Civic and Ethical Education

I. Course identification:
 Course title: Civic &Ethical Education
 Course number: Phil 103
 Credit hours: 3
 Contact hours: 3
 Instructor : Lule Belay ( Ato)
II. Course descriptions:

This course is split into two parts. These are Ethics and Civics. The Ethics part deals
with and profoundly dwells on clarifying the meanings , subject matter, relationship
with other fields of study, classification, nature and significance of ethics, classical, as
well and teleological, and deontological ethical theories. It also would elaborate the
non- normative ethical parts such as scientific as well as meta- ethics. The second part
that is Civics deals with the meaning, purposes, sources, the concept of society, origin,
structures and functions of state as well as government. Furthermore, citizenship,
constitution, democracy and human rights are the basic components of civic education.

III. Course objectives:

After successful completion of the course, the students will be able to:
 Explain the meaning, subject matter, nature and significance of ethics.
 Differentiate branches of ethics and appreciate the value of ethics.
 Identify ethics and evaluate the major ethical theories.
 Describe the meaning, subject matter, sources, societal needs and
importance of civics.
 List down and express attributes and structures of the state.
 Compare and contrast contending theories on the origin of the state.
 Distinguish organs, types, and functions of government.
 Express the meaning, purpose, origin, development and formulation of
constitution.
 Identify historical origin, development and fundamental principles of
modern democracy.
 Over view the meaning, origin, basic features and categories of human
rights.

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IV. Course delivery:

This course will be delivered through the following modes.

 Lecture,
 Posing questions and answers, randomly,
 Group discussions, presentations, and Debates and
 Other pertinent methods.
V. Course content:

Part one: Ethics

Chapter one: Introduction to Ethics
1.1 Purposes of studying Ethics.
1.2 Basic concepts of Ethics and its subject matter.
1.3 Classification of Ethics.
► Review questions
Chapter two: Classical theories of normative ethics
2.1 The nature of normative ethical theories.
2.2 The moral philosophy of Sophists.
2.3 The moral philosophy of Platonism (Socrates &Plato)
2.4 The moral philosophy of Aristotle
► Review questions
Chapter three: Teleological theories of normative ethics
3.1 Hedonism
3.2 Egoism
3.3 Utilitarianism
►Review questions

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Chapter four: Deontological theories of normative ethics

4.1 Divine command ethics
4.2 Deontological theory of Kant
►Review questions
► Presentations Sessions
Part two: Civics
Chapter five: Introduction to Civics
5.1 purposes and goals of civics
5.2 The interdisciplinary nature of the subject
►Review questions
Chapter six: Society, state, government and citizenship
6.1 What is society?
6.2 Concept, structures and functions of state
6.3 Concept, structures and functions of government
6.4 An overview of federal state and government of Ethiopia
6.5 Concept and acquisition of citizenship
6.6 Rights and duties
► Review questions
Chapter seven: Constitutions and constitutionalism
7.1 Purposes and origins of constitutions
7.2 concepts and classifications of constitution
7.3 Functions of constitutions
7.4 The FDRE constitution: changes and continuities
7.5 History and an overview of Ethiopian constitutionalism

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►Review questions
Chapter eight: Democracy
8.1 Meaning, origin and forms of democracy
8.2 Democracy and governance
8.3 principles of democracy
8.4 Challenges of democracy in developing countries
8.5 Political culture and democracy: An over view of Ethiopian experience
► Review questions
Chapter nine: Human rights and the rule of law
9.1 Basics of human rights
9.2 origin, developments and principles of Human Rights.
9.3 Basic features of human rights
9.4 Rule of law:
• Meaning and features of rule of law
• Rule of law and fair trial
9.5 An overview of HRs and rule of law in Ethiopia
►Review questions
►Presentation session
VI. Course assessments: 1st & 2nd Semesters.
• Tests (2)…………………………………………………………….35%
• Discussions &presentation…………………………………………10%
• Class attendance and participations…………………………………5%
 Final Examination…………………………………………….50%
 Grand total……………………………………………………100%

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References:

 Addis Ababa University College of Social Sciences (2005). Civic and Ethical
Education, Compendium Part One & Two.
 Ball Alan (1978). Modern Politics and Government, Hong Kong.
 Barry, Vincent (1980). Philosophy, A text with reading
 Charles H. McIIwain (1939). Constitutionalism and the changing World, New
York.
 Charles Tilly (2004).Contention and Democracy in Europe, 1650-2000,
Cambridge University press, Google print.
 Course Material for Civic and Ethical Education for distance students, Unity
University.
 Graham (1968). Everyman’s constitution, Madison.
 Immanuel, K. Foundations of the Metaphysical morals
 Locke, John (1980). 1690, The second Treatise of government, ed. C.B
McPerson, Indianapolis: Hackett.
 Markoff, John (1996). Waves of Democracy
 Marx, Karl (1875). Critique of the Gotha program, reprinted in Marx- Engels –
Werke, Berlin,
 McDermott, Timthy, Aquinas (1993). selected writings ,New York, Oxford
University press
 McInerny Ralph (1998).Thomas Aqinas selected works, London Penguin
clasics.
 Melden, A.I. (1950). Ethical theories, Prince- Hall Inc.
 Miller, E.DL. (1984). Questions that matter, an introduction to Philosophy.
 Progress Publisher (1987). The theory of the state and law, Moscow.
 R. Ball Alan (1978). Modern Politics and Government Hong Kong.
 R.Ball Alan (1978). Modern Politics and Government, Hong Kong.
 The Constitution of Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (1995)
 The Ethiopian Constitutions ( 1931, 1955, 1987, and 1995)
W.F. Barker. Social political theory.
 Walelign Emiru (2012).Moral Philosophy: In theory and practice, Kotebe
College of Teacher Education, Addis Ababa.
 Wanger, Michael F. (1991). Historical introduction to moral philosophy.
London, Prince- Hall.
 Ward, Leom (1960). Ethics: A college text. Harper and row publisher.

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Prelude
This hand out is prepared for the course Ethics and Civic education for undergraduate
students. The course intends to introduce the two closely interrelated subjects, namely
Ethics and civics or civic education. To this end, the course is split into two parts such
as Ethics and Civics: Ethics is a branch of philosophy concerned with the problems of
values in human conduct. It investigates the ethical questions which are involving in
right conduct, good behavior, as well as life fulfillment.
Civic education (civics) is an important component of general education that cultivates
citizens to actively participate in the public life of the nation, to use their rights and to
discharge their responsibilities as well as duties with the necessary knowledge and skills
that they acquire.
Therefore, this hand out attempts to consolidate the essential knowledge of Ethics and
Civics as much as possible to make Ethical and civic theories, principles and knowledge
reachable to students with simple and easier approaches. In this regard, this hand out
contains nine chapters, 39 sub-chapters, for each chapter, review questions, Textbooks,
references and presentation schedules are provided.

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Part one: Ethics

Chapter one
Introduction to Ethics
1.1. Purpose of studying Ethics
The main purposes of studying Ethics are:
 Appreciating codes of conduct which regulate human actions and behaviors.
 Leading socially acceptable life in the community as well as in the work place.
 Being ethically a worth citizen (s).
 Evaluating human conducts and actions based on consequences or
performances.
 Evaluating the moral standards of individuals and that of the group at large.
1.2. Definition and subject matter of Ethics
1.2.1. Etymological origin:
The term “ethics” is derived from the Greek word “ethos”, which means custom. The
Latin word “mores” is the origin word for moral. “Mores” is the plural form of “mos”,
which means custom. Thus, ethics and morality, etymologically intersect with custom.
What is custom?
Custom refers to regularly performed act according to the living system of the people,
repetition of the same kind of act in the same way in the long period of time.
1.2.2. Definition of Ethics
There are several but closely related definitions of Ethics.
 Ethics is the field of study which is concerned with moral valves. Moral values
are those values which determine human conduct such as behaviors, actions,
decisions as right or wrong, good or bad, moral or immoral. Hence, ethics could
also be defined that, it studies rightness or wrongness or goodness or badness or
morality or immorality of human conduct.
In short, ethics is the study of morality, which sometimes called moral philosophy.

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 Ethics is a set of principles prescribing a behavior code that explains what is

good and right or bad and wrong as well as moral duty and obligations.
 Ethics targets to study moral acts or conducts of individuals and groups which
are judged as right or wrong according to the standards, rules or norms of a
society.
 Ethics is the discipline that is concerned with what constitutes human welfare
(good, happiness, benefit, safety) and the kind of conduct necessary to promote
it.
 Ethics discovers, explains and demonstrates the rule of conduct. It is a practical
as well as theoretical science which is concerned with the rightness and
wrongness of human conduct.
 The working definition of Ethics is:-

Ethics is a branch of philosophy that is concerned with rightness or wrongness

(morality or immorality) of human conduct/behavior.

1.2.3. Subject matter of Ethics

The subject matter of any discipline or field of study is what it is about or concerned
with. Hence, Ethics is about or concerned with human conduct/ behavior. So, the
subject matter of ethics is human conduct/ behavior. Indeed, ethics is concerned with
human conduct, because only human beings are said to be moral or immoral. No one
cannot speak or think about morality of other things or animals.
1.3. Relationship of Ethics with other fields of study
The purpose of this unit is to explain further the meaning and concern of ethics by
comparing and contrasting ethics with other related fields. Because, there are some
questions that come necessarily from above explanation of the meaning and subject
matter of ethics. For example, the subject matter of ethics is human conduct/ behavior.

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To this regard, one may pose a question here: Is it only Ethics that is concerned with
human conduct/ behavior? So, this question necessarily triggers a need to point out the
fact that there are a number of fields concerned with human conduct and to explain the
difference between Ethics and other fields of study.
i. Ethics and Philosophy
Ethics is essentially a philosophical field. It is one of the branches or standard field of
philosophy. Other major branches of philosophy are: Meta- physics, Epistemology,
Aesthetics, Logic and Axiology. Each of this field has its distinct respective subject
matter or areas of concern. To put briefly:-
a. Metaphysics is the study of reality.
b. Epistemology is the study of knowledge.
c. Aesthetics is the study of beauty, particularly in art.
d. Logic is the study of philosophy concerned with formulation of principles of
correct thinking.
e. Axiology is the field of philosophy concerned with value.
f. Ethics is distinguished from other fields of philosophy by being concerned with
moral values i.e. morality of human behavior. As the result of this, ethics is
alternatively known as moral philosophy.
Within philosophy, ethics is a branch of the above mentioned philosophical field known
as axiology. Axiology, which comes from the Greek word “axios” meaning “worthy” is
the study of value in general. As such, it is alternatively known as value theory. Specific
concerns of axiology include the nature of value, whether values are subjective or
objective, relative or absolute, etc. The origin of values, classification of values and the
like.
As branch of axiology, ethics is concerned with a particular type of value, namely moral
value. That is why ethics is also known as moral philosophy. Moral values are values

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that determine our actions/ conduct as right or wrong, moral or immoral, good or
bad/evil.
ii. Ethics and morals
There is a common confusion with respect to the meaning and relationship between
ethics and morals/ morality. In ordinary language, these two terms are used
interchangeably as if they mean one and the something. In strict usage, however, there
is remarkable difference between the two terms. Ethics is a discipline that studies or
inquiries into morality. So, the difference between ethics and morality is that whereas
ethics is the study or inquiry, morality is what is studied or inquired into by ethics.
Morality refers to a set of rules and principles that guide the people’s behavior/ conduct
in day-to-day life: they are set of rules we ought to obey, or tell us what is right and
wrong. Ethics, as the philosophy of morals/ morality, is the discipline that examines and
formulates these rules and principles are justified, and the logical consequences of the
moral beliefs. To put the same thing in different words, morality refers to the degree to
which an action conforms to a standard or norm of human conduct, ethics refers to the
philosophical study of values and of what constitutes good and bad human conduct.
iii. Ethics and Anthropology
Anthropology deals with the origin and change of human customs. Ethics also deals
with customs. However, the two are different in that, anthropology passes no moral
judgment on the customs of moral rightness or wrongness. On the contrary, ethics
interested in identifying rightness or wrongness of conduct. Ethics borrows data from
anthropology, but goes on to appraise or criticize the moral values of the customs.
vi. Ethics and Psychology
Both ethics and psychology deal with human behavior. But, psychology is concerned
with “how does man actually behave”? Ethics on the other hand, focus on “how man
ought to behave” Indeed, ethics studies cases available in psychology, esp. “On how
the human mind works, but always passes on from how he ought to act”?

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Psychology focuses on what motives a man to a good or bad act, a well- adjusted
personality; whereas Ethics focuses on the goodness or badness of that a man acts; a
morally good behavior etc.
v. Ethics and Moral theology
Ethics and moral theology are not different in content and purpose, they differ in source
from which they derive their knowledge and in the method of pursuing their conclusion.
Moral theology proceeds from the stand point of divine revelation and ecclesiastical
law, whereas ethics from the stand point of human reason and from social experiences.
vi. Ethics and Law
The existence of fields such as philosophy of law or jurisprudence, that deals with how
laws ought to be framed and interpreted, shows how law is more closely related to
ethics than any other fields of study. Ethics concerned with the conduct of individuals
and group that could be judged as good or bad by referring to their voluntary acts and
behaviors that conforms or not to the moral values. The science of law on the other
hand focused on the laws of states and international conventions that provide penalty
for disobedience. Moral laws include any form of voluntary human activity, but law
focused on the commands of the state and institutes. When we compare moral law with
the science of law, the former is concerned with laws which are broad, basic, and slow
to change and have universal character. The laws of the state and institutes, which is the
objective of the science of law are narrow, relative and amendable. Accordingly, since
state laws tend to follow moral ideas of the people and state laws could be included in
the moral realm, it could be said that the science of law could be part of ethics.
vii. Ethics and Sociology, Economics, and Political Science
These three sciences deal with man’s actual social, economic and political institutions,
what they are and how they function. Ethics on the other hand, tries to determine that
institutes function from the perspective of what they ought to be in terms of human
rights and duties. Hence, we shall find that ethics always preserves its distinctive point

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of view& thought. This understanding includes also the view that the solution for social,
economic and political problems, which is carried out by the three fields of study,
require the application of moral principles and basic teachings.
1.4. Nature and Classification of Ethics
i. Nature of Ethics
 Morality is all pervasive. It enters into all spheres of life, family, work places,
leisure, government rulings etc.
 Ethics has changeable elements as well as has stability and integrity. It is
evolutional but it is marked by continuity.
 Ethics is both theoretical as well as practical.
 Ethics is universally applicable as well as limited to specific controversial moral
issues.
ii. Classification of Ethics
 Ethics is broadly classified into two major types. These are
a. Normative ethics
b. Non- normative ethics
 Normative ethics is the area of ethics that involves attempts to determine
precisely what moral standards to follow so that our actions may be morally
right or good. It is called normative, because establishes norms of right conduct.
 Normative statements or terms are assertions that express value judgment. Every
normative statement says or implies that something is good or bad, better or
worse, ought to be done or ought not to be done.
 Normative ethics is further divided into two sub areas, namely general
normative ethics and applied normative ethics.
 General normative ethics is reasoned search for principles of right conduct. It
formulates the principles that we should follow so that our conduct be morally
right principles that are used to determine human behavior as right or wrong,
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good or bad, moral or immoral. The word “right” comes from the Latin “rectus”,
which means straight or according to the rule. Hence, an action is right/ moral, if
it agrees with the rules and principles established by general normative ethics.
 Non- normative ethics is the area of ethics that consists of two fields, namely
scientific or descriptive ethics and meta- ethics. It is called non- normative
because unlike the normative ethics, it does not involve the establishment of
norms of right conduct. Its statements are non- normative, i.e. they do not assert
or express value judgment. In a word, they are value neutral.
 Scientific or descriptive ethics involves factual investigation of moral behavior
of a given community. It is concerned with how people do in fact behave. It is
therefore, factual description that does not involve value judgment.
 Mata- ethics is the second field of non- normative ethics. It is highly technical
discipline in which philosophers analyze and clarify the meaning of important
terms used in ethical discourse or writings, terms such as good or bad, right or
wrong, moral or immoral, obligation, responsibility, duty and freedom of will.
The concern of Meta ethics also include a critical study of how ethical statement
can be verified.

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Fig. 1: Classification of Philosophy

Philosophy

Meta- physics Logic

Epistemology

Ethics Aesthetics Axiology

Source: Moral philosophy, 2012

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Fig 2: Classification of Ethics

Ethics

Normative ethics Non- normative

ethics

Scientific
Applied
ethics
normative Meta- ethics
ethics General
normative ethics
Ethical Ethical
absolutism relativism Ethical non-
naturalism
Teleological Deontological
ethics ethics

Prima facie Ethical Ethical

Utilitarianism duties naturalism emotivism
Egoism
Divine Categorical
command imperative
Act Rule theory

Source: Vincent Barry, 1980:103

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Review Questions:
1. Identify the following items:
a. Aesthetics b. Epistemology c. Ethics d. logic
2. Define and understand the following items:
a. Normative ethics b. Meta-ethics c. scientific ethics
d. Applied ethics
3. Explain the followings:
a. Axiology b. Moral valve c. Ethical absolutism
d. Ethical relativism e. Rule utilitarianism f. Act utilitarianism
g. prima facie duties
4. What is the alternative name for moral philosophy?
5. What is philosophy?
6. What does “man is moral animal” mean?
7. Do all ethical questions involve a choice?
8. What is the importance of studying Ethics?
9. What is applied normative ethics?
10. Who is recognized as a founder of modern ethics?
References:
Miller, E.D.L. (1984). Questions that matter: An invitation to philosophy. Part four, the
question of morality.
Vincent Barry (1980). Philosophy: A Text with readings, chapter 3, Ethics.
Walelign Emiru (2012). Moral Philosophy, theory and practice
Shiv Khera (2005). Freedom is not Free, Every generation needs to earn its own
freedom.
Domald planner (1996). Does the center hold? An introduction to Western Philosophy,
Ethics.

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Chapter Two
Classical Ethical Theories
2.1. Sophism and Sophists:
i. Sophism:
Sophism as wisdom of intellectuals was promoted by sophists in the 5th c. B.C. in
ancient Greece. This thought came into being before the emergence of philosophy.
Sophism was entirely the teaching of sophists.
ii. Sophists:
- Sophists (literally means wise men) were a group of philosophers, educators,
intellectuals in the 5th c. B.C. who offered to teach young Athenians how to use
logic and impressive to defeat opponents in any controversy. They were the first
to teach wisdom for fee, something that irked Socrates. Sophists taught their
wisdom by going from house to house to wealthy family members with
payments. Actually, the sophists may not have been as wise as they were clever
with words, and they were accused of making the stronger arguments appear to
be the weaker and the weaker arguments appear to be the stronger. But in the
days of the Athenian democracy, when an individual was required to defend
himself in the law courts; the sophists’ “wisdom” was much in demand.
- Socrates and Plato sharply critized the sophists, because they accepted monetary
rewards for encouraging unprincipled persuasive method.
- As history witnessed that Athens was a politically troubled city state during 5 th
C.B.C. However, Athenians maintained a nominally democratic government in
which ‘citizens’ had opportunity to participate directly in important decision
making process. This in turn contributed to a renewed interest in practical
philosophy. To this end, sophists offered to provide their students with training
in the effective exercise of citizenship. Since the central goal of political

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manipulation was to outwit and publicly defeat an opponent, the rhetorical

techniques of persuasion naturally played an important role.
- The most important personalities of sophism were: Protagoras, Gorgias, Hippias,
Thrasymachus, etc.
- Protagoras, one of the most popular sophists who was active about 425 B.C.
expressed the central philosophy of the sophists in the following statement:-
“A man is the measure of all things”, of the things that are; that they are; and of
the things that are not; that they are not”; This means that the individual, each
and every person, is the criterion unto himself or herself as to what exists and
what does not. This thought was expanded to include truth and morality. It
implies that whatever you perceive as true or false is true or false, and whatever
you think as good/ right or bad/ wrong is good/ right or bad/ wrong.
- This position is known as relativism or subjectivism, because it makes the most
important things relative to and dependent upon the individual or because it
asserts that the subjects (either an individual person, community, or society) is
the source and standard of being, truth and goodness.

“A man is the measure of all things; of the things that are, that they are; and
of the things that are not, that they are not”. Protagoras.
- The sophists expanded this relativism to skepticism, uncertainty with respect to
knowing; philosophical epistemological position that doubts or denies the
possibility of knowledge, or holds that mankind cannot possess certain
knowledge about anything. Skepticism is in other words, the epistemological
position that varies between doubting all assumption until proved and claiming
that no knowledge is possible. The latter extreme position is called absolute
skepticism and the sophists tend to hold this position (i.e. that of absolute
skepticism).

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- For sophists, virtue is a means of obtaining pleasure and avoiding pain. It is also
how to live and manage. One’s affairs very well.
- Thrasymachus perceived “justice” or morality as:
Justice/ morality is fulfilling the interest of stronger. It is a concentration of rules
and conventions imposed upon the community by those who command political
power, and there rules and conventions are always work to the advantage of
rulers.
- To conclude that sophism is just the manner of the sophists which associated
with cheating, making the stronger arguments appear to be the weaker and the
weaker arguments appear to be the stronger. Sophism is/ was in other words, a
plausible argument that is actually fallacious, especially when one presents it as
if it were legitimate reasoning.
- Fallacy is nothing else, but incorrect or illogical argument that appears or seems
correct or logical. It is, in other words, deceptive argument, an argument that
deceives, cheats or misreads. Sophism (Sophistry) is intentional or deliberate use
of arguments to defeat one’s opponent or teaching to do so.
Contributions of sophists to the history of philosophy:
- The contributions of sophists in the history of philosophy were paramount.
Some of them are the followings:
1. They indicated the shift of the concern of philosophy from speculation on
nature to the study of society, more importantly, their show of concern for
the scientific study of ethical questions.
2. They were the first professional teachers. It is believed that they had
encyclopedic knowledge. They thought various disciplines and skills such as
politics, moral conduct, logic, law, grammar, mathematics, natural science,
philosophy, defending oneself in the courts etc.

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3. Sophists were best remembered in the history of philosophy with regard to

their theory of skepticism. To be skeptic means to be doubtful, hesitant or to
deny the established beliefs, the existence of knowledge and truth. Sophists
were critical and challenged people’s beliefs and practices.
4. Sophists believe that knowledge and truth are relative to the social and
personal understanding, for sophists, there would not be universal and
absolute truth. Hence, they were relativists.
5. Sophists advocate that moral respect should be given equally to all men,
without discrimination, disregarding differences in status, class, birth etc.
6. Some of the sophists were popular in the literature of philosophy such as
Protagoras, Thrasymachus, and Gorgias etc.
2.2. Platonism: Moral Philosophy of Socrates and Plato
2.2.1. Moral philosophy of Socrates (470-399 B.C)
 Socrates drastically changed the course of the history of philosophy from its
study of nature to the study of man, much better than what Democritus and
sophists did. To this end, social issues became crucial and urgent than issues
related to nature.
 At a time of Socrates the followings were well- observable:-
 Beauty of Art works;
 Democratic tradition and its dominance in naval power and trade;
 At the final years of Socrates, he witnessed the grievance of
Athens, due to the defeat and destruction of its civilization
 These are some of the reasons that led him to the philosophical examination of
human nature, social values and moral behaviors.
 As history witnessed that Socrates wrote nothing, the knowledge about him is
derived from the publications of Plato.

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 Socrates in his philosophy, searched for justice, truth, knowledge, beauty, virtue,
etc. not for argumentation sake, as in the case of sophists, but to understand and
live in truth and goodness.
 When we see Socrates’ moral thoughts, we would find that he had given great
value to knowledge. Socrates reached to the conclusion that:-
“Knowledge is virtue and ignorance is evil”.
 For Socrates, moral goodness and knowledge are inseparable, similarly moral
badness and ignorance are identical.
 Socrates’ idea is “no one do wrong knowingly”. The implication is that: one
commits evil from ignorance of what the good is. In other words wrong doing is
involuntary or unconscious act. In fact, this claim seems contradictory from
what we experience in our daily lives. And in philosophy it is known as the
Socratic paradoxes.
 The claim of Socrates is paradoxical. Because:-
1. One does evil things of his own free will;
2. Though a person knows the good, he or she does evil things;
3. A person commits evil things, not out of ignorance, but in full knowledge
that what he or she is doing is evil.
 Socrates rejected the view that people do evil things knowingly such as stealing
or murdering. He said that people do wrong things knowingly, that they know
that they are doing wrong things, Socrates asks that what kind of knowledge is
it. For Socrates, there is no knowledge of wrong doing. If we say that they did
wrong things, knowing that it is wrong, it implies that the knowledge itself is
wrong, which is in reality ignorance.
 As Socrates said. When we say knowledge in proper sense, it leads us to do right
things and not to commit bad things. Hence, these people do not have
knowledge, rather it is ignorance of good moral life.

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 Another reason, why people do wrong things is, they might think that their act is
good in some way. They did the act not knowingly that it is bad, rather they
thought that it is right. This idea seems not problematic. The problem arises for
those people why do wrong things deliberately and knew that what they did is
wrong.
 For Socrates, people do wrong things voluntarily is due to seeking pleasure, as
in the case of a thief is happy of his stealing. According to Socrates, this type of
act seems that it produces happiness, but the happiness is not a genuine one. The
act is done not based on correct knowledge, in reality it is an act of ignorance.
Correct knowledge always leads us to enjoy true happiness, a happiness that
maintains our inner well-being.
 If we are troubled to identify good and bad life, Socrates advice is that we have
to examine our life, as he says, “The un examined life is not worth living”.
In general, Socrates’ concern is to show that the development of traits of virtue as a
criteria of morally good life, which is of course achieved by rational inquiry.
2.2.2. Moral Philosophy of Plato (428-349 B.C)
 Plato was a good devoted student of Socrates. So, he was highly inspired by the
life and thoughts of Socrates. Plato adopted the basic techniques and methods of
reasoning of Socrates as a ground for his philosophical out looks and as his
works clearly demonstrated.
 Plato’s moral philosophy is basically inseparable from his metaphysics,
epistemology as well as from his political philosophy.
 According to Plato, moral life should also be shaped by the knowledge of forms
and the Good. Since, forms are perfect, it indicates that our moral life could also
be perfect. How? To know this we have to study Plato’s understanding of human
nature.

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 Plato classified human nature into two: body and soul. Body is our physical and
external nature, while the soul is internal and non- physical nature.
 For Plato, the soul is the “principle of life and movement”. It is basic human
nature. On the other hand, the body without the soul is inanimate, when it acts or
moves; it does so, by the principle of life: the soul.
 Plato divided further human soul into three basic faculties or aspects: These are:
a. Appetite: Feeling of basic needs of bodily desires:
b. Spirit: Human passion; anger and ambition
c. Reason: Awareness of the goal of life and values; it is an intellectual
aspects of the soul.
 The faculties of appetite and spirit are irrational aspect of the soul. Because the
two could be stimulated by the body.
 The faculty of reason is the rational aspect of the soul.
Interactions of human soul
1. Plato has given emphasis on the unity, harmony or healthy relationship of the
three parts of the soul. According to Plato, moral life is rooted in the soul of
man. That is, Plato considers morality as the property of the soul.
- Morality always referred by acts of good and bad, virtue and vice. So, Plato
associated moral goodness and badness with the presence or absence of the unity
or harmony of the soul.
- It there is no healthy relation among the parts of the soul, then the unity of the
soul would be disintegrated, that is, the soul would be disordered. The
disordered soul again gives rise to instability in person’s life, to the extent of
driving the person to commit any sort of immoral acts. In this regard, needs to
rise a question, what is the factor? Which is responsible for the disunity of the
sow?

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- The soul would be disordered when appetite and spirit influence, direct or
override reason, then reason would easily be forced to subordinate to the will of
passion (spirit) or bodily desires (appetite).
- So, what is the direct effect of this interaction? Its effect is that, reason cannot
function its proper roles. When reason of soul loss its proper place, passion and
appetite would be unchecked. Hence, the appetite and spirit would go beyond
their limits. Thus, they create excessive bodily desire, lust, anger etc. as the
result the internal order, well – being or peace of pre person would be disturbed.
This is the fertile ground for committing immorality.
2. When each faculty of the soul has to function within its own limits, i.e. when
they are limited with their proper, balanced or fair fulfillment of their roles as
directed by reason, the internal well- being of the person would be maintained.
As the result, the person able to lead morally good life. Hence, good moral life is
a rational life, a life guided by reason.
- If reason controls appetite and spirit, there would be unity of the soul, which is
the basis of good life.
3. By enabling the soul to achieve its unity, reason fulfills the goal of human life.
What is the goal of life?
 The goal of life according to Plato, is happiness. The question here is that since
both bodily desire and passion seeks pleasure, what is the difference between the
pleasure attained by rational control of soul and the pleasure achieved through
passions and appetites?
 Passions and appetite are indeed drives towards the thing that give us pleasure.
However, passion cannot distinguish between higher and lower, true and false or
the seeming and real pleasures. Passions and appetites might lead us in to
fantasy and deceive into believing that certain seeming or in correct pleasures as
real or correct pleasures.

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 The happiness obtained from rational life is long lasting, prefect, true and highly
satisfactory.
 The knowledge of forms is the source of true happiness and living with true
happiness is good life.
 Plato like his teacher, Socrates, asserted that knowledge is virtue and ignorance
is evil.
 When appetite and spirit are properly controlled and guided by reason, the soul
can achieve the following types of moral goodness or virtues.
1. Temperance: - When appetites are ruled by reason, the virtue of temperance is
exhibited. Therefore, temperance is the result of the controlling of appetite
within their limit, avoiding its excess, so, that it would not override reason.
2. Courage: - When the spirited part of the soul is kept within limits, when our
drives or passions are governed by reason, we exhibit the virtue of courage. The
virtue of courage avoids rash actions and instead become a trust worthy power
in defense of aggressions.
3. Wisdom: - The virtue of wisdom is achieved when reason remain undistributed
by appetites and passions and got convenient conditions to the apprehension of
forms than the constant change of in a daily life experiences.
4. Justice: - It is a virtue achieved with the interconnection of the three virtues and
the fulfillment of the functions of the soul together.
Therefore, justice is the general virtue that reflects the person’s attainment of inner
harmony or well-being.
 Plato also stratified the population of the city- state of Athens into three strata.
These are philosophers/rulers; Guardians an Artisans. He identified the moral
valves or the virtue of each stratum. Accordingly, the virtue for philosophers/
rulers is wisdom, the virtue for Guardians is courage and finally, the virtue for

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Artisans is moderation. Hence, the true happiness or good life derive from
wisdom, courage and moderation for three of the classes respectively.
 Finally, Plato’s moral philosophy could be labeled as absolutism. He believed in
the existence of only one good life for all men, that is “be governed by reason”.
 Plato’s moral thoughts could be considered as objectivist. He believe in the
existence of goodness by referring to the existence of the absolute good
independent of men.
 These two positions of Plato are contrary to views of relativist (subjectivities)
and naturalists, which will be discussed in greater detail under meta- ethics.
2.3. The moral philosophy of Aristotle (Nicomachean ethics)
 Nicomachean Ethics is the ethical theory of Aristotle (384-322 B.C), one of the
three Greek giant philosophers. His ethical theory is named after his son or
father, both of them had the same name, nichomachos.
 Aristotle seriously criticized the theories of Plato, his teacher
 Greek philosophy was generally characterized by speculative approach. That is
the Greek philosophers attempted to discover the true nature of the world by the
use of reason alone.
 What makes Aristotle different from the other philosophers is, he adopts a
scientific or empirical approach to ethical problems. Instead of trying to discover
the nature of good life for all men by reflection/ or reason alone, he examined
the behavior and talk of people in everyday life. From this, he noticed that what
men of common sense consider to be good contains one common character, via,
happiness. Thus, Aristotle’s answer to the basic ethical question such as: What is
the good life for man? He answered in one statement: “It is a life of happiness”.
Aristotle further posed a question by saying that: “What is this happiness”? Does
happiness mean success? Fame? Pleasure? Or what? Etc.

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 In the Nichomachean ethics, which is the title of Aristotle’s main ethical work,
he gave the definition of the word “happiness” as follows: Happiness is an
activity of the soul in accordance with the perfect virtue. Happiness is not
something static, but an activity. It is not something we arrive at, not some
objects. It is not certain goal of this activity. It is the way of engaging in the
various activities of life such as eating, making love, etc.
 As it is mentioned above, we are discussing an attempt to answer two questions:
What is the good life for men? And how ought men to behave?
 Aristotle’s answer to the first question was “the good life for men is a life of
happiness”. His answer to the second question is equally directs: Men ought to
behave so as to achieve happiness. The second answer is followed by question,
how we should behave in order to achieve happiness?
 Aristotle’s answer to this question is to be found in the well- known formula
called “The doctrine of the mean” or sometimes called the “golden mean”
What is golden mean? Or the principle of mean doctrine?
 Golden mean or principle of mean doctrine enabled Aristotle’s ethical
philosophy is different from Plato.
 Being happy, according to Aristotle is like being well- fed. How much food
should a man eat in order to be well fed? Aristotle’s contention is that there is no
general answer to this question i.e. we cannot fix the amount, like two kilos. It
all depends on the size of the man. What sort of work he does, whether he is ill
or well. The proper amount for any one of work he does, whether he is ill or
well. The proper amount for anyone to eat can be ascertained by trial and error:
if we eat certain amount of food and still feel hungry, we should eat less, the
correct amount is the mean between eating too much and too little.
 Hence, the word “mean” should not be interpreted as being synonymous with
average.

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 The two important consequences of this doctrine for ethics are that: there are
various correct ways of living for different people. What is good for one person
may not be good for another. And, further, one cannot tell prior to actual
experimentation, by use of reason alone, which is correct way of living for him.
Possible to summarize these two points by saying that Aristotle is both relativist
and empiricist in ethics.
 Therefore, with happiness, the proper way for a man to behave in the moral
sphere is in accordance with the mean. For example, in order to be happy he
must be courageous, liberal, proud, witty, modest, and so on.
 Courage is the mean between cowardice and rashness; liberty is the mean
between prodigality and fragility
 Pride is the mean between vanity and humility and so forth.
So, Aristotle’s philosophy of the golden mean can be condensed as follow:-
In order to achieve happiness, men must act moderately, they must act so as to be
striving for the mean between two extremes, middle course between two activities. If
they do this; then they will be happy. But the mean will vary from man to man; some
men can be more carious than others, and some less and each will be proper for that
man.
Aristotle rejected the view of Plato and maintained the view that no man can be happy
with out certain amount of pleasure in his life.
Review questions:-
1. Mention the main characteristics of sophists’ philosophy
2. Define the following terms
- Platonism - Nicomachean ethics
- Sophists and sophism - Golden mean
3. What does “A man is the measure of all things” mean?
4. Where does the difference lay down between Socrates and Plato?

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5. Why did Socrates critize sophists?

6. What is virtue for sophists?
7. Was Aristotle absolutist in his ethical views? If not 10, then what was he?
8. What are the essential elements of human soul?
9. From the interactions of human sow, what is good life for Plato?
10. What is skepticism?
References:
Aristotle (1996) The Nicomachean Ethics, translated by Harris Rackham, Words worth
editions Ltd.
Byrn Mawr, (1999) Platonic Ethics old and New, Classical Review.
Miller, E.D. (1984) Questions that matter: An invitation to Philosophy, Chapter 4, the
question of morality chapter 16.
Vincent Barry (1980) Philosophy, A Text with readings, chapters 1 and 2 PP 1-79.

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Chapter Three
Teleological/ Consequentiality Ethical Theories
3.1. Consequentiality/ teleological ethical theories:
* Consequentiality/ teleological ethical theories are those theories that emphasize
consequences of actions as the criteria of their rightness or wrongness. That is, they
maintain that an action is right if its consequences are good, it is wrong if its
consequences are bad. The unit begins by pointing out the common characteristics of
consequentiality or teleological theories. This will be followed by the description of the
two major versions of consequentiality or teleological theories, namely egoistic
hedonism and utilitarianism.
Q1: How do you determine whether a given action is moral or immoral, right or
wrong?
 Theology, as philosophical doctrine, is the belief in purpose or goals in the
universe. In other words, it is a belief in the purposeful arrangement of things in
the universe.
 On the other hand, the word teleology comes from the Greek word “telos”,
which means goal or end. So, Teleological ethics is an ethical theory according
to which the morality of an action is determined by its consequence. What
makes an act is not the act itself but the result of the act. The test for rightness or
wrongness of an action is the outcome. The end often justifies the means.
 According Teleological ethics, action is judged or said to be right or wrong,
moral or immoral depending on what happens as a results or consequences of it.
Because of its emphasize on consequences of actions, it is also called
consequentiality theory. Non- consequentiality or deontological theory is the
direct opposite of the consequentialist/ teleological theory. According to this

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theory what makes an action right or wrong has to do with factors other than
consequence.

3.2. Hedonism (The principle of pleasure)

 The Greek word, “hedone”, which means pleasure is the root word for the name
hedonism. So hedonism is an ethical doctrine that promotes the view that
pleasure is the highest good in which men should pursue as the objective or final
aim of life. Hedonists believe that the world governed by two forces: pleasure
and pain: Pain is disasters and damaging to our life, while pleasure is attractive
and desirable. Hence, for hedonists, pleasure is the highest good and the aim of
life.
 For hedonists, pleasure is:
o Universal because it is found in all men without exception.
o Unavoidable, because, it lasts throughout life.
o Irresistible, because, it insistently demands satisfaction.
o Good, because, it is naturally desirable
o Good in itself; because, it is not a means for another good. It is the sole
good, wealth, health, fame etc. are good, but they are means for another
good, it could be for peace, popularity, pride or for pleasure.
o Highest good, because it is final supreme or ultimate good; all other
goods are means for its attainment.
o The goal, aim or end of life: because it is the highest good.
 Pleasure is a state of feeling of delight or enjoyment. It is the condition in which
our desires are satisfied by the possession of the good. The good id the object
that satisfies our desires such as food, cloth, house, wealth knowledge, fame, etc.
Pleasure is a state of satisfaction as our desire of obtaining these goods is
fulfilled.

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 The very crucial thing here is to understand the relationship between pleasure
and morality. Hedonists believe that the standard of right conduct is pleasure.
According to hedonists, a conduct of a person is morally good only when his or
her act produce pleasure. If the person’s act produce pain, the person’s conduct
is bad. In other words, moral act that does not produce pleasure must be wrong.
In general, for hedonists, the ethical value of human actions is determined by
whether or not the pleasure they produce.
 There are two leading questions in ethical theories, namely.
1. What is the good life for man?
2. How ought men to behave?
 The answers that the hedonists provide to these questions are:-
The good life for men is pleasure. This we ought to act so as to achieve pleasure.
In precise words, hedonism is therefore, an ethical doctrine that pleasure is the
highest good, and the production of pleasure is the criterion of right action.
 However, the state of satisfaction of our desires could be personal (egoistic) or
social (altruistic). Moreover, pleasure could be obtained from bodily satisfaction
or mental satisfaction. It should that the sources of pleasure are different and the
ways we experience pleasure are also different. Because of the existence of
different sources and experiences of pleasure, the outlooks of hedonists’ moral
philosophers have also become different. The following diagram clearly
demonstrates the different theoretical perspective available in hedonism:-

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Hedonism

Egoistic Social
hedonism hedonism

Cyrenaicism Epicureanism Rule

Act utilitarianism
utilitarianism

Source: Walelign Emiru, 2012

3.3. Egoistic hedonism:
 Egoism comes from the Greek word “Ego”, which means “I” or “I-sm”. Thus, it
makes central concern; the beginning and the end of all consideration. It is self-
centeredness.
Egoism could be either psychological or ethical.
Psychological hedonism assert that, everyone by nature is motivated to pursue its
own desire. Ethical egoism promotes the idea that everyone ought to pursue his or
her own interests. The former concerned with the natural motive or inclination to
pleasure, whereas the later focused on the moral duty or obligation that we have
naturally to seek pleasure.
 Egoistic hedonism argues that, pleasure is the highest good for individuals and
pursuing the production of one’s own pleasure is the standard or rule of morally
right action.
 There are two versions of egoistic hedonism. These are:

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a. Cyrenaicism:
b. Epicureanism
 There are basic similarities between the two versions of egoistic hedonism.
 Both are:-
o Hedonists: - They believe that pleasure is the main aim of life, the
standards of right action and good life.
o Egoistic: - they believe that pursuing one’s own pleasure is natural, right
action and good life.
o Practicing comparison of the amount of pleasure and pain: They believe
that the act of a person is right if produce great pleasure and least pain. If
the pain is greater than the pleasure then the act is wrong.
A. Cyrenaicism:-
 Cyrenaicism is the first hedonist philosophy founded by Aristippus in 400 B.C.
in ancient Greece.
 Aristippus lived from 435-388 B.C.
 Thus, Aristippus is recognized as the founder of hedonism.
 The prominent philosophers such as Socrates and Protagoras had created their
influences on Aristippus.
 Protagoras claims that “man is the measure of everything”. And “Subjective
sensations are the basis of human conduct”. Aristippus applied Protagoras’s
view into ethics and say that “personal pleasures are the basis of human
conduct”.
 The way Aristippus grasp the view of Protagoras may not be considered as a
mistaken understanding. The big error that Aristippus has committed is found in
his interpretation of Socrates’ idea that “The aim of life is happiness”.
Aristippus wrongly interpreted Socrates’ happiness as pleasure and led him to
the claim that “pleasure is the aim of life”. Note that, Socrates employed the

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word happiness to refer to the satisfaction we achieve by exercising our rational

capacity and the personality we achieve by living a morally virtuous life.
 For Aristippus, pleasure is nothing but the satisfaction of bodily desires that is
the fulfillment of our biological or physical desires, such as eating, drinking,
sexual gratification, showing one’s physical strength in competition etc.
 According to Aristippus the life that we live is not for some other thing than for
achieving pleasure of our body. In other words, the highest good in life is the
avoidance of bodily pain and the obtaining of bodily pleasure.
 Consequently, since there is no good life other than pleasure, we should always
act to maximize our own pleasurable sensations.
Why did Aristippus prefer bodily pleasure?
1. Physical pleasures are intense, which creates strong feeling and high
satisfactions.
2. Bodily pleasure could be available easily, which does not require much cost
(less painful)
3. Bodily pleasure requires immediate satisfaction and when opportunities are
ready, needs to enjoy it as soon as possible.
4. Aristippus favored sense pleasure and abandon intellectual pleasure.
5. Aristippus believe that “we should live for present pleasure, they may not be any
future”. So, eat, drink and be merry, for tomorrow, we may die”.
6. The aim of human life for Aristippus is to enjoy as much as bodily pleasure as
possible.
B. Epicureanism
 Epicureanism was/is another form of egoistic hedonism, which was founded by
Epicurus (341-270)
 Epicurus’ ethical and metaphysical thoughts were influenced by the teachings of
Plato, Aristippus and Democritus.

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 Epicurus’ moral philosophy was shaped by the atomist understanding of reality

that he has developed from Democritus. Epicurus believe that good life is the
pleasure of mind, mental satisfactions, health of the body, and peace of mind.
He also believed that pleasure must be long- run, as estimated our entire life
span. To obtain pleasures later, one must often sacrifice it now.
 Epicureanists condemned most pleasure seeks because they sought the
immediate pleasures such as aesthetic satisfaction and knowledge. They
considered not only today’s pleasure, but tomorrow’s and years.
 Epicurus believes that everything, including God and human soul, are made up
of atoms. Human nature, his body, mind and soul are composed of atoms of
different sizes and shapes. Human beings are not part of the purposeful order of
the world created and directed by God; rather it is a product of the accidental
collision of atoms. For Epicurus, God himself is a product of a purposeless and
random event of atoms. The implications is that we should not fear God,
because he does not control human destiny and unable to intrude into people’s
life. If God has no authority in our life, then the idea of the life after death would
be wrong. For Epicurus death is the state of the disintegration of atoms that
builds our body and mind. Hence, we should not bother with the fear of death.
Accordingly, the philosophy of Epicurus has the force of liberating man from
the fear of God and death. He declares that man’s life is free from external
control. Thus, what is good and bad could not be ascribed to God and his
commandments, rather it is deft to each one of us. In this regard, Epicurus view
is original, i.e. it is a new direction in moral thought. Epicurus associated
pleasure with what he termed sober thinking.

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3.4. Utilitarian (social) hedonism:

 Social hedonism is popularly known as utilitarianism. In this handout, we use
words social hedonism and utilitarianism to mean the same thing. As a result,
we continue to use the word utilitarianism, instead of social hedonism.
 Utilitarianism is ethical doctrine that an action is right or moral if and only if it
promotes the greatest pleasure for the greatest number of people. It is the ethical
as well as political theory according to which the best rule of life is to aim at the
greatest pleasure for the greatest number of people.
 Utilitarianism is another version of teleological ethics. The utilitarian conceived
of their philosophical work as an attempt to lay down an objective principle for
determining when a given action was right or wrong. As such, it is seen as
scientific approach to morality. They called this maxim the principle of utility.
This maxim is where the heart of utilitarianism lies.
 The word “utility” simply means “usefulness”, but the utilitarian employ it to
mean that which promotes the greatest balance of good over evil”. I.e. if an
action produces an excess beneficial effect over harmful ones, then it is right
otherwise it is not. Thus, utilitarianism is: to doctrine that we ought to act so as
to promote the greatest balance of good over evil. More good over evil is thus
usefulness.
 But what is the good? In fact, utilitarianism has always gone hand in hand with
hedonism by specifying the nature of the good as pleasure. Therefore,
utilitarianism is a doctrine that we ought to act so as to promote the greatest
balance of pleasure over pain.
 Still another question can be raised. Whose pleasure is to be maximized? In fact,
utilitarianism has always gone hand in hand specifically with social hedonism
and in deed may be regarded as identical as social hedonism. Hence, it becomes

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here necessary for us to compare and contrast egoistic hedonism to social

hedonism.
 Like egoistic hedonism, social hedonism/ utilitarianism holds teleological
conception of right action: it judges the rightness of an action by its
consequences. And like egoistic hedonism social hedonism (utilitarianism) is
hedonist in its conception of right action. Because, it judges the rightness of an
action by its production of pleasurable consequences. But the difference is that:
whereas the egoistic hedonist is motivated out of self-interest and aims at self-
satisfaction, the social hedonist or utilitarian is motivated out of an interest for
the greatest possible number of persons and aims at their satisfaction. In place of
egoism of egoistic hedonism, social hedonism or utilitarianism substitutes the
benevolence principle: happiness is to be distributed as widely and as equally as
possible among all people. Thus, utilitarianism is the doctrine that we ought to
act so as to prompt the greatest number of people. It is, in other words, hedonism
plus benevolence principle. Hence, the wordily formulation is as:

Hedonism + benevolence principle = utilitarianism

Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill: The two versions of utilitarianism
 Historically, utilitarianism is identified by English philosophers Jeremy
Bentham (1748-1832). And John Stuart mill (1806-1873)
 These two figures represent the two versions of utilitarianism.
 Bentham was the founder of utilitarianism, whereas mill was his successor.
However, he was most popular utilitarian of all.
 The main difference between these two versions is that Bentham emphasized the
quantity of pleasure, whereas Mill emphasized the quality of pleasure.
 According to both thinkers, the rule of life is to aim at the “greatest pleasure of
the greatest number of people’

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However the greatest means, the most for Bentham and the best for mill. By adding
quality to Bentham’s version mill meant that one pleasure hold moral superiority over
another. The central idea of mill in that regard is expressed in his popular statement: “It
is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied”. Pleasure: Quantity over
Quality? Arguments:
o Bentham: “If the game of push- pin furnishes more pleasure, it is
valuable”.
o Mill: “It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied”.
 Bantam’s utilitarianism focuses on quantity of pleasure. According to Bentham,
Pleasure can be calculated based on the criteria of hedonistic calculus.
 Bentham distinguished act utilitarianism from rule utilitarianism. This means:
a. Act utilitarianism is the position that contends we should act so as the
produce the greatest happiness for the most people.
b. Rule utilitarianism is the position which maintains that we should act in
such a way that the rules governing our actions produce the greatest
happiness for the most people.
 John Stuart mill believed in quality of pleasure rather than quantity of pleasure.
 Summary:
a. Both egoism and utilitarianism are consequential ethical theory.
b. Egoism focuses on the self-interest, whereas utilitarianism focuses on the
interest of the society at large.
c. The major proponents of utilitarianism are Jeremy Bentham and John mill.
d. The major proponents of Egoism are Aristippus and Epicurus.
Review Questions:
1. What is altruism?
2. mention the origin of hedonism and its definition
3. What is the core difference between Bentham and mill in terms of ethical doctrine?

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4. What is the ethical doctrine for Epicurus?

5. What is cyrenaicism?
6. What is rule utilitarianism?
7. What is Act utilitarianism?
8. What is the worldly formulation of social hedonism?
9. What is Teleological ethics?
10. What is the worldly formulation of egoistic hedonism?
References
Donald Plamner (1996). Does the Center hold? An introduction to Western Philosophy,
chapter 7, 8.
Miller, E.D.L. (1984). Questions that Matter. An invitation to Philosophy, part four.
Vincent Barry (1980). Philosophy: A Text with readings Chapter 3.
Walelign Emiru (2012). Moral Philosophy in theory and Practice, KCTE, Addis Ababa.
Shiv Khera (2005). Freedom is not free, Revised Edition, Macmillan.

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Chapter Four
Deontological/ non consequentiality ethical theories
4.1. Non- consequentiality/ deontological ethical theories
4.2. Divine command theory
4.3. Kantian/ duty ethics
The name deontology is derived from the Greek word “Deon”, which means duty. It
also refers to the theory or study of moral commitment. Deontology, therefore, is the
study of duty in moral matters. Deontological ethics considers duty as a standard of
moral judgment and the essential part of its theoretical claims.
 The word “duty” is familiar in social, military and civic issues and it is
frequently stated along with the word “right”. In this regard, right is a benefit
and privilege to a citizen that he or she should enjoy, duty, on the hand is, a
responsibility and commitment of citizen that he or she should realize it to the
common good of the people. A part from such general understanding and
application in social and civic issues, the word duty has crucial place in ethics.
 Philosophers in deontological ethics thought that without the consideration of
duty, correct ethical judgment is impossible.
 Deontological theories maintain that the morality of an action depends on
factors other than its consequences and that is why these theories are
alternatively called non- consequent list theories.
 Deontological theory is the direct opposite of the consequentiality or teleological
theory that one studied in the previous unit or chapter. As it is remembered that
consequentiality or teleological theories (i.e. rightness or wrongness) of actions
is determined by their consequences. According to the non- consequentialist or
deontological theories, on the contrary, morality of an action is determined by
factors other than consequences.

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 According to deontological theories, what makes an action right or wrong is the

actor’s conformity to his or her duty.
 Non- consequentiality or deontological ethics is one that emphasizes on the
performance of duty, rather than results, as the sign of right action.
 The two significant single- rule non- consequentiality theories are:-
a. Divine command theory
b. Kantian ethics: categorical imperative
A. Divine command theory
- Divine command theory is a single- rule theory that says we should always do the will
of God.
 To understand the divine command theory of morality, you have to familiarize
yourself first with what is called the religious view of human nature.
 The issue of question of views of human nature is about what it means to be
human or what distinguishes human beings from other things; that what makes
us different from anything else in the world.
 Religious view of human nature is one of the differing answers to this question.
There are also other important views of human nature such as rationalist view,
scientific view, existentialist view and eastern view etc.
 According to the religious view of human nature, particularly the Judo-
Christian tradition, humans are made in the image of God.
They are essentially divine beings, because they contain something of the self-
consciousness and ability to love that characterizes their creator. This ability to love is
the distinguishing character of the religious view. Specifically speaking, Socrates, Plato
and Aristo he held that only those capable of attaining theoretical and moral knowledge
could realize the purpose of living, the divine view contends that the two purposes of
life: loving God and serving God are open to all regardless of intelligence. The single

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personal God created man in his own image; i.e. He endowed his creation with self-
consciousness and the ability to love. This ability what makes humans unique.
The religious view on human nature fosters the following view of self: 1st, since the
universe is the expression of an intelligent mind (god), believers may see themselves as
part of a universe.
Whose meaning and purpose they personally share through fellowship with God. One’s
purpose in life, therefore, is found in loving and serving God.
 The religious view also fosters the concept of moral self: Each of us is capable
of great good, but also of great evil. When we refuse to love and serve God, we
commit our greatest evil. This refusal is expressed in various ways such as
injustice, vanity, pride and dishonesty.
 According to divine views, we do well when we make God the center of our
lives; we do wrong, when we retreat from this commitment. We are rational, but
what makes as unique is our divine likeness.
 Divine command theory is therefore, a single- rule non consequentiality
normative theory that says that we should always do the will of God. In other
words, whatever the situation, if we do what God wills, then we do the right
thing; if we do not do what God wills, then no matter what the consequences, we
do wrong things.
 Divine command theorists would see no worth or value in such things as
pleasure, power, or knowledge; instead they propose something like a union
with God as taxing the form of heavenly salvation. The great Christian
theologian and philosopher, Thomas Aquinas, Wring in one of his famous
ethical works called “Summa contra Gentiles”, which refers to the human’s
ultimate happiness as being the contemplation of God. He arrives at this
conclusion after arguing that human happiness does not consist in wealth,
worldly power or sensual pleasures.

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 Moral laws are established by God; they are universally binding for all people
and are eternally true. Such God- established laws are generally interpreted in
religious traditions such the Ten Commandments.
 Thomas Aquinas believed that man can attain eternal and prefect happiness by
the union with God. For Aquinas, man’s conduct is good only when he directed
his life towards the final aim of life. Reason and faith are clearly seen in the
moral philosophy of St. Aquinas.
4.3. Kantian/ duty ethics:
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) is the philosopher who has stressed, above all others that
the moral worth of an action depends on the motive on which it is done. His ethical
theory is an attempt to support this position. This sub- section of the unit introduces you
to Kantian Ethical.
 Kantian ethics is the ethical theory of Immanuel Kant. It is the theory that
emphasizes the performance of duty as the criteria of morality and that is why it
is alternatively called duty ethics.
 The third alternative name for Kantian ethics is “categorical imperative” or the
ethics of “categorical imperative”. This is because, as you will see later,
categorical imperative is the most central concept in Kant’s ethical theory.
 Kantian ethics is a variety of deontological ethics as opposed to teleological
ethics. As we have seen the teleological theory of ethics is one which
emphasizes the intended consequences or results of actions as the criterion of
their rightness. That is “such and such is the right action because it produces
such and such results”. On the contrary, the Kantian ethics holds that “the
consequences or results of your actions have nothing at all to do with their
rightness or wrongness”. Here the criteria are not what might or might not
happen, but the intent to perform one’s duty or obligation. Because, they stress

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the notions of duty and obligation, these theories are sometimes described as
duty ethics.
4.3.1. The nature of morality as unconditional
 The age of enlightenment saw a questioning of religion and traditional values,
including morality. As a result, philosophers needed to base moral systems on
justifiable grounds. Kant is one of such philosophers. His moral system is based
on rationality. It attempts to show how any rational being would agree to
universal moral laws. Its influence is enormous and modern philosophers still
use Kant’s ideas as a starting point for discussions on morality.
 The attempt of Kant is to make morality unconditional, i.e. not conditional by
self-interest, majority interest, consequences, and the like. To that end, he makes
distinction between conditional “ought” and unconditional “ought”. Kant does
this because morality must be necessary and universal that is it must be
absolutely binding and absolutely binding on every one a like: Whoever you are,
whatever your situation you ought to do x. But the conditional “ought” involves
“ifs” and in order that and therefore gets mixed up with all sorts of particular
circumstances, changing desires, personal inclinations.
4.3.2. Good will as the basis of morality:
 Kant eliminates from the beginning any suggestion that morality can be based
on our natural states and inclinations (gifts of nature) including pleasure or
happiness. He eliminates all innate gift (such as intelligence, with and courage)
or the accidental gifts (such as power, wealth and honor). They cannot be the
basis of morality because none of them are absolute goods, or because they do
not have intrinsic or unconditional value; moreover, any one of them could be
corrupted or turned to be evil. There must be more than these and which is
absolutely and unconditionally good. And this is something that all other things

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depend on for their goodness, and without which they would become corrupted
and turned into evil.
 What is this thing, which is absolute good, and which has intrinsic or
unconditional value; and that which can never be corrupted or turned into evil?
This absolute good, the necessary and sufficient condition for all right action,
the foundation for rational morality is the “good will “according to Kant.
 I. Kant wrote that: “Nothing in the world, indeed, nothing beyond the world,
can possibly be conceived which could be good without qualification except
good will”. By the way,
 What is good will?
Kant defined good will as “an intention to act in accordance with the moral law”
and moral law is what it is no matter what everything else.
 Good will is to act only out of respect for what is right and not for any other
reason. To act out of good will is then to do something because it is right do it
and for no other reason. This would be rational morality
4.3.3. Kant’s categorical imperative
 Kant holds that the fundamental principle at the basis of all our moral duties is
categorical imperative one of the most famous and important concepts in the
history of ethics.
 The categorical imperative is the fundamental principle of morality according to
him. It is imperative because it is a command. More precisely, it commands
us to exercise our wills in a particular way, not to perform some action or other.
It is categorical in virtue of applying to us unconditionally or simply because
we possess rational wills, without reference to any ends that we might or might
not have. It does not, in other words, apply to us on the condition that we have
antecedently adopted some goals for ourselves.
4.3.4. Categorical imperative as a test of moral actions:

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 The categorical imperative is a test of moral actions. How? Before starting a

certain course of action I must ask: Does universalizing the principle of my
action result in contradiction? If so, the action fails the test and must be rejected
as immoral.
In other words, the ability to universalize (apply to everyone) the rule by which
we act in a given situation is a sufficient guarantee of the morality of our action,
or that it is being done out of respect for the moral law alone.
 For Kant, human beings, as moral agents, are rational and autonomous (free to
make choices). He thinks that as rational beings, we are able to judge whether an
action is moral by asking if the action is consistent with the categorical
imperative. One formulation of the categorical imperative is “Act only
according to that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it
should become a universal law”. What Kant means by this is that the way we
judge an action to be moral is to universalize it. If I want to know whether
telling a lie on a particular occasion is justifiable, I must try to imagine what
would happen if everyone was to lie. Kant thinks that any rational being would
agree a world in which there is no lying is preferable to one in which lying is
common. In a society where lying is common, one would trust the word of
anyone else.
 Sometimes, categorical imperative refers to the principle of universalizability,
because it asks us whether we can “universalize” our actions that is whether we
could demand that everyone else in similar circumstances act in accordance with
the same rule as we would.
4.3.5. Different versions of the Categorical Imperative
 Immanuel Kant provided several formulations of the categorical imperative, one
of which is the one stated above. These are different versions of the same
fundamental principle of morality. Certainly, they overlap with one another, and

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they suggest important and differing ways in which the fundamental principle
may be viewed and applied.
 A second formulation of the categorical imperative is: “Act only so that the will
through its maxims could regard itself at the same time as making universal
laws”.
 Still another formulation of Kant’s categorical imperative is: “Always act to
treat humanity, whether yourself or others as an end in itself never merely as a
means”. What Kant means by this is that a rational being should not be used as a
means to another person’s happiness; if we use another person as a means to our ends
then we have removed that person’s autonomy.
4.3.5. A. Three versions of Kant’s categorical imperative
i. “Act only according to that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it
should become a universal law”.
ii. “Act only so that the will through its maxims could regard itself at the same time as
making universal laws”.
iii. “Always act to treat humanity, whether yourself or others, as an end itself, never
merely as a means”.
4.3.6. Alternative approach to Kant’s theory:-
 Kant’s theory is known to be highly complex. To make the matter simpler one must
use different approaches. And one of the possible alternative approaches is to base
the discussion of the major questions that Kant attempts to answer. To bring out the
essential features of Kantian ethics, we have to center on Kant’s efforts to answer
the question, “what is the good life for man”? And how do we determine morality of
an action? Or “how can we tell whether our actions are morally right”? However,
Kant’s answer to the question, when does a person have a moral worth? Or
formulated alternatively, “What does distinguish a person of virtue from a person
who is not virtuous”? Will take us to the heart of his moral theory.

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 I. Kant’s answer, in brief, is that what determines a person to be morally worthy is

not what he does, but what he does it. A man who repays debts out of the fear of
imprisonment is not a virtuous person, according to Kant even though he does what
he ought to do; nor is a man morally worthy who pays debt because he is inclined to
do so. Kant describes the former person as acting from “prudential considerations”
and the latter as acting “in accord with duty”, not “from duty”. Insofar as a person
acts from such considerations, he is not virtuous. An agent has moral worth only
when he recognizes that he ought to act in a certain way because it is his duty to do
so. One who takes care of his children properly, because he understand that he is
under obligation to do so and is motivated by this consideration, is a person of
virtue.
 For the deontologist Kant, the rightness or wrongness of an action has nothing to do
with its consequences. The question of whether an act is right or wrong arises only
if there is some obligation on the part of the agent to do it; that is if in relevant
circumstances, one could properly say to the agent, “It is your duty to do so and so”.
Therefore, an action is right if it ought to be done in those circumstances and wrong,
given those circumstances, if it ought not to be done. Morally good person is a
person of “good will” a man who acts “out of reverence for duty”. To act in this way
is always to act in a morally justifiable manner, for as Kant says: “Nothing in the
world indeed nothing beyond the world can possibly be conceived which could be
good without qualification except a good will”.
There remarks bring us to the heart of Kant’s theory and enable us to answer the first of
Kant’s fundamental questions what is the good life for man”? The highest good, as Kant
conceives it, is a product of two elements: personal happiness and the possession of a
virtuous character like Aristotle, Kant holds that happiness is not an entity, a thing or
object, nor it is to be identified with pleasure. Happiness consists of a sense of well-
being and it is a concomitant of behavior, not a consequence of it.

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Review questions:-
1. What is the most relevant for Kant’s theory of morality?
2. What is good will for Immanuel Kant?
3. What are the alternatives for Kant’s categorical imperative
4. What is the measure of an action or behavior according to deontological theory?
5. What is the ultimate goal of human endeavors according to divine command theory?
6. Define the following terms:
A. Duty ethics
B. Deontological ethical theory
C. Categorical imperative
D. Hypothetical imperative
E. Divine command theory
7. Discuss about the ultimate happiness of Thomas Aquinas
8. How the Ten Commandments does are good example for God established laws?
9. What is prima facie duty?
10. What is happiness according to Kant?
References
Walelign Emiru (2012). Moral philosophy in theory and practice, KCTE.
Shiv Khera (2005). Freedom is not free, revised ed. McMillian India.
Course material for Ethics and civic education (Phil 103).
School of Distance and continuing Education, UK.
Donald palmner (1996). Does the center hold? An introduction of Western Philosophy.
(Chapter 7, Ethics, Chapter 8, Critique of traditional Ethical theories)
Miller, E.D.L. (1984) Questions that matter: An Invitation to Philosophy. Part four, the
question of morality, chapter 19(pp.\. 416-429).
Stroll Aurum and Richard H. Popkin (1961) Introduction to philosophy. (Chapter 5,
Ethics/ Appraisal of Human character, conduct and Aims)

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Fincent Barry (1980) Philosophy: A Text with readings (Chapter 3, Ethics, PP: 44-78;
113-124).
Wikipedia the Free Encyclopedia (internet Explorer) Kantianism
Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia (Internet Explorer) Deontological Ethics.
Items for presentation sessions:
1. Purposes of studying ethics and the ethical realities of Ethiopian societies.
2. Non- normative ethics
2.1. Definitions
2.2. Classifications
2.3. Scope and value of studying
3. Compare and contrast the virtue of sophists and Platonists:
4. Discuss the virtue of Aristotle
5. Compare and contrast between utilitarianism and Egoism
6. Identify the similarities and differences between Divine command theory and
categorical imperative
7. Discuss about prima facie duties.

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Part two: Civics

Chapter five
Introduction to Civic Education

5.1. The importance of civic education

5.2. Definition and subject matter of civic education
5.3. The nature and sources of civic education

5.1. The importance of civic education

It is common and appropriate to begin with questioning about the very intention,
meaning and importance of learning a certain discipline. There must be purpose when
we attend an education. In similar way, civics as an education about free people has a
purpose. Its goal is arming citizens with the necessary knowledge and skills that will
enable them to be informed, responsible competent and active participant in all the three
life aspects (political, social and economic). After having the necessary knowledge and
skills citizens are expected to develop attitude (positive).
5.2. Definition and subject matter of civic education
A. Definition
 The origin word for civics is a Latin term such as “civitas”, civis, which means a
citizen or free individual who belongs to a political community. The Latin term
“civis” specifically refers to free native individuals who belong to “civitas”.
 Civitas is a Latin term from which the English word city is derived, signified not
merely urban center or local municipality but the state or the political community as
a whole. It is the ancient time the Greek small political units (city- states) were
known as civitas. The inhabitants particularly who were native and adult were
termed as citvis.

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 Civics as discipline studies about rights and responsibilities of citizens.

 Civic education is an interdisciplinary course by its nature which incorporates multi-
disciplinary studies that will be discussed later in this chapter.
B. Subject matter:
 From its etymological meaning, we can understand that civic education is education
about citizens. In general, it is treated as the study of citizenship and government,
usually having to do with the rights and duties of citizens and government.
 Civic education is the study of the rights and responsibilities of citizens.
 In democratic political system, civic education is an education in self- government.
It also deals with knowledge, skills, attitudes and motivations.
Key terms
 Self-government:- Active participations of citizens in government’s affairs.
 Education: - The process of growth and development of the individual through
learning desirable knowledge.
 Knowledge: - It is a set of facts, rules, principles of theories we learn and
experience.
 Skills: it refers to the abilities or capabilities we acquire to do something else.
 Attitude: it includes feelings, habits, characters, or beliefs that develop towards
something else.
 Motivation: Psychological force initiating social or individual behavior or
conduct.
Civics as multi- disciplinary study, specifically deals with the following issues:-
a. The meaning and essence of citizens and citizenship.
b. Ways of acquiring citizenship;
c. How law is made, executed and interpreted
d. The nature and importance of constitution
e. The structures and functions of state
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f. Forms of government
g. Rights, duties and responsibilities of citizens, government bodies and their officials
h. The growing multi- dimensional interdependence of nations of the word.
5.3. The nature and sources of civic education
A. Nature:
The nature of civic education is an interdisciplinary subject or nature. Interdisciplinary
nature means a subject that its contents, methods, principles or theories are taken from
various fields of study. Therefore, civic education is based on the principles, theories,
methods and findings of various disciplines such as history, economics, geography, law,
sociology, political science, philosophy psychology, Anthropology, etc.
B. Sources of civic education
The major theoretical sources of civic education are:-
 Philosophy,
 Political science;
 Law;
 Sociology,
 Anthropology,
 Economics,
 History,
 Geography,
 Psychology, etc.
On the other hand, human rights and the nations’ constitutions are on essential
components of civic education. Hence, constitutions and various human rights
documents are integrated in civic education.
 Debates and discussions in the parliament: Minutes (Parliamentary)
 Court cases;
 Research papers;
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 Day to day cases;

 Positive values;
 Positive cultures;
 International documents and conventions;
 Community activities etc.
Civic education should meet the following major purposes:
 To know the basic facts of Ethiopian particularities and diversities.
 To develop responsible ways of thinking, believing and acting in the society.
 To enable citizens to know and practice their citizenships rights and responsibilities.
 To produce participatory citizens capable to take part in public affairs.
 To acquire and practice skills such as tolerance, respect, mutual understandings and
peaceful ways of resolving conflicts.
 Furthermore, civic education is promoting civic competence, culture of civic
responsibility, elements of civic dispositions and civic commitments.
Review Questions:-
1. What are the main theoretical sources for civic education?
2. Why do vigilant, informed, responsible and active citizens are needed in
democratic society?
3. What is the difference between civis and civitas?
4. What are the uses of studying civic education?
5. What is civic education?
6. What is multi- disciplinary study?
7. Define the following terms
8. Why are citizens required to be watchful, alert actively involving in the decision
making process?
9. What is civic competence?
10. What is a civic disposition?
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References:
Ball Alan (1978). Modern politics and Government, Hong Kong.
Street, H. (1972). Freedom of the individual and the law, GB.
Robert, R. (1952). Calling all Citizens
Peter, R.S. (1987) Ethics and Education, London.

Chapter six
Society, state, government and citizenship

6.1. What is society? What is the relationship between society and state?
 Society is an organized group of individuals living together in a territory for long
period of time. Society in its understandings must hold essential elements such as
living together for long period of time; possessing common values and interests;
sharing common cultures; traditions and psychological makeup. Human societies
have evolved over a period of time from the primitive societies until modern
electronic age. Based on the stages of socio- cultural revolution, Gerhard and Jean
Len ski (1982) classified human societies into the following types:
a. Hunting and gathering society
b. Horticultural society
c. Pastoral society
d. Agrarian society
e. Industrial society
 Society is a web of social relationships, abstract; may not be necessary to have a
defined geographical area; etc.
 Society is not limited to human beings but is found among other creative as well.
Let us come back to the differences of society and state.
 The distinctive characteristics of society and state are:-

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1. Society is the web of social relationships, whereas the state is an instrument to

serve the purposes of its members.
2. Society is both historically and logically prior to the state. Whereas the state
comes into existence at certain stage of human development.
3. Society has no reference to any particular territory, whereas the state always
possesses a definite territory.
4. Society is natural to human beings. Man cannot live outside it. Whereas there
have been times when man has lived without the state. However, in the present
context of things, the state is necessary.
5. The social organizations act for variety of purposes. Whereas the state has only a
single great purpose, via, the enforcement of its system of law and order.
6. Society need not be highly organized, whereas the state is always organized.
Without an adequate organization, no state can exist.
7. Society operates on the basis of customs and conventions, whereas the state
exercises authority with the help of laws which in the ultimate analysis are
enforced.
6.2. State: An over view of theories of state:
The origin of the state is largely veiled in the mists of obscurity. It is difficult to point
out any exact period of history when the state might be said to have come into
existence. The modern sciences of Ethnology and Anthropology have undoubtedly
thrown much light upon the dim past of human history; still the emergence of the state
cannot be historically determined of the circumstances surrounding the down of
political consciousness, we know little or nothing. In the absence of adequate historical
data, it was perhaps inevitable that thinkers should resort to speculation regarding the
origin of the state. As a consequence, various theories have appeared to explain the
origin of the state. These state theories are:-

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1. The theory of divine origin

2. The force theory
3. The genetic theory
4. The social contract theory
5. The natural theory of Aristotle
6. The Marxist state theory
7. The Liberal state theory
1. The Theory of divine origin
The theory of divine origin is one of the earliest theories regarding the origin of the
state. According to this theory, the state is the creation of God. The king is the deputy or
representative of God, and must as such be obeyed and revered by the people. There is
no one on earth above the ruler. His command is law, and all his actions are justified.
To disobey the ruler is to defy the divine will. It is not merely a crime, it is also sinful.
•The divine origin theory is as old as political speculation. In the early period of human
history, political authority was supposed to be linked with unseen powers. In the origin
of state, the divine will attributed much. In the Old Testament also, there are allusions to
God selecting, appointing, dismissing and even slaying the rulers. Christianity
strengthened the belief in the theory of divine origin.
•There are three interpretations of the theory of divine origin which are current. First,
God sent his representatives to rule over this earth. Many peoples and religions till
recently regarded their rulers to be of divine order. Second, there is a belief held by
some people like the Jews that God directly ruled over them. Hindus also subscribe to
the theory of divine incarnation in human form. The third interpretation is rational.
According to this, God or Nature implanted in man instincts which gave some people
the capacity and desire to lead and others to obey. This, in course of time, gave rise to
command and obedience, and eventually to the emergence of the state.

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•There was an argument that without king, there would be no civil society. The people
have no choice, therefore, but to submit to the authority of the king. A bad king may be
judged by God. No human agency could judge him upon this earth.
•The salient features of the doctrine of the divine right of kings may be summed up as
follows:-
1. The king derives his authority from God, and that monarchy is divinely ordained;
2. Hereditary right is indefeasible;
3. Kings are not answerable to their subjects. They are accountable to God alone and;
4. Resistance to the authority of the king is sinful.
The theory of divine right of kings was later discredited. However, the belief that the
king represents divinity still persists among some backward peoples.
2. The force theory:
Like the divine origin theory, the force theory is also both an historical interpretation of
the rise of the state and rational justification of its being.
This theory holds that the state is the out- come of naked force applied by the strong
over the weak ones, and their consequent subjugation. The primitive society was
marked by conflicts and wars between different classes and tribes. The successful clan
or tribe established its authority over the defeated ones. Through successful continuous
wars, the authority of a tribal chief was established on particular territory of a
considerable size and the state emerged. Thus, according to this theory, the state has
come into being through physical coercion or compulsion. War begets the state.
According to Leacock, historically, it means that government is the outcome of human
aggression that the beginnings of the state are to be sought in the capture and
enslavement of man by man in the conquest and subjugation of feebler tribes, and
generally speaking, in the self-seeking domination acquired by superior physical force.
The progressive growth from tribe to kingdom and from kingdom to empire is but a
continuation of the same progress.

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According to force theory, there are six stages in the emergence of state. These are:-
1. The first stage is marked by continuous fights and endless combats. Killing and
plunder prevail. The conquerors kill the vanquished males and take away the women
and children as booty.
2. The peasants make unsuccessful attempts to throw off the yoke of alien hunters and
herds- men. Finding it hopeless, they cease resistance. The victors in turn give up
killing the vanquished and enslave them. Thus, begins the exploitation of man by man.
3. In the third stage, there is mutual realization of the benefits of co-operation between
the conquerors and the conquered, and it eventually leads to peaceful integration and
assimilation.
4. They learn to get along together and to fight against common external foes. This
develops a feeling of oneness among them.
5. The need to devise some machinery to settle internal disputes and quarrels by
arbitration is felt. It marks the beginning of the government.
6. Military leaders become kings and his deputies become his counselors.
He decides cases, gives orders and punishes offenders. Law and order are fully
established and the habit of obedience is formed. The state has come into being. Once
the state was established, it was still necessary to use force for its maintenance. The
continued existence of the state demands the employment of force for maintaining
internal order and external security.
3. The Genetic state theory:-
The genetic state theory holds that the state is the product of a natural expansion of
family. In the course of time, by a natural process of expansion, one family gave rise to
several. Several families or kinship groups united to form a village. In course of time,
one village expanded into several settlements, which in turn united to form the state. As
Aristotle observes, ‘’the first form of association naturally instituted for the satisfaction
of the daily recurrent need is thus the family… the next form of association… is the

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village… when we come to the final and perfect association, formed from a number of
villages, we have already reached the polis”. There are two versions of genetic state
theories. These are:
a. The patriarchal theory:
b. The matriarchal theory:
A. The Patriarchal Theory:-
•Sir Henry Maine is the chief exponent of the patriarchal theory.
•According to this theory, the state is the natural expansion of the original family unit in
which descent was traced through males, and the eldest living male parent ruled
absolutely.
•Family is the earliest social unit.
•According to MacIver, there are always present in the family the curbs and controls
that constitute the essence of government. The same necessities that create the family
also create regulation. Here, we have in the family a government in miniature, a
government which is already quite elaborate in character.
•From an examination of the ancient laws of the Romans, Hindus and Slavonians, Sir
Henry Maine found out that in the early family, the eldest male parent exercised
absolute power extending to life and death over his slaves. To quote from his Ancient
law, “over the members of his household, the eldest male parent possessed despotic
authority. He was not only absolute owner of property, including even what his children
had acquired but he could chastise and even kill, could sell or transfer by adoption,
could marry or divorce any of his children at will”. When the children married, there
was a natural expansion of family. However, the authority of the head of the first family
was acknowledged by all his descendants. On his death, authority passed to the eldest
male descendant. Thus, the tie that bound the members of different families was
common descent. The multiplication of families, living under the control of one head,
led to the emergence of tribe. In course of time, many members of the tribe withdrew

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from the parent tribe and settled in new territories. This resulted in the founding of
many new tribes or sub- tribes. The tribes united by ties of blood acted together for
common purposes, particularly in defending themselves against external foes.
The patriarchal theory of the state is based on three basic assumptions:-
That the system of permanent marriage prevailed in primitive society and that
paternity was an established fact.
That descent was traced only through males and none of the descendants of the
female was included in the family; and
That the ultimate authority was in the hands of the male head of the family, who
enjoyed absolute powers over all other family members.
In support of his theory, Sir Henry Maine adduced evidence from family histories of the
Hebrews, the Greeks, the Romans and the Aryans in India. Among the Hebrews, the
eldest male member exercised almost despotic power over his dependents. In Rome, the
patrla postestas gave unlimited power to the head of the household. In India, too the
members of a joint family lived under the control of the eldest male.
The patriarchal theory supposes family to be the earliest social unit, and holds that the
head of the family was transformed into the chief or the king and the family into a civil
society.
B.The Matriarchal Theory:-
The exponents of the matriarchal theory of the state are Mclenan, Morgan and Jenks.
They hold that the earliest unit was not the patriarchal but matriarchal family.
According to them, the existence of monogamy or polygamy alone could ensure descent
from the male ancestor. But in primitive societies, polyandry, i.e. one woman having
several husbands, was current. When the institution of polyandry prevails, the usual
husband wife relations are non- existent. Instead of a family, there were in those days
loosely- connected groups or hordes, within which promiscuous sexual relations
prevailed. Under such a system, kinship was traced through the mother and not the

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father. The children belonged to the clan of the mother. Owing to the prevalence of the
custom of exogamy, the father belonged to a clan separate from that of the mother
people could marry only outside one’s clan or tribe. Jenks illustrated the system with
examples drawn from the Australian aborigines who live in “packs” or totem groups
and may not marry within the totem. He rejected Maine’s contention that the process of
social evolution started from the family which later expanded into households and
reached the tribal stage.
According to him, the earliest group was the tribe which broke into clans and later into
households and families. With the advent of pastoral life and gradual prevalence of
monogamous or polygamous marriages, the patriarchal family came into existence.
Thus, according to the matriarchalists, motherhood is a fact, while fatherhood is only an
opinion. In brief, the main features of matriarchal system are:-
• Transient marriage relations (or group marriage);
• Female kinship;
• Maternal authority and
• Succession of only females to family property.
Patriarchal state theory promotes the idea of leadership that exercised by fathers
at the level of family state. Whereas Matriarchal state theory promotes the idea of
leadership that exercised by mothers at the level of family state. Furthermore,
matriarchal theory also asserted that mothers were the first to exercise power during the
pre- state social organizations.
4. Social Contract State Theory
The social contract theory which dominated the political thought of Europe for quite
some time has played an important part in modern political theory and practice. The
theory starts with the assumption that, prior to the formation of state; man lived in a
state of nature. In this state of nature, there was no political authority to make and
enforce laws. The only rules regulating human conduct were in the form of the so-

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called “natural law”. Each man led a life of his own and obeyed such rules of behavior
as he thought fit to obey. The various exponents of this theory do not agree regarding
the conditions of man in the state of nature. Some writers picture it as a state of brute
savagery, in which the law of the jungle prevailed. Others regard it to be a state of ideal
innocence and bliss. Still others think of it as a state of insecurity though not of
savagery. But whatever be the conditions, the man in the state of nature, for one reason
or another, decided to leave it and establish a civil society through an agreement or
contract. As the result of this, the law of nature was replaced by human law enforced by
political authority. Thus, according to the social contract theory, the state is the creation
of deliberate human efforts.
5. The Natural theory of Aristotle:
A part from the speculative theories discussed above, there is also the view of Aristotle
which is sometimes referred to as the natural theory of the origin of the state. According
to Aristotle, human nature lies at the basis of the state. It is human needs which bring in
into existence. The first of these are physiological which give rise to some kind of
family. But man also needs food to eat, something to put on, and some kind of a shelter
to live in. he finds that he and his family members cannot meet all these economic
requirements in a satisfactory manner. As new wants are felt and there is an increase in
material refinement, specialization and division of labor become very necessary. They
give rise to barter and exchange, under the pressure of these factors, there is more
diversification.
The basis of family is not merely physiological; it also meets the requirements of
emotional friendship. In fact, it is this ethical and emotional aspect which makes family
so important in human life. By a natural process of expansion, the family broadens into
the house. A collection of households creates a village and the union of several villages
giver rise to state. The state is thus a culmination of the natural process which starts
with the instinctive association of men and women. The lesser associations are however,

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unable to satisfy all the social and cultural needs of a man. They are not in a position to
provide the conditions necessary for good life. The state alone is in a position to ensure
it.
Given this psychological explanation of the origin of the state, Aristotle points out how
society is indispensable to man. Man differs from other living beings in as much as he is
endowed with speech and reason. This enables man to exchange views and to
participate in a common life. In fact, it is the common ideas of law and justice which
according to Aristotle, serve as a cement to bind the people together in a state. This then
is the rational or philosophical foundation of the state.
It is obvious that this natural theory of the origin of the state merely hints at the factors
and forces which played an important role in making the state. It does not discuss in any
detail how and to what extent these and other factors actually influence the emergence
of the state.
6. The Marxist State Theory
The Marxist state theory absolutely denies that there were no economic and social
grounds for the emergence of state during pre-class society. It asserts that state is the
product of the development of productive forces in the society. To this end, state has not
existed always. Instead, it emerged as political institution or instrument of the dominant
class in the economy. According to Marxist views of state, for the emergency of state, at
least the following elements should be fulfilled. These are:-
1. Social division of labor in the society;
2. Emergency of private ownership, and
3. Social stratifications of members of a society into classes.
Therefore, state is well defined by Karl Marx and F. Engels as:
“State is the tool of exploiting class”. Its main purpose is to safeguard the
existing dominant class as well as to suppress the resistances of other classes or groups.
State has never existed before the society broke up into classes.

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The Marxist theory claims that the state emerges due to internal warfare within the
society. Karl Marx popularized this view by analyzing the state as an agency of class
warfare by which the capitalists controlled the workers. For Marx and his belief in
inevitable class conflict, the state is an expression and protector of one segment of
society at the expense of another segment. Marx and Engels asserted that the key to
understanding human culture, history and the essence of state was the struggle between
the classes. They used the term class to refer to a group of people within society who
share the same social and economic status.
The classes are antagonistic. According to Marx and Engels, class struggles have
occurred in every form of society, no matter what its economic structure, or mode of
production: slavery, feudalism or capitalism. In each of these kinds of societies, a
minority of people own or control the means of production, such as land, raw materials,
tools and machines, labor and money. This minority constitutes the ruling class. The
vast majority of people own and control very little. They mainly own their own capacity
to work. The ruling class uses its economic power to exploit workers by appropriating
their surplus labor. According to Marxists, state appeared at a certain evolutionary
development of human society. State came into existence with the appearance of private
property in the slave owning system.
6.3. The state and Government
Understanding the idea of the state must begin with explaining the meaning of society.
Because, the state and society are strongly related. In broad terms, society can be
defined as organized group of individuals living together in a territory. A simple
collection of individuals are not sufficient to be called society. We call a group of
people a society when its members:
•Live together for a long period of time,
•Possess common values and interests, and
•Share common culture, traditions and life styles.

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This implies that society involves different groups of people sharing common values
and interactions. Societies have different forms of organized units. Some of these units
are the family, school, different political, economic or social associations, and the state
with its government. Among these, the state is the most crucial and influential unit of
society. When society is politically organized, it forms the state. The state makes the
rules, principles and laws of the society to be implemented.
Conventionally, we may think of the state as a country with its people and institutions.
However, the idea of the state goes beyond this. The state involves a number of features
or elements. They have four essential elements. They are:-
• Population,
• Territory,
• Government, and
• Sovereignty.
For the existence of the state, these elements are important requirements. A state
requires having its own territory in which it has sovereignty. It also requires having a
government to run its functions in a given society. Thus, it is difficult to think of a state
without a territory, government, population and sovereignty.
Population is one of the important elements of a state. Population refers to peoples
living in defined territory of a state. The population of a state in a defined territory and
its resources vary in religion, nationality, beliefs and tradition. But, with all their
diversities, they exist together in political community. The existence of a state is not
determined by the size of its population. That is as there are states of large population,
there are also states of even less than a million people. All are states with their own
population.
Territory is the landmass and its resources administered by a state. It is an essential
element of a territory of a state requires a recognized boundary, which is known to
international agreements. Natural resources within the territory belong to the state and

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its people. No state should claim the natural resource of another state. However, it is
unfortunate that series of battles have been fought between states over boarder disputes,
and also as a result of one state claiming over other state’s resource.
Government is also another important aspect of a state. As you remember, government
is the executive agent that acts in the name of the state and its people. As an agent of the
state, a government works to promote and safeguard the interests of its population and
maintain its territorial boundaries.
Sovereignty implies the final authority of the state over all matters. It also means that
the state is not subject to any power outside itself. In other words, the authorities and
functions of a state are limited within the boundary of that state. For example, the
authorities and functions of the Ethiopian states are limited within the Ethiopian
territory, not, in the territory of the Sudan, Djibouti or any other country. No state is an
authority over other state. Thus, a sovereign state determines its own form of
government, economic systems, domestic and foreign policies. It also decides on all
other matters of its own. This is done, however, in due attention to international norms
and trends. There are international norms and conventions that should be respected by
states in determining their own affairs.
Discuss:
• In our history, we have experienced many cases of aggressions from other
external forces. But at no time in our history we have never accepted such aggressions.
Instead, we maintained our territory and sovereignty through our patriotic tradition.
What were some of those cases? Explain.
6.4. The Origin of the State in brief
How did the state come into existence? Historical evidences show that politically
organized existence of people can be traced to the emergence of society itself. This can
extend as far back to some ten thousands of years. However, a very precise answer
about the specific time may not be possible.

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Originally, the need for organization of people was associated with the desire for
common protection from natural or man- made disasters and dangers. Some forms of
organizations necessary to ensure stability, protection of families, property, and
maintenance of order. State with its institutions and rules is expected to fulfill these
conditions. The origin of the state can also be explained in association with the social
division of labor that gave rise to the private ownership of property, and hence the
beginning of the formation of social stratification of members of society into classes.
Thus, the state emerged as the most crucial organization in society maintains law and
order. The state possessed the monopoly in using force to maintain law and order in
society. Gradually, the role of the state expanded to other aspects of life such as to
socio- economic welfare and improvement of citizens’ lives.
6.5. Types of States
In the world today, we find several states. All of these states are not similar in a number
of ways. Some states are very small in their territorial extent and population size. While
others are very large in socio- economic, cultural and technological factors that
differentiate states. Some states are highly developed in their social and economic
aspects. Others are relatively less developed. Another distinguishing factor of states is
the way they organize their societies. Some states provide rights for citizens. Such states
are described as democratic. Other states provide little rights for their people. These
states are dictatorial and authoritative. The people in such states simply subjects; they
are not citizens. From this perspective, therefore, states can be broadly classified as
constitutional and non- constitutional states.
6.5.1. Constitutional State
Constitutional state, in which citizens can control their government, is also
characterized by its democratic practices. It is a state in which government exercises its
power according to the rules and principles of a democratic constitution. The followings
are core characteristics of a constitutional state:-

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It has a constitutionally limited government. In this case, the actions and powers of the
government are limited by law. The personal interests of the rulers have no place.
In a constitutional state, the constitution is the highest law. Thus, public officials as well
as citizens obey and respect it.
A constitutional state provides protection for the rights of the individual and that of the
groups. The constitution is changed or amended through the participation of citizens,
not arbitrarily by authorities. Thus, constitution is the basic law of the state.
6.5.2. Non- constitutional State
Non- constitutional state, in which citizens are not able to control the government in
power. The government may not also exercise its power according to constitution.
However, the constitution is not meant for the promotion of the rights and freedoms as
well as interests of citizens. Instead, the constitution is used to keep the power of the
rulers. A non- constitutional state may be characterized by:
Rulers have unlimited power. They exercise their power without reference to law. Their
notions, may thus, be arbitrary.
Frequent abuses and violations of democratic and human rights of citizens by those in
power and citizens have little chance in their political life. In fact, they are subjects as
opposed to the real sense of citizens in a constitutional state.
Political power is usually accumulated in the hands of the few. There is a clear absence
of division and sharing of governmental power.
Discuss:
• How do you explain the type of state in Ethiopia?
• How can you distinguish between the state and society?
• Identify and explain the elements of the state?
• As an Ethiopian citizen, what do you feel about the respect of the Ethiopian
sovereignty?

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States can also be differentiated by the structures of government they have. There are
two forms of structuring governance in states. These are the unitary and the federal
structure. Federal and unitary forms of government are basically distinguished by the
degree of power between central and local levels of government.

6.6. Structure of states

Figure 6.6.1
6.6.1. Unitary state
It is a type of state in which a constitution vests all governmental powers in the central
government. Most countries are unitary systems, with laws giving virtually all authority
to the central government. The central government may delegate duties to cities or other

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administrative units, but it retains final authority and can retract any tasks it has
delegated.
This type of state structure is appropriate in relatively homogenous society; that means,
where there is no a great disparity in terms of language, culture, religion etc. in the
society. It is also appropriate in geographically compact country. The central
government in a unitary system is much more powerful than the central government in a
federal system. Cameroon, France, Italy, Japan, Kenya, Morocco, South Korea,
Sweden, Uruguay and Ethiopia, during the reign of Emperor HaileselassieI and reign of
Dergue are examples of unitary systems.

6.6.2. Federal state

The word federal comes from the Latin term fidere, meaning “to trust”. Countries with
federal political systems have both a central government and governments based in
smaller political units, usually called states, provinces, or territories. These smaller
political units surrender some of their political power to the central government, relying
on it to act for the common good.
Federalism is a state structure in which two levels of government control the same
territory and citizens. In federalism, a constitution distributes powers between a central
government and sub divisional governments, giving to both substantial responsibilities
and powers, including the power to collect taxes and to pass and enforce laws regulating
the conduct of individuals.
The state structure is common in the nations which have heterogeneous society and that
are not geographically compact (that is not easy for centralized administration). In a
state whose people are diversified in terms of ethnicity, language, tradition, custom,
way of life, psychological make-up, etc. implementing federal state structure is
advisable.

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In this state structure dual jurisdictions and dual systems of government exist. In a
federal system, laws are made both by state, provincial, or territorial governments and
by a central government. In the United States, for example, people who live in the state
of Ohio must obey the laws made by the Ohio legislature and the Congress of the
United States. In Canada, residents of the province of Quebec follow the laws made by
Quebec’s legislature and those made by the Canadian parliament. The same holds also
true in Ethiopia, for example, the residents of the Oromia regional state are obedient to
both the federal state law and the Oromia regional state law.
The division of powers is set down in written constitution. The mere existence of both
national and state governments does not make a system federal. What is important is
that a constitution divides governmental powers between the national government and
the constituent governments, giving substantial functions to each.
In USA, constitutional court exists to settle disputes between the two levels of
government. In the existing Ethiopia, this is done by the House of Federation whose
main task is interpreting the constitution. In a federal system of government, neither the
federal government nor the state government has the right to take away power and
authority constitutionally belonging to the other.
In the United States the subunits are called states (of which there are 53 fifty three) in
Germany Lander (10) in Austria also Lander (9) in Canada provinces (10) in
Switzerland, cantons (26) in Ethiopia also State or Kilele (9).
Federal political systems divide power and resources between central and regional
governments. The balance of power between the two levels of government varies from
country to country, but most federal systems grant substantial autonomy to state or
provincial governments. Central governments decide issues that concern the whole
country, such as organizing an army, building major roads, and making treaties with
other countries. In addition to the United States, Canada and Ethiopia that are

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considered federalist include Australia, Brazil, Germany, India, Malaysia, Mexico,

Nigeria, and Switzerland.
Therefore, federal state system has clear devaluation or decentralization of power. To
this end, regional or local governments have autonomous powers. The power and
functions of each state are defined in a written constitution. There are also concurrent
powers between central and regional governments. For example, major resource
administration, security issues etc. Other than this, there are a few powers that remain
only in the hands of federal state. These are:
Military: Defense force,
Common Currency: printing money or monetary and physical policy of the
economy,
Foreign policy: International relation,
Foreign economic relation and a few others.

6.6.3. Confederal State

It is the third kind of state in which sovereign nations by a constitutional compact create
a Central government but carefully limit the powers of the central government and do
not give it the power to regulate the conduct of individuals directly. A confederation is
similar to a federal system but gives less power to the central government. This political
concept refers to a union of sovereign states each of which is free to act independently.
Sometimes this is termed as loose federation. The loose alliances of countries or other
political entities that make up a confederation seek to cooperate with one another while
retaining ultimate control of their own internal policies. Unlike federal systems,
confederations usually give each member nation absolute control over its citizens and
territory. The central government decides only issues that affect all members of the
confederation. Confederations are uncommon; most are international bodies with
limited and specific responsibilities, such as the European Union (EU) and the British

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Commonwealth. The very purpose of central government is to run strong trade

relations, to have Defense pact, common policy on the international relations and
advisory roles as well as making law etc.
History witnessed that USA, Switzerland, Germany, Netherlands etc, had exercised
confederation in the past.
6.7. Types of Government
Concerning who should be the head law implementing body; how law should be
implemented and what would be the power and function of the head of state and head of
government whatever government is one of these:
1. Presidential form of government
2. Parliamentary form of government
3. semi- presidential form of government

 Presidential form of government

A presidential system is a system of government that features a president as the nation’s
head of state and active chief executive authority. The term is usually used in contrast to
a parliamentary system.
In a presidential system, the central principle is that the legislative and executive
branches of government should be separate. Thus, it is based on the doctrine of
‘’Separation of powers’’. This leads to the separate election by the electorate or an
electoral college of the president, who is elected to office for a fixed term of office, and
only removable in extreme cases for gross misdeamour by impeachment and dismissal.
In addition he or she does not need to choose cabinet members from or commanding the
support of, a parliamentary majority.

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In a presidential system, the president usually has special privileges in the enactment of
legislation, namely the possession of a power of veto over legislation of bills, in some
cases subject to the power of parliament by weighed majority to over-ride the veto.
However, it is extremely rare for the president to have the power to directly propose
laws, or cast a vote on legislation. The legislature and the president are thus expected to
serve as a check on each other’s powers. The fact that a presidential system separates
the executive from the legislature is sometimes held up as an advantage, in that each
branch may scrutinize the actions of the other. In a parliamentary system, the executive
is drawn from the legislature, making criticism of one by the other considerably less
likely. According to supporters of the presidential system, the lack of checks and
balances means that misconduct by a prime minister may never be discovered.
In this system, the legislature and the president have equally valid mandates from the
public. There is often no way to reconcile conflict between the branches of government.
When president and legislature are at loggerheads and government is not working
effectively, there is a powerful incentive to employ extra- constitutional maneuvers to
break the deadlock (block to progress).
A prime minister is usually chosen by a few individuals of the legislature, while a
president is usually chosen by the people. According to supporters of the presidential
system, a popularly elected leadership is inherently more democratic than a leadership
chosen by a legislative body, even if the legislative body was itself elected.
Presidential governments also make no distinction between the positions of Head of
Government and Head of State, both of which are held by the president. While many
parliamentary governments have a symbolic president or monarch whose constitutional
prerogatives may generally be exercised by the Prime Minister, presidents in
presidential systems are always active participants in the political process, and never
symbolic figurehead, though the extent of their relative power or powerlessness may be
influenced by the political makeup of parliament, and whether their supporters or

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opponents are dominant. In some presidential systems such as South Korea or the
Republic of China (on Taiwan), there is an office of the Prime Minister or premier, but
unlike semi- presidential or parliamentary systems, the premier is responsible to the
president rather than to the legislature. Countries with Presidential systems include the
United States, Mexico, and most nations in South America, African countries etc.
 Parliamentary form of government
A parliamentary system of government, in short Parliamentary, is a multi- party form of
government in which the executive branch (the Cabinet) is formally dependent on the
Parliament’s acceptance or approval. The Cabinet, or single members thereof, can be
removed by the parliament through a vote of non- confidence. In addition, the executive
branch can dissolve the legislature and call extra- ordinary elections. There is no clear-
cut separation between the Parliament (the legislature) and the other branches of
government. Thus, it is based on the doctrine fusion of power.
The leader of the executive cabinet, the prime Minister is usually the head of
government- at least in practice. In most parliamentary systems, the Prime Minister and
the members of Cabinet are also members of the legislature. The leader of the leading
party in the parliament is often appointed its Prime Minister. This is also true in the
current Ethiopia.
Under the parliamentary system the roles of head of state and head government are
more or less separated. In most parliamentary systems, the head of state is generally a
ceremonial position, often a monarch or president, however, sometimes retaining duties
without much political relevance, such as Civil Service appointments. In many (but not
all) parliamentary systems, the head of state may have reserve powers which are usable
in a crisis. In most cases, however, such powers are either by convention or by
constitutional rule only exercised upon the advice and approval of the head of
government.

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Parliamentary systems vary as to the degree to which they have a formal written
constitution and the degree to which that constitution describes the day to day working
of the government. They also vary as to the number of parties within the system and the
dynamics between the parties. Also, relations between the central government and local
governments vary in parliamentary systems; they may be federal or unitary states.
In contrast, in parliamentary systems, government is usually carried out by a cabinet
headed by a Prime Minister who in many instances are members of parliament, are
directly accountable to parliament and may be by parliamentary vote be dismissed.
A fusion of power exists between the legislative and the executive in which the
executive is not independently elected as in a presidential system, but instead is elected
by the members of the majority party or parties in the legislature, The Britain and
Canada the head of government is called the Prime Minister, in Italy and Sweden the
states under discussion have bicameral legislatures, and the chief of government is
elected by the members of the lower house.
Britain and Canada the lower house is the house of commons. In Italy, the chamber of
Deputies, and in Germany the Burdestag.
The Unicameral legislature of Sweden is the Reichstag elected the head of government
selects the members of the cabinet, the group of top ministers who direct the various
depts. (ministries) of the government bureaucracy. Ministers not only administer their
departments but also take responsibility for the development of policies within the
scope of their Ministries.
At the heart of the parliamentary system is the concept of responsible government
cabinet responsibility to the legislature the prime minister and the cabinet are
accountable to the full house of the legislature for all their political and administrative
actions. General election for the lower house must be held within five years in Britain,
Canada, Italy, within three years in Sweden and in Ethiopia in Five years term.
 Semi-presidential form of government

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The semi- presidential system is a system of government that features both a Prime
minister and a president who are active participants in the day to day functioning of
government. It differs from the parliamentary system in that it has a president who is
not a ceremonial figurehead and it differs from the presidential system in that it has an
executive prime minister who has some responsibility to the legislature.
How the powers between president and prime minister are divided can vary greatly
between countries. For example, in France the president is responsible for foreign
policy and the prime minister for domestic policy. In this case, the division of power
between the prime minister and the president is not explicitly stated in the constitution,
but has evolved as a political convention.
Semi- presidential systems are sometimes characterized by periods of tense
cohabitation, in which the prime minister and president are elected separately, and often
from rival parties. This can create an effective system of checks and balances or a
period of bitter stonewalling, depending on the attitudes of the two leaders, the
ideologies of their parties, or the demands of their constituencies. Some current nations
that feature semi-presidential systems include: France, Finland, Peru, Russia, and South
Korea.

6.8. State /government organs

As it has been mentioned earlier, any democratic state is expected to have three
branches or organs that are separated in power and function which have a checks and
balance relation. The three branches are (1) Legislative that has power to make laws; (2)
Executive is responsible to implement and administer laws and (3) Judiciary has the
task of setting dispute and interpreting laws.
Legislature

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Legislature is a branch of government empowered to make, change, or repeal its laws

and to levy and regulate its taxes. Most modern legislatures are representative that is
composed of many members who are chosen directly or indirectly by popular vote.
Legislatures that provide direct representation are usually considered more democratic
in practice because they are less susceptible to being dominated by a single faction.
Nearly all modern governments have a bicameral, or two- house, legislature. The so
called lower house is generally elected on a basis of direct representation; and the upper
house commonly on a basis either of indirect representation or of direct representation
limited to certain occupational, territorial, or hereditary categories. The traditional
theoretical justification for an upper house is that it can exercise moderation and delay
on legislation by the lower house and thus restrain the effects of impulsive or excessive
fluctuations of public opinion. Some states have unicameral, or single-house,
legislatures. For example, Ethiopia during the time of Derg had unicameral legislature
(Shengo).
The various legislatures throughout the world are known by different names, such as
Congress, Parliament, Duma, and Assembly. Most are limited in their powers by the
Constitution.
Executive (Government)
This branch of state (government) has a law administering and implementing power.
According to the 1995 Constitution of Ethiopia, the executive power of the state is
vested in the Council of Ministers, whose head is the Prime Minister. The law is made
by the parliament (the legislative organ) administered and enforced by the Council of
Ministers. In the US, laws are written by the legislative branch (Congress), approved by
the president who is the head of the cabinet (the executive), and subject to interpretation
by the judicial branch.
The executive branch has major departments and scores of separate agencies. Executive
branch agencies, departments, and other entities are all bureaucracies- large

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organizations composed of clerks, administrators, and other workers. Executive branch

bureaucracies disperse funds, manage programs and police, provide services, and
enforce regulations and laws. They also make rules that have the force of law behind
them.
Judiciary
Interpreting and settling disputes are the important tasks of the judiciary branch. This
refers to courts at different levels. In different nations, courts are established to
administer the civil and criminal law. The independency of this organ from any other
political organ or institution is very vital for the realization of a healthy democracy. The
present constitution of Ethiopia guarantees the independency of the judiciary. In the
present Ethiopia, courts are found in three levels at federal and regional state level. The
three court levels are:
1. The first instance court
2. The higher court
3. The Supreme Court
These three levels are found at central or federal level and member states level.
Government is also another important aspect of a state. As you remember, government
is the executive agent that acts in the name of the state and its people. As an agent of the
state, a government works to promote and safeguard the interests of its population and
maintain its territorial boundaries.
Sovereignty implies the final authority of the state over all matters. It also means that
the state is not subject to any power outside itself. In other words, the authorities and
functions of a state are limited within the boundary of that state. For example, the
authorities and functions of the Ethiopian states are limited within the Ethiopian
territory, not, in the territory of the Sudan, Djibouti or any other country. No state is an
authority over other state. Thus, a sovereign state determines its own form of
government, economic systems, domestic and foreign policies. It also decides on all

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other matters of its own. This is done, however, in due attention to international
agreements and conventions.
6.9. Functions of the State
From our discussions held so far, we can say that the state is a universal institution
because it is responsible for a complex set of political, economic, social and cultural
activities of organized human societies. The activities of the state emerge from some
sets of social needs. In other words, the state performs its complex responsibilities in
response to some social needs. In other words, the state performs its complex
responsibilities in response to some social needs of a specific society.
One must note that the needs of societies to which the state ought to respond vary in
different ways and periods. Some functions are as old as the state itself, while other
functions are added now.
Today, the influence of the state is very great. Indeed, some people argue that the role
of the society should be limited to most general and important affairs of society. Other
smaller elements should be left to other institutions as well as individuals in society.
This has introduced the about determining the minimum essential functions of the state.
Different societies and addressed this issue differently. There is, however, a general
agreement that the state is responsible to perform certain functions that may be
considered vital to society. By now, it is familiar that governments, which are the agent
of the state, perform indispensable functions in societies to which they belong.
We have briefly indicated some of the crucial functions of the state and also what
necessarily emergence. In broad terms, the spheres of activities of the state include:

• Maintenance of law and order in society,

• Protection and security to citizens against internal and external threats,
• Provision of essential services and welfare to citizens, and

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• Creating a sense of belongingness and civic development to citizens through

representation and participation.
Maintenance of law and order
The state is the most important institution that is directly responsible for the
maintenance of law and order in society. In a given society, social order is extremely
vital for the normal function societal affairs. In the absence of a certain degree of order,
all aspects of social, economic political life of society will be disrupted. In other words,
chaos and disharmony will prevail in society. Thus, the state is responsible to maintain
order in a given society. The laws of the state therefore, assumed as binding to all
members of that society. Thus, the state is supposed to ensure that laws are respected.
A related instrument of maintaining order is the use of legitimate force. Of all
institutions in society it is only the state that is supposed to have the legitimate right to
use force in maintaining law and order. This does not mean that the state is the only
institution in society to use force. For instance, criminals often use violent force.
However, the force that the state uses, although historically abused in different ways, is
legally sanctioned for the purpose of the collective security of society. Also, it is not
possible to maintain order in society solely by using force. What is implied here is that
the state must successfully regulate the use of force by the collaboration of other
institutions, public or private.
Protection and security of citizens
The state is also responsible for the protection of its citizens against collective threats
and dangers of aggression. In doing so, the state ensures the security of its citizens.
Citizens ultimately depend on their state for protection of their rights and privileges as
well as their material properties and possessions. They also need to have security of
their lives. Domestic security is protected by domestic laws and, when necessary, by the
use of force. The state challenges external threats and insecurities through diplomatic

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efforts, international law and ultimately through use of violence or war for defensive
purpose.
Services and Welfare to Citizens
In modern times, the state is also increasingly involved in the sphere of provision of
social and economic welfare to its citizens. The state designs various policies that deal
with welfare issues. In this process, the policies of the state are supposed to redistribute
resources and benefits to various members of society. Particularly, the state deliberately
intervenes to benefit the most affected and impoverished sections of society in terms of
education, health and social facilities. Nevertheless, there is a debate that the state
should have a limited intervention in social and economic affairs; and that distributive
functions would be best achieved by other forces such as the market. As a result, some
states have adopted strongly market- oriented policies whereas others have maintained
welfare policies.
Belongingness and Civic Development to Citizens
The state also encourages a sense of belongingness among its citizens. For example,
Ethiopian citizen that belong to the Ethiopian state. Usually, you identify yourself with
Ethiopian state. This excludes you from belonging to other states or citizenship. You
will exercise privileges and benefits due to your citizenship, which others may not
exercise with being the legal citizens. We shall see the issues of citizenship in the next
sections in detail. States are also responsible for the moral and civic development of its
citizens. The state out facilitate processes of socializing its citizens in the political
system so that they will be respond and active participants in affairs of society.
6.10. The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia
We have briefly mentioned in the above sections that Ethiopia was a unitary state until
May 1991, both in principle and practice, Ethiopia gradually shifted its state structure in
federation.

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Ethiopia is a multi- ethnic and multi- linguistic country. Thus, Ethiopia’s nations,
nationalities and peoples can best exercise their rights to democratic self- government
and self- determination through a federal state structure. The constitution of Ethiopia
clearly indicates this by recognizing the rights of the nations, nationalities and peoples
of Ethiopia to self- determination including up to secession. This is the fundamental
principle of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. The Ethiopian state is not
only evolving into a federal state but also developing a democratic system of
governance. The federal state structure with its central principle of respecting the
freedoms of the multi- ethnic society provides a significant opportunity to exercise
governance. There is also an increasing degree of democratic practices of governance
that distinguish it from previous forms of government practices. You should, however,
note that democratic system cannot be realized in a very short period of time.
Democracy is increased and active participation of citizens in political and decision-
making processes. They also need for the development of democratic culture. That is
the experience of democracy in daily life by a broader section of the society.
The Federal democratic Republic of Ethiopia, therefore, has laid the foundation for
Ethiopians to exercise the rights and freedoms as well as to build their nation into a
democratic society. Thus, Ethiopian citizens need to be actively engaged in the political,
economic and social affairs to promote the democratic governance as well as their
social and economic development.
The Federal Government and Member States of Ethiopia
According to the constitution as stated in Article 1, the Ethiopian State is called the
Federal democratic Republic of Ethiopia. The form of the government is
Parliamentarian. The Federal democratic government comprises of member states.
These are the Regional states. Article 47 of the constitution identifies the member States
of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia as follows:
• The State of Tigray

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• The State of Afar

• The State of Amhara
• The State of Oromia
• The state of Somalia
• The State of Benishangul/ Gumuz
• The State of the Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples
• The State of the Gambela Peoples
• The State of the Harari Peoples
Those Member states of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia have equal rights
and powers. The Federal Government as well as the member States have the three major
organs of a state. These are the legislative, executive and judicial branches.
Powers and Functions of the Federal Government (Article 51)
The Federal Government of the Democratic Republic of Ethiopia shall:
• Protect and defend the Constitution,
• Formulate and implement the countries’ policies and national standards on
various matters such as:
o Public health
o Education
o Science and technology
o Cultural and historical legacies
o Economic, social and development matters
o Monetary and investment strategies
o Conservation of land and other natural resources
o National defense, public security and federal police force
o Approval of federal budget
o Levy taxes and collect duties on revenue sources

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• Formulate and implement foreign policy and carry out international agreements
• Be responsible for the development, administration and regulation of transport
communication services:-
o Air
o Rail
o Water ways and sea transport
o Major roads linking two or more states
o Postal and telecommunications
• Administer Federal institutions.
• Declare and lift national state emergency at a federal or particular states level
• Determine matters of:
o Nationality
o Immigration
o Passport
o Refuges
o asylum
• Enact laws of possession and bearing of arms
Powers and Functions of Member States (Article 52)
According to the Constitution, all powers that are not given to the Federal government
are the states. These also include the concurrent powers that are shared by both the
Federal and the member states. Specifically, the member states shall have the following
powers and establish a state administration then can advance
• Self governance
• Democratic order
• Protection of Federal constitution
Enact and execute the state constitution

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Formulate and execute policies, strategies and plans of the state on various matters:
• Land and natural resources,
• State budget,
• Levy taxes and collect revenues,
• State police forces,
The functions, authorities and actions of the member states are required to maintain and
keep standards and the Federal constitution.
The Federal Houses
The constitution of the federal democratic republic of Ethiopia states that there shall be
two federal houses. These are the House of peoples’ Representatives and the House of
Federation. They are the legislative institutions of the Federal Government.
The House of Peoples’ Representatives
The House of peoples’ representatives is the highest authority of the Federal
Government. The House is responsible to the people. Its members are elected by the
people for the term of five years. They are representatives of the Ethiopian peoples.
They are governed by:
- The constitution,
- The will of the people, and
- Their conscience.
The House of Peoples’ Representatives has the responsibilities and powers of
legislation. However, it has specific powers as stated in Article 55.
What are the specific powers and functions of the House of peoples Representatives?
A political party that has the greatest number of seats in the House forms the Executive
body that leads it. That is, the party with a majority of members in the House is the one
that organization runs the government during its term of the specified period of time.
The House has its Speaker Deputy Speaker. In the House, there are different

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committees responsible for different activities and decisions are made on the basis of
the majority rule by voting.
The House of Federation
The House of the Federation is the other legislative body in the Federal Government. Its
member is representatives of the Nations, Nationalities and Peoples of Ethiopia. Each
National or Nationality is represented by one member in the House and for every one
million population will have one more representative.
The House of the Federation has a number of powers and functions as stated in Article
62 Constitution.
Some of the powers and functions are:
• Interpreting the constitution
• Making decisions on the rights of the nations, nationalities and peoples to self-
determination
• Promoting the equality of the peoples of Ethiopia while strengthening their
unity.
• Resolving disputes or misunderstandings that may occur between states.
The House of the Federation has a speaker and Deputy Speaker. All decisions are made
the House on the basis of the majority rule as determined by voting. The term of the
office of the House is five years. All members of the House are elected by the State
Council or directly by the people.
The President of the Republic
The President of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia is the head of the State.
The House of peoples’ Representatives nominates the President. The nominee is elected
when the joint the two of the Federal Houses approve the nomination by two- thirds of
the majority vote. The term office for the President is six years. No person can be
elected more than twice to be the president of the country.
Discuss:

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What are the powers and functions of the president? Make reference to Article
71.

The Executive
The executive is the daily operational part of the Federal Government. The
responsibilities of this organ are mainly vested in the Prime Minister and the Council of
Ministers. The Executive body responsible to the House of Peoples’ representatives.
Prime Minister, elected from among the members of the House of Peoples’
Representatives, is chief Executive and Chairperson of the Council of Ministers. He/
she is also commander- in chief of the national armed forces. Therefore, the prime
minister has a number of powers and responsibilities. Some of these are the followings:
Submits nominees for ministerial posts:
Follows up the implementation of laws, policies and decisions adopted by the House of
Peoples Representatives and by the Council of ministers.
Supervise the federal administration.
Submits periodic reports and plans to the House of Peoples’ representatives.
Respects and enforces the constitution.
The Judiciary
The constitution of the federal democratic republic of Ethiopia establishes the principle
of an impendent judiciary. That is, the activities of the courts are made to be free from
various forms of interference or influences from the executive or any other institutions.
The judiciary is, as you are already familiar with, one of the branches of the
government. Its major task is the settling of disputes. That is, it makes sure that the laws
of the country are maintained and kept in order.
Judiciary powers are exercised at both the Federal and State levels. At both levels,
judiciary powers are practiced in the courts. Courts are found at various levels. At all

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levels, the courts exercise their powers without any forms of influences or interference.
This is clearly stated in Article, 79 of the constitution. In addition, judges exercise their
activities in full independence. They are directed or led by the law. Fairness and justice
are the most important requirements of the judiciary articles. You have to note that, as a
citizen, you are also responsible to contribute your part for the building of the Nation.
6.11. Origin, concept and practice of citizenship
i. Origin and development of citizenship
ii. Definition and elaboration of citizenship
iii. Ways of acquiring citizenship
iv. Ways of losing or changing citizenship.
I. Origin, definition and development of citizenship
• The state exists to promote the welfare of the individual.
• The individual members of a state are called its citizens.
• Etymologically, citizenship implies the fact of residence in a city (i.e. city-
state). However, the term now stands for the membership of the state, and it is
immaterial whether he/she resides in a city or just in a small village.
The word citizen may be distinguished from the word ‘alien’. An alien is a person living
in a state but owing allegiance to another state. A citizen, on the other hand, is a person
who owes allegiance to the state in which he lives. An alien receives the protection of
law for its person and property in which he inhabits and for such protection he obeys the
laws even though these laws may be different from these prevailing in the state to which
he owes allegiance. Alien is generally denied the political privileges, which belong only
to a citizen.
Civis a Latin term that has the English meaning “citizen”, which refers to those free
individuals who were the full members of the civitas and the right to participate in
political decision making process. Hereby, full membership, the right to participate,

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directly and fully in the socio-economic and political affairs of their city- state, political
community or state to which they were civis or citizens.
This shows the legal and political relation between the citizens and the state to which
they are full members. This political and legal relation or status that citizens have with
the state is termed as citizenship. To this end, there were different understandings about
citizenship during Greek periods and ancient Roman times. For example, as a time of
•Greek period, Aristotle expressed citizens are those free individuals who were able to
take part in the law making body, executing as well as interpreting organ. Furthermore,
he said that citizens are those free individuals who had the right to participate in both
the legislative and judicial functions of their political community. This right was
carefully guarded and was rarely conferred on any one of foreign birth.
•In ancient Rome two classes of citizens were recognized. The first possessed the rights
of citizenship, including the privilege of voting in the public assembly; the other
possessed these rights and the additional right of holding offices of state. In the first
category, the citizens had limited political participations. They were excluded from
holding political power in government office. They had no chance to participate in a
direct decision making process except in the case of giving vote. They were negatively
discriminated. It will be difficult to say that they were full members of the empire,
because they had no right to be the member of the legislative body and to make laws. In
the second category, the citizens were positively discriminated. These had extra rights
including the right reserved to the ordinary citizens. (The right to vote). These were the
favored section of the empire or state, having both the right to elect and to be elected
which is the important right of citizens. As in Ethiopia, USA, and other modern states,
citizenship in Rome, although usually acquired by birth, could also be attained by
naturalization or by special grant of the state.

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•Naturalization is a way of acquiring Citizenship without birth related cases. It requires

legal processes to be a citizen of a given state. We will see the details later in this
chapter.
•A citizen is a person who is acknowledged as a legal member of a community (usually
a nation). A person obtains this status through birth, the nationality of a parent or
parents, or by going through the “naturalization” process through which he/she is
legally made a citizen. Citizenship refers to the status of citizens being a member of a
state. Citizenship implies that people owe allegiance to the government and are entitled
to its protection and political rights. In general, citizen is a legal and political member of
the state. And Citizenship is the legal as well as the political status of citizens.
Citizenship refers to the political and legal relation that the citizens have with the state.
•The terms “citizens” and “citizenship” are closely interrelated. Their application has
both national and international significance. Both terms are concerned with the status of
individuals in a state and outside a state. They also imply the existence of some legal
relationship between individuals and the state. Very broadly, the term “citizen” may be
defined as an individual who is a legally recognized member of a given state.
Each citizen has full and equal rights under the law. All citizens are end owed with
fundamental rights and privileges on the one hand and entrusted with certain
responsibilities and obligations. In this sense, individual members of a state are its
citizens. As citizens of the state, they exercise certain rights and privileges. At the same
time, the state also expects certain duties and responsibilities from its own citizens,
which it may not legally claim from those that are not citizens. For example, Ethiopian
citizens exercise certain political, economic, social and personal rights by being the
legally recognized members of the Ethiopian state. The state also obliges its citizens to
a boy its laws, to provide public service through their skills and professional ability, to
provide armed services in defending its sovereignty, to participate in economic, social
and political activities etc.

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Citizenship refers to the legal status of an individual member to be a citizen of the state.
In other words, citizenship is the official recognition of an individual’s integration in to
the political system. That means, citizenship is the status of a person to be a member of
a particular state of country. Without the status of citizenship, a person would be
“stateless”, i.e. he would not belong to any state. Thus, a status of citizenship gives a
person his/her official identity that distinguishes him/her from others. For example,
when one is officially identified with an Ethiopian citizenship, he/she can differentiate
from citizens of other countries, because he/she is associated with the Ethiopian state.
Thus, obtaining the status of citizenship involves the legal and official recognition of
the state to exercise citizenship rights and to fulfill responsibilities.
ii. Ways of acquiring citizenship
Acquisition of citizenship varies from country to country based on the laws of each
state. There is no uniform and common standard that govern all states in granting as
well as denying citizenship. Hence, the idea of citizenship is left to the domestic
jurisdiction of the state. Nevertheless, there are some broadly shared normative and
customary principles which minimize arbitrary and groundless decision in granting and
deprivation of citizenship. Among others, the following are the mode of acquisition of
citizenship.
1. Citizenship by birth:
2. Citizenship by law:
3. Citizenship by cession of territory:
4. Citizenship by subjugation
5. Citizenship by resumption
6. Citizenship by options
Acquisition of citizenship by birth may take place at least in to two ways:-
A. By means of jussanquinis (right of blood)

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It is a right of a child to attain citizenship through his/hr parents. This refers to the blood
line or lineage or family tree or kinship.
B. By means of jussoli (right of soil)
It is a right of a child to attain citizenship through his/her birth place. The country,
where he/she was born.
Acquisition of citizenship by law can take place in different modes. Some of them are:
a. International marriage
When a woman marries a gentleman of another country can have her husband’s country
citizenship. The reverse is also true.
b. Legitimating: - This is another process by which children (minors) are
legitimized or legally acquire citizenship through parenthood or guardianship of citizens
of that state.
c. Naturalization: - It is the process of submitting application in seeking
citizenship entitlement in a given country.
d. Dual (mixed system):- it is another legal way of acquiring citizenship
entitlement through dual or mixed systems. These are:
i. Through parents’ blood line;
ii. Through place of birth
Therefore, it is possible to attain dual citizenship. By the way, according to Ethiopian
Federal constitution Art.6 part two, chapter 6, Art. 31 say that:
1. Any person of either sex shall be an Ethiopian national where both or either
parent is Ethiopian.
2. Foreign nationals may acquire Ethiopian nationality.
3. Particulars relating to nationality shall be determined by law.
iii. Ways of losing or changing citizenship
• As citizenship may be acquired by several methods, as it may also be lost by
various modes.

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• Among others, the followings are modes of losing citizenship:-

a. Loss of citizenship by renunciation
b. Loss of citizenship by deprivation
c. Loss of citizenship by substitution
d. Loss of citizenship by release/ termination
e. Loss of citizenship by lapse.
• Renunciation: - To give up his/her citizenship.
• Deprivation: To deprive citizenship titles due to serious state crimes such as:
o Passing national secrets to alien country,
o Siding enemy forces at the time of war, and
o Carrying out spy activities within his/her state.
• Substitution: - To replace by the new citizenship status.
• Release/ termination: to end relationship (citizenship) with the given state.
• Lapse: - To lose citizenship due to long period of time outside his/her country.
iv. Some rights and duties of citizens
• The right to get protection of life, liberty and property.
• The right to get necessary social services.
• The right to work in their country
• The right to elect and to be elected.
• Etc.
As the government has the responsibility to protect and create conducive atmosphere for
the survival and development of its members, the citizens also have duties to be
discharged. The major duties of citizen are:-
• To follow up through mass media what is going on in the country with respect to
political, social and economic activities.
• To take part in the political, economic and social activities.
• To respect the rights of other human being.

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• To protect territorial integrity from any kind of threat or invasion.

• To discharge the required responsibilities in the state of emergence.
• To respect the laws and rules that governs a country.
• To preserve historical heritages of a nation.
• To preserve natural resources of a nation.
Summary of Citizenship
• Citizen is a legal member of a state.
• Aliens are people who live in the territory of a state, but not citizens.
• Historically citizenship began in ancient Greek city states.
• Modern concept of citizenship is an outcome of the American and French
Revolutions of 18th C.
• In principle, all citizens are equally endowed with fundamental rights and
entrusted with duties.
• Aristotle said that “citizenship is as one who a share in the functions of a state”.
• Vettel said that “citizenship is a membership in the civil society which is bound
by a certain duties”.
• Srinivasa Sastri said that “Citizenship is a membership of a state who has to
fulfill a certain duties and functions”.
• In modern thinking, “citizen” and “citizenship” are closely interrelated. Both
terms are concerned with the status of individual in a state and outside a state.
• All persons irrespective of religion, race, color etc. have the right to be citizens.
Thus, citizenship is a right but not a privilege.
• All non-human elements such as institutions, plants, animals, as well as
materials have the right to have legal status. Therefore, citizenship applies only to
rational beings, whereas legal statuses are given to non- human elements to indicate that
they are nationals of a given country.

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