MAM II ECO

Traditional theory distinguishes between the short run and the long run. The short run is the
period during which some factors) is fixed; usually capital equipment and entrepreneurship are
considered as fixed in the short run.

The long run is the period over which all factors become variable.

A. Short-Run Costs of the Traditional Theory:

In the traditional theory of the firm total costs are split into two groups total fixed costs and total
variable costs:

TC = TFC + TVC

The fixed costs include:

(a) Salaries of administrative staff

(b) Depreciation (wear and tear) of machinery

(c) Expenses for building depreciation and repairs

(d) Expenses for land maintenance and depreciation (if any).

Another element that may be treated in the same way as fixed costs is the normal profit, which is a
lump sum including a percentage return on fixed capital and allowance for risk.

The variable costs include:

(a) The raw materials

(b) The cost of direct labour

(c) The running expenses of fixed capital, such as fuel, ordinary repairs and routine maintenance.

The total fixed cost is graphically denoted by a straight line parallel to the output axis (figure 4.1).
The total variable cost in the traditional theory of the firm has broadly an inverse-S shape (figure
4.2) which reflects the law of variable proportions. According to this law, at the initial stages of
production with a given plant, as more of the variable factors) is employed, its productivity
increases and the average variable cost falls.
This continues until the optimal combination of the fixed and variable factors is reached. Beyond
this point as increased quantities of the variable factors(s) are combined with the fixed factors) the
productivity of the variable factors) declines (and the A VC rises). By adding the TFC and TVC we
obtain the TC of the firm (figure 4.3). From the total-cost curves we obtain average-cost curves.

The average fixed cost is found by dividing TFC by the level of output:

AFC = TFC / X

Graphically the AFC is a rectangular hyperbola, showing at all its points the same magnitude, that
is, the level of TFC (figure 4.4).

The average variable cost is similarly obtained by dividing the TVC with the corresponding level of
output:

AVC = TVC / X

Graphically the A VC at each level of output is derived from the slope of a line drawn from the
origin to the point on the TVC curve corresponding to the particular level of output. For example,
in figure 4.5 the AVC at X1 is the slope of the ray 0a, the A VC at X2 is the slope of the ray Ob, and
so on. It is clear from figure 4.5 that the slope of a ray through the origin declines continuously until
the ray becomes tangent to the TVC curve at c. To the right of this point the slope of rays through
the origin starts increasing. Thus the SA VC curve falls initially as the productivity of the variable
factors) increases, reaches a minimum when the plant is operated optimally (with the optimal
combination of fixed and variable factors), and rises beyond that point (figure 4.6).
The ATC is obtained by dividing the TC by the corresponding level of output:

ATC = TC / X = TFC + TVC / X = AFC + AVC

Graphically the ATC curve is derived in the same way as the SAVC. The ATC at any level of
output is the slope of the straight line from the origin to the point on the TC curve corresponding to
that particular level of output (figure 4.7). The shape of the A TC is similar to that of the AVC
(both being U-shaped). Initially the ATC declines, it reaches a minimum at the level of optimal
operation of the plant (XM) and subsequently rises again (figure 4.8).

The U shape of both the AVC and the ATC reflects the law of variable proportions or law of
eventually decreasing returns to the variable factor(s) of production. The marginal cost is defined
as the change in TC which results from a unit change in output. Mathematically the marginal cost
is the first derivative of the TC function. Denoting total cost by C and output by X we have

MC = ∂C / ∂X

Graphically the MC is the slope of the TC curve (which of course is the same at any point as the
slope of the TVC). The slope of a curve at any one of its points is the slope of the tangent at that
point. With an inverse-S shape of the TC (and TVC) the MC curve will be U-shaped. In figure 4.9
we observe that the slope of the tangent to the total-cost curve declines gradually, until it becomes
parallel to the X-axis (with its slope being equal to zero at this point), and then starts rising.
Accordingly we picture the MC curve in figure 4.10 as U-shaped.
 In summary: the traditional
theory of costs postulates that in the short run the cost curves (AVC, ATC and MC) is U-shaped,
reflecting the law of variable proportions. In the short run with a fixed plant there is a phase of
increasing productivity (falling unit costs) and a phase of decreasing productivity (increasing unit
costs) of the variable factor(s).

Between these two phases of plant operation there is a single point at which unit costs are at a
minimum. When this point on the SATC is reached the plant is utilized optimally, that is, with the
optimal combination (proportions) of fixed and variable factors.

The relationship between ATC and AVC:

The AVC is a part of the ATC, given ATC = AFC + AVC. Both AVC and ATC are U-shaped,
reflecting the law of variable proportions. However, the minimum point of the ATC occurs to the
right of the minimum point of the AVC (figure 4.11). This is due to the fact that ATC includes AFC,
and the latter falls continuously with increases in output.

After the AVC has reached its lowest point and starts rising, its rise is over a certain range offset by
the fall in the AFC, so that the ATC continues to fall (over that range) despite the increase in AVC.
However, the rise in AVC eventually becomes greater than the fall in the AFC so that the A TC
starts increasing. The A VC approaches the A TC asymptotically as X increases.

In figure 4.11 the minimum AVC is reached at X1 while the ATC is at its minimum at X2. Between
X1 and X2 the fall in AFC more than offsets the rise in AVC so that the ATC continues to fall.
Beyond X2 the increase in AVC is not offset by the fall in AFC, so that ATC rises.

The relationship between MC and ATC:

We said that the MC is the change in the TC for producing an extra unit of output. Assume that we
start from a level of n units of output. If we increase the output by one unit the MC is the change in
total cost resulting from the production of the (n + l)th unit.

The AC at each level of output is found by dividing TC by X. Thus the AC at the level of Xn is

Thus:

(a) If the MC of the (n + 1)th unit is less than ACn (the AC of the previous n units) the AC n+1 will be
smaller than the ACn.

(b) If the MC of the (n + 1)th unit is higher than ACn (the AC of the previous n units) the ACn+1 will
be higher than the ACn.

So long as the MC lies below the AC curve, it pulls the latter downwards; when the MC rises above
the AC, it pulls the latter upwards. In figure 4.11 to the left of a the MC lies below the AC curve,
and hence the latter falls downwards. To the right of a the MC curve lie above the AC curve, so
that AC rises. It follows that at point a, where the intersection of the MC and AC occurs, the AC
has reached its minimum level.

B. Long-Run Costs of the Traditional Theory: The ‘Envelope’ Curve:

In the long run all factors are assumed to become variable. We said that the long-run cost curve is a
planning curve, in the sense that it is a guide to the entrepreneur in his decision to plan the future
expansion of his output. The long-run average-cost curve is derived from short-run cost curves.
Each point on the LAC corresponds to a point on a short-run cost curve, which is tangent to the
LAC at that point. Let us examine in detail how the LAC is derived from the SRC curves.

Assume, as a first approximation, that the available technology to the firm at a particular point of
time includes three methods of production, each with a different plant size: a small plant, medium
plant and large plant. The small plant operates with costs denoted by the curve SAC1, the medium-
size plant operates with the costs on SAC2 and the large-size plant gives rise to the costs shown on
SAC3 (figure 4.12). If the firm plans to produce output X3 it will choose the small plant. If it plans to
produce X2 it will choose the medium plant. If it wishes to produce X1 it will choose the large- size
plant.
If the firm starts with the small plant and its demand gradually increases, it will produce at lower
costs (up to level X’1). Beyond that point costs start increasing. If its demand reaches the level X”1
the firm can either continue to produce with the small plant or it can install the medium-size plant.
The decision at this point depends not on costs but on the firm’s expectations about its future
demand. If the firm expects that the demand will expand further than X”1 it will install the medium
plant, because with this plant outputs larger than X’1 are produced with a lower cost.

Similar considerations hold for the decision of the firm when it reaches the level X”2. If it expects its
demand to stay constant at this level, the firm will not install the large plant, given that it involves a
larger investment which is profitable only if demand expands beyond X”2. For example, the level of
output X3 is produced at a cost c3 with the large plant, while it costs c’2 if produced with the
medium-size plant (c’2 > c3).

Now if we relax the assumption of the existence of only three plants and assume that the available
technology includes many plant sizes, each suitable for a certain level of output, the points of
intersection of consecutive plants (which are the crucial points for the decision of whether to switch
to a larger plant) are more numerous. In the limit, if we assume that there is a very large number
(infinite number) of plants, we obtain a continuous curve, which is the planning LAC curve of the
firm.

Each point of this curve shows the minimum (optimal) cost for producing the corresponding level of
output. The LAC curve is the locus of points denoting the least cost of producing the corresponding
output. It is a planning curve because on the basis of this curve the firm decides what plant to set up
in order to produce optimally (at minimum cost) the expected level of output.

The firm chooses the short-run plant which allows it to produce the anticipated (in the long run)
output at the least possible cost. In the traditional theory of the firm the LAC curve is U-shaped
and it is often called the ‘envelope curve’ because it ‘envelopes’ the SRC curves (figure 4.13).
Let us examine the U shape of the LAC. This shape reflects the laws of returns to scale. According
to these laws the unit costs of production decrease as plant size increases, due to the economies of
scale which the larger plant sizes make possible. The traditional theory of the firm assumes that
economies of scale exist only up to a certain size of plant, which is known as the optimum plant size,
because with this plant size all possible economies of scale are fully exploited.

If the plant increases further than this optimum size there are diseconomies of scale, arising from
managerial inefficiencies. It is argued that management becomes highly complex, managers are
overworked and the decision-making process becomes less efficient. The turning-up of the LAC
curve is due to managerial diseconomies of scale, since the technical diseconomies can be avoided
by duplicating the optimum technical plant size.

A serious implicit assumption of the traditional U-shaped cost curves is that each plant size is
designed to produce optimally a single level of output (e.g. 1000 units of X). Any departure from
that X, no matter how small (e.g. an increase by 1 unit of X) leads to increased costs. The plant is
completely inflexible. There is no reserve capacity, not even to meet seasonal variations in demand.

As a consequence of this assumption the LAC curve ‘envelopes’ the SRAC. Each point of the LAC
is a point of tangency with the corresponding SRAC curve. The point of tangency occurs to the
falling part of the SRAC curves for points lying to the left of the minimum point of the LAC since
the slope of the LAC is negative up to M (figure 4.13) the slope of the SRMC curves must also be
negative, since at the point of their tangency the two curves have the same slope.

The point of tangency for outputs larger than XM occurs to the rising part of the SRAC curves since
the LAC rises, the SAC must rise at the point of their tangency with the LAC. Only at the minimum
point M of the LAC is the corresponding SAC also at a minimum. Thus at the falling part of the
LAC the plants are not worked to full capacity; to the rising part of the LAC the plants are
overworked; only at the minimum point M is the (short-run) plant optimally employed.

We stress once more the optimality implied by the LAC planning curve each point represents the
least unit-cost for producing the corresponding level of output. Any point above the LAC is
inefficient in that it shows a higher cost for producing the corresponding level of output. Any point
below the LAC is economically desirable because it implies a lower unit-cost, but it is not attainable
in the current state of technology and with the prevailing market prices of factors of production.
(Recall that each cost curve is drawn under a ceteris paribus clause, which implies given state of
technology and given factor prices.)

The long-run marginal cost is derived from the SRMC curves, but does not ‘envelope’ them. The
LRMC is formed from points of intersection of the SRMC curves with vertical lines (to the X-axis)
drawn from the points of tangency of the corresponding SAC curves and the LRA cost curve
(figure 4.14). The LMC must be equal to the SMC for the output at which the corresponding SAC
is tangent to the LAC. For levels of X to the left of tangency a the SAC > LAC.

At the point of tangency SAC = LAC. As we move from point a’ to a, we actually move from a
position of inequality of SRAC and LRAC to a position of equality. Hence the change in total cost
(i.e. the MC) must be smaller for the short-run curve than for the long-run curve. Thus LMC >
SMC to the left of a. For an increase in output beyond X, (e.g. X’1) the SAC > LAC. That is, we
move from the position a of equality of the two costs to the position b where SAC is greater than
LAC. Hence the addition to total cost (= MC) must be larger for the short-run curve than for the
long-run curve. Thus LMC < SMC to the right of a.

Since to the left of a, LMC > SMC, and to the right of a, LMC < SMC, it follows that at a, LMC –
SMC. If we draw a vertical line from a to the X-axis the point at which it intersects the SMC (point
A for SAC1) is a point of the LMC.

If we repeat this procedure for all points of tangency of SRAC and LAC curves to the left of the
minimum point of the LAC, we obtain points of the section of the LMC which lies below the LAC.
At the minimum point M the LMC intersects the LAC. To the right of M the LMC lies above the
LAC curve. At point M we have

SACM = SMCM = LAC = LMC

There are various mathematical forms which give rise to U-shaped unit cost curves. The simplest
total cost function which would incorporate the law of variable proportions is the cubic polynomial
The TC curve is inversely S-shaped , while the ATC, the AVC and the MC are all U-shaped; the
MC curve intersects the other two curves at their minimum points (figure 4.11).

Least-Cost Combination

The problem of least-cost combination of factors refers to a firm getting the largest volume of output from
a given cost outlay on factors when they are combined in an optimum manner.

In the theory of production, a producer will be in equilibrium when, given the cost-price function, he
maximizes his profits on the basis of the least-cost combination of factor. For this he will choose that
combination of factors which maximizes his cost of production. This will be the optimum combination
for him.

Assumptions

The assumptions on which this analysis is based are:

1. There are two factors. Capital and labor.

On the basis of given prices of factors of production and given money outlay we draw a line A, B.

The firm cannot choose and neither combination beyond line AB nor will it chooses any combination
below this line. AB is known as the factor price line or cost outlay line or iso-cost line. It is an iso-cost
line because it represents various combinations of inputs that may be purchased for the given amount of
money allotted. The slope of AB shows the price ratio of capital and labour, i.e., By combining the
isoquants and the factor-price line, we can find out the optimum combination of factors. Fig. illustrates
this point.
In the Fig. equal product curves IQ1, IQ2 and IQ3 represent outputs of 1,000 units, 2,000 units and 3,000
units respectively. AB is the factor-price line. At point E the factor-price line is tangent to iso-quant IQ2
representing 2,000 units of output. Iso-qunat IQ3 falls outside the factor-price line AB and, therefore,
cannot be chosen by the firm. On the other hand, iso-quant IQ, will not be preferred by the firm even
though between R and S it falls with in the factor-price line. Points R and S are not suitable because
output can be increased without increasing additional cost by the selection of a more appropriate input
combination. Point E, therefore, is the ideal combination which maximizes output or minimizes cost per
units: it is the point at which the firm is in equilibrium.

What does the point of tangency tell us? At that point the slope of the factor-price line AB and the slope
of the iso-quant IQ2 are equal. The slope of the factor-price line reflects the ratio of prices of the two
factors. Viz, capital and labour. The slope of the iso-quant reflects the marginal rate of technical
substitution. At point E the ratio of prices of capital and labour is equal to the marginal rate of technical
substitution. The condition of optimal combination is, therefore, given by the equality of the ratio of
prices between any two factors and the rate of technical substitution between them. This is the point at
which and firm is able to produce maximum quantity and at minimum cost.

Every firm, interested in maximizing output or minimizing cost, must therefore, consider (a) factor-price
ratio which tells the firm the rate at which it can substitute one factor for another in purchasing, and (d)
the marginal rate of technical substitution which tells the firm the rate at which it can substitute one factor
for another in production. So long as the two are not equal, a firm can achieve a greater output or a lower
cost by moving in the direction of equality.

What is the least-cost combination of inputs if production function is given by Table 7A-1 and input price
are as shown in Figure 7A-3, where q=346? What would be the least-coast ratio for the same input
prices if output doubled to q=692? What has happened to the “factor intensity”, or land-labor ratio? Can
you see why this result would hold for any output change under constant returns to scale?
Least Cost and Maximum Output Combinations of Input

Least Cost Combination of Inputs:

The firm may produce a particular quantity of its product at each of the alternative input
combinations that lies on the IQ for that quantity. Since the firm’s goal is to maximise profit, the
optimum input combination for producing a particular quantity of its product would be one that
would produce the output at the minimum possible cost.

The optimum input combination in this case is known as the least cost combination of inputs. In
order to explain the firm’s selection of the least cost combination of inputs, let us suppose that some
of the firm’s isoquants (IQs) and iso-cost lines (ICLs) are given in Fig. 8.12.

Let us now suppose that the firm intends to produce a particular quantity q = q3 of its product, and
the isoquant for this particular quantity is IQ3. In other words, if the firm uses any of the input
combinations lying on IQ3, it would be able to produce the output quantity q = q3.

But, since the different points on IQ3, viz., S1, S2, S3, S4, S5, etc. lie on different ICLs, they produce
the same output, viz., q = but at different levels of cost, For we know that a higher (or a lower) ICL
represents a higher (or a lower) level of cost.

Therefore, in order to produce the output of q3 at the least possible cost, the firm would have to
select that point on IQ3 that would lie on the lowest possible ICL. In Fig. 8.12, we see that the point
S3 on IQ3 lies on the lowest possible ICL, viz., L3M3. Any other point on IQ3 lies on a higher ICL or
a higher level of cost than L3M3.

Therefore, at an output of q3, the least cost combination of inputs is S3(x̅, y̅). In other words, if the
firm is to produce an output of q3, it would buy and use the quantity x of input X and the quantity y
of input Y. Here it is very important for us to observe that the least cost combination of inputs is the
point of tangency (here S3) between the particular isoquant (here IQ3) and an iso-cost line (here
L3M3).

Similarly, for producing a particular quantity of output, if the firm is to remain on IQ2, then the
least cost combination of inputs would be given by the point T2, because this point is the point of
tangency between IQ2 and an ICL (i.e., L2M2).

Maximum Output Combination of Inputs:

In iso-cost lines (ICLs), we have seen that if the prices (rX and rY) of the inputs (X and Y) are given
and constant, then by spending a particular amount of money the firm can buy any one of a large
number of input combinations that lie on the corresponding ICL.

Since the firm’s goal is to maximise the level of profit, the optimum input combination in this case
would be one that would produce the maximum possible output. Therefore, this input combination
is called the maximum- output combination of inputs.

We shall now see with the help of Fig. 8.12, how the maximum output-input combination can be
obtained by the firm. Let us suppose that the firm has decided to spend a particular amount of
money, TVC3, (TVC stands for total variable cost) for the two variable inputs (X and Y), and the
ICL for this expenditure is L3M3.

That is, if the firm is to spend the amount of money TVC3, then it would have to buy some
combination that lie on the iso-cost line, L3M3.
Now the points like V1, V2 S3, V4, V5 lying on L3M3 are situated on different isoquants. That is, at
different points on the line L3M3, the cost of the firm is the same (= TVC3), but the quantities
produced are different.

Since a higher IQ represents a higher level of output, of all the points on L3M3, the profit-
maximising firm would select that one as optimum which lies on the highest possible IQ, i.e., which
produces the highest possible level of output. This point is S3 (x̅, y̅) on, IQ3—this point is the
maximum-output Combination of inputs subject to the cost constraint of TVC = TVC3.

We have to note here that the maximum-output combination of inputs subject to the cost constraint
(here S3) is the point of tangency between the ICL corresponding to the given cost level (here TVC3)
and an IQ (here IQ3).

Similarly, if the given ICL of the firm is L4M4, then the maximum-output combination of inputs
would be the point R4, because this point is the point of tangency between the line L4M4 and an IQ
which is here IQ4.