can observe photons given off
for
220 when transitions from one state to another
ATLAS Data: (1S) Fit to (1S)
200 occur.
Candidates / (25 MeV)

-1 Data: (2S) Fit to (2S)

180 Ldt = 4.4 fb
on Background to (1S)
160
der Background to (2S)
140
ack Converted Photons
120
eV.
hits 100
di- 80
er- 60
om 40
ter 20
ith 0
9.6 9.8 10.0 10.2 10.4 10.6 10.8
han + - + -
m( ) - m( )+m
(k S)
[GeV] 17
not (b)
 |⌫e > cos ✓ sin~✓
@µ = @ , r
|⌫1 >
=
Particle Decay
|⌫µ > sin ✓ @ tcos ✓
✓ ◆
|⌫2 >
@@ ~ 0
• Decay Rate, Γ : “Probability
@µ per
µ@µ
== @unit
t +time
, +r ~ · ~ that
r a particle (9)
decays” @
1 dN
=µ N 0dt @ ~ ~ (2
µ @ = @a @ +
0 ·r (10)
t
µa
N (t) @= µ
N=(0)e +r~ · ~a (9) (2
@t (11)
@ (2
b µ @ µ = b 0 + ~b · r ~ (10)
– If expressed in units of energy (since @t it is s-1) then we call it a
Decay Width (11)
1
– Lifetime, 𝛕 : “Average time it takes
= to decay (in particle’s rest- (12)
frame)” = 11 d N (12)
N dt = (13)
• Γ and 𝛕 are simply related by: 𝛕=1/Γ
1
( ) = N d(0)
d t = N t (13) (14)
• Generally a particle can have many
N (t ) = N (0)decay
e t modes : concept
(14)
of partial widths, Γi X
T ot =X i
T ot = i
• Branching Ratio (BR) defined as : i
i = i
BR i = tot
tot

• We tend to measure : BRs and ΓTOT or 𝝉 and calculate Γi 18

 (11)
Decay Width
! Γ: Decay Width 1 dN
= (12)
N dt: Δt = τ
Time of a particle’s decay has uncertainty
Uncertainty Principle then predicts 1
dt = dN (13)
N
ΔE.τ = 1/2 andNhence (t) = Γ N = (0)e
2 ΔE t (14)

If measure invariant mass of a stateX then

Uncertainty principle givesTitot
a “width”
= due
i
to particle having a finite lifetime.

i
BRi =
tot form:
Distribution of mass follows Breit-Wigner
2
Nmax 2
N (E) = 2 2
(E M0 ) + 2

We can only ever measure either lifetime or width due to

measuring capabilities of particle detectors

19
 =
Reactions: A + B → C + Di T ot

i
• BRi = often expressed in terms
Rate (Probability) of a reaction
i
BRi = tot
of cross section (σ) it is the
tot effective cross-sectional
2
area that A sees of B (or B of 2Nmax 2
A).
N (E)N = max 2 2 2
N (E) = 2(E M20 ) + 2
(E M0 ) + 2
• Often measure “differential” cross sections e.g. dσ/dΩ or
dσ/d(cosθ) d⌦ = sin ✓ d✓ d
d⌦ = sin ✓ d✓ d (15)
= d(cos ✓) d
= d(cos ✓) d (16)
• Luminosity definition : n1 ⇥ n2 ⇥ t
L=
Abeam
2
– Typical values for accelerator :
n1 ⇥ n2 ⇥ t1030-1034 cm-2s-1
L=
• Event rates and “integrated luminosity”
Abeam
2 :
dN
= ⇥L
dt
Z
N= Ldt
20
Aside: Integrated Luminosity at LHC

21
Aside: Precision Effects

This is the graph used by the LHC operators to compensate the accelerator displacement. Each up and down represents
a day, with a high and a low tides. The external modulation comes from adding in the position of the moon with respect
to the earth and sun during the month.
Aside: Precision Effects
Impact on bending magnets due to current from overhead TGV trains
How we calculate Reaction Rate (σ) or Decay Width (Γ)

• We follow the
d following recipe 1 pF 1
2
– Draw Feynman= |M | for
diagrams · the 2process
· ·
d⌦ (8⇡)
• Need to decide to which “order” we
pin the
want to perform
s calculation
– Invoke Feynman Rules to 4calculate the “Matrix Element”
2 g
|M | =
– Calculate the “phasesin
space”
4
(✓) and
s2 “flux” of the process
– Plug these into Fermi’s Golden Rule (FGR) to calculate
rate or cross-section
2
Y 1
Rate = |M | ⇢
in
2Ein
Rate
= ** discussion of terms
Flux

– See (e.g.) Section 2.3.6 of Thomson (2013) for quantum mechanical derivation of
FGR
24
Feynman Diagrams (My Rules)
1) Time from left to right
2) Draw initial particle lines on left and final to right - there will be a
propagator in the middle
3) Based on information about reaction (initial & final state, rate)
determine the type of interaction : EM(γ), Weak (W,Z), Strong (g)
4) Draw interaction vertices - make sure that charge, lepton # etc
are conserved
5) Draw arrow (L→R for particles) and (R→L : backward in time for
anti-particles)
6) Make sure arrows ‘flow’ through the vertex

• Examples :
– Muon decay (W vertices)
– Top quark production and decay

• Definition of s-channel, t-channel and u-channel diagrams

25
“Order”

• The order is determined by number of vertices /

complexity of Feynman diagrams

• We talk about the lowest order process/diagram and

“higher order” processes.

• Consider the example from electron-quark scattering **

• Occasionally the lowest order permissible process is

quite complex e.g. K→µµ

26
Feynman Rules for calculating ∣M∣
1)Label all incoming/outgoing 4-momenta - P1, P2 … Pn
(these are 4 vectors)
2)Label internal 4-momenta - q1,q2, …
3)Coupling constant at each vertex : -ig
4)Propagator for each internal line: i / (q2 - m2)
5)Energy & momentum conservation factor at each vertex:
(2π)4 δ4(k1+k2+k3) the k’s are 4 momenta at each vertex
and signed (+ : incoming, - : outgoing)
6)Internal momenta integration factors: (1/(2π)4) d4q : for
each internal line
7)Factor to remove implicit overall E & p conservation:
1/((2π)4 δ4(p1+p2-p3-..pn))
8)Form product: this = -iM

27
• ** : an aside on delta (δ) functions
Calculation of ∣M∣ for toy model

- see Griffiths sec 6.3

- ignore spin (spin = 0) + anti-particle complications (Majorana particles)
- only one interaction vertex C
- mA > (mB+ mC)
B

A
- consider A + A → B + B via C exchange
- what are the diagrams ? Why no s-channel ? **
- calculation **
2
g
M t−diag = 2 2
( p1 − p3 ) − mc

28
Evaluation of ∣M∣ in the CM frame


- CM frame : one in which there is no net p in initial (or final state)
- ** Some properties in the CM frame for 2 → 2 scattering

s = ( p1 + p2 )2€= (E1CM + E2CM )2

E1 + E2 = ECM
- ** Some properties / simplifications in E >> m limit
2
−4g 1
M= . 2
s sin θ

€
29
Mandelstam variables

- Recall: s,t,u diagrams and g2 g2

M= +
( p1 − p3 ) − mc ( p1 − p4 )2 − mc2
2 2

- Propagators depending on whether s,t, or u process have factors of:

€
2
( p1 + p2 ) = s
2 Use these variables as convenient short-hand
( p1 − p3 ) = t and from formula we have some insight of the type
of process
( p1 − p4 )2 = u

2 2 2 2
s+t +u = m + m + m + m
1 2 3 4 : proof at home

30
Phase Space (ρ) n1 ⇥ n2 ⇥ t
L=
Abeam
n1 ⇥ n2 ⇥ t
L= 2 dN 1
A
FGR : Rate = Μ ρ
beam = ∏dt2E ⇥L
in in
dN Z
= ⇥ L
- Lorentz invariant - crudely it is the energy available to distribute to final state
dt N= Ldt
- It can have a large impact on the rate of processes e.g. ρ→ππ ϕ→ KK (**)
Z
N = Ldt 1
€ t 3⇠
d pout E 1
dρ = (2 π ) ∫ δ ( pin − pout )∏
4 4
3
1 out (2 π ) 2Eout
t⇠
E 1 pF
d⇢ = 2
p d⌦
16⇡ in CM
- Calculation of phase space for our A+A → B + B process s **
d⌦
€ 1 p F=
d⇢ = 2
p d⌦32⇡ 2 (17)
16⇡ s
d⌦
= (E >> m) (18)
32⇡ 2
31
 N= Ldt
Flux
1
t⇠
E

Rate Flux for 2-particles =1relative β1 − β2

σ = ; p velocity =
F
Flux d⇢ = p d⌦ (17)
16⇡ 2 s
- ** Calculation in CM : p1ECM= d⌦ (18)
= 2(for
= 32⇡ 2 E >> m)
E1E2
€
(E >> m)
Finally bringing together : |M|, phase space & flux; we get :
€ d 1 pF 1
2
= |M | · 2 · · (19)
d⌦ (8⇡) pin s
2 16g 4
|M | = (20)
sin4 (✓) s2

Y 1
- ** Observations Rate =
2
|M | ⇢ (21)
in
2Ein
32
Rate
= (22)
Aside: Virtual Particles
n1 ⇥ n2 ⇥ t
L=
• Definition of a real particle:
Abeam
• P2 = (Rest Mass)2 dN
= ⇥L
• Not true for a virtual particle,
dt examples: **
Z
• This is possible because one can violate conservation of
N=
energy (or momentum) for a Ldt
short time via the
uncertainty principle
1
t⇠
E
• The more energy that has to be “borrowed” the shorter
the time interval (the particles are more virtual)
• Examples:
• Virtuality of W in pion decay
• Virtual photons in e+e- at Ee=Mz/2

33
Going beyond lowest order
Higher orders & renormalisation

- Lowest order A + A → B +B had dσ/dΩ ~ g4

- First assumption is that higher orders are suppressed since involve gn (n > 4)
but it is instructive to try the calculation in our “toy model”

** calculation

- the calculation gives a divergent result at high energies !!

- this was a killer problem for 40 years and often plagues any new theories

- the fix is to ask the question - what is g (or equivalent “e” for QED processes)
in the Feynman diagrams / rules

** explanation / illustration

- if we use a “renormalised” value for “e” which actually corresponds to the one
measured at a given momentum transfer (q) in the |M| calculation then
this cancels the divergences. But it means our couplings are not fixed but “run”

34
Renormalisable theories & running couplings

- A renormalisable theory is one in which the “trick” of using renormalised

quantities (masses, couplings) remove all infinities to all orders.

- It was shown that the class of theories known as gauge theories (of which QED and QCD
are examples) are all renormalisable and so this is the type of theory people always start
with, (Nobel Prize 1999).

- EM (QED) coupling constant increases with energy

- Strong (QCD) coupling constant decreases with energy (Nobel Prize 2004)

** : explanation

Don’t actually meet or unify unless new particles !

35