VERBAL" NOTES

ANo SKETCHES
FOR Marine Engineers

J.W. M. SOTHERN
M.l.E.S.

EIGHTH
EDITION
41? ISSUE
 THE LIBRARY
OF
THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA
LOS ANGELES
%
VERBAL" Notes and Sketches

FOR Marine Engineers

PRINTED IN^ GREAT BRITAIN
liV THE
DARIEN PRESS, EDINBURGH
 Quadruple Expansion Engines of SS. "Vasari."
Constructed by Messrs Richardsons, Westgarth & Co, Ltd.. Middlesbrough, for Messrs Lamport & Holt Ltd.. Liverpool.

Gross tonnage. — loooo tons. r H.P. inside steam piston valve.

Dimensions of vessel. —486 feet by 59 feet 3 inches by 27 feet 4 inches. Type! .

-
ntt,.H
""'-°-
'
'''''^' "-P- inside steam piston valve.

Second l.P. nat valve.

Boilers.— Three double-ended boilers, each 15 feet 3 inches diameter and "I

I
L.P. flat valve.
iS feet 6 inches long, having six furnaces, each 3 feet loj inches
outside diameter. H.P. rods crossed.
Draught. — Natural draught. LP. rods crossed.
First

Total heating surface. — 14010 square feet.

Second l.P. rods open.
L.P. rods open.
Total grate surface. — 363 square feet.

Ratio of heating surface to grate. — 38-5 to i.

Distribution ofLH.P.
H.P. cylinder
Working pressure. — 220 lbs. per sf|uare inch.
in cylinders.
First LP. cylinde
Second LP. „
Cylinders. — 26i, 37}, 53, and 77 inches diameter. L.P.
Stroke. — 57 inches.
Tutal LH.P.— 4i5gat 75 i per
Cut-oir.— H.P. = = -62, second = = -5S.
63, first I.P. I.r. -6o, I,.1'.
Propeller. —Diaineter ig feet; pitch rg feet; expanded blade
Type of valve gear. — Ordinary link motion. square feet ; four loose blades.
Valve travel.— H.P. gj inches, others 9 inches. Speed. — 13 knots.
 Cj^ cJ^. / /,
p > ''
'
/

"VERBAL" NOTES AND SKETCHES

FOR MARINE ENGINEERS
A MANUAL OF MARINE ENGINEERING PRACTICE

CONTAINS NOTES AND SKETCHES OF VERBAL AND

ELEMENTARY QUESTIONS GIVEN AT THE BOARD OF
TRADE EXAMINATIONS TO ENGINEERS COMPETING
FOR FIRST-CLASS AND SECOND CLASS CERTIFICATES
OF COMPETENCY
AND IS INTENDED FOR THE USE OF NAVAL AND
MERCANTILE MARINE ENGINEERS OF ALL GRADES, STU-
DENTS, FOREMEN ENGINEERS, ETC., AND IS SPECIALLY
COMPILED FOR THE USE OF ENGINEERS PREPARING FOR
EXAMINATIONS OF COMPETENCY AT HOME OR ABROAD

J.
W. M. SOTHERN
Member, Institute of Eng-ineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland; Hon. Member, Glasgow and
West of Scotland Association of Foremen Engineers and Draughtsmen.
Author of "Marine Indicator Cards," "The Marine Steam Turbine," "Simple Problems in
Marine Engineering Design," "Elementary Mathematics for Marine Engineers," etc.

Principal, Sothern's Marine Engineering College, Glasgow.

600 ILLUSTRATIONS

EIGHTH EDITION
ENLARGED, RE-WRITTEN, RE-ILLU.STRATED, AND
WITH NEW APPENDLX

Fourth Re-issue, with further additions

GLASGOW: JAMES MUNRO & CO. LIMITED

NEW YORK : D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY
25 PARK PLACE
1916

[All Rights Reserved]

Seventh Edition published September 1911

Eighth Edition (with new appendix) pub-

lished September 1913

Re-issue (with numerous additions) pub-

lished January 1915

Re-issue (with further additions) published

October 1915

Fourth Re-issue (with additions) published

September 1916
 ;

Engineering
Library

(oOO
37/ AT

PREFACE TO SEVENTH EDITION-

The author would draw special attention to the fact that the work
has been practically re-written and re-illustrated, some hundreds of
new and original sketches appearing in the volume. The Boiler
section has received particular attention, practical examples of the
application of the rules of design, &c., being shown and worked out.
As in previous editions the practical side of marine engineering
science has received chief attention, and in connection with this a
new section treating of " Workshop Practice " has been added, which
the author trusts will be found of interest as being somewhat in the

form of a novelty.
As a subject usually neglected in ordinary text-books, a special
section on " Valve Settings " has been included, which the author
hopes will be found of use to junior engineers, among whom the subject
is, speaking generally, very imperfectly understood or appreciated.
The writer also wishes to mention that, owing to the great increase
in size of the present edition over the last one, it has been found
necessary to issue the " Indicator Diagram " section as a separate
publication under the title of " Marine Indicator Cards," particulars
of which will be found elsewhere.
Attention should be drawn to the fact that the illustrations are
numbered independently for each section, also that, for greater con-
venience, the Index is placed at the front instead of at the end of the
work.
In conclusion, the author's thanks are due to the following firms, &c.,
for kind permission to reproduce illustrations, and for subject matter
supplied :
— Messrs Richardson, Westgarth & Co., Ltd., for Frontis-
piece ; Messrs Cochran & Co., Annan, Ltd., for sketch of Boiler
Messrs Denny & Co., for drawing of Brock Valve Gear ; Messrs The
Simms Magneto Co., Ltd., for illustration of Magneto Messrs The ;

Technical Publishing Co., Ltd., for numerous illustrations which

V
i^~f f^ f^ r^ ^ F\
Li o
vi Preface to Seventh Edition.

appeared in the Practical Engineer under the title of " Leaves from
an Engineer's Note Book " ; Messrs The D. Van Nostrand Co.,
New York, for marked with an asterisk, which
the illustrations,
appeared in the pages of International Marine Engineering, entitled
" Marine Engine Design," by Professor Edward M. Bragg the Pro- ;

prietors of International Marine Engineering, for numerous illustra-

tions which appeared originally in that journal ; the Proprietors of
Engineering, for half-tone illustrations of Boilers ; the Editor of the
Scottish Bankers Magazine, for the article on " The Manufacture
of Metals " ; the Editor of the Steamship, for illustration and
description of the Pulsometer Pump ; the Editor of the Mechanical
World, for sketch and data of Belliss and Morcom Engine and to ;

other numerous friends and former students of the author who have
kindly supplied practical data and sketches for use in the volume.

Marine Engineerjng College,

59 Bridge Street, Glasgow, September 191 1.

PREFACE TO EIGHTH EDITION.

In the New Appendix which is included in this Edition the author
has introduced a number of new drawings,
notes, and calculations,
referring chiefly to Diesel Oil Engines, Boilers, and Marine Turbines,
the latter including exhaust turbines and geared down turbines, thus
bringing the work right up to date.
The author's thanks are due to A. P. Chalkley, Esq., for kind per-
mission to reproduce detail drawings of the Diesel type oil engine
from "Diesel Engines," by A. P. Chalkley, B.Sc, A.M.I.C.E. to the ;

Council of the Institution of Naval Architects for permission to repro-

duce the illustration of the "Vespasian" gear wheels from a Paper
read before that Institution by Sir Charles Parsons, and entitled
"The Application of the Marine Steam Turbine and Mechanical
Gearing to Merchant Ships"; to the editors oi Engineering {ox illus-
trations of the turbine machinery of Q.SS. " Reina Victoria Eugenia,"
and SS. " King Orry," and for permission to reprint the descriptions
of the machinery which appeared originally in Engineering also for ;

permission to reproduce the illustrations showing the Diesel four-cycle

and two-cycle action, from a Paper entitled " The Diesel Oil Engine,"
by Dr Rodolph Diesel of Munich, and read before the Institution of
Mechanical Engineers. The author has also to thank Messrs G. & J.
Weir for the illustration of their patent " Dual " type Air Pumps, etc.
Marine Engineering College,
59 Bridge Street, Glasgow, September 191 3,
 —

CONTENTS.

SECTION I.

Workshop Practice,
PAGES
— —
Types of Engines Paddle Engines Screw Engines Steam Flow —
— — —
Balanced Engines Valves Pistons Connecting Rods Valve Gear —
— Eccentrics — — —
Main Bearings Crank-shafts Columns Soleplate —
— —
Crank-shafts and Columns Cutting of Eccentric Keyseats Erect- —
— —
ing of Columns Cylinders and Valve Chests Training Connecting
— —
Rods and Running Gear Training Valve Gear Cylinder Clearance
—
and Valve Setting Cylinder and Pump Connections, &c. Propeller —
— —
Shaft Liners Marking off Ship for Boring Out Thrust Block
— —
— Trial Trips
Working-
—
........
Erecting Machinery in Ship Pipe Connections Auxiliary Machinery
— —
Care and Upkeep How to Keep a Watch Economical
1.70

SECTION 11,

Boilers.
—
Strength of Plates Elastic Limit and Factor of Safety— Stresses on Shell
— — —
Seams Strength of Shell Shell Pressure, &c. Strength of Joints
— — —
Riveting Types of Joints To Prove Joint Strength Examples of
Joints — Circumferential Seam Riveting — Combined Strength of Seam
and Rivets — Steam Space Stays — Flat Surfaces and Stays — End
Plates and Stays — Water Space Stays — Pitch of Stays Combustion
Chambers — Combustion Chamber Stays and Girders — Tubes — Stay
Tubes — "Adamson" Rings — "Bowling" Hoops — Corrugated Fur-
naces — Furnace Riveting — Strengthening a Furnace— Furnace Manu-
facture — Collapse of Furnaces — Furnace Temperatures — Fire-bars
and Bearers — Manholes — Natural Draught — Forced Draught — Pitting
and Corrosion — Boiler Repairs — Examples of Plate Corrosion, &c.
Tube Stoppers — Leaky Tubes — Safety Valves — Superheated Steam
Steam Pipes — Water Hammer — Circulation and Priming — Doubling
Plates — Scarfed Joints — Zinc Plates — Water Gauge — Boiling Points
Salinometer, Density — Ash Ejector — Tube Expander— Cutting out
of Tubes — Reducing Valves — Autogenous Welding Process — Hand
Sketches of Boilers — Efficiency of Boiler — " Equivalent Evaporation "

—Weight of Gases — Shortness of Water—Velocity of Gases — Boiler

Dimensions — Vertical Donkey Boiler — Cochran Patent Boiler — Hay-
stack Boiler— Yarrow Boiler— Babcock Boiler— Bellville Boiler - 71-177
vU
 —
—

viii Cgntents

SECTION III.

Notes and Sketches of Various Details.

PAGES
Crank-pin Lubrication— Reversing Gear —Turning
Engine— H. P. Steam
Connections— Stern Tube— Condenser Tubes— Thrust Block— Start-
ing Valve— L.P. Piston— Air Pump— Edwards Air Pump Bucket-
Valve Spindle Eye Bush— Double Beat Valve and Expansion Joint-
Testing Fairness of Cylinders and Shaft— Air Pump Valves— "A"
— —
Brackets Connecting Rod Bolts and Nuts Edwards Pump Engine- —
Room Gauges— Air Pump —
Connections Piston Rod and Shoes
— —
Balance Weights Circulating Water Connections Connecting Rod
— —
Piston Rod Oil Feed Boxes
Diagram— Feed Pump Connections
—
-----
Reversing Bell Crank Pumping
178-198
—

SECTION IV.

Slide Valves, Piston Valves, Valve Data, &c.

Duties of Valve— Valve Travel— Steam Lap and Exhaust Lap— Lead—
Double-Ported Valves —
Piston Valves— Trick Valve Andrews- —
— —
Martin Valve Piston Valve Rings Joy's Assistant Cylinder Open —
—
and Crossed Eccentric Rods Reversing Gear Measurement of—
Lead — Lead Adjustments — Valve Settings— Connecting Rod Angle
Patent Valve Gears— Link Motion— Linking Up— Eccentric Keyseat
Templates— Valve Setting Tables— Zeuner Valve Diagrams Cranks —
and Eccentric Rods— " Linked Up" Valve Diagram— Bellis and
Morcom Engine— Effects of Link Adjustments - - - 199-263

SECTION V.

General Notes and Descriptions.

Manufacture of Iron and Steel—Alloys— Properties of Metals and Alloys
— —
Composition of Steel, &c.— Tempering Steel Annealing Case- —
— —
Hardening Brazing— Welding Strength of Materials— Stresses on
Working Parts— Built Shafting— Strength of Shafting—Torsion and
—
Bending Moments Torsional Stress and Constant 5-1 Twisting —
Stress and Shaft Diameter —
Mean Twisting Moment, &c. Board —
of Trade Constants— Lloyds' Rules for Shafting— Crank Angles-
—
Flaws on Shafts— Shaft Repairs Thomson Patent Coupling Stop- —
—
ping of Engines Engine Breakdowns Pumps —Breakdown of—
— — —
Pumps Loss of Vacuum Pet Valves Air Vessels Condenser and —
— —
Air Pump Oscillating Engine Diagonal Engines Paddle Engine —
— —
Shafts Paddle Wheels Weir Feed Heater Weir Evaporator —
—
Weir Feed Pump Weir Pump Steam Valves Feed Water Filter—
Aspinall Governor —
Worthington Feed Pump —
Lamont Pump
—
Engine and Boiler Data Pressure Gauge Indications The Baro- —
— —
meter The Thermometer Tail Shaft Corrosion Propeller Pitch —
 —

Contents ix

To Find — Crank on Centre — Cutting of Keyseats — Valve in

Cut-off
Mid Travel — Shaft Sighting — Lining up Shafting — Flaws on Shafts
— Various Engine Adjustments — Pressure Gauge Tube — Main and
Bilge Injection — Thrust Block — Crankpin and Piston Travel —
Broken L.P. Cylinder Cover— Sight Feed Lubricator — Hydraulic
Accumulator-T-Brown's Steam and Reversing Gear — Steering Gears
— Brown's Steam Tiller— Metallic Packings— Stern Tube and Shaft
— Drawing the Propeller Shaft — Pulsometer— Hot-well Temperature
— General Definitions — Density of Steam— Brake Horse-Power
Dryness of Steam —^Total Heat and Latent Heat — Potential and
Kinetic Energy — Adiabatic Expansion — Hyperbolic Expansion
Heat and British Thermal Unit — Saturated Steam, Wet Steam, and
Superheated Steam — Boyle's Law of Expansion — Charles' Law
Steam Expansions by Pressures and Volumes — Heat Efficiency
Initial Condensation —
Advantage of Multi - Cylinder Engines
—
Cylinder Ratios and Expansions Cut-off and Pressures Suction —
Lift of Pumps — —
Stresses on Shafting To Line up Crank-shaft
— —
Pistons Stresses on Beams Consumption and Speed I.H.P. and —
—
Consumption Coal, I.H.P. and Distance H.P. Cut-off and Con- —
sumption — Efficiency of Boilers and Engines, &c. — Squared Paper
Diagrams — Curves of Speed, Consumption, Power, and Slip - - 264-407

SECTION VI.

Marine Engineering Chemistry Notes.

— —
Composition of Coal Heat Values Chemistry of Gases Atmospheric —
— —
Air Water Carbonic Acid Gas and Carbonic Oxide Gas Free —
— —
Nitrogen Marsh Gas Petroleum Vapour— Ammonia Iron Oxide —
— — —
Hydrochloric Acid Sodium Chloride Calcium Chloride Acids —
—
Alkalies Spontaneous Combustion— Treatment of Fires Sealing-off —
— —
Air Required for Combustion Carbon Nitrogen Hydrogen — —
— —
Combustion Coal Gases General Notes on Combustion Complete —
—
and Incomplete Combustion Burning of CO Scale, Density, and —
—
Corrosion Composition of Fresh and Sea Water Incrustation —
—
Composition of Boiler Scale Scale and Oil Deposit Temporary and —
—
Permanent Hardness Corrosion of Boilers Causes of Corrosion —
Prevention of Corrosion —
Hydrochloric Acid Scale and Plate —
— —
Temperature Magnesium Chloride Corrosion of Tubes Test for —
— —
CO^ Evaporator Scale Boiler Deposits Leaky Tubes Density — —
—
and Scale General Notes on Scale and Density Solids in Sea —
— —
Water Calcium Carbonate Calcium Sulphate Soda Lime — —
— — —
Rusting Grooving Paraffin Oil Carbonate of Soda Nitrate of —
Silver Test —
Caustic Soda Test for Acid— Hydrometer Oils — —
—
Viscosity Gumminess of Oil —
Classes of Oils Oil Emulsion —
— — —
Boiler Composition
—
—
Remedies for Pitting
Rusting Condenser Tube Corrosion -----
Saponification Acid Test Viscosity Test— Other Tests Alkala
Galvanic Action —
408-431
—
 ——

X Contents

SECTION VII.

Marine Electric Lighting.

PAGES

Galvanic Cells or — Daniell Cell — Electro-Magnets — Field

Batteries
Magnets — Armature — Commutato-r — Brushes— Action of Dynamo
Switchboard — Volt Meter— Ampere Meter — Main Switches — Fuses
Wiring — Three-Wire System — Distribution Boxes — Lamp Switches
— Incandescent Lamps —Types of Lamps — Arc Lamps— Projector
Resistance Coils — Testing for Faults — Hints on Running— Jointing

Electric Notes --------

of Wires — Electric Motors — Motor Starters — Types of Motors
432-493

SECTION VIII.

Propellers.

— — —
General Remarks Thrust Pitch Right and Left Hand Screws Cir- —
— —
cumference and Thread Pitch Variation Pitch Ratio Diameter —
— —
and Length of Propeller Length of Blade Moulding of Blades
Slip and Wake Speed —
Disc Area and Developed Area Area Ratio —
— —
Projected Area Thrust and Drag Surface of Blades Cavitation —
— — —
Apparent Negative Slip Racing Designing of Propellers with
— —
Examples To Fit on a New Propeller Motor Launch Propellers
— —
pellers
tion of
—
-.-...-
Blade Interference Twin Screws— Surface of Blades Bronze Pro-
— —
Propulsive Efficiency Resistance Power Losses Utilisa-
Power — Slip
—
494-5:

SECTION IX.

Refrigeration.

The Ammonia System — Pressures— Evaporator Pressures — Compressor

Gland — Oil Extraction — Charging with Ammonia— Overhauling Com-
pressor — Making up of Brine — Density of Brine— Circulation of Brine
— Chamber Temperatures — Air in System — Carbonic Anhydride
System — Properties of CO^— Compressor — Gland— Separator— Con-
denser — Evaporator — Safety Valve — Joints — Testing Parts — Instruc-
tions for Charging and Working — Charging with Gas — Latent Heat
of Ammonia (NH3) and COo— Critical Temperature of CO^and NH3
The Compressed Air System — Compressor and Expander Diagrams
General Notes on Refrigeration — Pressures and Temperatures
Temperature Difference — Leaky Compressor Piston and Valves —
Testing of Brine — Air Extraction — Overhauling Compressor — Brine
Temperature Difference — Joint Testing . , - . 529-56'
 —
——

Contents xi

SECTION X.

Internal Combustion Engines.

Producer Gas
— "Cooler" and Scrubber — Steam Generator — Action — PAGES

Efficiency — Consumption — Heat Value— Test Burner — Explosion

Systems — Paraffin and Petroleum — Petrol — Two-Cycle — Four-Cycle
— Comparison of Steam-Engine and Oil-Engine — Pistons — Revolu-
tions — Water Jacket — Pressures and Temperatures — Carburetter
Valves — Sleeve Valve — Flywheel— Firing Plug — Cranking — Ignition
— Jump Spark — Make-and-Break— Magneto — Setting Magneto
Motor Troubles — Loss of Power inEngine — Leaky Pistons — Exhaust
Gases — Reversing — Crank Arrangements — Starting — Speed Regula-
tion — Engine Troubles, Causes and Remedies — Tests — Diagrams from
Oil Motors — Mean Pressure — Indicated Horse-Power — Brake Horse-
Power— Types of Motors — Oil Fuel — Oil and Coal Compared — Com-
position of Oil — Methods of Working — Oil Spray — Burners
Kermode Burner — Control — Starting Up — Leakage Test— Colour of
Gases — Flash Point and Firing Point — Sand — Black Smoke — White
Smoke — Ventilation Pipes — Air Vessel— Settling Tanks — Air Cone
— Evaporation of Oil — Water Oil — White Vapour — Diesel Engine
in 564-625

APPENDIX.
— —
Marine Steam Turbines De-Laval Turbine Parson's Turbine Flow —
— — —
of Steam Turbine Arrangements Dummies Blading List Tip —
— —
Clearance Combination Arrangement Geared-Down Turbines
—
SS. "Vespasian"— StS. "King Orry" Turbines of Liner " Britannic"
— —
Weir "Dual" Air Pumps Three-Wire System of Lighting
— —
Knocking in Engines Engine Data Vertical Donkey Boiler
—
Riveted Joints, &c. Various Drawings, with Data - - - 626-664

Table of the Properties of Saturated Steam — Hyperbolic Logarithms 665-676

 .

INDEX.

Pages
PAGES Ammonia air in system 534
"A" brackets 189 „ brine circulation ... 534
Absolute pressure, definition of ... 369 „ „ density 533
Accumulator (electrical) described 492 „ „ making 533
„ (hydraulic) 335 „ chamber temperatures ... 534
Acidity of oils, how tested ... ... 429 „ charging of machine ... 5.33
Acids, properties of ... ... ... 412 ,, compressor ... ... 529
Action of dynamo ... ... ... 44.5 gland ... 532
„ lime in boilers ... ... 427 „ condenser ... ... 529
„ pressure-gauge tube ... 329 „ description of plant ... 531
„ steam in cylinder ... 238 ,, evaporator ... ... 529
„ steering gear valves ... 343 „ „ pressures ... 532
Adamson ring furnace 110 „ oil extraction ... ... 533
Adiabatic expansion curve 368 „ overhauling compressor 533
Adjusting stroke of Weir pump ... 312 „ system ... ... ... 529
Adjustment of lead 216-19 Ammonia and COo systems to face 530

., „ examples of 217-18 Ampere, definition of ... ... 491

Advantages of corrugated furnaces 116 „ meter ... ... ... 449
„ feed heating . . 306 Amperes, B. of T. allowance ... 491
„ high-pressure steam 384 Andrews- Martin balanced valve 20.5, 207
„ hydraulic system ... 335 Aneroid barometer 320
„ multi cylinders ... 384 Angle of connecting rod 221
„ patent valve gears... 222 Angold arc lamps ... ... ... 460
„ superheated steam... 137 Animal oils 428
Ahead and astern positions of gear 212 Annealing 276
Air extraction (ammonia) ... ... 563 Arc lamps 461
Air pump 185 „ G.E.C. type 462
„ and condenser 296 „ in series ... ... ... 466
„ clearance ... ... ... 327 „ resistance 466
„ connections ... to face 19^3 Area (projected) of propeller blades 499
„ Edwards type ... 186,292 „ ratio of propellers 499
„ valves and vacuum 188, 365 Armature, description of ... ... 438
Air required per pound coal ... 410 „ shaft 445
„ vessels ... ... ... ... 295 „ testing 469
Alignment of cylinders and shafting „ winding ... ... ... 443
to face 35 Arrangement of cranks in oil motors 581
"Alkala" boiler composition ... 429 Ash ejector (See's) 149
Alkalies, properties of ... ... 412 Aspinall governor ... ... ... 314
Alkaline test 429 Assistant cylinder (Joy's) 209
Alley & iM'Lellan tvpe steering „ „ diagrams from ... 210
gear ' .348 Atmospheric air, composition of ... 409
Alloys, Babbit's white metal ... 274 „ pressure ... ... 369
„ Brass 274 Auld's reducing valve ... .•• 155
„ strength and composition of 274 Autogenous welding ... 157-162
Ammonia 412 Auxiliary machinery ... .•• 62
XIV Ind ex

B PAGES Boiler tubes

PAGES
106
Balance piston 202 „ Vertical donkey type ... 167
„ weight for crank 194 „ Water tube ... '
170
Balanced engines 4 „ „ Yarrow type ... 170
„ ,, Yarrow-Schlick- Boilers 71
, Tweedy system 8 „ hand sketches of ... to face 163
Balanced valve, Andrews-Martin 205, 207 Boiling points and steam tempera-
" Bandy " punkah 488 tures 147
Barometer (aneroid) ... ... 320 Bolt for main bearing ... ... 18
„ (mercurial) 319 Bolts (connecting rod), proportions
Basic process of steel manufacture 272 of 190
Batteries, galvanic ... ... ... 432 Boring out main bearings ... ... 21
Bayonet joints ... ... ... 459 „ of stern post, &c. ... 56
Beam calculations ... * 390-4 Bottle type salinometer 148
Beams 389 Bottom end "leads" 37
Bearing, main 19 Bottoms of cylinders 33
Bearings, main ... ... ... 16 Bowling hoop furnace ... ... Ill
Bed-plate chocks ... ... ... 60 Bow-M'Lachlan type steering gear 345
Bell crank for reversing ... ... 198 Boxes (distribution) ... ... ... 455
„ reversing 43 Boyle's Law of Expansion ... ... 376
Bellis and Morcom engine... ... 260 Bracket (guide) for valve spindle ... 40
Bending stress ... ... ... 279 Brackets of twin screw steamers ... 189
Bessemer process of steel manufac- Brake (friction) 589
ture 271 „ horse-power, definition of ... 372
Bilge and main injection ... ... 329 Branch wires, jointing of 480
Blade interference (propeller) ... 521 Brazing 277
Block for crosshead ... ... 198 „ spelter for ... ... ... 274
Blow-off and circulating connec- Break main wires
in ... ... 467
tions 151 Breakdown of engines ... ... 290
Board of Trade allowance of ,, of pumps 294
amperes ... 491 Bremme's valve gear 223
„ „ rules for shafting ... 282 Brine temperature difference (re-
„ „ test for steel ... 275 frigeration) 563
Boiler and engine data 318 Brine test for corrosion ... ... 562
„ Babcock type 171 British Thermal Unit ... ... 375
„ Bellville „ 173 Brock's valve gear ... ... ... 227
„ bottom blow-off 163 Broken armature coil test 473
„ Cochran type 168 „ L.P. cover 333
„ corrosion, causes of 421 „ wire test by detector ... 468
„ „ examples of 129-31 , „ lamp ... ... 468
„ „ parts affected ... 421 Brown's reversing gear ... ... 214
„ „ prevention of ... 422 „ steam tiller 351
„ deposits 423 „ Telemotor ... ... ... 353
„ dimensions of 165 „ „ instructions for
„ efficiency 398 working 356
» » of 163 Brush holders, test for short circuit 470
„ end plate joints ... to face 1A Brushes (dynamo) described ... 444
„ „ riveting 89 Bryce-Douglas valve gear ... ... 227
„ Haystack type 169 Buckley type piston rings ... ... 54
„ how secured ... ... ... 156 Built shafting 278
„ joints, strength of 75 Bush of main bearing 23
„ mountings to face 163 „ valve spindle eye ... ... 186
„ repairs 127 Butt (double) strap joint, with dimen-
„ riveting 75 sions ... ... ... to face ^^
„ scale, composition of ... 420 Butt (double) strap joint, with dimen-
„ shell pressure 74 sions ... ... ... ... 85
„ „ strength of ... ... 74 Butt (double) strap joint, with dimen-
,, „ stresses ... ... 74 sions ... ... ... to face SQ
„ tube, to cut out 152 Butt straps, thickness of 87
 Index XV

PAGES Cold-air system of refrigeration 555-61

Cabin fan and motor 486 Collapse of furnaces, causes of ... 117
Calcium carbonate ... ... ... 425 Collapsed furnace, how to strengthen 116
„ chloride ... ... ... 412 Colour of exhaust gases (oil motors) 580
„ sulphate ... ... ... 425 Columns 16
Calculations for beams ... ... 393 „ how erected 26
„ on Boyle's Law ... 378 „ how lined off 28
Caldwell type steering gear ... 344 „ types of to face \6
Capillary attraction ... ... ... 370 Combined efficiency of plant ... 399
Capstan and motor 487 „ steam and hydraulic re-
Carbon 415 versing engine 337
„ dioxide 410 " Combined " strength of steam and
„ heat in 418 rivets 86
Carbonate anhydride system of Combined twisting and bending ... 282
refrigeration 537-54 Combustion, air supply required ... 415
Carbonate of soda 426 „ chamber, bottoms ... 101
Carbonated hydrogen gas 411 „ „ girders ...101-6
Carburetter (Thornycroft type) ... 591 „ „ method of
„ (Wolseley type) ... 590 support ... 99
Care of machinery ... ... ... 67 Combustion chamber stays ... 101
Case-hardening ... ... ... 276 „ „ top riveting... 88
Casings for piston valves ... ... 29 „ chambers ... ... 100
Cast ieon 274 Combustion, definition of .369
,,
pistons 10 „ general notes on ... 417
Castings 267 „ (spontaneous) in bunkers 4U
Cast-steel pistons 53 Composition and strength of steel 274
Caulking tool 91 „ of fresh and sea water 418
Caustic soda 427 „ of exhaust gases (oil
Cavitation of propellers 500 motors) 580
Cell (Daniell) 433 Compression of safety-valve springs 1.35
Cementation process of steel manu- „ systems of refrigeration
facture 269 to face 530
Centrifugal force, definition of ... 367 Compressor (ammonia), overhaulingof 563
,, pump . 293 Compressor diagrams (cold air) ... 560
"Chain" patch 127 Condensation of water in cylinders 383
Charging machine with CO.^ ... 554 Condenser and air pump ... ... 296
Charles' Law of Expansion ... 380 ,, „ connec-
Check valve defective 328 tions to face 193
Chemistry of gases 409 Condenser and circulation connec-
Chloride of magnesium 423 tions to face 194
„ of sodium 412 Condenser back pressure ... ... 366
Chlorine gas and corrosion of stays 93 Condenser tube corrosion, causes of 431
Chocks for bed-plate 60 „ tubes 181
Circulating connections 151 Cone for propellers 502
„ pump 293 Connecting rod angle, effect of ... 221
Circulation and priming 140 „ „ length, how measured 327
Circumference of propeller 496 Connecting rod proportions ... 195
Circumferential shell riveting ... 85 „ rods ... ... ... 12
Clearanceof air pump 327 „ rods, training of ... 36
„ of piston 328 Connections for main steam to face 180
„ of pumps... ... ... 52 ,,
for motor starters ... 484
CO, burning of ... ... ... 417 „ of feed pumps to face 198
CO2 (carbonic anhydride) pressures „ of pipes 60-1
and temperatures 555 „ of pumps ... to face 198
Coal, composition of 407 Conservation of energy ... ... 370
„ evaporation per pound ... 164 Constant, 5 1, for torsion ... ... 279
„ gases 416 Construction of engines ... ... 16
Cock (water gauge) /o /ace 163 Consumption and H.P. cut-off ... 398
Coil (resistance) 465 „ LH.P 395
XVI Index
PAGES
Consumption and speed ... ... 394 Cylinder (I. P.) starting valve ... 183
„ I. H. P., speed, and dis- „ joy's assistant type ... 209
tance ... ... ... ... 396 „ liner ... ... ... 31-2
Control valve of steering gear ... 342 „ ratios and steam expan-
Corrosion and bronze propeller sions ... ... ... ... .385
blades ... ... ... ... r)23 Cylinder ridge, how prevented ... 328
Corrosion and pitting ... ..: 126 Cylinders and shaft, testing fairness
„ density and scale ... 418 of 187
„ of boilers, causes of ... 421 Cylinders and shafting, alignment
„ „ parts affected of... ... ... ... to face 35
129-31, 420 Cylinders and valve chests 30
„ „ prevention of 422
„ of tail-end shaft 321
„ oftubes
Corrugated furnaces, advantages of
423
116
D
„ „ manufacture of 116 Daniell cell ... 433
Coupling (flexible) for paddle shaft 301 Data for curves 407
Coupling (Thomson's patent) ... 289 Davis type steering gear 346
Cover of L.P. cylinder broken ... 333 Defective check valve 328
Crank arrangements in oil motors 581 Density and salinometer 147
„ balance weight 194 „ and scale ... 424
„ balanced ... ... ... 23 ,, „ general notes on 424
„ on centre ... ... ... 323 „ of steam ju 371
Cranking of oil motors ... ... 575 „ scale, and corrosion ... 418
Crank-pin and piston travel ... 331 Deposit of oil ... ... ... 420
,, „ flaws ... ... ... 332 „ scale and plate temperature 422
„ „ lubricator 178 Deposits of boilers 423
Cranks of paddle engines 299 Depth of slide-valve face, to find ... 220
Crank-shaft, how lined up ... ... 388 Design of propellers ... 502-19
„ material for 16 Detector (electrical tests) 467
Crank-shafts and columns ... ... 23 Developed area of propeller blades 499
"Crossed" and "open" eccentric Diagonal engine ... ... ... 298
rods 211, 256 „ pitch of rivets
... ... 91
Crosshead and shoe ("single" type) 193-4 type engines
,, ... ... 3
,, block 198 Diagram of pump connections to face 198
Crucibles for above ... ... ... 270 Diagrams for linked-up gear ... 258
Crushing strength of materials ... 277 „ from cold-air compressor 560
Current strength, how calculated ... 493 „ „ „ expander
561
Curve of adiabatic expansion ... 368 „ „ Joy's cylinder ... 210
„ hyperbolic expansion ... 368 „ „ oil motors ... ...583-8
Curves, combined 405 „ of ship performance ... 400
„ data for 407 „ of valve motion 248
„ of consumption and speed 400 Diameter and pitch of rivets ... 79
„ of I. H. P. and speed ... 401 „ of safety valves 136
„ of speed and revolutions ... 403 „ of shafting, how calcu-
„ „ slip 404 lated 281
Cut-off and pressures 385 Diameter of propeller ... ... 498
„ how affected by connecting Diesel type oil-engine ... 616-21
rod angle 231 Dimensions and types of riveted
Cut-off, how measured ... 49, 323 joints ... ... ... ... 79-1
„ sooner with main valve ... 200 Dimensions of boilers ... ... 165
Cut-outs 450 of connecting rod
„ ... 195
Cutting by oxygen jet 162 Disadvantage of patent valve gears 222
„ of eccentric keyseats 25, 326 Disadvantages of superheated steam 137
„ out boiler tubes ... ... 154 Disc area (propellers) 499
Cylinder clearances 44 Dismantling engines ... ... 50
„ connections ... ... 50 Displacement type air pump ... 186
„ covers and bottoms ... 32-3 Distance run, Speed, Consumption,
„ false face, how secured ... 34 andl.H.P 396
 Index xvii

PAGES
Distribution boxes ... ... ... 455 "Elastic limit of plates, &c.
"
71
Donkey boiler, Cochran type ... 168 Electric glow radiator 489
„ Vertical „ ... 167 „ punkah (G.E.C. type' 488
Double-acting circulating pump ... 293 Electrical H.P. and I. H. P. compared 491
Double-beat valve to face 186 „ motors 421
Double-drum steering gear ... .341 „ notes 490
Double-ported valve 201 Electricity, definition of 492
,,
valves 203 Electro-magnets 431
"Doubling plate" 141 Elevator heating system 490
" Drag " surface of propeller blades 500 End-plate seams 89
Draught, forced 122 „ stays 91-8
„ natural 121 Energy, conservation of 370
Drawing out propeller shaft ... 363 „ definition of 367
Dry-air machines (pressures and „ kinetic 373
temperatures) ... ... ... 560 „ potential 373
Dryness fraction of steam ... ... 372 Engine-room appliances 303
Dynamo, action of, described ... 445 192
Dynamos, four-pole ... ... 437 Engine and boiler data 318
„ hints on running ... 474 „ Bellis and Morcom type 260
„ test for polarity of ... 473 „ for turning ... 180
Engines, balanced ... 4
,, breakdown of 290
„ diagonal 2
„ dismantling of 50
Earth lamp test 472 „ oscillating type 296
Earth leakage test 473 /o/ace 298
Eccentric and rods 41 „ paddle 1
,,
gear in ahead and astern „ paddle cranks 299
positions ... ... ... 212 „ quadruple 7
Eccentric keyseat templates ... 231 „ screw 1
„ keyseats, cutting off ... 323 „ stopping 290
„ keyseats, how cut ... 25 „ trunk type 299
„ pulley 14 Entropy, definition of 369
„ pulleys, how locked ... 26 "Equivalent evaporation" ... 163
„ rod length 328 I-H.P.. 372
„ rods"crossed"and"open" 256 Erecting machinery in ship 59
„ rods, open and crossed... 211 „ofcolumns 26
„ (single type) 332 Evaporation per pound coal 164
„ strap 15 Evaporator scale 423
Eccentrics 15 „ Weir type 305
Economical speed 401 Examples of boiler corrosion 129-31
„ working 70 i

„ of lead adjustment 217-8

Edwards air pump 293 Excessive piston clearance... ... ,328
„ type air pump ... 186,191 ,
Exhaust lap gauges /o/ace 200
Effect on steering due to propellers 523 Expanded diagrams (cold air) 561
Effects of connecting rod angle on Expander for tubes ... 150
cut-off 2.30 ! Expansion, Boyle's Law of 376
Effects of link adjustment on I. H. P. 263 ;
„ curve (Adiabatic) 368
„ linking up ... ... 230 » » (Hyperbolic) 368
|

Effective pressure, definition of ... 369 ;

„ curves of steam 375
„ „ (mean), definition of .369 „ joint /o/ace 186
Efficiency 368 „ joint of steam pipe 140
,

„ (combined) 399 „ of steam and heat 386

„ (mechanical) .399 „ of water by heat 386
of boiler 163, 399 slot of reversing gear 213
'

„ „
„ of propulsion ... ... 524 Expansions by pressures an
„ (propeller) 399 '

volumes ... 380

„ (thermal) 381 External heat of steam 373
Ejector (See's) for ashes 149, " Extra " link gear ... 242
 "

XVIU Index
PAGES
PAGE Gear, Brock's 227
Fairness of paddle cranks ... 300 „ Bryce-Douglas 227
„ of shaft and cylinders 187 „ for reversing ... ... 179,213
False face of cylinder, how fixed 34 „ Hackworth's ... .!. ... 226
Fan and motor 486 „ in " ahead " and " astern
Feathering paddle wheel 301 positions 212
Feed heater, Weir's... 303 Gear, Joy's 225
„ heating, advantages of 306 „ -Marshall's patent 223
,,
pump connections to face 198 „ Morton's 225
„ Weir type 308 ,
General definitions 366
„ „ Worthington type 314 ,, notes and descriptions ... 264
„ water filter 313 Gourley-Stephen furnace ... to face 106
Ferric oxide ... 412 .
(iovernor, Aspinall's ... ... 314
Ferrules of condenser tubes 181 ,
Graphic method of proving boiler
Field magnets, description of 436 .
shell stresses ... ... ... 72-3
Fire-bars, dimensions of ... .118-9 Grate surface and heating surface 127
Fitting of running gear 3G Gravity, definition of ... ... 369
Flat surfaces ... 95 .
Grooving in boilers ... ... ... 426
Flaws in shafts 326 .
Gross or absolute pressure, defini-

„ L.P. crank-pins 332 .

tion of .369

„ on shafting, how repaired .285-9 Guide bracket, for valve spindle ... 40
Following edge of propeller blade 500 Guides, single type ... ... ... 15
Foot-pound, definition of 366 ,
Gumminess of oils ... ... ... 428
Force, centrifugal, „ , 367 Gun-metal ... ... ... ... 274
, 367 G.E.C. type arc lamps 462
Forced draught .122-6 „ projector 463
Four-cycle oil motors . 569
Four-pole dynamos ... , 437
Free nitrogen
Fresh water, composition of
.

,
411
418
H
Friction brake . 589 Hackworth's valve gear . 226
„ laws of , 367 Hall system of COo refrigeration 537-50
Funnel gases, weight of , 164 Hand-riveting . 90
Furnace, Adamson ring type , 110 Hard steel . 274
„ bowling-hoop „ , 111 Hardness (permanent) of water . 420
„ corrugations, types of , 117 „ (temporary) . 420
„ Fox type ... ... tofaceWZ Haslam system of ammonia
„ front riveting ... ... 114 frigeration 534,
„ Gourley-Stephen type ... 106 Haslam system of CO., refrigeration 550-2
„ manufacture 116 „ „ of cold air refrigera-
„ method of strengthening 115 tion 555-61
„ suspension bulb type ... 112 Hastie type steering gear ...

„ temperatures, &c. ... 118

Furnaces, causes of collapse ... 117
Fuses ... ... ... ... ... 450

Galvanic action, definition of ... 430

„ cells 432
Gases, retention of ... ... ... 127
„ velocity of ... ... ... 164
Gauge for water level ... ... 145
„ for wear-down tests 62-3
„ indications 318
„ pressure, definition of ... 369
Gauges for pressures ... ... 192
Gear, Bremme's patent 223
 —

Index XIX

PAGES
Horse-power, definition of 366 Internal Combustion Engines -contd.
„ equivalent 372 Magneto, setting of .. 579
Hot-well temperature and condenser Mean pressure .. 588
pressure ... ... ... ... 366 Number of cylinders .. 573
Howden's forced draught ... 122-26 Paraffin and petroleum .. .568
H.P. cut-ofif and consumption ... 398 Petrol .. 568
Hydraulic accumulator 335 Pistons .. 573
„ „ advantages of 335 Pressures and temperatures .. 574
„ and steam reversing gear Reversing .. 581
214, 337 Revolutions .. 573
„ crane ... ... ... 337 Speed control .. 582
„ piston packing 215 Starting of ... .. 582
Hydrochloric acid ... ... 412, 422 Troubles classified ..582-4
Hydrogen ... ... ... ... 415 „ of 579-80
Hydrokineter (Weir's) 141 Two-cycle ... .. 569
Hydrometer described ... ... 427 Types of 589-609
Hyperbolic expansion curve ... 368 Valves 574
Water jacket 573
Internal heat of steam 373
Iron and steel manufacture 264
I malleable 267
„
I. H.P. and consumption 395 „ oxide 423
„ and E.H.P. (electrical) com- „ tubes and stays 313
pared 491
I. H.P. and link adjustment 263
„ „ speed curve 401
„(equivalent) 372 Joint, insulating of
Improvement in propeller, effect of 523
Incandescent lamps 457
Increasing pitch (propeller) ... 497
Incrustation, composition of ... 419
Indications of gauges 318
Induction, definition of 492
Inertia, definition of. ,367
Initial condensation ... ... 383
„ pressure, definition of ... 369
Injection, main and bilge 329
Instructions for working Brown's
Telemotor ... ... ... 356
Instructions for working CO2 machine 543
Insulating of joints .479
Interference (propeller blade) 521 .

Internal combustion engines

Advantages of 564
and steam engine 570
B.H.P. of 589
Carburetter 574
Colour of exhaust gases 580
Crank arrangements ... ... 581
Cranking 575
Diagrams from 585-8
Diesel type 616-21
Disadvantages of ... ... ... 564
Explosion systems 567
Firing plug 574
Four-cycle 569
Ignition 576
I. H.P. of 588
Magneto 576
XX Index
PAGES PAGES
Lament pump 316 ... L.P. piston (naval type) 184
Lamp (pilot) ... 477 Lubricating oils 428
„ switches ... 456 Lubrication of crank-pin 178
Lampholders ... 459 Lubricator 334
Lamps, incandescent type ... ... 457
„ Osram type... ... 458
Latent heat, definition of ...
ofNHsandCOo
...

...
367
554
M
„ of steam ... 373 Machine riveting 88-90
Law of Expansion (Boyle's) ... 376 Machinery, erection in ship ... .59

„ calculations ... 378 „ upkeep 67

(Charles') ... 380 Magnesium chloride ... ... 423
Lead ... 200 Magneto 577
„ adjustments 216-9 „ setting of 579
„ of piston valve, how measured 215 Main and bilge injection ... ... 329
Leading edge of propeller blade ... 500 „ bearing bolt ... ... ... 18
" Leads " ofbottom end 37 „ „ bush 22
„ of main bearings, how „ „ bushes, boring out ... 21
taken 24 „ „ complete 19
Leakage in magnet coils 468 „ bearings ... ... ... 16
Leaky pistons (oil motors) 580 „ cables, jointing of ... ... 479
„ tubes 133 „ switches 449
„ „ causes of 424 „ wires, short circuit in ... 473
Leather packing of hydraulic Make-and-break spark 576
piston 215 Malleable iron 267
Length of connecting rod, how Manholes 119
found 327 Manufacture of furnaces 116
,, eccentric „ „ 328 „ of iron and steel ... 264
„ propeller 498 Marine electric lighting 432
„ blade 498 „ engineering chemistry ... 408
„ valve spindle, how found 327 Marking off ship for boring out ... 56
pumps
Lift of 387 Marsh gas (Methane) ... 411,413
Lignum vitse strips 181 Marshall's valve gear 223
Lime ... ... 426 Martin-Andrews balanced valve ... 205
„ in boilers, action of 427 Material for shafting 387
Limit of elasticity 71 Materials, crushing strength of ... 277
Liners for cylinders 31-2 „ tensile strength of ... 277
„ for piston valves 29 Mean effective pressure, definition of 369
„ of tale-end shafts 55 Measurement of piston clearance... 328
Lining-off of columns ... ... 28 „ „ valve head 215
„ the soleplate 20 Measuring pitch of propeller ... 322
Lining up crank-shaft 388 „ the cut-off 49
„ of shafting 325 Mechanical efficiency 399
Link adjustment and I. H. P. ... 263 „ equivalent of heat ... 366
„ brasses and pump clearance... 327 Megohm, value of 493
„ motion 229 Mercurial barometer ... ... 320
Linking up, effects of 230 Metallic packing 11
„ gear diagrams 258 ,;
359
(U.S.)
Litmus paper tests ... ... ... 429 Methodof chargingmachine with COo 553
Liverpool Refrigeration Co., am- „ locking eccentric pulleys 26
monia system 552-34 „ patching boiler plates ... 128
Liverpool Refrigeration Co., CO2 „ securing false face of
system ... ... ... ...552-4 cylinder ... ... ... ... 34
Loose eccentric ... ... ... 332 Method of setting valves ... ... 47
Loss of power in oil motor ... ... 579 „ supporting combustion
„ of vacuum, causes of 294 chambers ... ... ... 99
Losses of power ... ... ... 525 Mild steel 274
L.P. crank-pin flaws 332 Milton, J T., Esq., description of
„ cylinder cover, broken ... 333 Diesel engine 616
 Inde: XXI

Mineral oils ...

Minus exhaust lap ...

Moment of bending
„ twist
Momentum, definition of .

Morcom and Belliss engine

Morton's valve gear ...
Motor and cabin fan
„ and capstan ...
„ and centrifugal pumps
„ launch propellers
„ starter connections
„ troubles
Motors, electrical
„ starting switches
„ types of
Mountings of boilers
Muntz metal ...

N
Natural draught
„ „ heat absorbed in ...

Naval brass
„ type L.P. piston
„ „ piston rod
Negative slip (propellers)
„ wires, how marked
Neutral axis of beam
NH;, (ammonia) pressures and tem-
peratures
Nickel steel
Nitrate of silver test for density ...

Nitrogen ... 411,

Non-freezing fluid for telemotors ...
Notes (electrical)
„ on density and scale
Number of cylinders in oil motors
Nuts, proportions of
XXll Index
PAGES
Parson's white metal ... ... 274 Power and speed curve
Patch, chain type ... ... ... 127
Patent shaft coupling (Thomson's) 289 i

Patent valve gears ... ... ... 222

„ „ advantage of ... 222
„ „ disadvantage of 222
„ „ Marshall's ... 223
„ „ Bremme's ... 22.3

„ „ Morton's ... 225

„ Joy's 225
„ „ Hackworth's ... 226
Permanent hardness of water ... 420
Pet valves 295
Petrol 568
Petroleum vapour ... ... ... 411
Phosphor bronze 274
Pig-iron 266
Pilot lamp 477
Pipe connections ... ... ... 60-1
Pipes, steam 139
Piston and crank-pin travel ... 331
„ cast-iron type ... ... 10
„ clearance ... ... ... 328
„ „ excessive ... ... 328
„ „ how measured ... 328
„ (L.P.), naval type 184
„ pumps 293
„ rings, Buckley type ... ... 54
„ rod and crosshead ... 193, 194
„ „ naval type 196
„ „ to test fairness of ... 327
Piston valve (Admiralty type) ... 202
„ and piston positions ... 237
„ lead, how measured ... 215
„ liner ports and bars ... 29
„ liners ... ... ... 29
ring 201
Piston valves 206
„ with restrained rings 208
Pistons 9, 388
„ cast steel 53
„ leaky (oil motors) 589
„ of oil motors ... ... 573
Pitch and diameter of rivets ... 79
„ (diagonal) of rivets 91
Pitting and corrosion 126
„ remedies for 430
Plates flanged out 142
„ tensile strength of 71
„ zinc 143
Plugs (wall) 459
„ watertight 460
Position of eccentric keyseats ... 231
Positions of piston and valve ... 236
„ of valve and piston iofciceiZ8
Positive wires, how marked ... 492
Potential (electrical), definition of 490
,, energy 373
Power and revolutions ... ... 279
 Index XXlll

Propellors, negative slip

XXIV Index
PAGES
Scarfed joints 142 Speed, regulation of oil motors ... 582
Screw engines 1 Specific gravity, definition of ... 368
„ (twin or triple) stern brackets 189 „ heat, „ „ ... 368
Screws (twin) ... ... ... 523 Spelter for brazing ... ... ... 274
Seam section... ... ... ... 77 Spontaneous combustion ... ... 413
Sea water, composition of ... ... 419 „ „ causes of 414
Securing of boilers in position ... 156 „ „ prevention
See's ash ejector ... ... ... 149 of 414
Sensible heat, definition of... ... .367 Spontaneous combustion, treatment
Series arrangement of arc lamps ... 466 of 414
Serve type of tube 108 Spindle eye bush of valve ... ... 186
Set back of propeller blades ... 502 Spindles of valves ... ... ... 13
Setting of valves ... ... 47,219 .Squared paper diagrams ... ... 400
„ of valve, tables of ... 2.39-48 Starters for motors ... ... ... 483
„ valve to mid travel 323 „ „ connections of 484
Shaft and cylinder alignment to face 35 Starting of oil motors ... ... 582
„ andcylinders,totest fairness of 187 „ valve (LP. cylinder) ... 183
„ corrosion of ... ... ... 321 Stay tubes and ordinary tubes ... 107
„ diameter, how calculated ... 281 Stays for end plates ... ... ... 91-8
„ flaws 326 „ for tube plates ... to face 115
„ horse-power, definition of ... 372 Steam and hydraulic reversmg
Shafting, B. of T. rules for 282 engine ... ... ... ... 337
„ built 278 .Steam consumption per revolution 383
„ flaws on 284 „ definition of 367
,, how repaired 285-9 „ density 371
„ lining up of ... .. 324 „ dryness, fraction of ... ... 372
„ Lloyd's rules for ... ... 282 „ expansionsandcylinderratios 385
„ material 387 „ „ by pressures and
„ strength of 278 volumes 380
Short circuit tests 467 Steam external heat of 373
.Shortness of water in boiler ... 164 „ in cylinder, action of ... 238
Shrinking-on of shaft liners ... 55 „ internal „ 373
Sight-feed lubricator 334 „ lap 200
Sighting of shaft 325 „ latent „ 373
Simm's magneto ... ... ... 577 „ (main) connections ... to face 180
Single eccentric 332 „ pipe expansion joint ... 140
„ riveting 79 „ pipes 139
Single-type guide 15 „ „ water hammer in ... 139
Single-wire system ... ... ... 451 „ pressures and volumes ... 382
Siphon, action of ... ... ... 370 „ saturated definition of ... 375
Siphon-feed oil box 197 „ space stays 91-4
Sketches of boilers to face \%^ „ superheated by reducing
Slide valve and piston positions ... 236 valve ... ... ... 157
„ to find depth of ... 220 „ superheated, definition of ... 376
Slip, description of, by T. Sidney „ tiller (Brown's) 351
Cockrill, Esq 526 „ total heat of 373
Slip (negative) 501 „ wet, definition of ... ... 376
„ (propeller) 499 Steel, B. of T. test for 275
Soda, use of ... ... ... ... 425 „ manufacture, Bessemerprocess 271
Sodium chloride ... ... ... 412 „ „ basic „ 272
Soleplate 16 „ „ cementation pro-
„ lining off 20 cess 269
Solids in sea water ... ... 425 Steel manufacture, Siemens-Martin
Sparking plug 574 process ... ... ... ... 272
Speed and consumption ... ... 395 Steel, production of 269
„ „ curve ... 400 „ strength and composition of 274
„ and power „ ... 402 „ tempered ... 271
„ and slip „ ... 404 „ tempering of ... ... ... 276
„ of wake 499 Steering gear action of valves ... 343
 Index XXV

Steering gear, by Messrs Alley &; Tempered steel ... ... ... 271
M'Leilan 348 Tempering steel ... ... ... 276
Steering gear by Messrs Bow, Temporary hardness of water ... 420
M'Lachlan & Co. 345 Tensile strength of materials ... 277
Steering gear by Messrs Caldwell Terminal pressure, definition of ... 309
& Co 345 Test for acid in water ... ... 427
Steering gear by Messrs Davis tS: Co. 346 „ alkali 429
,, „ by Messrs Hastie& Co. 349 „ animal or vegetable oils ... 429
„ ,, control valve... ... 342 ,, break in mains ... ... 467
„ „ transmission system „ broken armature coils ... 473
to face 341 „ broken wire... ... ... 470
,,
gears 340 „ carbonic acid ... ... 423
Steering, how affected by propellers 523 ,, earth leakage 471
Stern post, boring out ... ... 56 „ polarity 473
„ tube after bearing bush 181 ,, short circuit between mag-
„ tube and shaft 361 net and coils 469
„ „ Cedervall's Patent 362 Test for short circuit between arma-
Stopper for boiler tubes (Bagguley ture coils 469
Patent) toface\^Z Test for short circuit between arma-
Stopping of engines 290 ture coils and drum ... ... 469
Straightening action of gauge tube 329 Test for short circuit in brush holders 470
Strain, definition of 368 „ „ „ magnet coils 468
Strength and composition of alloys 274 „ „ „ mains ... 473
„ (tensile) of steel ... 71 „ „ circuits, &c 467
Strengthening of weak furnace 116 „ steel 275
Stress, bending 279 ,, viscosity of oils 429
„ circumferential 72 Test with "earth" lamp 472
„ definition of ... 367 Testing fairness of paddle cranks ... 300
„ longitudinal ... 72 „ „ piston rod ... 327
„ of thrust block 182 „ „ rocking shaft ... 326
„ torsion 279 ,, „ shaft cylinders 187
Stresses on boiler shell seams 71 „ „ shafting ... 326
„ on shafting 388 „ joints in ammonia system ... 563
„ on various parts ... 278 Thermal efficiency ... ... ... 381
Suction lift of pumps 387 Thermometer ... ... ... 320
Superheated steam ... 137-9 Thickness of butt-straps 87
Suspension bulb furnace corrugation 112 Thomson patent coupling 289
Switchboard, description of 446 Thornycroft type carburetter ... 591
Switches for lamps system 456 " Thread " of propeller blade ... 496
» (main) 449 Three-wire system ... ... ... 454
Thrust 330
„ block (part section) 182
„ „ stress 182
„ of propeller 495
Table of valve setting 219 „ surface of propeller blades ... 500
Tables „ „ ... 239-48 Tiller (steam), Brown's 351
Taking " leads " off bottom ends ... 37 "T"joints 481
Telemotor, Brown's 353 To adjust stroke of Weir pump ... 312
„ fluid for 359 ,, valves of Worthington
„ instructions for work- pump 316
ing, &c 356 To find cut-off 323
Temperature difference (refrigeration) 562 To set valve in mid-travel 323
„ of furnaces 118 Torque 374
„ of hot-well and con- Torsion stress ... ... ... 279
denser pressure ... ... 366 Total heat, definition of ... ... 367
Temperatures and pressures of NH3 of steam...
„ ... ... 373
and COo systems ... ... 555 Training of connecting rods ... 36
Temperatures (critical) of NH3 and „ valve gear 39
CO2 systems 555 Trammelling pump links 51
XXVI Inde:

IMAGES PAGES
Transformers, function of ... ... 492 Valve gear, Joy's 225
Transmission gear of steering „ „ Marshall's 223
engine /o/rrce Z-il „ Morton's
„ *225
Travel of crank-pin and piston ... 331 „ ,, training of 39
„ valve, how found... 260 „ gears, patent types 222
Trial trips 65 „ lead of 200
"Trick" type of slide valve... ^o/ace 200 „ minus exhaust lap ... ... 200
Troubles of oil motors 582-84 „ placed in mid-travel... ... 323
True screw surface (propellers) 498. „ setting 47
Trunk types of engines 299.
„ „ of Worthington pump 316
Trunnions of oscillating engines 297.
„ „ table 219
Tube corrosion 423.
„ „ tables ... 239-48
„ expander 150.
„ (slide), duties of 199
„ plate stays to face 115 „ ,, travel of 199
„ stopper ... 132 „ spindle eye bush 186
Bagguley Patent type „ spindle-length 327
to face 133 „ spindles, type of 13
Tubes (condenser) and packing ... 181 „ steam lap 200
„ of condenser corroding ... 431 „ sticks for lead measurement 215
Tunnel shafting 282 „ throttle to face 186
Turbine propeller to face h^O „ travel, how determined ... 260
Turning engine and gear 180 „ trick type to face 200
Tweedy system of balanced engines 8 Valves, double-ported type ... 203
Twin screws ... ... ... ... 523 „ of air pump ... ... ... 188
Twine-wire system ... ... ... 451 „ of Weir pump 309
Twisting moments ... ... ... 281 » (pet) 295
Two-cycle oil motors ... ... 569 „ piston type 206
Types of columns ... ... to face 16 „ piston type with restrained
„ furnace corrugations (dimen- rings 208
sioned) ... ... ... ... 117 Valves (safety) 133
Types of joints, with dimensions ... 78-91 „ lever type
„ 134
motors 589-609 „ „ spring „ ... ... 135
„ „ „ compression... 135
„ „ to find diameter of 136
u „ types of
Vapour of petroleum
... ... ... 9
411
Unit of heat, definition of 366 Vegetable oils 428
United States packing ... ... 359 Velocity of gases ... ... ... 164
Upkeep of machinery ... ,.. 67 Vertical type donkey boiler ... 167
Utilisation of power 525 Viscosity of oils ... ... ... 428
„ test for oils 429
Volt, definition of 490
V Volt-meter 448
Vacuum, and air pump valves ... 365 Voltage, calculations for 493
„ loss of 294
Valve and piston positions 236
„
„
and piston positions
Andrews-Martin type
to face 238
205, 207
248 Wake speed
w 499
„ diagrams
„ „ linked-up 258 Wall plugs 459
„ double-beat type ... to face 186 Watch, keeping ... ... ... 68
„ double-ported type 201 Water, chemical composition of ... 410
„ exhaust lap 200 „ e.xpansion by heat 386
„ face, to find depth of ... 220 „ formed by initial condensa-
„ gear, Bremme's 223 tion 383
„ „ Brock's 227 „ gauge 145
•
„ „ Bryce-Douglas ... 227 „ „ Klinger type 153
„ „ details of ... ... 14 „ shortness of, in boiler ... 164
„ Hackworth's 226 Water-gauge cock 163
 Index xxvii

FACES PAGES
"Water hammer" 139 Wolseley type carburetter 590
Watertight wall plugs 460 Work done during adiabatic expan-
Water tube boilers 170 sion 383
„ „ „ Babcock type 171 Working of Hall's COo machine,
„ „ „ Belville type 173 instructions ... ... 543-50
„ „ „ Yarrow type 170 Working economically ... ... 70
" Wear-down " gauge 62-3 Workshop practice ... ... ... 1
Wear-down of pump links ... 51 Worthington type feed pump ... 314
Weight of funnel gases 164 „ pump valves, how set 316
Weir hydrokineter ... 141 Wroughtiron ... ... ... 274
„ pump stroke, how adjusted 312 "Wyper" shaft 42
„ type evaporator 305
„ „ feed heater 303
„ „ feed pump valves 309
Welding 277
Yarrow-Schlick-Tweedy system ... 8
„ (autogenous process) 157-62
„ type water tube boiler ... 170
"Wet" steam, definition of 376
Winding of armature 443
Wing furnace flanging 115
Wires, jointing of ... 478
Wiring 450 Zeuner valve diagrams 248
„ single system 451 Zinc block and stud 144
„ twin-wire system 451 „ plate in box 144
"Witness" marks ... 28 „ plates 143

DESIGN DRAWINGS AND CALCULATIONS.

Sheets i and 2 show proportions of Nuts, Bolts, and Screws.
Boilers— Pistons —
1. Single-Ended Combustion Chamber. 20. H. P. Piston and Rod.
2. Double-Ended Combustion Chamber. 21. L.P. Piston and Rod.
3. Furnace and Fire Bars. 22. L. P. Cylinder Cover.
4. Water Gauge Column. 23. Donkey Pump Cylinder and Valve.
5. Vertical Donkey Boiler.
Fire Bars and Bearers
6.
Boiler.
for Vertical
Eccentric, etc. —
24. Eccentric and Rod Complete.
Valves — 25. Quadrant Bars, etc.

7. Dead Weight Safety Valve.

26. Reversing Bell Crank.
8. Spring- Loaded Safely V^lve.
9. Boiler Stop Valve. Shafting—
10. Engine Room Stop Valve. Crank Shafting.
27.
11. Feed Check Valve. 28. Thrust Shaft and Shoe.
12. Bilge Suction Valve Chest. 29. Thrust Block.
r2A. Bilge Injection Valve. 30. Stern Tube and Shaft.
13. Side Discharge Valve. 31. Propeller Boss.
14. Cylinder Relief Valve.
15. Slide Valve and Spindle. Various —
16. Inside Steam Piston \'alve. 32. Bottom Blow-Off Cock.
17. Double Ported Slide Valve. 33. Three-Way Change Cock.
34. Main Bearing.
Pumps — 34a. Tunnel Bearing Block.
18. Air Pump. 35. Steam Pipe Expansion Joint.
19. Feed Pump Complete. 36. Pump Levers.
19a. Feed Relief Air Vessel and Pump 37. Connecting Rod.
Valves. 38. Pump Crosshcad and Links.
 .

INDEX TO APPENDIX:
TAGES I'AGES
Action of sleam in turbine 628 Low pressure turbine ... ... ... 640
Ahead dummy 638 L. P. turbine data 637
Air pump (Weir " Dual" type) ... 647
Arrangement of combined turbines and Machinery of Q.SS. "Reina Victoria
reciprocating engines ... 639 Eugenia" ... ... ... ... 640
Arrangement of geared-down turbines... 643 Machinery of SS. " King Orry " ... 644
,, of turbines... 631 ,, of SS. "Vespasian" ... 643
Manhole compensation ring ... ... 656
Benefits of combination arrangement ... 639 Marine turbines ... ... ... ... 626
Blade tip clearance 636
Blading list 635 Number of l)lade rows ... ... ... 635
Boiler data (vertical type) 653 ,, of turbines fitted ... ... 631

" Orry, SS. King," turbines of ... ... 644

Channel steamer turbine blades ... 635
Circumferential shell riveting ... 655
Parallel flow 628
,, ,, seam stress 656
Parson's turbine .„ ... ... ... 628
,, ,, seams 654
Path traced by steam ... ... ... 629
Clearance of blades 636
Plan of turbine rooirt ... ... ... 637
Combined reciprocating engines and
Pressure on bearing surfaces ... ... 652
turbines... 639
Principle of turbine ... ... ... 626
Compensating ring for manhole ... 656
" Reina Victoria Eugenia," SS. ... 640
Data of main engines 651
Results of trials, " Reina Victoria
De -Laval turbine .. 626
Eugenia" ... ... 642
Description of geared-down turbines of
Results of trials, " Vespasian " ... ... 644
SS. "Vespasian" 643
Ring (compensating) ... ... ... 656
Description of propelling machinery of
Riveting of vertical donkey Ijoiler ... 653
SS. "KingOrry" 644
Rotor drum dimensions ... ... ... 636
Description of propelling machinery
Rows of blades, number of ... ... 635
Q.SS. " Reina Victoria Eugenia " ... 640
Donkey boiler (vertical type) 653
656 Standard arrangement of turbines ... 631
Door (manhole) ...
Dummies ... 634 Steam, action of ... ... ... ... 628
Dummy (ahead type) 638 ,, flow 629
clearance 636 ,, speed data ... ... .. 652
,,
,, turbines ... ... ... ... 626
,, volumes ... ... ... ... 633
Engine data 651
651
Steamer (twin screw) data ... ...
,, knocking... 650 652
Stop valve data ... ... ... .-.

Stresses on seams... ... ... ... 656

Facial rings 634
Flow of steam in turbine 628 Thickness of boiler shell... ... ... 653
,, ,, through blades ... 630 Three- wire system of lighting .., ... 649
Turbine arrangements ... ... ... 630
Geared-down turbines 642 ,, combination arrangements ... 639
SS. " Vespasian 643 ,, (De-Laval) 626
,, (geared-down) ... ... ... 642
Height of turbine blades 636 ,, (Parson's) ... ... ... 628
H. P. turbine data 636 Twin screw steamer data ... ... 651

donkey boiler data

Vertical ... ... 653
" King Orry," machinery of 644 643
"Vespasian" ... ... ... ...
Knocking in engines 650 Volume of steam ... ... ... .. 633

Length of turbine blades... 635 Weir " Dual " air pumps 647
Longitudinal seams 653 Wire (three) system 649
 u
VERBAL" NOTES AND SKETCHES

SECTION I.

WORKSHOP PRACTICE.
The reciprocating engine as at present constructed and perfected
by tiie numerous auxiliary specialities now in general use un-
doubtedly represents vast improvement on the engine of ten or
fifteen years ago, and part of this improvement is certainly due to
the superior class and make of the machine tools now in general
use, and to the ever increasing use of cast steel and mild steel which
materials serve to combine strength with lightness of parts. A brief
description of the various types of reciprocating engines found in
ordinary marine practice will now be given.

Types of Engines.
Paddle Engines. —
For steamers of the paddle type the general
practice is toan engine of the diagonal pattern (the oscillating
fit

type being now nearly obsolete) arranged either single, compound,

triple, or quadruple expansion, and generally with two cranks,
although three cranks are occasionally arranged for. The Sketches
Nos. I, 2, 3, 4 illustrate the various cylinder and crank arrange-
ments referred to. Piston valves are often fitted to the H.P. and I. P.
of triple expansion paddle engines, and flat double-ported slide valves
to the L.P. cylinders.

Screw Engines. —
In screw steamers the engines arc of the inverted
type, being either compound, triple, or quadruple expansion, but in
Naval practice the turbine has now completely superseded the
reciprocating engine for all classes of vessels, and the success of this
type of engine, where high power and speeds are required, is beyond
dispute. Many cross-channel steamers and deep sea passenger
steamers are also fitted with turbine machinery of the Parsons design,
I
 "
**
Verbal Notes and Sketches

No. 2. —Triple Expansion Type

Paddle Engines.

No. I. — Compound Type

Paddle Engines.

I
n
, , J

3 E 3

LP. LP.

E 3 E
1
I
'
, ,

I. P. HP.

No. 3.— Triple Expansion Type No. —

4. Quadruple Type
Paddle Engines Paddle Engines.
(Two L.P. Cylinders).

i
 —

Workshop Practice 3

and the combination arrangement, in which reciprocating engines

and turbines are arranged to work conjointly in the same engine-
room, is rapidly coming forward into more general practice. (For
further information on this subject see author's " Marine Steam
Turbine.")
The Sketches numbered 6, 7, 8, 9 illustrate the various cylinder

No. 5.— Diagonal Type Paddle Engine,

and crank arrangements mentioned above, and the flow of the steam
through each is as follows :

Compound. — Steam flows from boilers through H.P. then L.P. to

condenser.
Triple. —
Steam flows from boilers through H.P., I. P., and L.P.
to condenser.
4 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

Triple (with 2 L.P. cylinders and four cranks). —

Steam flows from
the boilers through H.P., I. P., and then divides into two steam pipes,
one led to each L.P. cylinder.
—
Quadruple. Steam flows from the boilers through H.P., ist I.P.,
2nd I. P., and L.P. to condenser.

In many designs of large power engines the steam is conveyed

from one cylinder to another by means of large pipes, known as
"receiver pipes," but in ordinary engines of moderate power the
steam flows from one receiver to another through large ports cast
in the cylinders themselves. In Sketch No. 9 the cylinders are
shown arranged, from forward aft, as PI. P., ist I. P., L.P., and 2nd I. P.,
which allows of better balancing of the working parts, the crank
angles being a few degrees less or more than 90° to each other.

L.R HP

No. 6. —Triple Expansion Engine (Three Cylinders).

Cranks at 120°.

Balanced Engines. —
The constantly varying pressures on the crank-
pin result in corresponding variations in the twisting stresses exerted
by the engine, the range of torsional stresses varying with the type of
engine, number and position of cylinders, and the steam distribution
in each cylinder.
These unequal stresses continued for long periods often result in
the development of flaws on the shaft, and may finally lead to total
breakage.
It is therefore desirable to so balance up the moving parts that an
even turning movement on the shafting may be obtained, and vibra-
tion damped down to a minimum.
Workshop Ppactice
 " Verbal '
Notes and Sketches

A.LP MP FL.P

Al.P

FLP
No. 8.— Crank and Cylinder Arrangement (Yarrow, Schlick, &
Tweedy Balanced System).
 —

Workshop Practice 7

Regarding this subject Professor W. E. Dalby, M.A., B.Sc, in a

paper read at the forty-second meeting of the Institution of Naval
Architects, says :

"The only way of balancing a three-crank marine engine of the usual

type is by the addition of balance weights, or bob weights, to the moving
parts. In this case, therefore, balancing necessarily means the actual addition
of considerable masses of material to the machinery which have no other
duty but that of producing forces equal and opposite to the unbalanced
forces caused by the motion of the moving parts which are concerned in
doing the proper work of the engine. It is well known that Messrs Yarrow,

2"-^ I.R L.R

~J U
8 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches

during the last ten years of the four-crank engine into the Navy and the
Mercantile Marine. Yet that the possibilities of balancing the four crank
engine have not been generally recognised is shown by the fact that many
engines of that type have been and are still being built with their cranks at
right angles, even when absence of vibration is imperative. Four cranks
at right angles is just the one particular arrangement of a four-crank engine
which makes it impossible to effect balance without the addition of balance
weights. A change in the crank angles, however, and a small change in the
mass of the moving parts is all that is necessary to obtain an engine in which
the moving parts are balanced amongst themselves; to change, in fact, a
four-crank unbalanced engine into a four-crank balanced engine of the
Yarrow, Schlick, & Tweedy type. These changes cannot be made in any
arbitrary manner. The masses, crank angles, and centres of cylinders must
be mutually adjusted to satisfy certain conditions."

The necessary calculations required in accurately determining the

r.bove arrangement of cranks, balance weights, &c., are worked out
from the indicator diagrams, crank effort diagrams, and the carefully
calculated weights of the various moving parts, and involve a
considerable amount of labour.
Balance weights are sometimes fitted to the crank webs of the
H.P. and I. P. engines, which are lighter, while the crank-pins of
the two L.P. or heavy engines are bored out hollow, so that the
weights of the parts may be correctly adjusted.
In the Yarrow-Schlick-T weedy system of engine balancing, the
calculations are usually so carefully determined that the addition of
balance weights is not always required, the necessary balance being
found by the relative crank angles and crank sequence, or order of
rotation.
In an ordinary three-cylinder triple-expansion engine the sequence
is either H.P.. LP., and L.P., or L.P., I. P., and H.P., but when four
cylinders are fitted (two L.P.) the sequence is usually as shown in the
sketches on page 5.

Observe that the H.P, and I. P. cranks are directly opposite, also
that the F.L.P. and A. L.P. are opposite each other, but at right angles
to the other two.
It will be thus seen that the crank angles and crank sequence are
quite different when the Yarrow-Schlick-l'weedy system is adopted
as in the example illustrated on page 6, the H.P. and LP. cylinders
being inside, and the two L.P. placed one forward and one aft.
Observe that the heavy engines are placed at the ends to balance
up the weight of the moving parts.
The crank sequence is then (i) H.P., (2) F.L.P., (3) LP., and

(4) A. L.P. This arrangement has the effect of reducing the vibration,
and also allows of quick and easy handling of the engines.
It should be understood that the relative crank angles vary with
the size of engine, power, and weight of moving parts.
 —

Workshop Practice 9

Valves- — The cylinder valves are either piston valves, single-ported

valves, or double-ported valves, a common arrangement being as
follows .

H.P. cylinder Piston valve (inside steam).

j Piston valve, single-ported or

LP. cylinder
( double-ported slide valve.
L.P. cylinder Double-ported slide valve.

Certain builders fit piston valves to all the cylinders of large engines,
and in many cases patent valves of the " Trick " double-ported type
(see page 200) or of the " Andrews-Martin " type (see page 205) are
fitted, the latter giving particularly satisfactory results owing to the
good balance obtained.

Pistons. — Pistons are now being constructed in many cases of cast

steel, and are fitted with patent rings and springs of approved make,

* No. 10.— Cast-Steel Piston (with Dimensions).

The dotted lines show the LP. and L.P. pistons equal in
depth to the L.P. piston.

NOTE. — The radius of each piston is given.

which, together with the improved design and construction of piston

rod metallic packings at present on the market, have assisted to

* Reprinted by permission from " Marine Engine Design." Prof. Edward M. Bragg.
D. Van NostrandCc, New York, 1910.
lO Verbal " Notes and Sketches

bring up the efficiency of the marine engine to its present high

standard. The introduction of the metallic packings referred to
(notably that known as the U.S. packing) (see page 360) has met with

* No. II. — Cast-iron Piston.

NOTE. — Depth of packing ring g—3xt.

the hearty approval of the marine engineering profession as a body,

and the form of combination packing supplied by engineering firms
in general, if, perhaps, not so effective as the patent types, is yet a
great advance on the asbestos and similar packings formerly used
for piston rods.

* Reprinted by permission from "Marine Engine Design." Prof. Edward M. F)ragg,

D. Van Nostrand Co., New York, 1910.
 Workshop Practice ii

No. 12.— Patent Metallic Packing.

(The Combination Metallic Packing Co., Ltd.)

N, White metal bearing rings. U, White metal bearing blocks

L, Springs. C, Gun-metal case.
E, Extension piece for secondary T, Springholder.
packing. H, Floatmg rings.
12 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches

Connecting Rods. —
The two types of connecting rod in common
use are known as the single and double top end patterns. The single
top end rod is more compact, but the double top end is simpler to
manufacture, and is also much easier to overhaul when of large size.
In the double type the crosshead is secured to the piston rod by
means of a taper and nut, and in the single type the crosshead pin is

No. 13.— Double Top End Type Connecting Rod.

d= Piston rod diameter.
D-d X 1-2.
L = Length of crank-pin.

* No. 14.— Single Top End Type Connecting Rod.

shrunk into the connecting rod jaws, and sometimes further secured
by small locking pins as shown. This pattern of rod costs more to
produce than the other type, and is also more difficult to take adrift
when overhauling.
The bearing parts of the double top end rod are sometimes made
of cast steel with white metal bearing surfaces, but often brass is em-
* Reprinted by permission from "Marine Engine Design.' Prof. Edward M. Bragg.
D. Van Nostrand Co., New York, 1910.
 Workshop Practice i^,

ai PI WASHER

SQUARE.

No. 15.— Types of Valve Spindles.

In the square section type shown with the taper and cotter
the rod may be drawn out by the top, but with the round
section (sohd) the rod must be drawn out from below.

ployed for the top ends, and cast steel and white metal for the bottom
ends only. In the cheaper class of engines, cast-iron bushes lined
with white metal are employed, and this is now the greneral practice
for merchant steamers.
 H " Verbal " Notes and Sketches

Valve Gear. —Valve gear is generally of the Stephenson link

motion type with double bar quadrant valve spindles are either
;

solid or made in two parts which are connected by a cotter, the upper
part fitting by a taper into the lower part. That part of the spindle
passing through the guide bracket is sometimes of round section and
sometimes of square section. The rod diameter is reduced at the
position of the valve, and the washers or cotter under the valve rest
on a tapered portion of the spindle. Above the valve a washer is
fitted with double nuts (one lock nut), and to further prevent slackening
back of these nuts a large split pin or a cotter is run through
the rod.

A
Q-

^^ 5^
* No. i6.— Link Block Pin and Liners.
NOTE.— Thickness b^dx-^.

The bushes in the valve spindle end are usually of brass, and of
large bearing surface to reduce wear to a minimum. The saddle or
quadrant blocks are of steel fitted with brass liners which bear on the
quadrant bars.

—
No. 17. Eccentric Pulley.
*No. 18.— Eccentric Strap.
The pulley is divided into two portions
at the shaft centre and these are bolted The strap is recessed out to receive
together as shown, the bolts being ar- the pulley and is lined with white
ranged with taper heads. metal, dovetailed in place as shown.
* Reprinted by permission from "Marine Engine Design." Prof. Edward M. Bragg.
D, Van Nostrand Co., New York, 1910.
 ;

Workshop Practice 15

Eccentrics, &c. — Eccentric rods are generally made of steel with

brass bushes at the top ends, and the eccentric straps are generally
constructed of cast steel lined with white metal as bearing surfaces
the pulleys themselves are of cast iron or cast steel

TTir

c 3

ASTERN 3 ASTERN
GUIDE
3 GUIDt-

3
B0LT5.

5Z

A 11 )( i( K
i6 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches

Main Bearings. —-Main bearing bushes are generally of cast iron

lined with white metal, and the bottom half is often made round to
facilitate withdrawal. Suitable gutters or oil ways are cut in the
white metal surfaces to allow of efficient lubrication, and often the
sides are cut away clear altogether, leaving only the top and bottom
surfaces effective.

NOTE. — From the foregoing it will be obvious that the term "brasses'' is
now hardly correct, brass for bearings being generally superseded by cast steel
lined with white metal.

—
Crank-shafts. The crank-shafts of mild steel are usually of the
built pattern with the pins and shaft lengths shrunk into the webs
and secured by dowel pins. Sometimes that part of the shaft fitting
int© the webs is about h inch greater in diameter.

Columns. — Columns vary in design, but the usual types fitted are
that known as the " and that of the Y type, which is
box " pattern,

fitted for engines of large power. In some engines of the "open-

fronted" type round steel columns are fitted at the front, and the
back columns are then arranged with astern guides which overlap the
guide shoes, and are held in place by large bolts.

NOTE. —This arrangement of columns was often fitted in the engines of

Government torpedo destroyers before the advent of the marine steam turbine.

Description of Construction.
In the construction of the reciprocating engine we will now
proceed to deal with the various operations which are performed
from the time the castings, forgings, &c., are delivered at the works
until the engine is completed in the fitting department and ready
for erection in the ship.

Soleplate. — This is box pattern and is made up of

generally of
several parts, usually three number, bolted together, one piece
in
forming the forward part, one the centre (Sketch No 21), and one the
after part. In large engines, however, the soleplate sometimes con-
sists of four parts, which are, of course, bolted together. After delivery
of the castings the first operation is that of gauging to ascertain if
the thickness of metal as required by drawing has been maintained.
This having been found correct, the soleplate is now marked off
preparatory to machining the base for columns connecting flanges,
and gaps for main bearing bushes. In good practice the bottom of
the soleplate is machined, as this ensures good fitting chocks in
the ship, and also facilitates the fitting of same. The soleplate is
now taken to slotting machine, and has the base for columns and
^-
\1 Jl R R V

B. Double type column.

11 )t 1(

A, Double type column

F. Plan of single type column showing

ahead and astern guides with shoe in
position.

D, Single type column with open front.

* Reprinted by permission from "Marine Sleam Dciign." Prof. Edwaril M. Braj^g D. Van Nustrand Co.. New York, 19U

No. 20.— Types of Columns.

'
Vcrtial " Notes and Skelches.
 Workshop Practice J7

connectint^ flanges machined this operation is carried out on the

:

other parts which form the complete soleplate, and the main bearing
gaps are also machined while the soleplate is in this stage. The
soleplate being now finished machining, the holes for main bearing
bolts, holding-down bolts, and connecting flanges are bored, also the
holes for bolting columns to soleplates. The main bearing bolts
are now fitted these bolts are, in ordinary merchant work, a large
;

double-ended stud having a nut at the bottom end which draws the
bolt tight up on a collar at the top end (Sketch No. 22). The bolt

* No. 21.— Part of Soleplate showing Base for Columns.

is usually reduced to the diameter at the bottom of the thread in

the middle, and is a fit in the parallel parts, where it passes through
the hole in the soleplate at cither end. A
feather on stop pin is fitted
under the collar, and this prevents the bolt from turning round when
the bolt is being screwed up or slackened. The bottom nut is locked
either by a large split pin through the thimble point at the end of
the bolt or by a set pin through the nut, and pointed into the screw
of the bolt.
The main bearing bolts being now fitted in all parts of the sole-
* Reprinted by permission from ''Marine Engine Design." Prof. Edward M. Bragg.
D, Van Noslrand Co., New York, igio.
i8 **
Verbal " Notes and Sketches

No. 22.— Main Bearing Bolt.

I, Set pin. 2, Feather. 3, Set pin. 4, Split pin.
 Workshop Practice 19

plate, the next operation is that of setting up or lining off the soleplate.
This operation is usually performed on the blocks on which the engine
is to be erected. The foundation for the engine usually consists of
long logs laid fore and aft, two on each side of soleplate. The sole-
plate is laid on the logs and levelled up, and the intervening space is
filled up with wooden wedges (Sketch No. 24), the three parts of the
soleplate being laid on the logs and as near in line as possible by the
eye the different sections are next brought into line. Through the
:

two gaps of the centre portion a straight-edge is laid resting upon

No. 23. — Main Bearing Complete.

wooden centres fitted into the gaps, about 3 inches from the top (Sketch
No. The straight-edge is kept bearing hard on the side of the
25).
gap the end of the straight-edge extends into the inside gap of the
;

forward portion of soleplate this part of soleplate is now moved

;

sideways (by means of screw jacks) until side of gap bears on straight-
edge. The same operation is performed on aft section, and the edge of
the straight-edge is tested by means of feelers until all three parts are
close up to straight-edge. The straight-edge is now put through bottom
of gap and all three parts brought up to line in a similar manner,
20 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

It will be readily understood that after this operation it is necessary

to go over the preceding work, so as to ensure that the sides of gaps
are still in line. The soleplate is also levelled fore and aft and

b
 Workshop Practice 21

while drivine^ up same that tlic level of soleplate is not altered. The
main bcarini^ bushes are now fitted into the gaps, the main bearing
covers put on and screwed up. The next operation is that of marking

No. 25 —Lining- off the Soleplate.

LINERS

No. 26. — Boring out of Main Bearing Bushes.

I. Proof" lines. 2, Boring out line = diameter of shaft.

off themain bearing bushes: there are several different methods of

doing this work. In some works the bushes are not filled with white
metal until after being fitted, and the cast iron or steel is bored out
22 "Verbal Notes and Sketches

to the diameter of the shaft phis the rehefs, and the bush is then
filled with white metal and reset up on the machine to the previous
machined parts, and bored out to the diameter of the shaft. The
general practice, however, is to have the white metal in bush when
fitted, and with all bushes in place a fine piano wire is stretched
through all the bushes, being carried on supports at each end. This
wire is set up athwart ships to the centre of the main bearing gap,
which is projected on to the end of the bush at the forward and aft

No. 27.— Main Bearing Bush.

L, Liners. D, Shaft diameter.
E, Tapped hole for lifting gear. O, Oil service.

end. The height is taken from drawing and is measured from base
for columns. The wire now being set to these points four lines or
chords are drawn on each side of each bush with a pair of jcnnys
(Sketch No. 26). The wire is now withdrawn and in each bush a
wooden centre is fitted faced with tin, and the centre is picked up
from these four lines or chords and the boring out diameter is drawn
in on each side of the bush, also a short proof line at four points.
This proof line is usually about f inch to i inch larger in diameter
than the boring out size, and is used to test the boring bar when the
 Workshop Practice 23

bush is about bored out to the final size. The bushes are now bored
out, and reHefs or gutters cut. The bushes are now put back in
place in the soleplate, and are now ready for the bedding down of the
crank-shaft.

Crank-shafts and Columns.

The majority of engineering firms buy in the crank-shafts
required for the various engines which they are constructing. This
part of the engine is usually delivered in a finished condition, as it
is found the steel works which specialise in this work can turn out

the finished article much cheaper than it can be constructed in a

general engineering concern. The type of crank-shaft now manu-
factured is that of the built-up type, with the crank pins and shafts

.....
 " Notes and Sketches
24 Verbal

then the shaft. The other half of the crank is similarly assembled,
and then the part consisting of the shaft and pin is suspended above
the other part, and the pin is shrunk into the web, thus forrring the
complete crank. During the operation of joining the two webs by
means of the pin care is taken to ensure that the centre lines through
the webs are exactly in line. The crank pins and shafts, besides
being shrunk into web, are also prevented from turning by round
dowel pins being fitted half into the shaft and half into the web
(Sketch No. 28).
After the complete shaft is built the coupling holes are bored,
and the three parts brought together, the cranks being set to the
sequence required. The coupling bolt holes are widened, and bolts

E ^
•2;

<J)
^

L^
No. 29.— Taking "Leads" off
^
Top Main Bearing Bush.
1, Lead wire (18 B.W.G.). 3, Oil hole.
2, Gutters or reliefs. 4, Dowel pins to hold liners in place.

fitted. The shaft is now put into lathe, and the body of the shaft
is turned over, also the flanges of the couplings it is next centred
:

for the turning of the crank-pins, each pin having a separate centre.
In large engines and in fast running engines the crank-shafts are
usually balanced so as to ensure steady running. This is done
theoretically to suit the power of the engines in relation to the
power developed in the various cylinders. To attain this balance,
balance weights are fitted on the webs of the crank (Sketch No. 28).
The crank-shaft is now ready for bedding down in the main bearing
bushes. This operation is done by red leading the part which runs
in the bearings, the shaft is lowered and turned round, and then
lifted, and the parts which show bearings are eased with a scraper,
and shaft again tried until it is bearing throughout all the bearings
 Workshop Practice 25

During the operation of bedding down the shaft, care is taken to

ensure that it is thoroughly level when resting in the bearings.
After this the top bushes are " leaded," which means that they are
fitted down to rest on the liners and give a clearance between the
shaft and the bush, usually -020 inch — this is to ensure passage for
oil, and also to allow for expansion of shaft when it acquires what
is generally termed a running heat. The clearance of the bush is
found by means of lead wire, hence the name " leading." The wire is
usually 16 or 18 IIW.G., and is put across the shaft, one part in the
middle of the bearings and one at either end (Sketch No. 29). The
main bearing cover is put on, and nuts screwed up and hammered.
The co\'er is then slackened back, and bush taken out, and the lead
wire is gauged by micrometer. When the leads show an even
thickness of the required amount at all parts then the bush is
finished " leading." The eccentric pulleys for operating the valve gear
are fitted on the crank-shaft, usually after the shaft has been bedded
in bearings. The pulleys are bolted on shaft, and set to the required
position as shown on drawing, for the marking off of keyseats in
the following manner. The H.P. crank-shaft is turned with crank
up, and the lines for setting the pulleys are put on the shaft in the
following manner.

Cutting of Eccentric Keyseats.

A diagram is prepared in the drawing office, showing the position
of pulleys with the crank down. This diagram (see page 233) is
mounted on a board, having a half circle, equal to the diameter of the
shaft cut out. The vertical line is set as near the crown of the shaft
as possible, and a spirit level is applied to the top of the board, and
the board brought level. The vertical line is now transferred to the
shaft, and by applying a box square, the line is produced along the
shaft, a little longer than the distance which will be occupied by
the ahead and astern puller's. From the diagram the distance from
the centre to centre of keyseat in ahead pulley is taken by^ means of
dividers, and this distance is marked off on shaft, applying one end
of the dividers to the line along the top of the shaft. An arc is
drawn at two points, and a straight-edge set to these marks and a
line drawn. This line represents the centre of keyseat for the
ahead pulley, and the same operation is carried out for the astern.
The pulleys are now put on shaft and set with the keyseats exactly'
central to the mark, and the distance from centre of crank to centre
of pulleys is arrived at by means of a length stick marked off from
the drawing. In the case of an H.P. engine having an inside lead
piston valve, then the ahead pulley will be 90° minus lap and lead
behind the crank. An outside lead valve will have the pulleys set as
follows (Sketch No. 44) :
—Ahead pulley 90° plus lap and lead in
advance of the crank. The keyseats for the pulleys are generally cut
out by hand, and feathers fitted into same. The pulleys are also
 " "
26 Verbal Notes and Sketches

secured by having bolts passing through both pulleys or having set

pins thimble pointed into the shaft (Sketch No. 30).

No. 30— Method of Locking Eccentric Pulleys.

Erecting of Columns.
In the tramp type of engine the back or ahead columns are usually
part of the condenser, but in larger engines the condenser is usually
separate, being supported on brackets at the back of the engines, and
all the columns are fastened direct to the soleplate.

f I
J
No. 31.— Length Stick for Lining off Columns.

In the first place, we will deal with the erection of a set of engines
having the condenser and back columns in one. In this case the
bottom of the condenser has flanged faces which adjoin similar faces
 Workshop Practice 27

on the soleplate these faces are bolted together. In lining off the
;

columns the first operation is to fit centres into the gap for the main
bearing bush along those centres a straight-edge is laid, one edge of
;

which is set to the line representing the centre of crank-shaft. From

the top of the columns plumb lines are dropped down. Parallel to
the straight-edge and about { inch clear of it, a length rod is laid,
having marked on it lines corresponding to the centres of the three
cranks (Sketch No. 31). The plumb line is now set so that it just
grazes the straight-edge, and is directly in line with the line repre-
senting the centre of the crank. This being so, the column opposite
the one from which the line is suspended is brought into line by

TELESCOPE
CAUGE.

No. 32.— Gauging between Columns.

means of a square applied from a centre line on the face of the

column, and by means of a telescope gauge set to half the distance
between columns, as shown on drawing. This operation is carried
out on all columns, and a plumb rule is applied to the face of each
individual column to ensure it being plumb. If it is not plumb, then
the column is taken down, and the base on which it rests is either
scraped or filed if the amount is not great, but should it be too much
for hand labour, then the column itself is machined to suit. The
condenser and back columns being one, it is necessary to set this part
first, after which the three front columns are brought into position.

The distance between the column faces is gauged by means of a

telescope gauge (Sketch No. 32). A straight-edge is also passed along
28 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches
 Workshop Practice 29

is advisable to retest the settini^^ before widening holes. All being

right, the holeson the feet of columns and on the flanges connecting
the condenser to soleplate are widened and bolts fitted, and the
engine is now ready to receive the cylinders.

Cylinders and Valve Chests.

The cylinders in a triple expansion engine are termed the
High Pressure, Intermediate, and Low Pressure, the usual form

No. 35.— Piston Valve Casing Liner (Brass) (Half in Section).

Showing ports and diagonally cut bars.

of contraction being H.P., I. P. (or M.P.), and L.P. The valve on

the H.P. cylinder is usually of the piston type, and in the valve casing
liners are fitted (Sketches Nos. 35 and 36). The reason for fitting

No. 36.— Piston Valve Casing Ports and Bars.

The bars are cast as shown to provide a continuous bearing
surface for the rings.

liners instead of boring out the cylinder to the size of the valve is to
allow of renewal and also to simplify the cutting of the steam ports.
The liners are usually of hard-grained cast iron, and being separate
^o " Verbal " Notes and Sketches

and of small size, it is possible to ensure a close-grained and homogene-

ous casting. The liners are turned up on the outside and the inside
bored out to ^ inch smaller than the finished diameter. The ports are

No. 37. — Cylinder and Valve Chest (Naval Type).

The cylinder is fitted with a liner and the valve casing with
a balance cylinder.

cut out, and after the cylinder is bored out, the liners are fitted into place.
The cylinder is put back into machine and the liners are bored out to
the finished diameter, thus ensuring a true job in relation to the bore
 Workshop Practice 31

of the cylinder proper. In general work liners are also fitted in the
cylinder, this also, as in the case of the valve liners, giving a hard and
close-grained casting, and also facilitates renewal. The liners (Sketch
No. 38) are secured to the cylinder in various ways, but usually
have a flange on the bottom which is bolted to the cylinder and
bearing strips at the top and bottom. On the top of the liner a
recess is formed into which asbestos packing or similar jointing
material is put, and on the top of the packing a piece of steel wire of

m <D

I-®

No. 38.— Cylinder Liner (Half in Section).

I, 2, Fitting strips.
3, Screwed pins.

the required diameter is put in, having the end scarfed. Above this
a flat steel ring is fitted on to studs in the flange of the liner. The
studs are square necked, and nuts and split pins are fitted, thus ensur-
ing that no part will slacken back. The space between the liner and
the cylinder body is termed a jacket, and to this space a steam con-
nection is sometimes made from the stop valve, and also a drain valve
on the bottom. These connections are fitted, to be used when heating
up the engines, and to ensure an equal expansion of the cylinder body
taking place while the engines are being heated up. The cylinder
 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches
32

linerand valve liners being fitted, and other parts of the cylinder
machined, the cylinder is now ready for water testing. This opera-

No. 39.— Method of securing No. 40.— Method of keeping Joint

Cylinder Liners. of Liner Tight
E, Packing space. i, Copper ring. 2, Cylinder liner.

3, Cylinder wall.

tion usually takes place on a set of cylinders which are connected

together at the valve casings, when all three cylinders are at the
same stage of construction. The I. P. cylinder and L.P. cylinder are

* No. 41.—" Box " Type of Cylinder Cover.

* Reprintedby permission from "Marine Engine Design." Prof. Edward M. Bragg.
D. Van Nostrand Co., New York, 1910.
 Workshop Practice 00

sometimes with a cylinder liner, but this is only in high-class

fitted
work. The LP.cylinder having a slide valve is fitted with a valve
face. This face is fastened to the face of the cylinder by brass cheese-
headed pins (Sketch No. 45), and is of hard close-grained cast iron,

* No. 42.— Bottom of Cylinder (" Box " Pattern).

*No. 43.— Cylinder Bottom with Liner in Position.

M"ftnhole Cover

* No. 44.— Cylinder Cover and Liner.

Notice how the cover is shaped exactly to fit the piston and
so reduce the clearance losses.

and, in some cases, of special metal adapted to resist wear. The

intermediate face is usually in one, and the low pressure face in two,
one part forming the top half to the centre of the exhaust port, and
the other half from same point to the bottom. After the cylinders
have been erected on top of the engine columns, and i)lumbed to that
* Rcpiinted by permission from " Marine Engine Design. Prof. Edward M. Bragg.
D. Van Noutrand Co., New York, 1910.
 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches
34

position, the cylinders are taken down and the valve faces machined
over, so as to ensure the face of the valve being parallel to the bore
of the cylinder. The cylinders being now all the same distance
forward in the course of construction, they are brought together and
the HP. cylinder jointed to the I. P. cylinder at the casing or receiver,

No. 45.
— Method of securing Cylinder False Face.

and the L.P. cylinder is jointed in a similar manner to the other side

of the LP. cylinder. This joint is usually made of mastic cement or

red lead putty, and in some cases a groove is cut down each side and
along the bottom of the joint flange this serves to retain the jointing
;

©
(D

e
e

®
©
 ;'5iiMiifi-

HU

>
•
1

f^
 SLOT (3" BY re")

WOOD '^l .tSMl|Pff3 -

SLOT (3" BY ie")

No. 48 —Alignment of Cylinders and Shafting.

means of the small bar as required until it is brought dead central. Repeat this at
Method of Lining up Cylinders, &c.
the bottom of the line, adjusting at the crank-pit bridge slot.
To either set up tlie uylindcrs ui to the cylinders and shaft centre lines
tt.'st if
5. Next caliper round the line from stuliing bo.\ bore and adjust cylinder to suit if
are at right angles to each uther (engine disnianiled) proceed as follows :
necessary also test distance between line and crank web at top and bottom centre
;

1. Take a piece of board with a slot cut as shown (about 3 inches by

^g inch will as shown.
do), and secure this by two studs to the cylinder across the centre to bring the hole 6. \Vith crank on top mark crank-pin where line touches, then turn crank to
in wood bridge fair. bottom and again mark pin now test, by calipering, if both marks are the same
;

2. Fix another slotted board in the centre of the crank-pit fore and afl with the distance from the web.
hole dead centred as shown. 7. To test the alignment of the guide caliper between the hne and
guides at
3. Tie a bolt or small bar of any kind (a file will do) to the end of a line top and bottom as shown in the end view.
passed down through the cylinder bridge slot, and secure the other end of this line 8. To test if the guides are in line fore and aft, use a surface gauge
and adjust it
10 the crank-pit bridge slot: the bolts or bars to which the hne is attached laid to touch the line when laid up against the guide forward ; now try it aft and if the
crosswise on the slot will alluw of adju'^tment at top or bottom. again touches the line, the guides are in line, fore and aft, If not, they
are out
4. Now caliper the line at the top from the cylinder bore, and adjust it by oflir nd require to be canted round to square up.

I To fact page 35.

VetUl Note* and Sketches.

 Workshop Practice 35

shaft is in place centres are fitted between the webs, with one edge
central to the centre of the shaft, and with a Hne on each centre equal
distance from each web. The cylinders are moved until the three
lines hanging from the piston rod stuffing boxes are exactly in line
with the marks on the shaft centre sticks and also in line with the
centre of the shaft. The bores of the cylinders are also tested with a
plumb rule, and it may be necessary to line up the feet of the cylinders
to bring them plumb. If this be the case then it will entail machining
or filing the head of the columns which show high, but if care has
been exercised in setting up the columns it will only be a small

e
®

e
JOINT
G

®
e

e
e
36 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

marks, and centres retested. All being right, the holes in column
heads are widened, bolts fitted. There are usually four fitted bolts
in each column head, the rest being an easy fit. It is again prefer-

able as before explained to use a fine piano wire instead of the

plumb line, and also to extend the centring line up to the top of
the cylinder, into which a centre is fitted, and the line set truly to
this, and also to the bore of the stuffing box. As before explained
every firm has its own method of carrying out these various opera-
tions, but the foregoing is a general description of the method
employed in setting up the cylinders for a modern tramp steamer's
engines. In many shops the cylinder feet are bedded down on the
column heads, thus ensuring perfect work, but with the accurate
machine work and the use of length sticks and length gauges, it is
possible to get all the different parts of the machinery to come
together with the minimum of hand work.

Training Connecting Rods and Fitting Running Gear.

The engines are now ready for the fitting of the gear, and the
firstoperation is that of putting in the piston rods and pistons. The
pistons are usually tried into cylinder and allov/ed to rest on
the bottom of same. A length rod is applied from the centre of
the crank-shaft up to the top of the piston and to the top of the
cylinder. These points are marked off and the piston rods cut to
length, allovvance being made for the clearance required at each end
of the stroke. The same operation is also carried out on the valve
spindles. After piston rods are cut to length they are fitted into the
pistons, that is the tapered part on which the piston rests is fitted
up to a bearing. This operation being finished and the piston rod
having been fitted into the crosshead, if the type of connecting rod is
that of the double top end, the piston and rod are lifted and
lowered into place in the cylinder. If the connecting rod is that
of the single top end, the crosshead bearings being on the piston
rod, then the piston rod requires to be lifted up through the stuffing
box and through the piston, the piston rod not being passed on to
the sling. The crosshead is put on to piston rod and set parallel
to the column faces. Gauges are then lifted from the face of cross-
head to column face and guide shoes machined and fitted. The
connecting rods are now put into place, and trained. This operation
is usually performed in the following manner :
—
The top end liners
are taken out and the nuts screwed up, thus binding the top end.
The piston should be lined up also so as to ensure its remaining
central. The whole part, piston, piston rod, and connecting rod are
now lifted up until the connecting rod butt is up clear of the crank-
pin, and the distance between flange of bottcjm end bush and web is
gauged at the four points to ascertain if the rod is hanging fair. At
the same time a plumb rule is applied to the side of piston rod or
crosshead and the rod brought into a true position. It is necessary
 Workshop Practice Z1

while this operation is being carried out to be sure that the piston
rod is exactly central in the stuffing box, and to ensure this
temporary glands of wood or brass should be fitted. If the four
points at the butt of the rods do not coincide, then it is necessary
to ease the top end bush in such a manner that will bring butt of
rod exactly fair. This being so, the bottom end of rod is now bound
on the crank-pin, crank being on bottom centre, and the piston rod
and crosshead are lifted up until clear of top end bushes. If the
rod is true, then the crosshead will lower into place with equal
clearance on each side of the top end brasses if not, then the bottom
;

end bush will require to be eased so as to bring rod central. In

binding bottom end of rod on to crank-pin care should be taken

ry

LA LA

(?) O
No. 49.— Taking "Leads" off Bottom End Bearing Bush.
1, Lead wire. 3, White metal.
2, Oil glitters or "reliefs.'" 4. Dowel pins to hold liners in position.

to have equal clearance on each side of bottom end bush and web.
The crosshead is now bedded into top end bushes and top bushes
leaded. After this operation the top end is again bound and the
bottom end bush bedded on crank-pin. The crank is now turned
to top centre and the crank-pin bearings leaded. The same operation
takes place on the three connecting rods.
In carr)'ing out this work on connecting rods of the single top end
type, a good deal of extra work is entailed, as this type of rod is not
so easy to overhaul. The crank-pin bush is bound on the crank-pin
in a similar manner as before, and the piston, rod, and crosshead are
lifted up care is taken to ensure the connecting rod being central
;

between the columns. The piston rod is lowered until the top bush
is just clear of rod, and by applying a straight-edge to the inside cheek
 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches
38

of the connecting rod, it can be seen if the connecting rod is fair to

the piston rod if this is not so, then the bottom end bush will require
;

to be lined up and a corresponding amount either taken off the sole

of the top bottom end bush, or the bore of the bush scraped out until
the rod is brought fair with the piston rod. The top end bush is
bound in a similar manner as before described, and the crank-pin
bush bedded upon the crank-pin. In some works it is usual to test
the rods by swinging them, that is, after the top end bush has been
bedded and leaded, the piston rod and connecting rod are lifted up,
and the rod is swung from side to side so as to ensure that it falls
back with its own weight and is in no way bound.
The crank-pin bushes are " leaded " in a similar manner as the top
end, the crank is turned to the top centre, and the bottom half of
the bush is lowered, lead wire, usually -17 or -16 B.W.G., is put in
(Sketch No. 49), crossing the circumference of the bush in three places.
The bush is pulled up against the crank-pin and nuts put on the
bearing bolts. Usually the amount of liners required are given on
the connecting rod drawing, and generally consist of one cast-iron
liner from i i to 2 inches thick, one i-inch brass liner, and three ^Vinch

No. 50.— Lead Wire as taken from Bottom End Bearings.

I, Lead wire -02 thick at crown of bearing.
2, Lead wire heavier at sides.

brass liners, and in some cases tin liners are fitted, but it is more
general to fit all brass liners and to have the same amount of liners
in all crank-pin bearings. The liners are in place while the operation
of leading the bearings is being carried out, and the nuts on the bolts
are hammered up, a mark being put on thimble point of bolt and on
nut, care being taken to ensure both nuts being brought to an equal
degree of tightness. The nuts are slackened back, and the bush
lowered and lead examined. If they are not parallel and of the
required thickness throughout, usually -020 inch, then the white metal
in the bush is scraped out and the operation repeated until the lead
wire is of the required thickness. It is usual practice to ease the
sides of the bush, so as to give a slightly heavier lead at this part,
usually from -003 to -004 inch heavier than the lead taken from the
crown of the bush. This result allows for expansion of the crank-pin
when heated to a running heat, and also allows of a passage of oil
(Sketch No. 50). It is not advisable to increase this clearance at the
sides to too great an extent, as it takes away from the surface of
the bush. The nuts on the bottom end and top end bearings are
usually fitted with a lock-pin for binding the nuts, and split pins are
also fitted to prevent the nuts slackening back. Oil tubes are led
 Workshop Practice 39
down the connecting rods to the crank-pin bush, with an oil cup on
the fork of the rod. This oil cup is supplied with oil from a siphon
box fastened to the side of the cylinders. The top end is supplied
with oil in a similar manner.
The guide shoes in general practice are of cast iron faced with
white metal, but in some designs only the ahead guide shoe is faced
with white metal, the astern shoe being of cast iron throughout.
Reliefs are cut across the shoes (Sketch A, No. 20) and oil is
supplied to the top of the column guide faces from the oil box which
supplies the connecting rod bearings.

Training Valve Gear.

The valve gear is trained in a similar manner to the connecting
rods, thisis to ensure the gear being in line. The first operation is
that of setting the valve spindle guide bracket. This bracket is

No. 51 —Valve Gear Complete (Naval Type).

40 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

fastened to the bottom of the cyHndcr, and has a brass guide bush
either of square or round bore, through which the valve spindle
passes. The spindle is put up into place and the gland put in, and
the spindle supported inside the valve casing. The bracket is put in
position, and bound on to the valve spindle. The spindle is set
parallel to the valve face, or to the bore of the valve liner if it is an
H.P., and a plumb rule tied on the body of the spindle. This being
found plumb, the holes for bolting the bracket to cylinder are marked
off and bracket bored. Usually the holes are widened and fitted bolts
put in. The bore of the gland is tested by means of feelers to ensure

*No. 52.— Guide Bracket and Valve Spindle.

the spindle being central to the gland. The bracket being fixed, the
quadrant is put into place and the eccentric rods and drag links.
All gear being assembled, the ahead eccentric rod is first dealt
with. The bearings on the top end of the rod are bound to the pins
of the quadrant, and the end of the quadrant lifted until the butt of
the rod is clear of the studs on the eccentric strap. It is now lowered
and the holes are tested to see that they are fair to the studs. This
being so, the astern eccentric rod is dealt with in a similar manner.
The eccentric straps are now bound on the pulleys by taking out the
liners and screwing up the bolts, and the quadrant is lifted up out of
the bearings at the top of the rod. If this is fair then the rod is true,
but if it is found that the bush is not in line with the sides of the
quadrant, then the butt of the rod is lined up until it is fair, and the
amount of the lining is machined or filed off according to the amount.
*Reprinted by permission from "Marine Engine Design." Prof. Edward M. Bragg.
P Van Nostrand Co. New York, iqio.
,
 Workshop Practice 41

Both eccentric rods now being fair, the drag h'nks are dealt with.
These are first disconnected, and the distance from the quadrant pins

No. 53.— Eccentrics and Rods.

The rod in direct line with the valve spindle is usually the
"ahead" and the one out ofline the "astern."

to the pins on the wyper shaft is tested, so as to ensure the quadrant

being square and parallel to the wyper shaft. The drag links are now
42 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches

bound on the pins of the lever, and the end which couples to the
quadrant pins tested for being If not true, then the base of the
fair.
brass or machined until the link is brought in line. The same
is filed
method is carried out with the other end, the quadrant end of the
link being bound and the end which couples to the wyper shaft lever
being brought fair. The eccentric straps are bedded on the pulleys
and are usually left -025 inch easy for same. In most of engines
the eccentric straps are usually of steel lined with white metal, and
are of broad surface. The wyper shaft (Sketch No. 54) is supported
on brackets bolted to the columns and the bearings are usually cast
iron, but in the better class of engine brass bushes are fitted. On the
wyper shaft are four levers, three connecting to each of the valve
gears, and the other one being connected to the reversing engines.
The three levers connecting the valve gear are fitted with
adjustable bearing pins, to which the drag links are coupled. The
use of these pins is for the purpose of what is usually termed " linking

REVERSING ENGINE
t=D- LINK PIN.

L.R I. P. H.R
1D1_

5t: WYPER SHAFT

3C

m 1 t DRAG LINK
PIN. m1 LINK
BLOCK.

No. 54.—Wyper (or Reversing) Shaft.

up," or altering the cut-off of the valve (Sketch No. 55). If the valve
is arranged to cut-off at three-quarters of the stroke, then when the
pins are full out, and the eccentric rod exactly in line with the valve
spindle, this point of cut-off will be got. By screwing in the block in
the wyper shaft lever the cut-off of the valve will be altered, as the
eccentric rod is not in line with the valve spindle, and so the travel of
the valve will be decreased. The link lever is usually graded to
represent the different positions of cut-off as shown in Sketch No. 55.
The levers on the wyper shaft are keyed on, and have also a lock pin
which passes through the lever and into the body of the shaft, thus
ensuring that no movement of the lever will take place. The lever
to which is connected the reversing engine is usually fixed in a
similar manner, and if the reversing gear is that of makers who
specialise in this gear, then two levers may be fitted connected by two
links to the piston rod of the reversing engine. The position of
the main reversing lever is determined from the drawing, and is so
 Workshop Practice 43

fixed to give the movement of the valve gear from ahead to astern
position. If the reversing gear is that of the all-round type, it is
general to have the link on the top centre of the reversing wheel when
gear is full ahead, that is with drag links and levers in a level position
(Sketch No. 55). In some ships, tell-tale gear is fitted : this is a

MID- POSITION. DRAG LINK

PIN.
No. 55.— Reversing Gear Bell Crank.
Showing expansion link slot and block for linking up. The
adjustment of the drag link pin block in the slot (by means of
the screw and nut) controls the cut-off as indicated by the
cut-off grades marked. The block as shown is " full out " giving
a cut-off of -70 stroke or 70 per cent. ; if the block is placed
in "full in" position the cut-off is then -40 or 40 per cent.
The linking up referred to is only possible when the gear is in
ahead position, as when set for "astern" the slot is nearly
vertical and the linking up effect then becomes inoperative.

small quadrant fixed on the wyper shaft, and from this gear is led to
an index plate on the front of the forward column, and indicates
which way the valve gear has been moved, and in some cases this
gear is also connected to the bridge, thus showing to the officer in
charge if his order transmitted by the engine-room telegraph has been
properly carried out (Sketch No. 57).
 *'
Verbal " Notes and Sketches
44

Cylinder Clearances and Setting of Valves.

There are several methods of taking- cyUnder clearances, but the
method now described is most generally employed. In taking the
top clearance the crank is turned on top centre, and in this position
strips of clay or putty are laid on the body of the piston and also
on the top of the piston rod, and on the piston rod nut. The cover
is now put on, and a few nuts screwed up to ensure that the cover
is close down on the joint. The cover is now taken off, and the
thickness of the clay at the various points measured, thus giving the

Valve Steta

*No. 56.— Valve Gear in "Astern" Position.

Notice that the expansion slot is in a vertical position and
therefore practically non-operative as regards linking up.

clearance between the cover and piston at top of stroke. While crank
is in this position a mark is chipped on the guide shoe column face
plate, and a fine chisel cut put across both parts (Sketch No. 58),
thus showing when crank is on top centre. This position has been
found previously either by plumbing the crank web, or by using a
trammel from the side of the column. In finding the centre or top
of stroke in this manner the method used is to turn crank up until it
is nearly at top, and in this position a trammel is applied from a

* Reprinted by permission from "Marine Engine Design." Prof. Edward M. Bragg.

p. Van NostrandCo., New York, 1910.
 Workshop Practice 45

point on the column, and an arc drawn on the top of the web. At
the same time a mark is drawn across the edges of guide shoe and
column face. The crank is now turned over the centre, until the
mark on the guide shoe and column face is again in line. In this
position the crank is again marked with the trammel from the same
point as before, and by bisecting the two marks a point is found,
and upon turning the crank back until the trammel fits between
this mark and the point on the column, the crank is on the top centre.

\][ ][ K

POINTER

No. 57.— " Tell-Tale " Gear.

D, Engine running ahead. C, Engine running astern.
B, Gear in mid-position.

A mark is now put across the guide shoe and column, and the
amount of clearance which has been ascertained by means of the
clay or putty is marked above this mark, thus showing the amount
of clearance originally allowed for. The bottom clearance is found
by turning the crank to the bottom centre, and either plumbing the
crank or acting as before described the mark is also put on edge
;

of guide shoe and column face. The top end is now disconnected,
 ''
Verbal " Notes and Sketches
46

and the piston and piston rod lifted u[), the bottom top end bush is
taken out, and the piston and rod lowered until it rests upon the
bottom of the cylinder. Another mark is now put on the column
in line with the mark previously put on the guide shoe, and the
difference between the two marks represents the clearance when
the crank is on bottom centre. In engines of good design small
brass plates are fitted on which these marks are installed, as it has

TOR CENTRE

BOT. CENTRE

No. 58.— Method of Testing Piston Clearance.

B, Piston on top centre. 1 Top
C, Piston touching- cover. J clearance.
D, Piston on bottom centre. "i Bottom
E, Piston touching cylinder bottom. / clearance.

been found that the marks on the cast iron become filled up with
paint, and in some cases where there was a slight leakage of the
circulating water in the column guide plate, the marks were badly
corroded, making it impossible to determine the actual clearance
without proving same. If it is found that the required clearance as
in drawing has not been attained, it will be necessary to machine
some of the parts, until this requirement is met. If the top clearance
 —

Workshop Practice 47
is and the bottom clearance large, then the piston can be
small,
let up on the taper of the piston rod, which means that the length
of the piston rod will be reduced. If the clearance should be the
other way, small at bottom and large at top, then the bottom of
the cylinder will be examined to ensure there being no lumps on
—
same if so, these lumps will be chipped off; but should this not
be sufficient, it will be necessary to fit a heavier or thicker bush
either in the top end or bottom end of connecting rod. It may be
the case that the piston would stand machining, and if so, then it
can be dealt with. The clearances in reciprocating engines are
usually as follows :

H.P. top - - - -
\ to I inch.
H.P. bottom - - - -
I to I „
LP. top - - - -
I to I „
LP. bottom - - - -
f to f ,,
L.P. top - - - -
f to I „
L.P. bottom - - - -
I to I ,,

The above clearances allow for wear down of the connecting rod
bearings.
The operation of adjusting or setting the slide valves is carried
out in the following manner :
—
The valve gear is put in ahead
position, that is, the ahead eccentric rod is brought in line with the
valve spindle. It is first required to find the valve travel this :

amount is given on the drawing, and to ascertain if it is correct,

the engine is turned round until the eccentric pulley is at full throw
on the top. This is found by having a centre line through the pulley,
and also a centre line on the eccentric strap, both centre lines being
vertical. The engine is then turned round until the centre line on the
large part or throw of the eccentric pulley is in line with the centre
line on the eccentric strap, and when in this position a line is put on
valve spindle, either by using a trammel from a fixed point on the
bottom of the cylinder or valve spindle bracket, or by simply drawing
a line across the spindle under the gland. The engine is again
turned until the centre line on the small part of the eccentric pulley
is in line with the centre line on eccentric strap (Sketch No. 59),
Another line is put on valve spindle as before, and the distance
between is measured, representing the travel of the valve if the :

distance as measured does not correspond to drawing, then the link

block is moved until the required travel is arrived at, which means
that the eccentric rod is exactly in line with the valve spindle
usually termed " Link in line." As before explained, the moving of
the link block in or out decreases or increases the travel of the valve.
After travel is adjusted, the next operation is to find the leads of
the valves. The H.P. engine (piston valve) is turned on to the top
centre, and the space between the top inside edge of the valve and the
bottom of the port in the valve liner is measured by means of a small
wedge-shaped piece of wood. The engine is now turned to bottom
 "

48 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

centre, and the space between the bottom inside edge of the valve
and the top edge of the bottom port is measured, and the amount
obtained represents the lead of the valve, with crank on bottom. If
these figures do not coincide with drawing figures, that is, if lead on
top is too much and too little on bottom, then the washer on which
the valves sit will require to be reduced, or if the leads were vice

No. 59.— Valve Setting.

1, Trammel. 3, Mark for valve at mid-travel.
2, Mark for valve at "bottom."' 4, Mark for valve at '
top.
5, Mark for valve at "top lead."

versa, then a thicker washer would be required, or the eccentric rod

lined up. The same
operation is carried out on the three engines.
Points of cut-off and port opening, and in some special cases the
points of admission and compression ^nd release, are also taken.
The point of cut-off is obtained by starting with the engine on top
centre, and turning in an ahead direction. The valve is watched as it
goes down and opens the port to full port opening, then starts to
return, and at the point where it is edge and edge with the port
on the valve face the engine is stopped, and the distance it has
 Workshop Practice 49

travelled is measured from the mark on the column face to the mark

on the guide shoe. That distance is the point of cut-off, and may
be -70 of the stroke, or as designed. Another and more exact method

No. 60. — To Measure the Cut-off.

1, Wood baton. 3, Mark for '"cut off."

2, Mark for •'bottom centre. 4, Mark for ''top centre."

is by the use of batons. These batons are marked off, one for the
valve face and one for the valve (Sketch No. 60), showing the ports
in the valve face and the edges of the valve. To set these sticks
 —

50 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches

the engine is put on top centre, and one baton is fixed to the top
of the valve spindle, the other to the top of the valve casing. By
setting the batons to correspond with the top lead which was found
by actual measurement, then all other points will be found to be
exactly correct, providing the marking-off of the batons was care-
fully done. A baton is also fixed on to the end of the piston
rod and a line put on with the crank on top centre, and the
engine turned until by observing the valve closing the port, as
shown on the batons, the engine is stopped and another line put
on the stick which is fastened to the piston rod, and the distance
between these marks represents the point of cut-off. The other
points are arrived at in the same manner, the explanation of the
terms being as follows :

Admission. —Valve just edge to edge -with port in valve face or

liner.

Lead.— Amount valve open steam with crank on

is for centre.

Port Opening. — Greatest amount that valve opens port to steam.

Compression. — When exhaust edge of valve with edge
is in line
of port closing same to exhaust.
Release. — When exhaust edge of valve just edge to edge wilh
is

port opening to exhaust.

The valve gear is now brought to astern position, that is, with
the astern eccentric rod in line with the valve spindle. The usual
points which are taken with astern gear are that of lead and travel,
which are found in the same manner as before described. The link
blocks, as before explained, are graded, and this is done by putting
the eccentric rod out of line with the valve spindle and particulars
taken of the valve settings, which gives decreased travel, earlier
cut-off, and increased lead. These points are for the guidance of the
engineer in charge, and through judicious use of this gear the most
economical working of the engines may be arrived at.

Connections on Cylinders, Pumps, &c., and Dismantling

Engines and Closing up Cylinders.
On each of the cylinders drain cocks are fitted, one on the
cylinder and one on the valve casing, and pipes are connected to these
cocks leading to the bilges, the cocks being operated by gear led
down to the bottom platform in the engine-room. Indicator cocks,
one on top and one on bottom of cylinder, are also fitted as well as
escape valves to allow of any excessive pressure in cj'linder or casing
being liberated. Abalance cylinder and piston is usually fitted on
the L.P. valve, so as to take the weight as far as possible off the
valve gear (see page 202). The bottom of the piston is open to
the steam in the valve casing and the top side is in a vacuum,
 Workshop Practice 51

being connected by piping to the condenser. There are several

patent balance cylinders on the market, such as Joy's, but the
principle is similar to that described. On the H.P. valve casing
the stop valve for admitting steam to the engine is usually fitted,

GUIDE
BRACKET
(3>

n3i
PUMP CROSSHEAD
?r-^ '^
LLJJ

ff ®

®
No. 61.— Trammelling Pump Links for Wear Down.
1, Lever pin. 4, Guide rod of crosshead.
2, Pump crosshead blocked up on 5, Feed pumps.
cover with glands fair and free. 6, Circulating pump.
3, Trammel distance. 7, Air pump.
 —

52 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

and connections are also led from this valve to the H.P. jacket
and to the LP. valve casing through a valve, termed an impulse
valve (see page 183). This valve is used while heating up cylinders,
and also for assisting in smartly moving the engines while man-
oeuvring. The gland on the H.P. engine is usually packed with
patent packing or with metallic combination packing, the I. P. gland
is sometimes packed in a similar manner, and the L.P. gland with
soft asbestos packing. The valve spindle glands, in the case of
H.P. and LP., are also fitted with metallic packing and the L.P. with
soft packing. In the majority of engines now constructed separate
pumps are fitted, but the type of engine for cargo steamers usually
has the pumps worked off the main engine. These pumps consist of
air pump, circulating pump, two feed pumps, and two bilge pumps.
These are operated by means of levers connected to the LP. engine
by means of drag links. The levers are supported on a double bear-
ing at the back of the LP. column, and are usually of two steel plates
with bosses between, and riveted together. The pins to which the
drag links are connected are riveted into the boss on the levers. At
the other end the drag links which connect to the pump crosshead are
fixed. The levers are bedded down in their bearings and the covers
leaded in a similar manner to that of the other bearings on the engine.
The drag links are trained and bedded on to their respective pins, and
the clearance of the air and circulating pumps are taken to get the
:

clearance, the main engines are turned to position with crank on top
centre and mark put on air pump and circulating pump rod, or by
applying a gauge between crosshead and pump covers. The engine
is again turned to bottom centre, and another mark put on the —
distance between represents the travel of the levers and by discon-
;

necting the drag links and lowering the pump bucket until it rests
on the bottom, and putting a mark on, the difference between the
travel mark and this mark will represent the bottom clearance.
The pump bucket is then lifted up to the top and pulled by means
of tackle until it touches the head valve, and a mark put on, and by
comparing the two marks the clearance at top is arrived at. The feed
and bilge pumps are tested for clearance when the pumps are at
bottom stroke. The nuts on the spindles through the crosshead are
slackened and the plunger lowered until it rests on the bottom, a
mark put on, or gauged by callipers between the shoulder on spindle
and crosshead the distance representing the clearance will be found
;

by putting on a mark from the same point as before when the

plunger spindle is screwed up in crosshead. The usual clearance for
air pumps, feed and bilge pumps is as follows :

Air pump - - - top, | inch, bottom, |- inch.

Bilge pump - - - bottom, i to i^ inches.
Feed pump - - - bottom, | to i^^ inches.

It will be noticed that the air pump clearance is most on top;

this is explained by the distance between lever pins and crosshead
 :

Workshop Practice 53
being decreased as wear on tiie drag links is taken up. The engines
are now ready for dismantling, and the cylinders are taken down, also
columns. Crank-shaft is lifted and cleaned and oiled and put bad
into place in the soleplatc bearings. All hard bits or heavy bearing:

No. 62. — Cast-Steel Piston.

With Ramsbottom rings fitted into junk ring to allow of removal.

in crank-pin bushes and top end bearings are eased, and all gear
prepared for transfer to the ship. The cylinders are thoroughly
examined to ensure that there is no sand or dirt in any of the ports,
and this being so, they are ready for closing up. The piston rods

*No. 63.— Cast Steel Piston.

Fitted with Ramsbottom rings.
For a cylinder 20 inches diameter the proportions are
b-ij inches. d = i inch.
= 1 inch. e—ii\ inches.
2 or 3 rings to be fitted.

are put into the pistons and hard hammered up, locking cutters or
split pins fitted, and the whole is lifted and lowered into the cylinder.
The interior of cylinder has been beforehand rubbed over with
cylinder oil to prevent rusting during the time that machinery is
stationary. The H.P. piston is usually packed with Ramsbottom
* Reprinted bv permission from "Marine Engine Design." Prof. Edw.ird M. Bragg
D. Van Noslrand Co., New York, 1910.
 —

" Verbal " Notes and Sketches

54

* No. 64. — Buckley Type Piston Ring.

For a piston 24 inches diameter the proportions are as follows :

b = 2^ inches. c = f^ inch. d=ifj inches. e---ir'g inches.

f=i;| inches. g=2i inches. h= i inch.

No. 65.— Cylinder Valve Face.

Gutters and holes drilled to reduce wear.
NOTE.— The holes, i inch diameter, ^V inch deep, are bored out
with a flat nosed drill.

* Reprinted hy permission from "Marine Engine Design." Prof. Edward M. Bragg.

D. Van Nostrand Co., New York, 1910.
fh
Bw
^ TA3M
I TO CiunMTAJ
fKSn Y8 IJ riit^ij

>ID0J6 y
!vr-;5d- cM

'HT fi28A«a

P'^

a^tHA3e

—— ' • .'.Ki-C-.-V-i-ii
LINER EXPANDED BY HEAT_^| Q |

m^.
No. 66.— Method of Shrinking on Propeller Shaft Liners.

FOR aTMICK pQp brass! THICK

PUTTY PUMP AIR ESCAPE 1

K BEARING

No. 67.— Propeller Shaft Continuous Liner.

(With Thickness Variation,
 —

Workshop Practice 55

rings and segment packing rings (Sketch No. 63), and these are
assembled and junk ring put on and nuts screwed up. The nuts
on the junk ring are prevented from slackening back by means of
either split pin above the nuts if square-necked studs are fitted, or
by means of a guard ring which bears against nuts or pins, and is
itself kept in place by being fitted on square-necked studs having
split pins through the nuts. The other two cylinders are closed up
in a similar manner, the LP. piston packing rings being same as
H.P., and the L.P. being either one of the patent packing rings or the
packing ring with coach springs or spiral springs pressing it out
against the cylinder wall. The valves are dealt with in a similar
manner, the H.P. being a piston valve, LP. a single-ported slide valve,
and L.P. double-ported slide valve. Previous to putting the valves
in place, oil gutters are cut on the face (Sketch No. 65) ; this assists to
reduce friction, and in the case of the H.P. grooves are turned on
the rings which join the valves. The cylinder and casing covers
are jointed with asbestos joints, and in some cases asbestos tape,
glands are packed, and all openings to interior of C}'linders or casings
closed up. The pistons and rods are supported, so that when lifting
cylinders the rods will not lower to the bottom of the cylinder; the
valve spindles and valves are also supported, and the whole three
cylinders are now ready for transport to the ship.

Propeller Shaft Liners.

Propeller shafts are brass lined from end to end to prevent galvanic
action taking place between the brass liner and steel of the shaft.
The liners are fitted in two styles
1. Shrunk on hot.
2. Forced on cold by hydraulic ram pressure.

1. —
Shrinking on (Sketch No. 66). The shaft is supported by bolting
up to one of the tunnel lengths, which leaves the whole length free to
receive the liner. The liner is then heated either by gas burners or by
a fire built underneath, and after sufficient expansion has taken place
the liner is drawn over the shaft by means of blocks and chain tackle.
When the liner cools down the contraction resulting is sufficient to
lock the liner to the shaft, screwed pins being seldom used in present
practice, as in quite a number of cases the pins have been found to
slacken back and come out of place. Before shrinking on, the liner
is bored out about 5^0 less in diameter than the shaft, therefore
for a 12-inch shaft the inside diameter of the liner will be 12 inches
— sV^ inch= 1 1-976 inches, say iifj inches full.
—
NOTE. If the liner sticks when being drawn on it may be forced on by
pressure at the end, or expanded again by building a fire underneath.

2. Forced on Cold (Sketch No. 68).— In this method the liner is

stepped to three diameters, the difference at each length being ^ir inch.
The forward and after diameters should be a bearing fit, but the centre
56 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

length need not be so as in the " shrinking on " method the liner
;

is bored out a trifle less in diameter than the shaft at each "step"
and the liner is then forced on over the end of the shaft, by a
hydraulic ram exerting a pressure of about i lO tons. Notice that
the ram pressure only requires to be exerted for one of the stepped
lengths, as the three fit simultaneously.

Variation in Liner Thickness (Sketch No. 6"]).

Occasionally the liner is cast in three thicknesses as shown in

the sketch, being .thickest at the position of the forward bearing,
next at the after bearing, and least of all at the centre where the
shaft does not bear at all. Two holes are bored in the liner at the
centre length and putty is forced in by means of a pump through
one of the holes to fill up the clearance space inside, the other
allowing for the escape of air these holes are afterwards filled up
:

by means of screwed pins riveted over.

Marking off Ship for Boring out — Propeller Shafting and

Thrust Block (Sketch No. 69).
The part of the ship's hull through which the stern tube passes
is bored out to a size so as to ensure the stern tube being a good fit
in same, and absolutely watertight. The method of marking off the
stern post and bulkheads for boring out is as follows : —
In the centre
of the hole which passes through the stern bracket a wooden disc is
fitted completely filling the hole. Upon this piece of wood the centre
of the shaft from keel as given in drawing is marked, and the centre of
the present bore of the stern frame or bracket is taken. A small hole
^V or tV inch in diameter is bored through the wood at these points
(Sketch No. 69). In the engine-room at the forward bulkhead, the
height of centre of shaft from keel is marked off, and also the centre of
the ship athwart-ships is marked. A small hole is also drilled here.
At the back of this hole a lighted candle or electric lamp is fixed and
the operator if by looking through from the stern to the engine-room
through the small hole in the wooden disc can see the light, then
that point will give the centre for boring out. If the light is not
seen, then it will be necessary to shift centres, and to facilitate this,
a sliding or movable centre is used, so that it can be moved about
until light is visible, the light now being seen from aft end of tube
bearing to engine-room. Another centre is fitted in engine-room
bulkhead, and the light picked up. A similar centre is fitted in the
after bulkhead in the tunnel, and light sighted. The whole is again
sighted from the aft end, and light being seen, a centre is put in holes
in discs and circles drawn around equal to the boring out size proof
;

marks are also put on so as to test boring bar. The bulkhead in

forward end of tunnel is marked off in a .<5imilar manner, and is
bored out for a bulkhead gland. At various distances throughout
 aA3M>IJUQ

MOOS^ JH!DH

>.oa

T1AH2 XMA«D ^O 351TH30

OMIWA^a M05n
 WOOD BATTEN
-36"

No. 69.— Method of Sighting for Line of Shafting and Boring Stern Post.
1.At distance up marked on drawing as "shaft centre" and at centre alliwartships, cut across the hole now move the straight edges up and down until the light is seen when looking through
: from
(say inch diameter) in the engine-room forward bulkhead, and to this fix a piece of tin
I
punch outside the stern post, then with a suitable radius measure upwards and downwards on the bulkhead, and
hole
^ inch diameter at centre and place a small electric lamp in a box in the position shown.
;

make centre punch marks. Repeat the foregoing with the sticks and slot In a vertical position, and when
Block up the stern post hole (previously bored out to liss than the required diameter)
2.
the light is again picked up make centre punch marks on the bulkhead port and starboard at same radius.
wooden disc, m which cut but a i-inch hole on this pin a sheet of tin with a T!,-inch hole Fill up the hole with wood and from the marks so obtained find the dead centre from which a proof
;
at thi dead
centre isee Sketch), and from the centre scribe in the proof circle for boring
out. circle c Ibe set off for boring out.
3. Prepare two straight-edges, say 36 inches in length by
3 inches in width, and recessed at the (). Intermediate bulkheads are treated in the same manner as just described, and as a final lest tin
middle, say 6 inches by
by r inch.
^inch, so that when placed together the slot so formed
will be 3 indies slieets, with ,'„-inch holes in each, to all the bulkhead openings, and the light, placed
forward, should then be visible thro viewed from the outside of the ship through the hole
I

Have, say, i »-inch hole punclied in after peak bulkhead and place
the sticks with slot horizontal in stern post.

NOTE.— One man is placed to took through the holes and another i I the sliding sticks to find the tight

Notes ami SVet-rhcs.

r\
 Workshop Practice 57

the shaft tunnel sighting sticks are erected, and from these the
height of the various stools for the tunnel bearings are derived
The centre on the forward end of the engine-room is used when the
holding-down holes are templated and bored previous to the engines
being installed. In this operation the template is laid down on the
engine-room floor, and the centre line on the template is set in line
to a centre line on the forward bulkhead in line with the sighting
centre. If the shafting is in place then from the centre of the thrust
shaft the template is set, or if shaft is not in place, then the template
is set to the centre of the hole in which the bulkhead gland is fitted.

The stern frame and bulkheads are bored out usually by power
derived from an electric motor, or if no electric power is available
then a small donkey boiler and steam-engine are erected connecting
with belt to the boring bar. After boring out, the stern tube is put
in place from the inside, and drawn hard up into position by means
of the nut on the after end. The inner end is bolted to the bulkhead
and wood liner fitted at back of same. At the outer end of stern tube
a brass bush is fitted, termed the stern bush. This bush is lined with
lignum vitae, the bottom layers having the grain end on, so as to reduce
the wear as much as possible. The lignum vitae is fitted into channels
in the brass bush, and is prevented from working out by a collar at
the forward end of the bush, and at the aft end by means of a brass
gland bolted to the flange of the bush itself (see illustration facing
page 361). The space into which the wood is fitted is tapered
in a fore and aft direction, and the wood is driven up into same, thus
ensuring a good fit. The tail shaft is shipped into stern tube from
the interior of the tunnel, and on the inside flange of the stern tube
a gland is fitted, which prevents any leakage taking place into the
tunnel. This gland is packed with soft rope-yarn packing soaked in
tallow, and a water connection is led from the top of the stern tube
to this gland, so that in the event of getting hot the gland and shaft
can be cooled out. The propeller is held on shaft by means of a
feather and nut. This nut is hard hammered up, and a stopper
fitted. In the recess in front of the boss a rubber ring is fitted to
prevent water getting in or eating away the part of the shaft which
is not covered by the brass liner, and in some cases short glands are

fitted on the forward side of the boss, being packed with a rubber ring
(Sketch No. 69). The tunnel bearings are of cast iron lined with
white metal, and are supported on built-up stool, between which and
bearing block teakwood liners are fitted, bringing bearings up to
required height (Sketch No. 70). At the forward end of the tunnel
the thrust block is situated (see page 182) this block is made up of a
:

number of shoes, as the design may require. The shoes are of cast
iron, lined with white metal, having gutters cut on each side, oil being
supplied from an oil box cast on each shoe. Water service connec-
tions are also made so that a water circulation takes place throughout
the interior of the shoe. The block itself is of cast iron, and is
rigidly bolted to the ship's frame, this part of the ship being specially
 V^erbal " Notes and Sketches
58

strengthened. The interior of the block is used as a lubricating

bath, being filled with fresh water and oil, through which the collars
of the thrust shaft revolve, thus lubricating each face of the shoes.

OQ

ho
a
'u
rt S3

-c
(U
PQ
"^
U O
.

o ^
o
CQ

I
J3

o
 Workshop Practice 59

Erecting" Machinery in Ship.

The tail shaft being shipped into place, and stern tube gland fitted
and packed, the intermediate lengths of shafting are now put in and

No. 71.— Cast-iron Chocks.

I, Teakwood wedges. 2, Chock. 3, Joint.

NOTE.— The size of chock varies, but average proportions are:

«vidth 6 to 8 inches, depth i to i| inches, fitting strips ^ to ^ inch.

.set up The shaft is blocked up and tunnel bearing block put

in line.
on being bound on same by means of canvas between cover of
shaft,
bearings and shaft. The aft coupling of the shaft is brought fair to
the coupling of the propeller shaft by means of feelers, that is, the face
of the two couplings are tested to ensure that a feeler of say -010 can
be inserted at all four points, and the rim of the flange of the coupling
tested also by means of a straight-edge, to ensure that shafts are in
line sideways, and also for height. The space between the bottom
of the bearing block and the stool is now filled up with teakwood
liner. During the filling and on completion the shaft couplings are
tested to ensure that they remain fair. The next length of shafting
is set up in a similar manner, and so on until the complete length of
shafting has been set up. At the forward end of the tunnel where
the shaft passes through the bulkhead, another gland is fitted, so
that in event of the tunnel being flooded, by shutting the watertight
door at the entrance to the tunnel, no water would pass into the
 —

6o "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

engine-room. This gland is also packed with soft rope-yarn packing.

The thrust shaft is set up to the coupling of the intermediate shaft and
set, and the holes for fixing block to seating are bored, a^nd fitted bolts
put in. The engine soleplate with crank-shaft in place is brought

No. 72.— Types of Cast-iron Chocks.

4, Bolt screwed through tank top.

into line with coupling of thrust shaft and set up in a similar manner
as that previously described, flange of couplings set fair face to face
and on the rim of flanges. To arrive at this result the soleplate is
made up at suitable points on iron wedges and plates, and these
wedges are driven as required to bring crank-shaft coupling up to
height of thrust shaft coupling. The soleplate and crank-shaft are
moved bodily as required by means of screw jacks. The couplings
being fair the space between the engine-room seating and the sole-
plate is made up by means of cast-iron chocks. These chocks are
usually fitted at each bolt which binds soleplate to ship, and are
chipped and filed until they are a good fit. The holes for bolts or
studs are bored through the engine seating, if not previously marked
off by template. In the case of there being a tank under the engine-
room, screwed studs will be fitted as holding-down bolts having a nut
inside the tank, jointed with washer and grummet. The soleplate
being now made up and set, the columns and cylinders are lowered
into position, and gear erected on engine. The pipes connecting the
various parts of the engines and boilers are now fitted and jointed,
the main connections on the engine being as follows :

Main Steam Pipe. — From boilers to engine stop valve.

Main Injection Pipe. — From valve on side to bottom
ship's of
circulating pump.

Main Discharge — From top of condenser to

Pipe. ship's side.

Feed Pump Suction. — From hot-well to suction valves on feed

pump.
 —

Workshop Practice 6i

Feed Pump Discharge. — From feed pump discharge vah'es to

boiler.

—
Bilge Pump Suction. Led to distribution box in engine-room,
from which various holds and wells are connected.

Bilge Pump Discharge. — From bilge pumps to discharge valve

on ship's side.

The boilers are erected on stools in the boiler hold, chocks being
fitted between the boiler shell and the stools (see page 1 56). Chocks
are also fitted between the boilers, and stays are also fitted from the
ship's side to the boiler, to prevent movement of the boilers in bad
weather. Knees are also fitted at both ends of the boiler riveted
to the tank top, and being close up to the front of the boiler at
the centre; these knees are usually left from yV to -£^ inch clear, to
allow for expansion of boiler (see page 156), The usual mountings
on the boilers are as follows :

Main stop valve - -

^
Auxiliary stop valve -
tt u . r u ••

Steam to whistle - -
^'^'^^ °" ^«P ^^ ^°^'^''-
[
Safety valves - - J

Gauge glass connections

Scum cock -

Auxiliary feed check

Main feed check -
On end of boiler.

Test cocks -
Salinometer cock -

Blow-down cock -

Drain cock -
On bottom of boiler.

After boilers have been installed and all connections raised steam
is got up and the boiler covering put on. This is usually one or
other of the specialities on the market. It is put on in the form of
wet pulp and dried by the heat of the boiler. Outside, a sheet-iron
casing is fitted extending to the bottom quarter of the boiler, and in
some ships asbestos mats are fitted round the bottom of the sheet
covered with wire netting. After boilers are covered, steam is raised
and safety valves set. This means that the washers between the
safety valve nuts and the standards are taken out and the nuts
adjusted so that the valves will lift and release the pressure on the
boiler when it has reached the designed pressure. In a boiler having
forced draught, an accumulation test is necessary. This means that
with forced draught being maintained to the pressure required,
usually f inch air pressure in the ashpits, the pressure on the boiler
must not rise more than 5 lbs, on the figure required, thus showing
that the safety valves are of ample area to release any pressure over
that which it is designed for the boiler to carry. After val\-es have
been set, the space between the nuts and collar is gauged, and the
62 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches

washers fitted accurately to same. If the engines are in an advanced

state of construction at this time, it is usual to have what is termed a
basin trial on the same day as the safety valves are set. During a
basin trial the engines are rev^olved at a slow speed, it not being possible
to exceed this, owing to the risk of carrying away the mooring ropes.

No. 73— Wear Down Gauge.

1, Steel pin touching shaft.
2, Collar touching- gauge when pin is touching shaft.
3, Holes for dowel pins.

The gauges shown in Nos. 75 and 76 are employed in

wear down of shafting, as when the bearings work
testing the
down a clearance will be shown at the point of the bolt in
No. 75 or between the projection on the gauge plate of No. 76.
These clearances should be carefully noted for each bearing,
and a record kept for future reference and subsequent wear
down.

Auxiliary Machinery.
In describing the auxiliary machinery it will be understood that
we are dealing with an installation suitable for a set of engines the
construction of which has been previously described. As before
explained, the feed pumps are connected and operated by the main
 Workshop Practice 63

engines. These pumps discharge the feed water to a feed heater,

which is situated on the upper platform of the engine-room. The
feed water passes through this heater, and becomes heated by contact
with steam which is admitted into the interior. A heater of this type
is termed a direct contact heater. The water falls to the bottom of
the heater, and falls by gravitation to a feed pump, which is situated
on the bottom platform of the engine-room. This pump delivers the
water through the filter, which is one or other of the various makes
described elsewhere, and then through the feed check or valve into

No. 74.— Wear Down Gauge.

1, Gauge.
2, Small part filed on top of housing- to allow gauge to touch shaft.

the boiler. This pump is usually controlled by automatic gear in the

feed heater, which regulates the speed of the pump to the amount of
water passing through the heater. The next auxiliary is that usuall}'
termed the " General Service Donkey Pump." This pump has con-
nections suitable to draw from the sea, hot-well, tanks, and bilges
and can discharge to the boilers (through the auxiliar)' feed checks),
tanks, and overboard.

The ballast pump is used for pumping the various ballast tanks in
the ship, and has connection to all parts of the ship, also sea and bilge
 ;

64 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

suction,and can discharge overboard and into the tanks (see illustra-
tion facingpage 198). An evaporator is fitted, one of the various types
described elsewhere, the principles of which are as follows —
Steam is
:

passed through copper pipes of various shapes ; outside of these pipes

is sea water, which becomes heated, and gives off a steam vapour
this vapour is collected and led off either to the condenser or L.P.
engine casing, thus adding to the amount of feed water which is
pumped into the boilers. A small pump is fitted, usually operated
by the main engine pump levers. This pump has a sea suction and
discharge into the evaporator, and the amount of water being pumped
in is adjusted so as to make up for the amount being evaporated.
There are various types of feed water filters on the market, the
principle of which is. to extract the grease and impurities from the
feed water. The filter medium usually consists of cloths of the nature
of towelling held between metal perforated grids, and in some filters
furnace slag is used, proving a cheap and efficient filtering material.
In large ships a sanitarj^ pump operated by the main engine levers is
fitted, but in cargo steamers it is usual to have a tank on the top of
the engine-room skylights ; this tank is filled up every morning,
supplying the necessary water for the sanitary system throughout
the day. In ships having forced draught a fan engine is fitted this ;

engine operates the fan which supplies the air to the boiler furnaces.
In Howden's system the air is carried through a trunk, and then
passes around tubes situated in the boiler uptake. The air is heated
by this means before passing into the furnaces. The usual pressure
to carry on the air gauge or fan is from i^ to 2 inches ;this gives a
pressure in the ashpits of | to f inch. It will be understood that this
air pressure may be altered according to conditions, such as nature
of coal being used, and also as regards weather conditions. In the
stokehold an ash hoist is fitted. This may be one of the specialities,
such as Alley & M'Lellan's, Crompton's, or See's ash ejector. But it
is more common to have a small steam winch fitted up on the top of

the fiddley, with a steel ware rope led through pulleys into the venti-
lators, and thence to the stokehold floor. If the ship is fitted with
electric light the electric engine is usually in the engine-room, steam
being supplied either from the auxiliary steam pipe or direct from
the boiler. This engine is generally fitted with a governor so as to
ensure steady running. On deck the machinery usuall}^ consists
of eight or twelve winches, steam being supplied from the main or
donkey boiler, and the exhaust from these winches is led back to
an auxiliary condenser situated in the engine-room. The auxiliary
condenser is generally arranged so that the condensed steam flows
into a tank underneath ; the feed pump is connected to same, and
supplies the donkey boiler with feed water from this source. The
circulating water for the condenser is usually supplied by a small
pump fitted for this purpose, and in up-to-date installations the
condenser is supplied with circulating water from an engine which
works an air circulating and feed pump together, a very compact
 Workshop Practice 65

arrangement. A steam windlass on the forecastle head, and

is fitted

in some cases a warping capstan is on the poop or aft end of

fitted
the ship. On the top platform of the engine-room the steering
engine is situated this engine has exhaust connections to the main
:

and auxiliary condensers and also to the atmosphere. The control

gear for this engine is led from the bridge, and is operated by means
of the steering wheel. There are various types of steering engines
on the market, but the main principles of each are similar. In some
ships the steering engine is housed aft, being directly connected to
the rudder head, and the connecting shafts are led along inside a
casing or deck to the engine, there operating the valve on the steering
engine this valve is termed the control valve.
; A sketch is given
showing the arrangement of shafting operating the control valve
and a description of the various types of steering gears is given
elsewhere. (See page 340.)

Trial Trips.
On completion of the installation of the machinery on board ship,
and previous to handing the ship over to the owner's representatives,
a trial trip is run. This usually consists of a series of runs over a
measured course, posts or sighting points being erected on the shore,
the distance between being exactly one nautical mile. After ship
leaves the harbour, the compasses are adjusted, that is, the ship is
slowly steamed in a circle, the compass adjusters during this time
finding out and adjusting the reading of the compasses supplied to
the ship. In the engine-room an engineer is told off to attend to a
special part of the machinery, one attending to the boilers, regu-
lating the water supply and seeing that the steam pressure is main-
tained. One man looks after an individual engine, overlooking the
running of the main bearings, eccentric straps, and crank-pins. On
the middle platform men are also stationed, who observe the running
of the top end bearings, guide shoes and piston rods, and valve gear.
The piston rods are swabbed with cylinder oil, and the other bearings
on connecting rod and guide shoes are supplied with oil from siphon
boxes (see page 197) on the top platform, but it is usual on trial
trips to augment this supply by hand feeding. A man attends to
the pumps and connections on same, overlooking the pumping of
bilges, supply of circulating water, and working of feed pumps. An
engineer is also in attendance in the tunnel, whose duty it is to
attend to the lubrication of the tunnel bearings and thrust block.
On the top platform a man is also stationed attending to the supply
of oil in the siphon boxes and the working of the feed heater and
steering gear, if same gear is situated in the engine-room. It is
usual to proceed slowly to the measured mile so as to gradually work
the bearings into good running condition. All being well and ready
for the first run, draughtsmen are told off for taking indication cards
and counters, and observing pressures on the various gauges connected
5
66 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

with the machinery. It will be understood that all operations have

to be smartly carried out as the time which elapses between going
on the mile and coming off, even in a slow cargo tramp, is not of long
duration. Immediately before coming in line with the post on the
shore a warning bell is rung, "get ready," and then when in line
the telegraph is rung hard signifying that the ship is " now on the
mile." When the mile has been run and the ship in line with
the other post or point on shore the telegraph is again rung, and
the engines are slowed down, while preparations are made in the
stokehold for the next run. The ship is brought round again and
all ready for the return run. This is carried out five or six times,
and then the course is laid for a run of three to six hours at a steady
speed, thus proving that machinery is in good working order. During
the running on the mile, coal is measured in the stokehold, and after
indicators, cards, and particulars taken have been worked out a
statement is prepared showing the result of the various runs on the
mile. In large passenger ships and Admiralty ships runs of thirty
hours' duration are made, the trial trips in these cases usually
extending to four or five days. In Admiralty trials the feed water
is measured, and the firing is carried out on a system of time firing,
that is, arrangements are made to burn a certain amount of coal per
square foot of fire grate per hour. The coal is measured out, and on
the ringing of a gong or similar signal the firing in each stokehold
takes place.

Care and Upkeep of Machinery.

In considering the care required to keep a set of triple expansion
engines in good condition, we will deal with a set of new engines
and consider what means are required to maintain the machinery in
an efficient condition. It should be borne in mind that a loose
bearing has as much chance of heating up as one that is too finely
adjusted, especially when it is a connecting rod bearing that is in a
slack condition. The bearing will knock on the centres this knock-
;

ing tends to spread the white metal, with the result that ridges are
formed on the side of the bearings, and also the knocking has the
tendency to press out the oil which is between the bush and the pin.
To ensure a bearing being in proper adjustment, after leads have
been taken off and found correct, the bearings should be put together
and nuts hammered up until they are at the marks which were put
on when leads were in bush. By inserting a slice bar or other
suitable bar between the web and the bush and testing the bush to
see that it moves from side to side, this will prove that bush is not
too tight, and should give good running results. The same operaton
should be carried out on the top end bearing also. After ship has
done outward voyage, the top main bearings should be lifted and wear
down gauge applied. There are various forms of wear down gauges
supplied by various builders. Sketches, Nos. 73 and 74, are given
 Workshop Practice 67

showing two forms of this gauge which are generally supplied. If

wear has taken place, notes of same should be taken, and after the
next run this reading should be again verified, as if the wear continues
it is possible that the chocking and lining up of the soleplate has not

been properly carried out. 'Fhe eccentric straps are also liable to
wear, especially when coming to a bearing, and to avoid the trouble
of opening up valve casings and testing setting of valves, a simple
method of proving same is as follows, when engines are new, and
this should be done in the works if possible : —
With the valve standing
at full travel upwards, a mark is put on valve spindle, and from this
mark a small trammel is made, touching a point either on the
cylinder or valve spindle guide bracket (Sketch No. 59). By turning
engine into similar position and trying trammel, any wear down that
has taken place can be seen at once, the wear down having taken
place either in saddle block bearings or eccentric straps. Another
method is to put valve to top lead and put a trammel mark on with
spindle in this position ; this is easier, as it only entails turning crank
CO top centre, and having gear full ahead, care being taken that link
block is in same position as when trammel marks were applied.
Piston rods should be carefully watched to see that engines have
been carefully lined off, and that glands are true to bore of
cylinder, a defect which will show up very early if such should be
the case (Sketch No. 48). The working of the various pumps
should be noted, and wear of pump links tested in the usual manner,
that is, by disconnecting same and testing distance from pump cross-
head to pins on lever by means of gauge, which should be made and
kept for this purpose (Sketch No. 61). A hint may not be out of
place as regards circulating pump, and that is to use as little
circulating water as is necessary to ensure good vacuum. By care-
fully observing vacuum gauge and gradually closing down circulating
inlet it will be found possible to ease the load on pump to a con-
siderable extent. The H.P. piston valve should be kept in as tight
a condition as possible, and it is not conducive to a good working
piston valve to keep on lining out the rings on same. This lining
only tends to wear the valve liners into an oval shape, with the
result that reboring out is necessary. If the valve liners are plain,
then the turning of two or three small grooves round the circumfer-
ence of rings will assist to keep valve tight, as condensed steam gets
into grooves and forms a film between liner and ring (see page 207).
The H.P. piston, being fitted with Ramsbottom rings, should give
good results if the rings have been properly manufactured, but if
they show signs of having lost their elasticity, then new ones should
be fitted. Another point regarding these rings is to have them as
near a fit in the grooves in piston as possible, for if slack, then the
constant change from one side to the other will not only wear out
the rings but will inflict considerable damage on the bonnet or
packing ring. The LP. slide valve usually gives trouble, and the face
of valve and valve face on cylinder should be carefully tested by
68 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches

means of straight-edge and feelers to ascertain that wear is taking

place equally all over. Should the valve show wear round the out-
side, that is, the inside ports or bars show high, then it will help to
equal the wear if a few short gutters are cut on the part that is wear-
ing. Another good plan is to bore a series of holes with a flat-nosed
drill (Sketch No. 65). These holes should only be about rh to j\ inch
deep. It is the practice now to bore out the cylinders with a bell
mouth at either end, the piston travels the extreme length of the
bore, with the result that no ridges are formed at top and bottom of
cylinders. Condensers in new ships are sometimes a source of trouble,
leaking taking place, with the result that boiler density is increased.
A good test for feed water is by means of nitrate of silver, and the test
consists of drawing off a small quantity of feed water in a tumbler or
other transparent vessel and adding a drop of nitrate of silver; should
the water become milky then salt is present, and the amount can be
gauged by the resultant whiteness of the water. The use of water
service on engine bearings has greatly decreased, as engineers find
that a bearing will run just as well without water, always allowing
that it is in line and properly adjusted. Once water is used it is not
possible to run a bearing without it, so that the use of water, even in
small quantities, should be avoided.

How to keep a Watch.

The engineer's life at sea is not exactly a bed of roses and the
following description of his duties during the time he is on watch will
emphasise this statement. The engineer whose turn it is to relieve
will be called at a quarter before the hour on which he takes up duty,
and promptness in relieving is most important. On entering the
engine-room the first inspection should be the steering gear, bearings
examined, and moving parts inspected to ensure all being in good
order. The feed heater is next visited and pressure on steam gauge
noted. Descending to the middle platform L.P. piston rod is felt by
hand, also top end and face of columns and guide shoes. The valve
gear or L.P. engine is next looked over, and the LP. and H.P. engines
dealt with in the same manner. The rocking shaft bearing is felt by
hand, and the crosshead links and top end of the pump links. All
being well, the bottom platform is next visited, and the bottom ends
and eccentric straps and main bearings felt by hand. During the
passage from one bearing to another, the L.P. and I. P. pressure gauges
are glanced at, to ensure that pressure is being maintained, also the
vacuum gauge. The boilers are next visited, and height of water in
gauge glasses and steam pressure noted, also that the firemen are
at their duties, preparing to clean fires. The pumps are next ex-
amined, care being taken to ascertain that bilge pumps are working,
and also the connections examined to see what part of the ship the
bilge pumps are drawing from. Port and starboard engine-room
bilges are examined to ascertain the depth of water in same. The
 Workshop Practice 69

thrust block is next felt over by hand, and the interior of block
examined to see that collars on shaft are immersed in the oil and
water bath. The tunnel is next inspected, and each individual bear-
ing felt by hand, also the stern tube gland. The tunnel well is
examined to see that water is not excessive then back to engine-
;

room, and the word passed, " All right," to engineer who is going
off duty.
The foregoing inspection is usually carried out in from seven to
ten minutes. By this time the firemen will be well on the way
cleaning fires, and the engineer will know in which boiler fires are
being cleaned this being so, the feed checks should be regulated, as
;

the boiler on which fires are being cleaned will be at slightly lower
pressure than those which are steaming full. As soon as the fires on
this boiler are well away and the next fire started cleaning, it will be
necessary to again regulate checks, and by the half hour after going
on watch, steam should be at full working pressure and checks can
then be set, so that with but little alteration the rest of the watch
can be run. Should there be no greasers carried, then it will be part
of the engineer's duty to attend to the oiling of the machinery. Oil
is usually a precious liquid on board ship, and the engineer will only

be allowed a certain amount on which to run his watch. The top

cups on the side of the cylinder will first claim his attention, and
should be filled up to I or h inch below^ top of tube, siphons taken
out and dipped into oil and then put back. At the half hour after
going on watch the first oiling round should take place. When
filling up top cups on engine, the steering gear should be visited and
oiled if it is situated in the engine-room, as many gears are. The
main bearing cups will require filling up, and siphons redipped as
was done on top, eccentric straps oiled, and it may be mentioned
that very little oil, properly applied, is as much good as a canful
poured on, which only runs out of the bearings and does not lubricate.
It is generally the rule to supplement the siphon feed to connecting
rod bearings by hand feed usually the rule is to insert oil can into
;

oil cup, and give what can be supplied in two or three revolutions, but
this amount varies according to how the machinery runs. The valve
gear is usually oiled after being on watch one hour, and then again
one hour before being relieved. The pump links and rocking shaft
bearings are dealt with along with the connecting rods and eccentric
straps, that is every half hour. In some engines siphon fed oil cups
are fitted to rocking shaft bearings and pump links, so that in this
case it is only necessary to refill cups.
The usual rule for evaporators is two hours each watch, so that
one hour after coming on it will be requisite to get same under weigh.
Steam is turned on, and feed pump set, and vapour valve opened, and
height of water maintained in gauge glass on evaporator, and steam
gauge set to working pressure. On completion of two hours'
evaporating, if the level of the water in the boilers is at the required
height, the engineer will blow down evaporator, that is, the vapour
 —

" Verbal " Notes and Sketches

70

valve and feed pump will be shut off, and a pressure raised on
evaporator, the blow-down cock opened and evaporator blown out.
This operation is necessary to reduce the density of the water. After
blowing down, the evaporator is refilled to the required height with
water, and left ready for the next watch. The thermometer on the
feed pump, which is drawing from the feed heater, should be examined
to see that temperature is being maintained, and that feed heater is
working efficiently. Visits should be made to the stokehold and
fires examined, also to the bunkers to see that trimmers are working
the bunkers as directed. The tunnel should also be visited at least
twice each watch, if not every hour, and the solidified oil in
bearings renewed or pressed down on shaft. Attention should be
given to the pumping of the bilges in the engine-room and tunnel,
and mud box on bilge pump cleaned out during the watch. Tem-
peratures of the sea water passing to circulating pump and discharge
from condenser overboard should be taken and entered in the log,
also temperature of feed water, and engine-room temperature, steam
pressure on boilers, H.P. cylinder, LP. cylinder, L.P. cylinder, and
vacuum should be entered in log, length of times evaporator was
working, and height of water in main boilers. At one bell, that is,
quarter iDefore the hour of being relieved, the engineer calls the next
watch, and is again below ready to take the counter when his four
hours are up. The counter is taken as eight bells strikes, and worked
out from the counter of the preceding watch, and average revolutions
entered in log book. The relief having gone round and passed the
word, " All right," the engineer is free if it be the evening watch, but if
the day watch, then, after an hour's rest, his winches or other repairs
await him and keep him busily employed until seven bells, that is
half an hour before the watch preceding his own goes on. Regarding
winch repairs, it should be each engineer's duty to see that his winches
are in good order. Every engineer has his own winches, either two
or four, and by careful overlooking, and by giving attention to them
while working, many a hard hour's work is saved when the ship is
in port. Such little attention as black-leading piston rods and moving
each winch about an inch each day saves a lot of packing and keeps
the rods in good condition for future work.

Economical Working.
To obtain the best results from the engines and boilers the fol-
lowing points should be attended to :

1. Keep
grate surface as short as possible.
2. Workwith stop and throttle valves well open, and expand by
link gear only.
3. See that the indicator cards show good compression curves.
4. If possible balance up the power in each cylinder (allowing
extra power for engine driving pumps) by the link gear adjustment.
5. Keep pistons and valve faces tight.
 VIEW OF BOILER FRONT PLATE, FURNACE, AND COMBUSTION.
(Untkr Construction.)

Verbal"' Notes and Sketches.

[To face page 71.
 SECTION II.

BOILERS.
—
Tensile Strength of Plates. The tensile strength of steel shell
plates ranges from 25 tons to 32 tons per square inch if of higher
;

strength the metal is less ductile, and therefore less suitable for
flanging or for expansion under heat. The tensile strength of
combustion chamber and furnace plates ranges from 26 tons to 30
tons per square inch if over 30 tons the plates are too brittle. The
;

tensile strength is also known as the ultimate strength or breaking

stress of the material.

Elastic Limit and Safety Factor. —

If a tensile stress of so many
tons is put on a test strip of steel the strip will become elongated,
and if the load is then taken off the metal will return to its original
length if the stress has been within the elastic limit if, however,
;

the stress has exceeded the elastic limit the metal remains elongated,
as " permanent set " or fracture has then taken place.
If, therefore, the elastic limit is found by testing a number of

strips the safe stress may be taken as equal to about half of this
limit, and from this the Factor of Safety may be determined. Steel
plates have an elastic limit ranging from 12 tons to about 14 tons
per square inch.

—
Example. If 12% tons per square inch is found to be within
the elastic limit of a steel plate, and assuming half of this as the
safe working stress, determine the Factor of Safety, the tensile
strength being 28 tons per square inch.
Then, l2-5-r2=6-25 tons safe stress.
And, Factor of Safety = 28 -f 6-25 = 4-4.
NOTE.— The Factor of Safety for boiler shells varies from 4-4 to 4-6 according
to conditions of construction.

Stresses on Shell Seams.

In cylindrical boiler shells the stress set up by the pressure on
the longitudinal joints is equal to twice the stress on the circum-
72 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

ferential joints this is due to the difference in the end sectional area
:

and side sectional area of the shell acted on by the pressure.

Circumferential Stress.
Rule —
Boiler end area x Pressure
: Stress per square inch.
Boiler circumference x Thickness

Longitudinal Stress.
Rule —
—
Diameter x Pressure
^, .
,
Thickness x 2
— Stress
c^. ,
per square mch.

Graphic Method of Proof for Shell Stresses.

No. I.— Circumferential Shell Stress.

The pressure per square inch exerts a force acting from the centre
on opposite sides of the diameter, and therefore on two thicknesses
of the plate this produces the stress per square inch longitudinally.
:

The pressure per square inch also exerts a force on the boiler end area,
throwing a tensile stress on the shell plate circumferentially, which
 )

Boilers
n
produces the stress in that direction if, then, the end area is calcu-
:

latedand multiplied by the pressure the result will be the total load
blowing out the boiler end, and therefore resisted by the strength of
the shell plate thickness circumferentially.

—
Example. Determine the stress per square inch on the longi-
tudinal and circumferential seams of a boiler 1 5 feet diameter, i-i inches
thick, pressure 200 lbs. per square inch.

Diameter x Pressure 180 x 200

Longitudinal stress = = 12000 lbs. per sq. id.
Thickness x 2 1-5x2
Circumferential Boiler area x Pressure 180- X -7854 X 200
-6000 lbs. per sq. in
stress / Boiler circum. x Thickness 180 x 3-1416 x 1-5

also observe that, l8?i>i:7854x

200^ 180^200 ^^^^^
NOTE.-isft. = i8oin. ; 1^3
180 X 3-1416 X 1-5 4x1-5
So that the circumferential stress may be expressed thus —
Diameter x Pressure ,. „ .,...,„ ,„
Circumferential stress — - = lbs. per sq. m.
-

4 X Thickness

Graphic Method of Proof for Shell Stresses.

b.\\\\\\\^\\^ ^S3^^^
fr
\

'^
^z^ss^s NNWWWW w ;

No. 2.— Longitudinal Shell Stress.

 —
:

" Verbal " Notes and Sketches

74

It should be carefully noted that the longitudinal pressure exerts

a stress on the metal circuinferentiaU}\ also that the radial pressure
exerts a stress on the metal longitudinally.
Observe that on two thicknesses of the shell metal circumferentially
(Sketches Nos. i and 2) (each i inch wide) the pressure acts on the
two areas B B to produce stress, whereas on two thicknesses of shell
metal longitudinally (each i inch wide) the pressure acts on the two
areas C C these latter areas are therefore equal to twice B B, so
;

that the stress longitudinally is twice that circumferentially, as pre-

viously stated. The dotted lines on C C show areas B B which are
exactly half

—
NOTE. The Board of Trade require the centre circumferential shell seams to be
equal to 65 per cent. and the end circumferential shell seams to be equal to 50 per cent,
.

of the solid plate, which allows of ample strength in this direction where the smaller
stress is exerted.

Strength of Shell.
The strength of a boiler shell depends, therefore, on the Diametev
and Thickness, and is independent of the Length.
Boiler shells do not require stays, as circles are self-supporting
the reason for this is that the forces set up by the pressure are
balanced at all positions of the circumference, or are in equilibrium.

—
Boiler Shell Pressure, &c. The general equation connecting the
Pressure, Diameter, and Thickness, &c., of boiler shells is as follows :

28 X 2240 X T X 2 X Joint-- Diameter x Factor of Safety x Safe pressure.

Where 28 tons =- tensile strength of steel plates.

,, T — shell Thickness.
„ Joint = smaller result of rivet and seam section strengths.

The Factor modern boilers varies from about 4-4 to

of Safety in
4-6, and represents thefraction of safe working stress as compared to
breaking stress. The number 2 in the rule stands for two thicknesses
of shell in one diameter one at either side.—
To apply the above it should be remembered that if all of the
terms on one side are multiplied together and divided by all of the terms
except one of other side then the unknown term will be brought out.

—
Example i. Determine the required Thickness of boiler shell
plate for a Pressure of 200 lbs., the Diameter being 15 feet, the
Factor of safety 4-4, and the Joint strength 86 per cent.

Then, 28 x 2240 x T x 2 x -86 = 180 in. x 4.4 x 200.

Therefore, T = -„A^—
28 X
4:iii^^ =1-46
X 2 X -So
in., or say \\% in. thick.
2240

NOTE.—1^5 = -86, also 15 ft. ^ 180 in. Diameter.

«aj , y^ofcv aijq

.ejjeq 3«-
1. cGDiLe ffuq fob .£»<? bl^f^* *P!cp

;»iO brviE.

?wErr brviE
 )

i
SHELL PLATE

No. 3-- -Joining of Shell Plates and End Plates.

{With DimeQsioils.

A. End View showing Scarfed Joints of End Plates riveted to Shell.

B. Longitudinal View showing Shell lapping over End Plate Joints (half
in section).

C. Plan showing Shell lapping over centre and top End Plates, which
are bevelled away lo form only a single thickness.

NOTE. —Where two end plates overlap one is thinned down to form an unbroken
Une with the other, so that the shell plate may overlap both and form a steam and
water Ught joint. Without this arrangement a apace would
be left open where the
shell plate covers both end plates, and caulking up of the joint would not be possible.
 © k.
^

.noi:t392 lUsrf .i^IioH babnH aiduoCi to w:»i

i li.-,. I .!,{ I.„. .!iT

Ui».'l jn7 Y't i!jr

.JT syA.*'*^*'^]
 No. 4.— End View of Double Ended Boiler, half section.
(Messrs John Brown & Co. Ltd., Clydebank.)

The difference in the diameter of the furnace mouth and back will be noticed, the left half
view <!ho\v:ng ihe frunt of the furnaces and the right half view of the back.
Notice llic small clearance space allowed between the combustion chambers (5J inches), also
the bevelled joint of the combustion chamber bottom plates to the wrapper or side plates. The
various dimensions should be carefully studied by the reader.
lT9/tutpa£t 75-
' Verbal Notes aiul Sketches.
 —

Boilers 75

—
Example 2. Find the Safe Pressure suitable for a boiler shell
14 feet 6 inches Diameter, and i j| inches thick Joint strength 85 per ;

cent., and Safety Factor 4-5.

Then, 28 x 2240 x i'37S x 2 x -85 = 174 in. x 4-5 x Safe Pressure.

^^^° ^'375 x 2 x 85
Pressure = ^^ ^ ^g
"" ""
Therefore, jj^g ^ ^^^.^ ^^^^^
174 X 4-5

NOTE.— In the foregoing case the actual working pressure would probably be
taken as 185 lbs. per square inch.

Strength of Joints.
In modern cylindrical marine boilers the average strengths of
the various riveted joints are as follows :

1. Longitudinal shell seams (D.B. straps, five rivets per pitch) = 85 per
cent, of solid plate.
2. Centre circumferential shell seams (treble riveted) = 65 per cent, of
solid plate.
3. End circumferential shell seams (double riveted) = 52 per cent, of
solid plate.
4. End plate horizontal seams (double riveted) = 54 per cent, of solid
plate.
5. Furnace and combustion chambers (double riveted) = 68 per cent.
of solid plate.
6. Furnace and combustion chambers (single riveted) = 54 per cent, of
solid plate.

Observe that with thin plates (furnaces and combustion chambers)

the joint strength for the same type of riveting is much higher than
with heavier plates, the strength of joint for similar riveting decreasing
with increase of plate thickness.

Riveting.
Internal parts of boilers are usually single riveted.
Circumferential seams and end plates are usually double riveted.
In long boilers the centre circumferential seams are treble riveted to
allow of the extra stress caused by barrelling when under pressure.
Longitudinal shell seams are fitted with double butt straps, and
have three lines of rivets, every second rivet being omitted in the
outer row (five rivets in a pitch) this is the strongest type of joint
:

made.
In boiler joints the distance from the edge of the rivet-hole to the
edge of the plate should be equal to one diameter of the rivet. There-
fore the width of lap for a single riveted joint would equal three
diameters of the rivet.
A joint with a great number of rivets gives a high rivet section
strength, but a low plate strength an.d a joint with very few rivets
;

gives a high plate section strength, but a low rivet strength. From
the above it follows that the best joint is that in which the rivet
76 " Verbal " Notes and vSketches

section and plate section strengths are about equal, hence the reason
for omitting every alternate rivet in the outer row in the usual type
of D.B. strap joint riveting.
In a lap joint and a single butt strap joint the rivets are in single
shear (see sketches).
to)) jOv.nt

^^^^^^ i^t

Svnt^le slraf)
s>n<^U

Double strap
_doubl<

No. 5.

Adouble butt strap joint has the rivets in double shear, which
increases the strength of the rivet section 1-875 times (see sketch).
To count the Number of rivets in a pitch (N) of a joint, take the
greatest pitch and count the complete number of rivets enclosed w'lXhm
it. The result is taken as the Number of rivets in a pitch (see sketch).

No. 6.— Double Butt Strap Joint Type of Riveting (Five Rivets
in a Pitch).
Plate 1/5 inches thick; Straps I inch thick; Rivets iJA inches diameter. Joint
strength, 84 per cent.

Observe that the shaded rivets and parts of rivets give the number
enclosed within the greatest pitch.
NOTE. — This type of joint and riveting is only employed on longitudinal shell
seams.

Seam Section Strength.

A piece of solid plate represents absolute strength, or 100 per
cent. ; if then rivet holes are drilled out, the metal is now less in
 Boilers
n
area and the strenglli will be under lOO per cent. To find the
then, of the plate after the holes are
stren£,'^th, made, and which is
called the " plate at seam strength."

^•Z"

1
 ,

" Verbal " Notes and Sketches

78
—
NOTE. The foregoing assumes that the plate section and rivet section are of
equal strength, but in the case of steel plates and steel rivets the shearing strength
of the rivet section is to be taken as only 23 tons per square inch, and the tensile
strength of the plate 28 tons per square inch. Therefore the formula would then
read—
d X 7854^No. X 100 X 23
^ R-^et section strength.
P X T X 28

Again, if double butt straps are fitted, as in longitudinal shell

joints,the rivet section strength is doubled, as the rivets are now in
" double shear," but as a margin of safety,
6J per cent, of this is
deducted and the increase of strength taken as only 1-875 times that
of single shear.

Joints and Riveting.

Single Riveted lap joints are employed in furnaces and combustion

chambers, the strength of joint varying from 50 to 55 per cent, of the
solid plate.

Double Riveted lap joints are employed in boiler end plates and
circumferential shell seams, the strength of joint varying from 50 to
'54 per cent, of the solid plate.

Treble Riveted lap joints are employed in the centre circumferential

shell seams of long boilers (double-ended type), the strength of joint
varying from 60 to 65 per cent, of the solid plate.

Double Butt strap joints with five rivets in the greatest pitch are
only employed on the longitudinal shell seams, the strength of joint
varying from 83 to 86 per cent, of the solid plate.

NOTE.— The "joint" strength is always taken as the smaller of the "rivet
section," and the "plate section at seam" strength results, as the weaker section
limits the strength. This is shown in the various worked out examples which
follow.

Types of Joints with Dimensions (suitable for Patches).

No. I (Sketch No. 8). Plate | inch thick, single riveted lap joint to
be applied.
Then, Rivet diam. = i-2x VT = I'2x >/'37S--734 in., say -75 in. diam. of rivet.

Again, Rivet Pitch = l?^iiB^^?M'^ = '~ ^-75 = 1-66 in., say m in. pitch,
loo-jomt 100-55

NOTE. — T = Plate thickness ; joint =55 per cent, for single riveting. The width
of lap = '75x 3-2-25 inches.
 =

Boilers 79

No. 8— Single Riveting.

(Furnace or Combustion Chamber.)

Diameter and Pitch of Rivets, &c.

Rule —
Rivet diameter = 1-2 X VT.
Therefore, Rivet diameter = i-2x \/-37S = i-2x •612=734 in., say f in. rivet

NOTE.—T=plate thickness.

Rule —
100 X Rivet diameter
Rivet Pitch =
100 -joint
^°^^ '^S
Therefore, Pitch = ^i-es3 »"-. say lU
T5 in.
IOO-S4 ' >

Rule — DLstance from edge of plate to Rivet centre = Rivet

diameter X 1-5.
Therefore, -75 x 1-5 = 1^ in.

The width of lap is in this case equal to

11 in. x2=2j in. (single riveting).

NOTE.— The joint strength for single riveting with thin plates is taken as
about 54 per cent, of the solid plate.

To prove joint strength.

Seam = (Pll^)^^-??=(^-^75--75)xioo^ 33 a** ^^„^

P 1-6875
tf' X 7854 ^ No. x 23 X 100 ^ -75- X .7854 x I X 23 X 100 ^
Rivets ^y.
PxTx28 I -6875 X. 375x28

The joint strength is therefore equal to 55-5 per cent, of tlic

solid plate.
8o " Verbal " Notes and Sketches

No. 2 (Sketch No. 9). Plate i inch thick, single riveted lap joint.

Rivet diameter = 1-2 x\/T = 1-2 X V-5 = -848 in., say J^ in. Diameter of rivet.
100 X Rivet diameter _ 100 x -9375
Rivet Pitch = 2-oS in., say 2^ in. pitch.
100 -joint 100-55
Width of Lap = •9375x3 = 2-8125 in.=2ii in.

No. 9. — Single Riveting.

(Furnace or Combustion Chamber.)

Strength of Joint.
x 100
Seam = <Pi:^^iigg = (^°6^5-9375) ^54.5 per cent.
=yf3f
P 20625
T?iv»ts-
^^ -^^S^x No. X23X ioo _-9375:x •78 54x i X23X ioo _ ^^^^
P X T X 28 20625 X .5 X 28 ^^^ ^

Joint strengfth (smaller) = 54-5 per cent, of solid plate.

Width of lap = -9375 X 3 = 2-8125 in., or 2\l in.

No. 3 (Sketch No, 10). Plate |- inch thick, double riveted lap joint
(zig-zag).

Rivet diameter = I -2 X VT = 1-2 X V-5 = -848, say J§ in. diameter of rivet.

Rivet Pitch=
^°° " ^^^\ diameter ^ 100 X -9375^ ^ J *' ^-^a
loo-jomt 100-70 •>

To prove strength of joint.

Plate at Seam = ?l^?5 —l?3Z5xioo = 7o per cent.

3125
-9375'x -7854X 100x2x23^
Rivet Section = ^e„^
3-125 X -5x28 ^ "
 No. 10. — Double Riveting (Zig-zag).
(Furnace or Combustion Diameter.)

Diameter and Pitch of Rivets, &c.

"Diameter of Rivets-i-2 x V-5 = i-2x •707 = .848 in., say | in., or fg in.

NOTE.— In certain cases it is advisable to make the rivet fully the size found by the rule. In this case

J^ in. is fixed on as the diameter.

Pitch
^^°°-"^^^ diameter^ ioox 9375^3.125 in., or 3h in-
100-jomc 100-70
Centre of Rivet to edge of plate = Rivet diameter x 1-5 = -9375 x 1-5 = 1-40625 in., or i/j in-

Distance between rivet rows (V) (Zig-zag Riveting).

Rule —
Y_ \'iiixp + 4xd)x(p-t4xrf) _ v'(iix3.i25 + 4x -9375) x (3-125 + 4 x 9375U
10 10
i-6i in., say ig in., between rivet rows.

NOTE. — The average strength of double riveted joints for thin plates=70 per cent, of solid plate.

I To /ace ptii^e 80,

'''
Verbal Notes and Skelches.
 '

.\a-i>i- i>i Sicmou — .01 "

^3S ?:f3viH to rfDJi*5 bnB laJamfiia

sJsmaKI
Bin o3 9id£2ivb£ zi Si b^zeo niajiao nI~.3T0Vl

•Kiq /;i-:j loi EJrnoi^ D33^ jnaiJa agBiavfi &riT 3T0i1

 — 1 r ^

Boil ers ^1

The joint strength is therefore equal to 70 per cent, of the solid

plate.
It should be remembered that the shearing strength of steel
rivets is only to be taken as 23 tons per square inch, whereas the
tensile strength of the steel plate is taken as 28 tons per square inch.
The distance between the rows of rivets can be calculated as
follows :

Distance between Rivet Rows (chain riveting) 4 ^ diameter of rivet + i

^
4x -9375 + - 3-7500 + :
2-375 in- (2iin.).
2 2
Distance between Rivet Rows (zig-zag riveting) =

__
V(ii X pitch +4 X
_
Rivet diameter) x (pitch + 4 x Rivet diameter)
-__

\/(ii X 3-125 +4 X -9375) X (3^125 + 4 X •9375) _

10

^(34-375 + 37-5) x (3- 125 + 3-75) -

10

V38-125X 6-875 -
10

\/262- 109375 _
10

^-^=1-619 in., say ig in.

10

No. II. — Double Riveting (Chain).

(Furnace or Combustion Chamber.)

In all cases the distance from edge of plate to centre of ri\et =

Rivet diameter X 1-5.

Therefore, \l in. x 1-5= 1-406 in., say ii'g in.

82 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches

Joint strength (Sketch No. ii).

Seam = l^-l^JA^=^3-i25- -9375)21100^70 per cent

P 3125
X No. X 23 X 100^ 9375"- x -7854 x2 x 23 x 100^
Rivets^*^' " 7854 '^ ^^^^
PxTx28 3-125 X. 5x28 ' ^

Joint strength = 70 per cent, of solid plate.

Distance between Rivet Rows (V) (chain riveting).

Rule—
^^4 xd+ 1^4 X -9375+1^3.375 in., or 2i in.

No. 4 (Sketch No. 12). Plate | inch thick, double riveted lap joint
(zig-zag).
^ ^^
Rive diameter = I -ax VT-i-2x v''-62S-«948 in., say i in., diameter.

100 X Rivet diameter 100 x i

Rivet Pitch := = 3-03 in., say 3,V in. pitch.
100 -joint 100-67
NOTE.— Take 67 per cent, as average strength of double riveted joints.

No. 12, — Double Riveting (Zig-zag).

(Furnace or Combustion Chamber.)

Joint strength.
Seam^(P- *^) ^ 100^(3:0625-^1) x loo ^^
P •* ^
30625 '

Rivets=^'^-7g4x2x23xioo^i^x.7854x2x23xioo^ ^^^^
P X T X 28 30625 X -625 28
Joint strength (smaller) -67-3 per cent, of solid plate.

NOTE.— As the plate thickness increases the joint strength of single and
double riveting decreases.
 t

u>

u?

ix> Sf

I—
t/5
i^'-v

yiH' ii'^ll-

iiitot qBiiS JiuH

 = -

i No. 13. — Double Butt Strap Joint.

(Longitudinal Shell Seams.)
Five Rivets ii double shear, which increases the rivet section strength 1-8751 r that of single shear

Diameter and Pitch of Rivets, &c.

Rivet diameter 1., say 1} i

Rivet Pitch , say 9i in.

NOTE.— Strength ot double butt strap joints averages 85 per cent of soUd plate.

Distance between outer rivet rows (V).

I^ULE—

Distance between inner rivet rows (V,).

Rule—
y _ Vln«p<-gxil))<(p+»«ifl _ N/(iii.9aS+8«l-3?5)'<(9a5+8
'
'<

ao ao
Rivet centre to edge of plate=l-5x i-375=a-o635 i 2lV i

To prove joint Strength.

Se»m = fc^^™=!?L?L:±i?5':i'00^85-. per cent
P 9-25

B,^.|,- rf'^-78S4>No. :23 >|.»;s,ioo_ |.37S'>-78S4-5 a3'i S75 ioo _ ^

P ^T < a8 9-25 > 125 28 '' "^

NOTE— The number of rivets i n a as will be seen from the shaded rivet
pitch is five, :

sketch ; notice that the half rivet sections enclosed within the pitch Umit require to be count

Combined Rivet and Seam Section.

RULE-
(|.-|</«3HX rivet section streng _(9-a5-('- 375'"))'< ?+ ?H= 89-8 per I
P No. in a pilch 9-25
The joint strength (smaller) is, therefore, equal to 85.1 per cent of the solid plate.

NOTE.— For double shear on the rivets, as in this class of joint the Board of Trade now allow 1.875 instead
of 1.75 as formerly.
"'""" ''»'"5!£L)=
Butt Strap Thickness =Sij!i»ti^'"^!y!5" .""''* ^
8 X (Pitch : Rivet diameter)

SiHiaSMsJSrLiJTS! = ., .ay Hi-

8 X (9.25 -3-751

• VrrUl " Noii-s

and Sketches.
 1 5

Boilers 83

Distance between Rivet Rows (V) (Zig-zag Riveting).

Rule —
y_ V(iix p + 4xd) x(p + 4xd) _
10

—
^(11 X 3-0625
5 + X —
2—4 2—
X (3-0625 + 4 X
I) I) ^„
= ,1-63 •
,, , .

1£
!i : -'
in., say i ,\ in. between rows.
10

Rivet centre to edge of plate — i x 1-5 — ii in.

To prove strength of joint.

Plate at Seam — ^ —P
30625
x lOO — 67 per cent.

Rivet Section = ^i-^-l7854Jlioo^23x2^ ^^^^

30625 X -625 X 28

The width of lap can, if required, be calculated by the method

shown in example No. 3.

Distance from centre of rivet to edge of plate = i inch x 1-5=: 1-5 inches.

No. 5. Double Butt Strap Joints (Sketch No. 13). As before —

stated, this type of joint is only fitted in the longitudinal shell seams
of boilers.
Shell plate I7} inches thick, joint strength to be taken as 85 per
cent.

Then,
Rivet diameter = i-2x \''T^i-2x v'i-25=i-32 in., say ig in. diameter.

D*. u = 100 Rivet diameter — 100x1-375

—
n- ^'^ — g-io, -.^t.
.
4. > ,
Rivet Pitch —. in., say gl m. pitch.
loo-jomt 100-85

To prove strength of joint.

Plate at Seam = ^'^^~ ^'^'^^

x 100-85 per cent.
925

Rivet Section =.
^-375'^ " '7854 x 23 ^5
^ 1-875 >^ ^00 =
976 per cent.
9-25 x 1-25 X 28

Referring to Sketch No. 13, the joint strength or smaller result is

therefore equal to 85 per cent, of the solid plate.
It will be noticed that in this type of joint the rivets are unequally
distributed, the outer row having every second rivet omitted. The
 ^

84 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches

omission of these rivets has the effect of raising up tiie joint strength,
for, were the rivet included, we should then have a very strong rivet
section strength, but a very weak plate section strength, and, as the
smaller section strength must in all cases be taken as \\\QJoi)it strengtJi,
the joint would be weak. By omitting every second rivet in the outer
row the rivet section strength is decreased, and the plate section
increased therefore the smaller result being now higher than before,
;

the joint strength is proportionally greater.

is no benefit to be got by having a high rivet section
There
strength,and a low plate section strength, as the smaller or joint
strength governs the safe working pressure to be allowed on the
plates.

The result on the joint strength by giving equal rivets in each row
will now be shown.
Observe that the greatest (only) pitch is now 4f inches, and that
the number of rivets included in one pitch is tJiree instead of five as
previously.

Therefore, Plate at seam = ^'

^^~ ^'^^^ x 100 = 70 2 per cent.
4625

7854x23x3x1^875x100^^^8
Rivet section = L375^^ ^^„^
4-625 X 1-25 X 28

As shown above, the joint strength has dropped from 85 per

1.

cent, to 702 per cent., which proves that the omission of every
alternate rivet in the outer row as actually carried out in practice has
the effect of raising up the joint strength to a maximum.
The rivet section strength is increased from 97-6 per cent,
2.
to 118 per cent., but, as the smaller result only must always be
taken, this simply represents rivet section strength wasted. The re-
adjustment of rivet section w^ith every second rivet omitted in the
outer row takes away from the rivet section and gives to the plate
section, or, what the rivet .section loses the plate section gains, and the
joint strength is proportionately increased.

Circumferential Riveting (Sketch No. 14).

^^"^^^ 100 ^ O'S- 1-37 5) ^ 100

Seam strength ^60 7 per cent.

Rivet strength = ^ ^ -^^g No. -^23 x 100^ i.375'^ -7854 2 > 23 x iQO^gg.y eent.
PxTx28 3-5 X 1-25x28

NOTE.— The shell plates are i;^ in. thick.

Joint strength = 557 per cent, of solid plate.

 5

Boilers 85
This is sufficient for the end seams, which according to Board of Trade
requirements must not be less in strength than half that of the longitudinal
seams, which in this case is exceeded by a fair margin.

Distance between Rivet Rows (V).

y_ N/(iixp + 4x</)x(p + 4x</)_

10

—
V(ii iJ—+ 45
X 3-5
^1^ —
X 1.3715) X (3-i;
^-^
+ 4x
^^^ I'-ivc)
^lPL = x.Kyj in., say 2 in.

Distance from rivet centre to edge of plate- 1-5 x i -375 = 2-0625 in., or 2iV in.

SHELL PLATE

No. 14.— End Circumferential and Longitudinal Shell Riveting-.

Observe that there are five rivets in a pitch (sectioned black) longitudin-
ally,and two rivets in a pitch circumferentially.
For working out of longitudinal shell riveting see Sketch No. 13.
 — • —

86 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

Combined Strength of Seam and Rivets.

In double butt strap joints the combined strength of seam and

rivets exceeds that of either the seam strength or rivet section
strength, as can easily be proved by the following rule. It should
be noted that at the outer rivet rows one rivet section is taken out
of the plate metal at the large pitch (see No, 13), whereas at the
inner rivet rows two rivet sections are cut out of the same pitch
length the seam section is therefore weakest at the inner rows,
:

as the formula would then be,''- ^^--

^instead of^ as for the

outer row but as a counterbalance to this it should be noted that

:

before the plate between the inner rivet rows would fracture, one rivet
section of the outer row would also require to be sheared, so that we
have the shearing strength of one rivet added to the plate strength
at seam. To obtain the strength of one single ri\'et, merely divide
the rivet section strength as found in the usual way by the number
of rivets in a pitch, which, as in the case of double butt strap joints,
is five.

_, f
Therefore,
„
CombinedJ strength = t:
. . , ..
—P
p-(2xd)
1— ^^^
^xioo+ ,
Rivet section strength
2
5

As this result is in every case in excess of either rivet or seam

section strengths, it follows that it is correct to take the smaller

of the latter two as the joint strength, which is always done in actual
practice.

Example. — Work out the combined strength of rivet and seam

section for the riveting shown inSketch No. 13.

Combined strength =?:?5:-i^:M^ x 100+ 921^

925 5

9:g5 - 2-75 y 100 ^ 205 - 8o-8 per cent.

925

So that the results come out as follows : —

[Seam Section = 85-1 per cent, of solid plate (joint).
Strengths - Rivet ,, = 97-6 ,, „
( Combined ,, = 89-8 ,, „

Notice that the joint is equal to the smallest result of the three.
\ .i
 o-it;„n.o

o oooocpoooooo'
j:oooooojooooooo
:.»:--€)
FINISHED

^xE---
.^-O O O O O O O O
O O
.t=-OOOOOcpOO(D, ;

-51"-; k- lOF-

'END CIR SEAM

5'- 0"

No rs— Longitudinal, End Circumferential, and Centre Circumferential Riveting.

NOTE. —The limit rivet pitch allowed by the Board of Trade is loj inches. The darkened rivets indicate the nuitibei
in a pitch for each joint shown.

Joint Strengths, &c. Longitudinal Shell Seams (plate i| inches thick).

Seam strength = (£^*^

Rivet streng;th =
o^ i-fes^x 7854x5x23x1.875'^
I '625 X 28

Joint strength (smaller) =84-3 per < , of solid plate.

It will be obvious that the joint strength would be improved by reducing the rivet section strengthj s

in raising the seam section strength and therefore the joini btrenglh.

NOTE. — In this example the rivet diameter and plate thickness are of the same size.

Distance between Outer Rivet Rows (V).

Distance between Inner Rivet Rows (Vj).

xp + 8 : d) <p + 8 ^ d) ^ V(u X t037S + 8^ 1625) '^ (10-375 +8 ^ 1-62$) _

Rivet centre to edge of plate = 1.625=2-4375 i

Circumferential End Shell Seams,

Seam section = 'P- '^> ^ ^°°^'3-^75 -

—^=58
'^^-= ^- per cent.

Rivet
•
7854 X No. X 23 <
— =54-i
! per cent
P<Tx28 3-875*^ 1-625

joint strength (smaller) =54-1 per cent, of solid strength.

Circumferential Centre Shell Seams. —

The Board of Trade limit strength for this joint is 65 per cent., which
usually necessitiilcs llucc rivets in a pitch this additional strength is required to meet the barrelling tendency of
;

the builer under pressure, as the centre seams, unlike the end seams, are unsupported, whereas the end seams are stayed
by the boiler end plates.
.(p-</)x
65 per cent (nearly).

Rivet £
i- fi25J^7854-3:23yioo _^B

Distance between Rivet Rows (V).

^ p+4 rf) x(p^^4xrf) _ \/(iiK 4.625 + 4 X 1-625) X 14-625 + 4 X 16251 .

[To fact page i^

Boilei 87
 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches

CAULKED -,

L 3"_4 !5"_ .

' i
1

No. 17. — Machine Riveting.

(With Dimensions.)

The dimensions should be carefully studied

and compared.

CAULKED

No. 18.— Riveting and Caulking of Combustion Chamber Top.

(With Dimensions.)

Hand riveting is usually as shown, that is, the rivet is counter-

sunk on one side, and snap or flat headed on the other side.
Compare the plate thickness and rivet diameter, &c>
 Boilers 89
JOINT r-T'sTRAP
rit PLATE

No. 19.— Shell Plates and Butt Straps.

This view, a fore and aft section, of the sliell shows clearly
how the butt straps sit in position.

To find Butt Strap Thickness. — Rivets if inches diameter, pitch

9 inches.
Rule —
^'^5 x (9- i-375)^
Thickness = |ii^^^4^^^ =5,^ ^ i^ch thick.
8x(p-(dx2)) 8X (9 -(1.375x2))

PLATE fl" THICK

/--0-
G-
O Q Q
o o o • '
-O'-^-Q'
Q
-o=.^-e
000
O

RIVETS ' •

25"
TUBE PLATE 32 THICK

—
No. 20. View of Boiler End near Top.
(Showing Riveting of Tube Plate and Top End Plate.)

Joint strength.
Seam Section =^-1—- x ioo = 5^5jl_ x loo — 60-2 per cent.
P 3-25
Rivet Section^- ^^^^ ^°°^^3 ^ i-x -7854 >^2>^ 100- zS ^gQ.g per cent.
P T 28 325 78 28 V ^ ^
The joint strength is, therefore. 508 per cent, of the solid plate
7
 )

**
Verbal " Notes and Sketches
90

Distance between Rivet Rows.

Rule —
\^(ii X p+4 X d) X (p +4 X d) _ V(ii X 3-2S + 4X I) x (3-25 + 4^)^^.^
^^ say I J in.
10

Distance between edge of hole and edge of plate.

Rule—
</x 1.5 = 1x1.5 = 1.5 in.

I" L I
9"
r 132 T 1 32 T 132 ^

No. 21.— Shell Plate Machine Riveting.

This sketch shows the shell plate and the two butt straps
in section with the rivet in position ; the dimensions are marked,
and should be noted.

No. 22. — Hand Riveting.

(Countersunk.

The dimensions indicate the proportions of countersink, Szc.

adopted in hand riveting as employed in patching.
 Boilers 91

No. 23.— Caulking Tool for Boiler Plates.

The tool is shown in position for caulking a thick plate.

I 9i"-

CO

Q-i-^
(t> -J-
-

No. 24— Diagonal Pitch of Rivets.

For the type of joint shown above the diagonal pitch of the
rivets should not be less than that found by the following rule.

Rule —
Pitch + 4^x diameter •
Diagonal Pitch=.3>

Diagonal Pitch =
3^^'^^"'"'^^ ^'^^ = or say 31^
Therefore, 3-326 in., in.

Steam Space Stays.

These steel stays range in diameter from 2J to 3I inches diameter,

with a normal pitch of 16 inches for pressures of from 160 to 210 lbs.
per square inch. The stays are secured to the plates by one of the
following methods.
1. Holes cut in both plates and stays held in place by nuts and

washers both inside and outside the plate at either end.

2. Stays screwed through both end plates and fitted with single
nuts and washers on outside of plates onl)-.
3. Holes cut in both end plates and stays held in place by means
of a thin nut inside and a thick nut outside.
Occasionally the nuts are bevelled off as shown in the sketch, and
92 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches

-X--
 Boilers 93

a layer of mastic cement filled in as a joint in addition to this a:

serving of mastic cement is placed between the nut and washer, and
between the washer and plate for the same purpose.
In the case of No. i arrangement, the outside washers are some-
times riveted to the plates and are then made of a diameter equal
to three times that of the stay at thread. The stays are during
manufacture staved up I or ^ inch at the ends (the stay being after-
wards annealed) to allow of the cutting of the screw, which at bottom
of thread should not be less in diameter than the body of the stay.
Under working conditions these stays are subjected to a tensile stress,
and should therefore be made out of the solid, as, if welded, the
stress conditions mentioned would tend to open up the welded portion
of the stay. The usual number of screw threads cut in the stay ends
is from 6 to 8 per inch. These stays occasionally show signs of
corrosion at or near the ends, the cause of which is most likely mag-
nesium chloride gas contained in sea water feed and set free by the
effects of heat.
When the stays are screwed into the plates, the plates are
afterwards caulked round the stays to ensure tightness of joint.

ai" SCREW. 3" SCREW.

8 THREADS PER INCH.

No. 26. — Steam Space Stay.

(Pressure, 200 lbs. Pitch, 16 inches.)

Stay diameter at smallest part = 2| inches.

2753 X .7^54x9000^^^3
Then, j^^ ^^^^ pressure.

Ob.serve that the stay being screwed into the plates i.s larger

in diameter at one end than the other, the screwed portions

being 3-I inches diameter and 3 inches diameter.
The plates are carefully caulked round the stay at both ends
and a touch of lead putty put on the nuts before screwing up
tight.

NOTE.— The depth of nut plus plate thickness is equal to the diameter of stay
over threads, or 2^ inches + 1 inch = 3i inches.
94 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

16 SPACE 8 THREADS PER INCH

UP WITH JOINTING 3^' OIA OVER THREADS,
MATERIAL.
3 ^' DIA BOTTOM OF THREAD
't

CO

NUT RECESSED
FOR JOINTING
MATERIAL

No. 27— Steam Space Stay.

(With Dimensions.)

(Pressure, 220 lbs. Pitch, 17 inches.

In this type of stay, the holes in the end plates are cut clear, j

and nuts are screwed on the stay ends inside and outside, the
ends being staved up for the cutting of the screws (plus thread)
Mastic cement or lead putty is filled into the clearance (j^ inch).

NOTE.— If no washers are fitted on the nuts the depth of the outside nut must
be increased to make up.
 — —

Boilers 95

Flat Surfaces and Stays.

The flat (or nearly flat) surfaces of boilers are stayed as follows :

1. Boiler end plates, by large stays in steam and water spaces.

2. Combustion chamber sides and backs, by small screwed stays.
3. „ „ tops, by girders and stays,
4. „ ,,
bottoms are self-staying, being semicircular.
5. End plates between tube nests, by doubling plates riveted on.

The strength of flat surfaces vary as the Surface supported (pitch

of stays squared) and the Thickness of plate squared this can be :

seen by examining" the Rule, which is as follows :

Rule —
C X (T + 1)2 = (S - 6) X Safe Pressure.

C = 100 to 168, depending on conditions of construction.

T = Plate Thickness in sixteenths.
S = Surface supported (usually Pitch squared).

NOTE. — In ordinary practice C may be taken as loo for combustion chamber

plates, and 150 for boiler end plates.

If, then, the constants C, 6 and i are deleted, we have left T- and
S, therefore the strength varies as these two terms.

To Transpose the Rule—

The following shows how the rule may be transposed to find either
the Safe Pressure, the plate Thickness, or the Pitch of stays,

1. Safe Pressure = ?4ff^'=

S -6
lbs.

2. Surface supported^j^-^-'ilJ^—^"^ +6-S.

Safe Pressure

Then, Pitch = VS^

Notice that the square root of the surface supported is equal to the
pitch of stays required.

3. Thickness of Plate- /<13^i5?5H? = (T+ i).

Then, (T + i)- i =T (in sixteenths).

Observe that the result brought out by the square root is T+ i, that
is one more than T, therefore i requires to be subtracted to obtain T
(in sixteenths of an inch).
gS " Verbal " Notes and Sketches

Data for Plates and Stays (Sketch No. 27).— The safe
End
working pressure 220 lbs. per square inch, and the pitch of stays
is

17 inches; find the required thickness of end plate if the Constant

is 168 also find the required diameter of stay.
:

Plate Thickness.
Rule —
C X (T + i)- = (S-6) X Safe Pressure.

Where, C - Constant, T = i6th in plate, S = Surface supported or Pitch-.

Then, 168 x (T + 1)" = (17- - 6) x 220.

Thererce. r.^/^Sf^yi^-^^,/S^^-. = ^S 26.

So that, ^ 10
= iA' in. thick.

Observe that the result comes out in sixteentJis of an inch, therefore

18-26 sixteenths is equal to i/y inch.

Stay Diameter.
Rule—
Surface x Safe Pressure = Stay area v 9000.

Then, 17- x 220= Stay area x 9000.

Therefore,
220 S**y *** /stay area
1*72
X
?7Jl^f?=
9000
7.064, and,
.

—
/ 7.0643i_ = 2.99
\J —
•

in., say 3
•

in.,
^
Diameter ofr stay.
r^• ^

Water Space Stays.

The combustion chamber stays usually range in diameter from

about \\ to if inches, with a pitch of from 7-J- to 8i inches. These
stays are screwed through the plates to be supported, and are
secured by means of two nuts in all, one outside the boiler and the
other inside the combustion chamber, the stay ends being riveted
over the nuts. The plate is usually caulked round the stay to keep
the joint tight. Occasionally the outside end of the stay is riveted
over only, and the plate caulked round the stays (see sketch). These
stays are, under ordinary conditions, subject to a tensile stress,
but this is usually augmented by a bending stress produced by the
floating tendency of the combustion chamber, which, it will be
observed, is a hollow chamber immersed in water. This lifting
tendency strains the stays often to the point of fracture, and in
consequence permitting corrosion to take place at a more rapid rate.
 Boilers
07

STEEL STAYS Is DIAM.

SCREWED 10 THREADS PER INCH

RIVETTED OVER ENDS
•^I'U 10"

No. 28. — Combustion Chamber Stays.

Thesestays are of steel, and are allowed a working tensile

stress of9000 lbs. per square inch. The plates are tapped
and the stays screwed in. Occasionally the outer end is merely
riveted over, the nut being omitted.

To Find Pitch of Stays (assume pressure as 200 lbs.).

Rule —
Pitch^ X Pressure = Stay area x 9000.

Stay areax 9000

^ p, ^ 1-375'' >^ 7854 - 9000 ^ 667.
Then,
Pressure 200

Therefore, v'66 = 8-i in., say 8 in., pitch.

 CAULKED

No. 29.— Caulking of Stays.

When the stays are screwed into the plates the latter are
caulked round the stays, to ensure tightness, a touch of mastic
cement or red lead putty being placed on the face of the nut
before screwing up.

• III ill I ,"'

—
No. 30. Steam Space Stay.
(With Double Nuts and Riveted Washers.)
The space 4 (about ^^ inch) is filled up with lead putty or mastic cement
In this type of stay the outside washers, which are riveted
to the end plates, require to be ot the same thickness as the
plates, and of a diameter equal to two-thirds of the stay pitch.
The Constant allowed in this case is 168 for iron and 210
for steel.
Data — Pressure = 215 lbs. (g.

Diameter = 16 ft. 6 in.

Length = 20 ft. 2j in. "^

Rates of heating surfa

Tensile strength of st Double riveted.
Pitch of rivets = 10 inj Double riveted.

Strength of plate = 82^"^ Treble riveted.

D. B. strap vyith five rivets in a pitch.
Strength of rivets = 9
bers Single riveted.

Factor of Safety.— Giver^ (^""o"* <^° back) =4 ft. 6 in.

tJmg . chambers = 10 ft. 6 in.

Tons X 2240 X T
in. each.
Then, 30x2240x1! .,.
u i^ m. diameter.
J •

stay bolts = each

.
,
.

So that Factor spension stays of any kind are fitted in this D.-E.
ered that in many boilers of this type such stays
Note. 30 tons is taken, so that the four separate combustion chambers are
i6 ft. 6 in. = id^^ supported, by means of angle-plate stools riveted
828 per cent. = -8 hambers.
[ To face page 98.

" Verbal " Notes and Sketchc

 No 30 A.— Double-Ended Boiler.

Daia— Pres9ure = 2i5 lbs. (gauge). Shell plate thickness =

Diameter = i6 ft. 6 in.

Length = 20 ft. 24 in.

Rates of heating surface to grate surface = 45 : l- Riveting—

Tensile strength of steel = From 30 to 32 tons per square inch, End circumferential shell seams Double riveted.
End plate seams Double riveted.
Pitch of rivets = 10 in.
Centre circumferential shell seams Treble riveted.
Strength of plate = 82-8 per cent (joint strength).
Longitudinal shell seams D, B strap with five rivets in a pitch.
Strength of rivets = 90-5 per cent
Furnaces and combustion chambers - Single riveted.

Depth of combustion chambers front :o back) -4 ft, 6

1 t m
Factor of Safety.— Given the above data the Factor of Safety can 1

Height of centre combustion chambers = 10 ft 6 in.

thus ;—
Depth of girders ^13 in
Tons 2240
>. < T in. >. 2 v Joint = Diameter x Pressure x Factor.
Thickness of girder p!ates = il in. each.
Then. 30* 2240 ^ Iji in. >^^ 2 x -828 = 198 in. > 215 >; Factor.
with six stay bolts = each ij diameter.
Each girder is fitted in,

So that. Factor = 3ai«40; '

= 4-5(nearly)- be nuciced that no suspension stays of any kind are fitted ii> this D.-E.
It will
215 boiler, but it should be remembered that in many boilers of this type such stays

30 tons is taken, being the tlnimam tensile strength of the plates. are fitted {see p. 99). Observe also that the four separate combustion chambers are
held in place, and at the same time supported, by means of angle-plate stools riveted
16 ft 6 in =198 in
on to the adjoining combustion chambers.
828 per cent. = 828
\To f<ue pa^t 98.

' Verbal " Notes and Sketches.

 Boilers 99

BOILER SHELL.

6 by6 bys

24 DIAM.

4" THICK Is DIAM.

jA,
^ I
£Qi —T— lOl
1 ,Z) I . ^
;g\
.

No. 31.— Method of supporting Combustion Chambers in Double

Ended Boilers.

In modern high pressure double-ended boilers, the combustion

chambers are often supported as shown above. Observe that the
girders do not rest or bear on the combustion chamber plates as
ordinarily, but are quite clear, or "floating," the necessary support
being supplied by the two large suspension stays, which are secured
by pins to double angle irons riveted to the shell. The pins are
of turned steel. The combustion chamber bottoms are usually held
rigidly in place by angle or plate stays to the boiler shell.
LOO "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

No. 32.— Method of Connecting Wing and Centre Combustion

Chamber Plates.

In modern high pressure boilers the wing and centre combustion

chambers are stayed together as shown in the sketch. A plate form
of stay is employed, and is connected by means of pins through
the plate and through angle irons, riveted to the combustion chamber
plates. This type of stay is fitted at the bottom of the combustion
chambers, forming a segment round the lower parts.

No. 34.— View of Wing Combustion Chambers and Furnaces.

Note the method of connecting the Furnace Flange to the Combustion
Chamber, also the absence of a Flange at the Furnace Mouth.

Combustion Chambers.
The bottoms of combustion chambers are often stiffened by
means of angle or T steel segments, which are riveted on, and extend
from the bottom for some distance up the sides. Certain makers
also fitplate stays, as described above, between these angle segments
of adjacent combustion chambers to keep them in position.
 %^

QJ

J3V3J HDOD 'aauA

Aia'll
^
BTAjq 9MIJ8U0a_
I
MOIHT "I
HOTI9"3 eT3VI«"|

Aia
 No. 33.— Sectional View of Boiler showing Combustion Chamber Staying.

.•,']?' should carefully cuamire Ihe above sketch and noleihe pilch
orf the girders, the thickness of
and diameler of slays, llie shape and si
the plates, the distance bcliveen the combustion chambers and shell, the water level, boll
gauge cock level, the doubling plate bel«ecn
sneu at top cVc. &c., as any 01 these
the tube nests, the distance I -
-^ ^-'— -— -
ibustion chamber lop and
.
^
^ boiler
dimensions may be asked for at the 11 is also good practice to copy
out parts of the above sketch and fill ' -
in the di

To fintl Pitch of Stays (Plate | inch thick, pressure 200 lbs.).

Rule—
C.|T+il'.(S-6|xWorkuTE P,j„uie.
Where C = Constant =.100 for Combustion
chamber backs and sides.

(1 T^Platc thickness in sixteenths.

„ S-Sarface supported by one slay
|piu;h sdiiaied).
Then, Iooxlio+il' = (S-6) . j^.
Therefore. s^iooMJo + II>
j^ —+6=6(1.5, "nd. V66.5=8.i ia, say 8 in.. Pitch.
Notice that the Smfiice-
Square
M of pitch so tnai
u. piicn, e r
,v,n„.„ Surface
that to convert „. ,
'

into Pitch, the stjuai

 No. 35.— Boiler under Construction.

^'ievv showing combustion chamber boxes, girders, stays, and front end plate. The close
staying of the combustion chamber back plates should be carefully noted.

NOTE.— The girders shown are all of the single plate type, bossed out where the stays pass through.
The bevelled joints of the combustion chamber bottom plate and side plates should also be noted.

'

' Verbal " Notes and Sketches. To face page 10 1.

 _

Boilers loi

Combustion Chamber Stays.

It will generally be found that the marginal stays of combustion
chambers are first affected by wear, and particularly the top row.

Often the stays in this row develop minute cracks which may,
however, on testing, be found to extend right into the body of the
stay metal. The floating tendency of the combustion chamber
(which, it should be observed, is simply a hollow vessel immersed
in water) throws severe stresses on the stays, and generally, through
time, results in straining the metal of the stays as described, due to the
bending stresses set up. The marginal stays having to support more
surface than the inner stays are of larger section foften i4 to i| inches
diameter).

—
Combustion Chamber Bottoms. The following rule brings out
the safe working pressure for combustion chamber bottom plates,
which, it should be observed, form semicircular surfaces of plain
section.
Rule —
9900 <T: ^ / _L+i?Vsafe Pressure.
3xD V^ 40xTy
Where T = Plate Thickness.
,, L=Leng1:h between furnace back end and back of combustion chamber.
,, D = Radius of combustion chamber bottom 2. -

—
Example. Find the safe working pressure for the bottom plate
of a combustion chamber | inch thick length of chamber from front
:

to back 32 inches, and outside radius of bottom 23 inches.

Then, Safe Pressure = f9900x^5\ x (^ S^^ii

V3 X (23 X 2)/ \3 60 X .75

^^-
130
(5 -977) = 53-8x 4 = 215-2 lbs. per sq. in.

Combustion Chamber Girders.

The combustion chamber top of single ended, and in some cases
double ended, boilers is supported against collapse as shown in
the sketch.
The girders are formed of two vertical steel plates each about
are passed down
f or I inch thick, and between these plates sta}-s
and screwed into the top plate nuts and overlapping washers are
;

fitted above. The plates forming the girders are held together by
rivets fitting through thimbles.
The girder plates are often made overlapping on to the top
plate at the sides, but some firms have the plates cut clear altogether
(see No. 39). Under working conditions the girder plates are
subjected to a compressive and bending stress, the compression
being at the ends where the load is taken up by the back tube plate
and combustion chamber plate, and the tensile stress acts at and
near the centre of the girder.
•a
u
O

J3 .2
U 2

.2 S

IO t
O
CO

o
z
Boilers lO'
I04 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches
 Boilers 105

No. 39.— Combustion Chamber Top and Girder.

Some firms arrange the girders cut clear of the top plate as
shown. Attention should be given to the dimensions of the plates,
rivets, and stays.
io6 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

The strength of girders varies (as in the case of a beam) directly

as the Depth- and the Thickness, and inversely as the Length.

Or, Strength varies as, — T

D-x

RULE-
P'-essure =
Working ^-^^^^^^^ = lbs.
Where, € = 990 for three stays, and iioo for four stays.
d= Depth (inches).
T = Combined thickness of girder plates.
W= Width of combustion chamber (inches).
P= Pitch of stays (inches).
D = Distance between girder centres (inches).
L= Length of girders (feet).

Application. — To apply the rule to the case above (Sketch 36).

Then, Working Pressure = —

(31
990x8-5" >"• xi 5 i"-
in. - 7-5 in. X 8 in. x 275
)
^207 lbs. per sq. in.

NOTE. — The width of combustion chamber is about 31 inches, and assume

the distance between the girders as 8 inches. Again notice that 33 inches =
275 feet.

Depth of Girders (Sketch 39).

C = 990 for three stays through girders.

d= Depth of girder.
T«: Thickness of girder plates (combined) = ii inches.
W = Combustion chamber width = 31 inches
P = Pitch of stays = 8.V inches.
D = Distance between girders = 8 inches.
L = Length of girders in feet = 275 feet.
Pressure = 190 lbs. per square inch.

Rule —
Cxd xT = (W-P)xDxLx Pressure.
x Lx Pressure .
^^- (W- P) D
x
Therefore,
CxT
(31 - 8-5) x8x 275 x 190
-63.3
990x15
And, ^63-3 = 7-9 in., say 8 in., depth of girders.

Tubes.
The smoke tubes are generally made 3 or 3I inches outside
diameter with natural draught and 2| inches outside diameter with
forced draught, the thickness ranging "from |^ or y\ inch in the case
of ordinary tubes, to j% or | inch in the case of stay tubes. The
 //

|0 ipC bptG 3

\^
TV •

7;

.33BmuH (n^riq
 O O O O O O O'O o o ^^B
oooooo
OOO SOLID
O^Hr.'
^_STAY
2"dia

SCARFED
JOINT

No. 40. — Front View of Goose-Neck Type (Gourley Stephen) Furnace.

(Front Tube Plate removed.)

This sketch shows clearly the difference in the section of the furnace at back and front, the back being conslricted to
an oval section (30 inches diameter). The flange at the back is also much higher in position than the circular portiuQ of
the furnace and is riveted all round to the back tube plate.
Also observe the scarfed joint of the combustion chamber plating at the sides.
The side wrapper plates are g inch thick, but the bottom is heavier, bciny [^ inch thick.

Thickness of Combustion Chamber Bottom Plate.

Rule —
/9(>00 xT\ ^ /'5-^+ "\= Working Pressure.

Where T=Thickness= ^ = -8125.

„ D=Diaraeter outside-46 inches.
„ L=Leag;th (front to back)=33 inches.

Then. Safe Pressure = l^99°° ^ 'l'^^)^(s- J^\"-) = Z32-i lbs.

V 3<46 J \ 60 X -8125/ ^
This proves that the bottom plate is of ample strength, as less thickness would be suffici nl, but the extra thickness giv<
to the plate allows a margin for corrosion.

' Verba! " Notes and Sketches.

 ooo
It, Si eaauT ya72
xoIht"'
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oooo ATOT esi

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^oo
OOOO
Oooo
OOOO
OOOO
OoOo

No. 41. —Tube Boxes, showing dimensions and number of Stay Tubes and Ordinary Tubes.
The pitch of the tubes is 3| inches, and thL- inaxiniuin pilch of ihe stay tubes loj inches.
Notice that the marginal or bounding stay lubes are the heaviest fitted, and are secured by Sat nuts at
front tube plate. Also note the tube plate solid stays 2 inches diameter. The clear space between the lube
nests is II or 12 inches, as this is required to allow of access to the lower parts of the boiler. As stays cannot
be litted on this plate area, the end plates are strengthened by means of doubliag piates riveted on, which take
the place of solid stays {see No. 31).

(D-rf) 'iT.28ooo = W
WT = Thickncss
Where D=Pitch of Tubes. Where = Tube
of Plates.
,. (f= Inside diameter of tubes. Width combustioa chamber.
of

Example. — Determine the required thickness of tube plaits a pressure (

for
being jf inches, the inside diameter of tubes 3^ inches, and the width of combust

Then, T^WxDxPressure SS^ SfiaS-aoQ ^ ^^ .^ .

^
~ "(|)"rrfyT2Booo (3-625 - 2-125) . 2S000
NOTE.— The bock tube plate is aeldom nude less than i inch thick, notwithstanding the calculated thickness by role.
 — —

Boilers 107

front end of all the tubes is slightly larger in diameter than the back
end to allow of easy insertion or extraction. In the case of the tubes
the ends are expanded out to the holes in the plate by an appliance
known as a "tube expander" (see sketch), which operation is considered
sufficient to ensure tightness. The
stay tubes represent solid bar stays
and are required to support the surfaces formed by both tube
flat
plates. The sectional area of the stay tube metal should therefore be
equal to that of a solid stay. The required thickness can be found
as follows :

—
Example. Determine the required thickness of steel stay tubes
2| inches outside diameter to be equal in strength to a solid stay, the
maximum pitch of the stay tubes being io|^ inches and the pressure
180 lbs. per square inch.

Then, Diameter of solid stay= /-^75i^ 180=1. 74 say ij in., diameter.

^
V 9000x7854 '^ ^

The cross sectional area of metal of the stay tubes must also
be equal to the solid stay area.
Therefore, (2-5- - d2) = 1752 = (6-25- rf-') = 3-0625.
Therefore, 6-25 - 3-0625 = d-= 3- 1875.
Therefore, Inner diameter of tube = \/3- 1875 =1-78 in,, say if, in.

And Tube thickness = ?^5j:1^= -375 in. (§ in.).

The ends of the tubes are staved up to slightly increase the

diameter and so allow for the cutting of the screw, and it should
be noted that the external diameter at the front end exceeds that
of the back end by about \ inch. The ordinary tubes are subject to a
compressive stress and the stay tubes to an additional tensile stress.
In general practice about one-third or more of the total tubes are
arranged as stay tubes, and these tubes are usually fixed by one of the
following methods :

1. Both plates tapped and tubes screwed in, then expanded into
the plates.
2. Both plates tapped and tubes screwed in, expanded into the
plates, and a nut | inch thick fitted outside the front tube plate only.
The plates are caulked round the tubes and the back end of the
tubes are also beaded over as shown in sketch.
It is now the common practice to fit nuts only on the marginal or
bounding stay tubes, the others being merely screwed into the plates,
expanded in the screws, caulked and beaded over. The sketch on
page 108 illustrates the foregoing.
Often three thicknesses of stay tubes are employed in one boiler to
meet the requirements of the differently supported areas of the tube
plates, the heaviest type |- inch thick being used for the marginal stay
tubes, and the others, varying in thickness from i to /^ inch, are
fitted inside the marginal area of the plates.
io8 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches

8'0"

?"
10 THREADS PER INCH THICK
fe
STAY TUBE

toioo
r I"
THICK

COMMON TUBE

v^^^'.'.v'v'. vv^'^'v'^'.^jfc^.'v^^^'.^vV'.vvv.v'..^^^ X^^^^^^^^^^.'v^^'v^'v^ v'^^^^^^^^^'^^^Vv^'^^^^^^v-^

No. 42.— Boiler Tubes.

The stay tubes are f inch thick, and are screwed

into both
plates and caulked in place a flat nut is screwed
; in addition,
over the front end. This type of stay tube is used round the
boundary of a tube nest. Notice the difference in diameter at
either end, the front being the larger. About one-third of the
total tubes are fitted as stay tubes, the thickness ranging from
^ inch for the inner stay tubes to f inch for the outer or
marginal stay tubes, which are nutted.
The ordinary tube shown is i\ inch in thickness, and like
the stay tube is swelled out at the front end. These tubes are
expanded in place by an ordinary three-roller tube expander.

—
Stay Tubes. The light pattern stay tubes (internal) are expanded
into both tube plates, and beaded over the heavy pattern of stay ;

tubes (marginal) are caulked in position both inside and outside at

the front, and inside at the back end, also beaded over, as is usual
"with all tubes.

NOTE.— The ratio of tube heating surface to grate surface is as 25 is to i in

most cases.

"Serve" Tubes. —
The ribs inside this type of tube increases the
effective area of the tube, and thus extracts more heat from the waste
gases as the}' pass through. This results in increased evaporation
^nd economy.
 Boilers 109

FRONT
TUBE
PLATE

8 THICK

CAULKED

No. 43.— Heavy Pattern Stay Tube.

(With Flat Nut in Front Tube Plate.)
These tubes being too heavy for expanding, the plates are
caulked round the tube instead. Tubes of this type are
placed on the margins of a tube nest.

BEADED
OVER

BACK
TUBE PLATE

No. 44.— Back End of Stay Tube.

(Showing Screwing in, Caulking, and Beading over.)
 —

I lO "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

SOFT IRON CAULKING RING.

I"

^^^^^ ^
^^mmv^mm\w-m\ms\m^^^m:^

27 ->•!

ADAMSON RING
FURNACE

^\\\\\\\\\'\V^V\V\VVV\\\\^^V\V<.VV V V VVV^V^^VW^' S\\\\\\V\\\\\^

No. 45.— Adamson Ring Furnace.

As with the Bowling Hoop furnace the different lengths are riveted
together through the flanges and soft iron caulking rings. The
flanges stiffen the furnace and allow for expansion, while tightness of
joint is obtained by close caulking up of the soft metal rings.

Safe Pressure. — For a plain steel furnace the rule is as follows :

... , . 99000XT2
Working: pressure^^ -

^^^^^ ^ p
Where T = Thickness.
,, L- Length in feet
„ D=c Diameter in inches.
 — . 1

Boilers 1 1

If, however, the furnace is fitted with stiffeiiini; rings as shown

above, then Y^ — Loigtli betwcoi the rings subject to a hmit pressure

found as follows :

Limit pressure = ^?^^^^ —

So that the actual working pressure is to be the smaller of the two
results obtained.

Example. — Determine the safe working pressure for the furnace

shown in Sketch No. 45, which is f inch thick and 42 inches diameter.
Working Pressure _ 99000 x 75" _ ..

(If less than limit pressure) (2-25 + i)x42 in.

NOTE.— 27 inches := 2-25 feet.

Limit Pressure = ^552JL125.= 176 lbs.

42

The safe pressure to be carried is therefore 176 lbs.

NOTE. — The strength of a plain furnace depends on the Length, Diameter,
and Thickness squared.

IIM;v;w/lw/m^^^M^^;^^

<-.. >^ — 27" —5 ^ - -

BOWLING HOOP
FURNACE

"'-'
'^'/y/yy^/yy/z^y//-'- •-'/////
n::! {y//y///i
Y'L -^

No. 46.— Bowling Hoop Furnace.

 —

112 Verbal " Notes and Sketches

The flanged rings shown are known as " Bowling Hoops," and
when fitted to a plain furnace increase the strength and at the same
time allow for expansion. As will be understood the furnace length
isdivided up into two or three sections, and these are joined by the
hoops.

8"

-I*

No. 48. — Suspension Bulb Furnace Corrugation.

No. 49. — Suspension Bulb Furnace.

The lengths marked A B at front and C D at back are required

by Board of Trade not to exceed 9 inches.

No. 50. Morison Type Furnace.

The lengths marked AB and C D are required by Board of Trade

not to exceed 9 inches.
 '

*>:5i?:triAi£i»<JS«S?«<;-';*".*

sqxi T:

•{: n.cjirrj r.vjj '^qqi

 :•*;

No. 47— Fox Corrugated Furnace (ordinarv type)

(With Details and Dimensions )

1, Thinned edge of back tu^ ptate. 4, Position of three plate orerlap (two plates of which
2, Thinned edge of furnace. away as described).
3, Wrapper plate of combustion chamber. 5, Scarfed joint of wrapper plate and bottom plate.

In this type of furnace, thrte plates overlap at the area marked 4, the plates being furnace flange, back tube plaie, ana
combustion chamber side or wrapper plate, Two of these plates are, however, thinned away to form only one thickness as
shown in the end view at i and 2. Owing to unequal expansion and difficulty io accurate fitting, this part of the furnace
(known as the " saddle ") frequently causes trouble by leakage and corrosion.

^
 Boil ers 113

No. 51.— Morison Type Corrugation.

No. 52. — Morison Suspension Bulb Type Furnace.

Rule —
i5oooxT = DxW.P.

Therefore,
 —

114 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches

RIVETS-O

No. 53.— Furnace Front Riveting.

When double riveting is employed on the furnace front, the

proportions of the joint are as shown, and the strength works out
as follows:

Seam Section = g^xioo = ^-5--87 5 100=65 per cent.

P 2-5

Rivet Section = ^ ^„^ ""J^ ^ ^°° = ^ ^ ^3 x 100^

•^75'' ^ "7854 ^
63 per cent.
T
P X X 28 2-5 X .625 X 28
*^

The joint strengfth = 63 per cent.

 oo
\\

eT3viq \
o —/>o
/ ^-'

409:; i»q

r>jriu lukM: tv Ju^'i <

^11 svii's*
•

5:•-tv*^t'

No. 55.— Section through "Goose-neck" Type Furnace

(Showing FUnge at Baclc End and Riveting.)

Strength of Joint.
'°°
= '^' '°° =
Seam^ "*' **' " '^'' 50 pel cent

= 51.5 per cent

PxTx28 2« .625x28
loiot strength = 50 per cent, of solid plate.

• Verbal Notts and SWetche:

3DAH
 No. 56.— Furnace and Tube Plate Solid Plates.
These stays ar : fitted to support the front and hack lube plates on either side of the furnaces
(Sketch No. 41).

[7,> facf page 115.

" \'crbal " Notes and Skciclicj.
 Boilers 115

I'rivets, 2" pitch

No. 54.—Wing Furnace Flanging.

Notice that the flange is extended out to fit the shape of the
combustion chamber.

To find Thickness of Furnace (Diameter, D-=44 inches, Pressure =

200 lbs.).

Rule—
14000 X T in. = D in. ^ Pressure.

=P '"• ^ P'-^gsur^ = 44 ^200^

Therefore, T in.
14000
.^2 ^^ ^ 3^y ,.
i„
14000
ii6 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

Furnaces.
Furnaces are usually made from i to f inch in thickness.
Thestrength of a plain furnace depends on the Length, Diameter,
and Thickness squared.

Method of Strengthening a Weak or Collapsed Furnace (with

Dimensions).
The Sketch No. 57 illustrates the best method of repair for a weak
furnace, or for a collapsed furnace which cannot be set up.
Observe that the ^-inch studs are screwed into the furnace metal
and riveted over, also that thin thimbles or distance pieces are fitted
between the half-round strengthening ring and the furnace, to allow of
free circulation of the water. The pitch of the studs varies from 10 to
13 inches.
As in a plain furnace the strength depends upon the length,
diameter, and thickness squared, if we reduce the length by one-half
we double the strength therefore the ring round the centre practically
;

shortens the length, and correspondingly increases the strength (always

subject to Limit Pressure Rule result).

NOTE.— Thimbles must be fitted between the furnace and the ring to allow of
•water circulation between.

Types of Furnaces.
The Sketches No. 58 illustrate the corrugations of the three mosi
important types of furnaces in use at the present time.

Corrugated Furnace Manufacture.

The process of manufacture of furnaces is as follows The plate : —
is one edge thicker than the rest of the plate, so as to
rolled with
allow for the thinning which takes place in flanging. The plate is
then sheared to size, and bent to a cylindrical shape in the bending
rolls. It is then passed to the electrical welding apparatus, where
it is welded up, after which the furnace is taken to the corrugating

mill to be corrugated, and to the various hydraulic machines for

flanging. The furnace is then machined to correct sizes, and set
true to template. Finally, each furnace is carefully annealed before
despatch.

Advantages of Corrugated Furnaces over Plain Furnaces.

1. Stronger than a plain furnace of the same dimensions.

2. Better expansion allowance by means of the corrugations

or ribs.
3. More surface for the same length, and therefore better evapora-
tion is obtained.
NOTE.— For a plain furnace the limit pressure is equal to 9900 ^T
1^^,

flD"^
 ^4 ;* ^* ^4^

No. 57. — Method of Repair for a Weak or Collapsed Furnace.

Ai be seen from the sketch, the repair consists of two an^Ie irons riveted together through thimbles, and forming
will
two half rings which are bolted together as shown. Pins f inch diameter are tapped into the furnace and are riveted over
inside, with nuts and washers outside, the pitch of these being about la inches. This arrangement stiffens the furnace,
and is "iqually suitable for either plain or corrugated.

NOTE.— The ring is kept 3 inches cleat of the furoace aietal I r ot free circulation of the 1

{Te/ace f^e llO.

"Vcrlwr- Notes ami .Skclclie

 ) —

ii;

MORISON

DEIGHTON
No. 58. —Types of Furnaces.
(With Pitch and Depth of Corrugations.

A corrugated furnace of the same dimensions is about half as

strong again as a plain furnace of average proportions.
The strength of a corrugated furnace depends upon the Diameter
and Thickness.

Collapse of Furnaces.
Furnaces may be collapsed by any of the following causes :

I. Excessive scale. The scale keeps the water from being in

direct contact with the plate, and overheating takes place (about 600°
Fahr.), with the result that as the plate is weakened part of the furnace
bulges in.
ii8 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches

2. Oil deposits adhering to the furnace. Oil deposited on the

furnace top or sides, for a given thickness, is more serious than
ordinary scale, as greater overheating of the furnace plates will ensue.

3. Saturation or salt deposits. The boiler density rising above o\r,

the surplus salt in the water deposits, and the water not being in
contact with the metal, overheating of the plates takes place and
collapse follows.

Cases have been observed where furnaces have come down when
lying under banked fires. One of the most reasonable theories put
forward to account for this is the lack of circulation existing (especially
with a high density), causing a layer of steam to form between the
water and the metal of the furnace, with consequent overheating
and collapse but opinion is somewhat divided on this point, and the
;

true cause is not definitely known.

Furnace Temperatures, &c. (approximate).

Furnace temperature - - - - about 2600° Fahr.
Combustion chamber temperature -
„ 1500° 5.

Uptake temperature - - - -
750° »
Funnel temperature - - - - 600°

NOTE. — The above temperatures (measured by a pyrometer) vary under different

conditions, but these may be taken as average.

>,\^

No. 59.— Fire Bar.

(With Dimensions.)

The air spaces are formed by small projections cast on the sides
of the bars, which ensures the required air clearance.
When the bars are fitted in two lengths, the dimensions are
usually as marked. Notice that one end of the bar is bevelled away
to allow for expansion under heat, and the other end is "hooked to '

grip the edge of the centre bearer.

,'^^
 No. 6i— Boiler Shell Manhole (i6 inches by 12 inches).
I, Compensation Ring. 2, Joint of Door. 3, BoUer Shell.

NOTE.— The upper view (sectionl is taken in the longitudinal direction, and shows the
short diameter of the manhole (12 inches).
The compensation ring is of the same thickness as the shell plate.

[n/atepaga 119.

•Ni-rljal" Nolesand Sketclitrs.

 Boil ers

3'- I"

© © ©
(h]'f
120 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

No. 62.— Boiler End Plate Manhole (15 inches by 11 inches).

1, Joint of door. 2, Stays. 3, End plate flanged in.

 —

Boilers 121

A doublini^ plate is also riveted to the back of the boiler opposite

to the manhole in the front (Sketch No. 33), and covering a similar
area.

Natural Draught.
Natural draught is caused by the difference of weight in the
heated air of the uptake and the cold air entering the furnace.
To obtain a good draught the funnel and uptake temperatures
must be between 600" and 700", this temperature being necessary to
bring about the required difference of weight.
The draught can often be improved by increasing the length of
the funnel, as by this means the column of heated, and therefore
lighter, air is made less in weight, against the same weight of cold
and heavy air.
The productionof natural draught is an example of heat con-
vection, as the cold air at, say; 60^ temperature, passing down the
ventilators, enters the furnace and becoming heated expands and
therefore rises, passing off by way of the tubes, uptake, and funnel.
The weight of the heated air is less than that of the cold air, and the
difference in weight can be found by taking the absolute temperature
as shown below.

Example. —A cubic foot of air at 62° temperature weighs -076

of a lb. ; determine the weight if the air is heated to 600° temperature.

Then, 62 + 461 = 523, and 600 + 461-1,061.

Therefore, As 1061 : 523 : : -076 --0374 of a pound.

The difference of weight as shown produces a current or draught.

Heat Absorbed in Creating Natural Draught. — The specific

heat of the funnel gases is about -23, which means that to raise i lb.
of the gases i^ in temperature -23 of a heat unit is necessary. To
show then the loss incurred by the generation of natural draught:

—
Example. Cold air temperature 62', uptake temperature 700",
and allowing 24 lbs. of air per lb. coal, calculate the heat units per
lb. coal used in producing the draught.

Then, 700" - 62' — 638' increase of air temperature,

and B.T.U. required = 638 x 25 x •23 = 3668-5.

NOTE.— 24 lbs. of air + i lb. coal = 2S lbs. gases in all (neglecting ash and
clinker).

As a Percentage.
Heat Units,
— Assuming that i lb. coal contains 14,500

Then, As 14500 : 3668-5 : : 100 :

25 per ceni
122 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

So that 25 per cent, of the heat units in each lb. of coal are used up
in producing the necessary difference in temperature of the funnel
gases required to form a draught by difference of weight.

Howden's Forced Draught.

In this well-known system of artificial draught, a large fan
driven by means of a small engine, usually placed in the engine-
room, forces the air along the air trunk into the air heating box

Front View. Inside View.

No. 64. — Howden's Forced Draught Furnace Mountings.

a, Top Valve Handle. h, Hanger for Ashpit Door,
b, Back Catch. k, Side Valve Handle.
c, Front Catch. 1, Left-hand Baffle Plate (or Air
d, Hinge Flat. Box),
e, Hinge Centre. m, Mica Plate,
fc, Ashpit Door Handle for Centre r, Right-hand Baffle Plate (or Air
Front, Box),
fs, Ashpit Door Handle for Side s, Door Baffle Plate (or Air Box),
Front, t, Top Baffle Plate (or Air Box),
g, Catch for Ashpit Door. u, Furnace Door.
X, Ashpit Door.

situated in the uptake, and consisting of two tube plates with a

series of short vertical tubes between. The hot gases from the
smoke tubes pass up through the sets of short tubes in the box, and
the air, being outside of these, is heated by the otherwise waste gases,
and passes by openings in the sides through a casing on the boiler
end down to the hot air receiver above the furnaces (see sketch).
The fronts of the furnaces are closed, and have three metal
valves fitted, by which the air supply can be regulated to the furnaces,
both above and below the fire-bars, one valve admitting the air
/

STAVED UP TO
SCREWED 6THREAD3

!3 S'l^tiir;^

r^:^
•tHIA?:.:
 No. 63.— Sectional View of Boiler with Howden's Forced Draught.
The draught 11 genented by the Eia jhown, ud the cold air (say at 60*) ia delivered,
by way of the air casing, into the air heating box which is
' "^-^ ** which temperature it enters the fuRuc«s, being adinitted by one valve above the fire-bare, and by two valves (buth operaied by c
ow *"k*'if
the bars. This pressure can only be measured by a porUble U tube similar to the one shown in the drawing,

aught the walet would ri»e highest u

 Boilers 123

HOT AIR RECEIVE

AIR VALVE

)UBLE DOOP. -jJ !

No. 65. — Howden's Forced Draught.

The air isheated by the otherwise waste gases to about 220°
temperature before entering the furnaces.
124 *'
Verbal " Notes and Sketches

above the bars, and the other two admitting it below. The furnace
doors are made double, the outer half being airtight, and the inner
half being perforated with small holes for the jets of air to pass
through. It should be mentioned that with forced draught the
smoke tubes are made smaller than usual, generally from 2^ to 2|
inches in diameter outside, and that strips of twisted metal, called
" retarders," are often fitted inside of them to increase their heating

power by retarding or keeping back the hot gases, so that as much

of the heat as possible is given up to the water before the gases
leave the tubes.
The force or intensity of the draught is measured by a U-shaped
glass tube containing water, one end of the tube being connected

TO FAN CASING.

WATER.

No. 66.

to the air trunk and the other end left open to the atmosphere.
The air pressure in the trunk forces the water higher in the leg
of the tube which is open to the atmosphere and lower in the
leg open to the air casing, and the difference of the two water levels
is called the air pressure, and is expressed in inches of water.
In practice from i| to 3 inches of water is the amount carried.
If the water gauge shows, say, 3 inches of water, to find the
pressure of the draught divide this by 27-66 inches.
NOTE.— A column of water 27-66 inches in height weighs 1 lb. per square inch.

Thus, —3^ = .108 lb. per sq.

^
in.
27-66 ^

NOTE.— If the water gauge for the draught indicates about 2 J or 3 inches at
the fan, the pressure under the fire-bars will only be equal to about I inch or
thereabout.
 ——

Boilers 125

Gains of Forced Draught.

1. Smaller boilers for the same power, as the consumption is more

per square foot of grate.

2. Hot air enters the furnace in place of cold air.

3. Better steaming of power boilers.

4. Better control of fires, as the draught is independent of weather
conditions.

With forced draught the air is partly heated by the waste gases
before entering the furnaces, which means that less heat requires to
be taken from the coal to heat it, and, as the consumption per square
foot of grate surface is more than with natural draught, more evapora-
tion will be the result, and therefore a smaller boiler will supply the
same amount of steam in addition to this the boilers generally steam
:

much easier with forced draught.

NOTE. — As part of the heat of the wasLe gases is absorbed by the air in
the heating box, the temperature of the funnel gases isless, being somewhat
between 450° and 550° in general practice. The safety valves are made larger
when forced draught is fitted, to allow for the increased evaporation per square
foot of heating surface and resultant increase of steam generation.

Notes on Forced Draught.

About 20 lbs. of air per pound of coal are required for combustion,
instead of 24 lbs. as with natural draught. The air being heated to
about 210" by the waste products of combustion, requires less heat
from the coal to effect combustion.
The consumption of coal may range from 25 to 40 lbs. per
square foot of grate per hour according to the force of the draught
carried. This results in reduced size of boilers being sufficient for a
given power.
The air being forced into the furnaces is better distributed and
more effective, which results in higher furnace temperatures.
With a water pressure of 2h inches at the fan, the pressure under the
bars should be equal to about | inch water, and above the bars equal
to about ^ inch water.
The chief disadvantages of forced draught are :

1.Greater risk of collapsed furnaces if coated with scale or oil

deposit,owing to higher temperature of furnace.
2. Greater tendency to leaky tubes and seams, owing to higher

temperature of gases.
3. Trouble with tubes choking up with soot, if not cleaned often
and regularly.

Heat Saved.
The approximate number of heat units saved by forced draught
per pound of coal may be calculated as follows :
 — — ;

T26 * Verbal" Notes and Sketches

Natural Draught. —
Assume 24 lbs. of air per pound coal, cold
air temperature 62°, funnel gases temperature 650°, specific heat of
gases '23.

Then, 650° -62° = 588° rise of air temperature.

And, 588 X 25 X •23=3,381 Heat units required per pound of coal.

NOTE.— 24 lbs. of air + i lb. of coal = 25 lbs. weight of gases in all.

Forced Draught. —
Assume 20 lbs, of air per pound coal, heated
air temperature 200°, funnel gases temperature 550^
Then, 550° - 200° = 350° rise of air temperature.

And, 350x21 X •23 = 1690-5 Heat units required per pound of coal.

NOTE. — 20 lbs. of air + i lb. of coal = 21 lbs. of gases in all.

So that 3381 - 1690-5- 1690-5 Heat units saved per pound of coal burnt.

—
Howden's Forced Draught. As a general rule the best results
are obtained when the air pressure below the bars is equal to i inch
water, and above the bars | inch water, giving a difference of f inch,
and to obtain this it may be found necessary to build up the bridge
by, say, two brick thickness more than that arranged for originally by
the makers. If this alteration is made, the results will, in most cases,
be found to be the best possible, both as regards combustion and the
life of the boilers.

Pitting and Corrosion. — In boilers the general causes of corrosion

are :

I. Fatty acids from animal or vegetable oils, which are set free
when the oil is decomposed by the CO., from
heat. 2. Oxygen and
air brought in with the feed water, and set free by the heat.
3. Galvanic action, due to the difference in composition of the metals
used in the construction of the boiler, such as iron and steel, and to
other similar causes.
The best oil for internal lubrication, or for rods, is mineral oil,
which is a pure hydrocarbon, and free from acids.
Most of the oil used for internal lubrication of the engines finds
its way to the boilers, by being brought with the steam into the
condenser, and afterwards pumped into the boilers by the feed pumps.

—
Places Pitted. The parts of a boiler where pitting occurs vary
a great deal in different boilers, but the most common places are
(i) About the line of the fire-bars on the water side of the furnaces;
(2) at the sides, bottom, and back of the combustion chamber
(3) at the back ends of the tubes, and at the combustion chamber
end of the small stays, which are exposed to the high temperature
gases.
 — — —

Boilers 127

Furnace Collapse by Retention of Gases.

In some cases the collapse of furnaces may be brought about as
follows :

If with forced draught the tubes become badly choked up with

soot the outlets for the products of combustion are correspondingly
reduced, and the gases being thus retained, may rise in temperature
to a serious degree, and overheat the furnace metal; if the tempera-
ture of the plates exceeds 600°, collapse of the crown will likel)' take
place. Retarders placed in the tubes unfortunately tend to produce
the choking up referred to, as also do the " Serve " type of boiler
tube.

—
Collapse of Furnaces. When a furnace crown is brought down
by oil deposits, it often happens that after the boiler has been blown
down and the furnace examined inside, no trace whatever can be
discovered of the cause of collapse. This is accounted for by the
fact that when overheating of the plate takes place, and consequent
buckling, the intense heat resulting burns completely away the layer
of oil, thus leaving no trace. The only clue to the true cause of the
collapse lies in the fact that generally the metal is cleaner at the
place where the oil had formerly lain than on other parts of the
furnace metal.

Heating Surface and Grate Surface.

In cylindrical marine boilers the ratio of Heating to Grate surface
is about 30 or 35 to I, and in water-tube boilers from 40 to i
upwards.

Boiler Repairs, Parts Corroded, &c.

—
Chain Patch. Cracks in furnaces and combustion chambers are often
repaired by means of a chain patch, consisting of a series of pins
tapped into the crack and into each other, the ends being riveted over
as shown in the sketch, this method of repair being handy and
suitable for small cracks.

Patches. —
For a badly corroded section of a furnace or combustion
chamber a riveted patch may be found necessary and should be
arranged as follows :

1.First cut out the defective piece of plate.

2. Shape the patch to template, and of a thickness about jV i"ch
less than the furnace or combustion chamber it is to be fitted on to.
3. Emplc*y rivets of a diameter determined as follows :

Rule—
1-2 X ^'plate Thickness = rivet diameter.
 —

128 *'
Verbal " Notes and Sketches

8 RIVETS (countersunk)

No. 67. — Method of Repair for a Crack.

The repair consists of a series of rivets countersunk on one

side, and touching each other as shown.
just This method
of repair for a longitudinal crack in a furnace or combustion
chamber will be found, in most cases, to stand better than the
chain patch obtained by screwed pins tapped half into each
other and riveted over.

And of a pitch found as follows :

Rule —
100 X rivet diameter
^p-t^t^ ^^ ^.j^^ts
100 - joint

It must be remembered that the joint strength referred to is equal to

about 52 per cent, if single riveting is employed, and 68 to 70 per
cent, if double riveting.

4. Rivet the patch on to the fire side of plate so that the effect of
the heat will take place on the edges of the patch in place of the
 Boilers 129

edges of the furnace or combustion chamber metal. This will also

be found more convenient for caulking.

5. The patch should form a metal to metal joint without any-

other jointing material.

6. The distance from edge of rivet hole to edge of plate must be

equal to one rivet diameter, and the width of lap for single riveting
will therefore be equal to three rivet diameters.

General Repairs.
If a combustion chamber shows a buckle between some of the
stays, it is probably due to defective circulation, oil or scale deposits
adhering to the plate and causing overheating. If the buckle is bad,
tap a stay through it and the boiler plate between the other stays.
If a furnace or combustion chamber plate develops a blister, it is
usually caused by the plate being laminated, which means that some
dirt or sand has been rolled up with the metal during manufacture ;

the plate, not being solid throughout, blisters when heated.

If a piece of a furnace requires to be patched, first cut out the
defective piece of the plate and then rivet on the patch (metal to
metal) on the fire side of the plate. The thickness of patch should
be from f inch to h inch, and the diameter of rivets about | inch.
If a combustion chamber stay leaks badly, and cannot be kept
tight, take out the stay and tap the holes to a larger diameter, then
screw in a new stay.
—
NOTE. If the plates cannot be tapped, a distance piece or thimble is neces-
sary to form a joint, when a bolt is used instead of a screwed stay.

—
Stay Repair. The following method of repair for a leaky com-
bustion chamber riveted stay may be applied when a new stay of a
slightly larger size cannot be obtained. Chip off the riveted head
flush with the plate, bore a hole in the stay, say f inch diameter, then
drift out the hole to tighten up the threads in the plate, next tap the
hole f inch diameter and screw in a pin of that size, fitting a f-inch
thick washer, with a joint of asbestos and red lead.

NOTE.— As the s-inch pin now takes the place of the stay, theoretically, the
pressure should be reduced by rule to this size. In the proportion of the respec-
tive stay areas assume original stay to be i^ inches diameter and boiler pressure
180 lbs., then,

As, 1-25" X 7854 : -875- X .7854 : : 180 lbs.

Or, as, 1-25'- : -875- : : 180 lbs.

Therefore, ' '5_±^L_?-88 lbs. Safe pressure.

125-

This of course neglects the holding power of the stay obtained by

the expanding out of the metal, which may more or less make up for
the loss of area, and permit of the original pressure being carried.
10
I30 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

SL'Of^T OlTTlH^ INSlOC

O o o
o o/o o o to o o
Pi.AN Showing the Defect
_J

No. 68.— Pitting of Boiler Shell Plate.

The above sketch shcjws the effects produced by pitting on a

boiler shell plate i^^ inch thick, and which resulted in an explosion.
The pitting appears to have originated in local galvanic action on
a small area of the plate, due to impurity in manufacture, and this
afterwards extended as shown above and blew out.

BACK TUBE
PLATE

No. 69.—Tube Plate Corrosion.

If a boiler tube leaks and the leakage is not checked at once by
re-expanding, the tube plate is in danger of corroding as shown in
the sketch.
This corrosion is caused by small quantities of water leaking
through, which, becoming decomposed by the heat, sets free oxygen
gas the oxygen gas combines chemically with the tube metal to
:

form iron oxide, which results in wasting of the metal.

I

2RA8 i^ MIJ

riS ,233£muH no noiaonoQ

cii&'jqtb laaic basi. .saBsig o: 3tii> uoiSonoO

 1

p///////W////^^^^^^^^^^

No. 72— Corrosion on Furnaces, &c-

X, Corrosion above line of bars due to high temperature and 5, Corrosion due to straining of plates and faulty
liberation of free oxygen gas. circulation.
2, Corrosion due to moisture, such as from wet ashes. 6, Corrosion due o straining of plates, intense heat.
3, Corrosion due to expansion and leakage, also repeated and leakage.
caulking of the plate edges. 7, Corrosion due to grease, and other deposits.
4, Corrosion due to unequal expansion, straining, and leakage.

'To fat* fagt 131.

" Verlial '

Noics and Sketches.

^j^V
 B oilers i;;i

CO^yiBUSTION
CHAMBER
BACK

No. 70.— Combustion Chamber Plate Corrosion

If a stay leaks at the back end, corrosion may follow by the

oxygen gas set free by the
heat. This is shown at 2 in the sketch,
and the repair would be to take out the stay and re-tap the holes to
a larger size, screwing in a heavier stay.

No. 71.— Furnace Corrosion.

1, Corrosion due to heat setting free oxygen gas.
2, Corrosion due to moisture such as from wet ashes, &c. The heat sets free
oxygen and CO as, which in combination are highly corrosive.
 c <o

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 -----^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^----^^--^^^^^^^^^^
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No. 74.— The Bagguley Patent "All-Metal" Tube Stopper,

When the nut is tightened up the cones press out the ends of the sleeves, thus forming four metal-to-metal joints.
The patent stopper shown above makes four metal-to-metal joints in the faulty tube, two at each end, and the whole operation
isperformed by means of screwing up a single nut at the front end of the tube, the stopper being placed in position from the front end.
The patent stopper consists of a long bolt wh.ich passes right through the boiler tube to be stopped this bolt has a tapered ;

head on the back end which exactly fits the tube. Three conical sleeves slip on to this bolt, making a tight fit externally on
the bolt, and internally on the boiler tube. The front end of the bolt is screwed and fitted with a feather-way, and on this end
a hexagon washer or nut is fitted witii a feather to fit the above-mentioned feather-way. A screwed nut is then fitt^ to the bolt,
and a raalleable-iron tube is passed over the bolt, which keeps the cone pieces in position, and enables them to be tightened up
simultaneously. Two soft metal sleeves, i, i, complete the arrangement.
In stopping a faulty tube the whole apparatus is passed through from the smoke-box end as one piece, and by holding the
hexagon washer by means of a spanner and screwing up the nut the four taper pieces are screwed up simultaneously, expanding the
soft metal sleeves and thus elTeciively stopping up the faulty tube, and cutting it out of action for any length of time.

ITo /cue pant \ZI.

"Verb.ll" NolcM and Skclchi-'

 Boilers 133

Iron Tubes and Stays.

In steel boilers the tubes and small stays are often made of iron,
for the reason that iron corrodes less than steel under corrosive
influences.

Leaky Tubes.
Owing to the tubes and tube plate expanding at different rates,
the back ends of the tubes often leak. This is remedied by re-
expanding, or by fitting into the tube at the back end a capped
ferrule as used in the Navy, to keep the heat off the tube end and
the plate (Sketch No. 75). Scale and soot on the tubes and plates
tend to increase the leakage, and with forced draught, as the heat
is more intense, the leakage is still further increased.

No. 75. — Capped Ferrule for Leaky Back Ends.

Collapsed Tubes.
For a collapsed tube the best repair is a permanent stopper (Sketch
No. 73), formed of a long rod screwed at the ends, and cap washers
fitting over the ends of the tube and screwed up tight with a joint
between the tube and the washers. Patent stoppers are also employed
to close up a cracked tube, the " Bagguley " type being shown in Sketch
No. 74.

Safety Valves.
To find the Load on any valve, multipl}^ the valve Area by the
Pressure per square inch.
To find the Pressure per square inch, divide the Load on the
valve by the valve Area.

Example. — The Pressure is to be 40 lbs. per square inch and the

valve is 5 inches diameter, find the Load.
5' ^ 7854 X 40-785-4 lbs. load.

Example. — The Load on a dead-weight valve is 1000 lbs., and

the valve is 3 inches diameter find the blowing-off Pressure per
;

square inch.
~ 1000 — =1414 I,
lbs. pressure per sq. in.
3- X -7854
 — —

134 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

Lever Safety Valve.

^ L . ^

PT:
^^t>
No. 76.

NOTE.— A=valve Area, load - A x boiler pressure.

Then, LxW = /xload.
Therefore,
LX W= 1
load, and,
J J load
^-^ = pressure per sq. in.
/

I X load TTT / X load ,

Again,

16

>;•-.

>^ No. 77.

Example i.-

RULE
16 in. X 100 lbs 4 in. X Load.

16 in. X 100 lbs.

Then, = 400 lbs. Load,
4 in.

and Pressure per sq. in =^ Load -: Valve Area - 400 -MO = 40 lbs. per sq. in.

NOTE. — Valve area = 10 square inches.

In the foregoing case, the weight of the lever, and of the valve and
spindle, are neglected, If they are to be allowed for, the following
data must be eiven :

1. Centre of gravity of the lever.

2. Weight of the lever.
3. Weight of the valve and spindle.

—
Example 2. In the previous case the lever weighs 7 lbs., its
centre of gravity is 12 inches from the fulcrum, and the valve and
spindle weigh 5 lbs. find the load on the valve, and the pressure per
;

square inch, allowing for the lever and the valve and spindle.
12 in. X 7 lbs. J
^' = 21 1.
lbs. more due i.
to lever.
1

4 in.

Then, 400 + 21 + 5 = 426 lbs. load,

and 426
42-6 lbs. pressure per sq. in.

NOTE.— The centre of gravity is the point at which the lever balances if placed
on a knife edge. As the weight of the valve and spindle is direct weight, it is simply
added to the other two loads.
 Boilers 135

Example 3. — Fulcrum to Weight 30 inches, fulcrum to Valve

5 inches, Load on valve 300 lbs. ; find Weight.

Then, Lx W = /xload = 30x W = s x 300.

Therefore, W = 1^300
30
^ ^^ -^ n^g

Example —
Fulcrum to valve 6 inches, Weight 20 lbs., boiler
4.
pressure 30 per square inch, valve area 4 square inches find the
lbs. ;

Length from fulcrum to W^eight.

Then, Lx W= /x load- Lx 20 = 6 x 120.

NOTE. — 4x30 = 120 lbs. load on valve.

Therefore, L = ^i^i??=36 in.

20

—
Example 5. Fulcrum to valve 6 inches, fulcrum to Weight
32 inches, Weight 25 lbs. find the boiler pressure per square inch
;

if the valve is 3 inches diameter.

Then, L x W= /x load = 32x 25 = 6 x load.

Therefore, load = 3^^ -133-3 Jhs.

Then, Pressure = load -=- valve area = 133-34-3- x 7854=18-8 lbs. per sq. in.

Spring Safety Valves.

At 60 lbs. gauge pressure, the Board of Trade allowance of safet}'
valve area is h square inch per square foot of fire-grate surface.
At higher pressures the valve area required is less, because high-
pressure steam has less volume than low-pressure steam, and at lower
pressures the valve area required is more.
To find the valve area per square foot of grate for, say, 160 lbs.
gauge pressure, 60+ 15 =75 lbs. gross, and 160-I- 15 = 175 lbs. gross.

Then, as 175 lbs. :

75 lbs. : : -5 in. = -214 of a square inch.

NOTE. — In working out valve areas, the gross pressure must be taken.

The lip cast round the safety valve face is to give an increase of
valve surface when the valve lifts, so that the extra compression of the
spring, due to the lift, may be neutrali.sed. Without this fitting, the
boiler pressure would increase with the valve lift.

To find the Compression.

Rule —
Load on val ve x Spring mean diameter" x Number of coils _ r-omoression
2000000 < steel
136 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

Example. — Find required for a 4-inch safety

the compression
valve, pressure 160 lbs., and mean diameter of spring 3I inches
there :

are thirteen coils of square steel of f inch side.

160x3.5x3.5x3.5x13^^^^ .^
4l^^54>^ compression.
2000000 X .75 X -75 X .75 X -75

The pressure per square inch varies as the compression of the

spring.

—
Example. The pressure is 160 lbs. per square inch, and the
compression is 2 inches find the compression and thickness of the
;

washer required to be put in to have the valve blowing off at 150 lbs.
per square inch.
As 160 : 2 in. : : 150 = 1-875 in. compression.
Then, 2 in. -1-875 in. = -125 of an inch thickness of washer to go in under the
compression nut.

NOTE. — The compression varies directly as the pressure.

To find the Diameter of Safety Valve.

Square feet of grate

y ^375 = diameter of valve,

gross pressure x -7854

NOTE. — If for forced draught allow about 25 per cent, more area of valve.

The Constant 37-5 is obtained b}' multiplying the valve area allowed
at 60 lbs. gauge pressure by the gross pressure corresponding to it.

Thus, 60 + 15 = -75, and 75 X .5 := 37.5.

Superheated Steam.
Of late years a decided reaction has set in among marine engineers
in favour of superheated steam, which, as proved conclusively by
recent exhaustive experiments, possesses undoubted advantages, and
the use of which results in considerable economy. It has been found
that w ith superheating to the extent of 50" the gain is about 8 per
cent., and if the superheat is increased to 200° above the natural
pressure temperature of the steam, then the resulting economy is
about 30 per cent.
It should be noted that if saturated steam that is, steam drawn —
—
from a boiler is raised in temperature and Xh^ pressjire kept constant,
the volume increases this means a larger volume of steam produced
;

for the same amount of water evaporated, and therefore less boiler
space required. Again, by superheating steam which originall)'
contains water, the water is evaporated, thus giving drier steam, which
results in less c\'linder condensation losses, and less transfer of heat
 Boilers 137

to the cylinder walls. It will thus be seen that the advantages of

superheated steam are undoubted.

NOTE. — The volume varies with the absolute temperature if the pressure is
kept constant.

—
Example. Boiler steam (saturated) at a pressure of 180 lbs.
gauge pressure, temperature of 380, and specific volume 2-31 cubic
feet ; find the volume if the steam is superheated 100° Fahr.

Then, 380° + 100 = 480" steam temperature when superheated.

And, 461= absolute temperature constant.

Therefore, as, (380° + 461°) : (480° + 461) : : 2-31 -^2-58 cubic feet volume.

So that the volume of the steam per pound is nowr increased by 258 -2-31 =
•27 of a cubic foot.

In addition to this it must be remembered that the temperature is

higher, and the steam of a drier condition.

Advantages of Superheated Steam.

(i.) Increase of steam volume.
(2.) Dry steam enters the cj'linders, and less condensation losses
result.
(3.) Less leakage of steam past valves and pistons.
(4.) Less danger from water hammer in main steam pipes or chests.

Against these gains there are, however, certain disadvantages,

which also require to be taken into account.

Disadvantages of Superheated Steam.

(i.) Difficulty of lubrication,
(2.) Piston rmgs more easily broken.
(3.) Trouble experienced in keeping superheater coils or tubes
tisfht and in eood workine order.

Methods of Superheating. — In marine practice the ordinary

method has been to utilise the funnel gases in superheating the steam,
although the independently fired type as devised by Professor
Watkinson has also been fitted in some steamers.
The Watkinson superheater (Sketch No. 78) consists of a series of
U-shaped mild steel tubes, expanded into large headers similar to those
employed in water-tube boilers. This nest of tubes is fitted in the
uptake, and the steam from the boiler enters one of the headers, and
passing through the U-shaped tubes becomes superheated by the
furnace gases which are flowing over tiie tubes. The steam then
enters the other header and flows along the steam pipe to the engine.
 "
I^.cS *'
Verbal Notes and Sketches

Suitable drainage arrangements are fitted to keep the drums and

tubes clear of water, and by suitable bye-pass valves and pipes the
steam may, if required, pass direct from the boilers to the engine,
without entering the superheater coils.
When it is stated that the average loss due to initial cylinder con-
densation is about 15 per cent, with saturated steam, the advantage of
superheated or dry steam will be apparent, as less water being present

No. 78.— "Watkinson" Type Marine Superheater.

m the steam the condensation losses are greatly reduced, and may be
practically eliminated.
To overcome the lubrication difficult)-, special high temperature
mineral oilsare now manufactured by the various oil companies,
which are said to resist the disintegrating effects of the superheated
steam, and allow of suitable lubrication of rods, pistons, and valves.
Regarding the resulting increase of volume due to superheating
Professor Watkinson says " During superheating, although the
:
 — — —

Boilers 139

pressure of the steam remains constant, its volume is j^reatly in-

creased. The amount of heat required to superlieat I lb. of steam
by 1 50° Fahr. is 72 British heat units, which is only about 6 per cent,
of the heat required to generate i lb. of dry saturated steam. The
increase in volume due to this additional 6 per cent, of heat averages
about 30 per cent."

Steam Pipes.
Steam pi{)es are made of the following materials :

1. Copper, seamless or brazed.

2. Wrought iron, generally lap welded.
3. Steel, also lap welded.

Sometimes in steel pipes a riveted butt strap is fitted covering the

weld, and copper pipes are further strengthened by being covered
with wrappings of wire rope, or by iron bands secured at short
distances along the pipe. Cast iron also, in a few cases, has been
used for steam pipes.
The three
principal causes of recent accidents to steam pipes were
allowance for expansion
(i) Insufficient (2) defective drainage
;

arrangements and (3) vibration.

;

Before opening the main stop-valves the drains on the pipes

or chests should be opened to clear away all water which may have
collected in them.
When steam pressure strikes a body of water it imparts to the
water a velocity nearly equal to its own, and the resulting force
acquired is so great that the chest or pipe may be burst this is known :

as " water hammer," and accounts for many of the accidents to steam
pipes and stop-valve chests hence the necessity for drain cocks being
;

fitted and used.

Water Hammer in Steam Pipes. —

Whenever possible water lodging
in steam pipes should be drained out when the steam pressure is off,
otherwise the draining out of the water may result in the setting up
of water hammer action with danger of bursting the pipe or v^alve
chest.
According to Mr C. E. Stromeyer of the Manchester Steam Users
Association, the conditions favourable to water hammer are as
follows :

1. Water in contact with steam.

2. Rapid condensation in pipes or chests.
3. Agitated water surfaces.
4. Steam pressure at one part of a pipe and vacuum at another
part.

Under ordinary practical conditions the pressure per square inch

on a pipe ])roduced b)' water hammer may range from 250 lbs. to
300 lbs., or e\en more.
 —

140 "Verbal' Notes and Sketches

VALVE (?HEST

No. 79.
— Steam Pipe Expansion Joint

NOTE. — When no expansion joints are fitted on steam pipes, bends are formed on
the pipes to allow for expansion.

Circulation and Priming.

Circulation in a boiler is the rising of the heated and expanded

water, and tlie sinking of the colder and heavier water to take its
place, resulting in a continuous current passing from the bottom
upwards, and from the top downwards.
When water is heated it becomes lighter, and expanding, rises
to the top in the form of small steam bubbles, which, on reaching the
surface, burst and give off a small amount of steam, and, if the boiler
is properly designed, the colder water being heavy falls, and in its
turn becomes heated.
Should insufficient allowance be made for the circulation, or
anything occur to check it, priming will most likely begin, as priming
is caused by bad circulation.
Defective circulation may be caused by :

1. Close arrangement of tube nests.

2. Small steam space.
3. Dirty water.
4. Bad firing.

Observe that any of the foregoing causes bring about bad circula-
tion,and consequently priming.
The bottom seams of the boiler sometimes leak owing to the
difference of temperature existing between the top and bottom caused
by defective circulation. The top plates being hotter, and expanding
more in proportion, tend to drag open tlie bottom seams, and leakage
is the result.
(

./t'
 ooo ooo
ooo ooo
ooo ooo
ooo ooo
ooo ooo
ooo oool
ooo ooo
oo ooo
ooo
ooo
ooo

No. 8i. — " Doubling Plate. No. 82. — End View of Boiler (Half in Section).

"VetU.l N.ili-samlSkclclic. in/firrfaKr 141.

 Boilers 141

No. 80. — Weir's Patent Hydrokineter.

In getting up steam, circulation is assisted by means of a

hydrokineter (Sketch No. 80), or by the donkey connection for
pumping the water from one part of the boiler to another (see
page 151).

Doubling Plates.

Doubling plates, as shown in Sketch No. 81, are sometimes fitted

to boilers to increase the strength of flat surfaces in places where
ordinary stays or stay tubes cannot be fitted. The plate shown is
about "^ inch thick, and is riveted to the boiler end plates in the spaces
between the tubes. Stays are not admissible at this part of the
boiler owing to the necessity for keeping clear the spaces between the
tubes to allow of the furnaces being examined, cleaned, or repaired,
so that the only alternative method of support is by means of
doubling plates.

End View (Sketch No. 82).

The sketch shows the general construction of a modern high-

pressure boiler, as seen half in section from the end. Observe how the
combustion chamber tops are supported by the "dogs," or girders,
and stays passing through which are tapped into the top plates.
 —

142 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches

The following are the principal dimensions to be carefully noted :

Pitch of girders, about 8 inches.

Depth „ ,, 9 inches.
Distance between combustion chamber plates, about 7 inches.
„ „ combustion chamber and boiler shell, about 7 inches.
„ „ furnace and bottom of boiler, about 7 inches.
„ „ bottom row of tubes and furnace top, about loh inches.
„ ,, each nest of tubes, about 1 1 inches.

Observe how the plate at the sludge hole openings is strengthened

by means of the sta)'s shown, which pass from end to end of the
boiler, thetop one being heavier than the lower two.
These stays are usually about if inches or 2 inches diameter
Also note the arrangement of the stay tubes, which are indicated
by dark circles.

—
NOTE. The manhole opening- in the shell (about 16 inches 12 inches) is
strengthened by means of a doubling or "compensating" ring riveted to the plate
round the hole. The effective surface area of this ring should not be less than the
area of the metal cut away to form the opening.

—
Scarfed Joints. This type of joint is used in boilers where three
plates overlap each other, as for example when two end plates and the
shell overlap. Two of the plates are scarfed or thinned down, as
shown in the sketch, and the third plate covers both this reduces the
;

thickness to that of only two plates. Extra heavy caulking is

required to keep the joint tight.

END PLATE

SCARFED

CAULKED
SINGLE _
SHELL PLATE CAULKING
END PLATE
SINGLE^
CAULKING
No. 83.— Scarfed Joint. No. 84. — Flanged-out Plates.
 —

Boilers H3
—
Flanged-out Plates. Sometimes one end of the boiler is flanged
outwards, as shown, to allow of the convenience of the hydraulic
riveting machine. The disadvantage of this arrangement lies in the
fact that only single caulking is possible, whereas with the plates
flanged inwards double caulking can be employed.

Zinc Plates.
The sketches show the usual methods of connecting the zinc slabs
to the boiler metal, and it is important that the following points be
attended to:

(i) Proper metallic contact between the zinc and the boiler, and
to ensure this the surfaces in contact should be filed up bright.

No. 85.
 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches
144

HfM

_y: —

No. 86.- Zinc Block and Stud.

The zinc plates fitted into boilers to set up galvanic action
and reduce corrosion are usually fixed to the furnaces, com-
bustion chambers, and end plates as shown, the stud being
screwed in to form effective metallic contact.

ZINC

9>rTr77rr77r77ryt

No. 87.— Zinc Plate in Box,

In water tube boilers the zinc plates are often carried in

perforated boxes, the idea being to prevent the oxide of zinc
(produced by the galvanic action) from being distributed over
the boiler. The oxide drops to the bottom of the box, and is
thus kept by itself.
 Boilers H5
(2) When convenient the removal of scale or oily deposits from
the zinc plate connections, as these substances insulate the parts and
interrupt the flow of the current.

(3) The renewal of the zinc slabs whenever they are found to have
become spongy, as the galvanic action is then practically exhausted.

When the zinc is suitably connected as above described, the

chemical action which occurs results in the formation of Oxide of
Zinc and the liberation of bubbles of Hydrogen Gas. At the zinc
plate Oxygen is set free and combines with the zinc, and at the boiler
metal Hydrogen Gas is set free.

NOTE. — As the proportion of zinc used is very small compared with the
amount of boiler metal to be protected, the corrosion is merely reduced in extent.
and is not prevented altogether.

The usual allowance of zinc is about one square foot, inch thick
per each 80 I.H.P.

Water Gauge.
In Fig. I the column shown is hollow cast, so that the water or the
steam could pass through it the test cocks show this.
:

NOTE.— Open the drain and blow through, then close the drain and see if the
water rises to the working level if so, the connections are all clear if, however, no
; ;

water shows, then either C or D is choked or the water is too low if, on the other;

hand, the glass shows full, then either A or B is choked or the water is too high.

To test if the steam connections are clear, shut cocks C and D, and
have open cocks A, B, and the drain cock E. If steam blows through
the cocks are clear.
To test if the water connections are clear, shut cocks and B, and A
have open cocks D, C, and the drain cock E. If water blows through,
the cocks are clear.
If cock Aor cock B is choked, the glass will show full up. It will
show the same if the pipe between A
and B is choked.
If cock C or cock D
is choked, the glass will continue to show
what the water level was at the time the cocks stuck, as the water will
be shut off from the boiler altogether. If the drain is opened and
shut, the glass will show empty as long as the cocks remain choked.
The same thing will happen if the pipe between C and is choked. D
If the glass is showing full water, due to the cock A, or the cock
B, having got choked, to test if it is A, shut D
and B and blow through
A, C, and E if steam blows out
; A
is clear, if not, is stuck. A
To
test B, shut A and C and blow through D, B, and E if water blows ;

out, B is clear, if not, B is choked.

If one of the two cocks C and D
is choked, to find which it is, shut
A and C and blow through B and the drain E if water blows out,
D ;

II
146 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

Fig. I. Fig. 2.

No. 88.

D is clear, if not, D is choked. To test C, shut D and B and blow

through A, C, and E ; if steam blows out, C is clear, if not, C is choked.
NOTE. — In testing, before closing any of the cocks A, B, C, or D, it is advisable
to first open the drain cock E, so that shocks on the pipes and glass may be avoided.

If cocks A and B are closed and the others left open and the glass
blown through, if water comes, the water connections are clear if, next, :

cocks C and D are closed and the glass blown through with cocks A
and B open so that steam comes, the steam connections are clear but ;

if, on shutting the drain cock, no water shows in the glass, this proves

that the water level in the boiler is too low, as it must be lower than
the bottom nut of the gauge glass, otherwise the glass would show
water.
If the gauge column is cast solid as shown in Fig. 2, then the
water or steam could not pass through it, and to test the water and
the steam, single shutting off on the column is sufficient.
To test the steam side, shut cock C, and leave cocks A, B, and the
drain cock E open if steam blows out, the connection is clear. To
;

test the water side, shut cock B and blow through cocks D, C, and the
drain cock E if water blows out, the connection is clear.
;

The glass usually shows from ih inches to 2 inches less than the
boiler level, the reason for this being that the water in the glass is
colder than the water in the boiler, and, as water contracts in cooling,
the level is lower in proportion,
 Boilers 147

60
 —

148 " Verbal "

Notes and Sketches

a gallon of sea water, heat it to 200^, and mark where the bottle
floats aV. boil down the water to half a gallon, and when it cools down
to 200° put in the bottle a third time, and mark where it floats /g.
or 10 oz. other densities
; may
be set off by evaporating the water
away to one-third and one-fourth the original quantity.
To test the density without a salinometer, draw off
some of the
boiler water over a fire when boiling, put in the thermo-
and boil it ;

meter and observe the temperature the density may then be roughly
;

found by means of the following table :

Fresh water boils at 212

5 oz. density 213.2°
10 „ 214-4°
15 215-6°
20 217-8°

Allow 216° as the limit temperature, corresponding to about 15 oz.

density : should the boiling point exceed this, surface the boiler to
keep down the density. *
NOTE. — The above boiling points correspond to a barometer height of 30 inches.
The boiling point varies with the barometer, up and down for every inch ; difference
in the barometer, the boiling point varies 1-5' in temperature.
If the boiler retains a density of 35 oz. (saturation point) and more feed water
containing salt is supplied, then]when the water fed in is evaporated, the salt contained
in it deposits.

MAIN STAY

IRON CLIPS
9" 3"

BOLTS

jnternal
feed pipe
(iron)

No. 89.— Method of Supporting" Internal Feed Pipes.

See's Ash Ejector.

See's ash ejector consists of a cast-iron hopper with a grating for
limiting the size of the ash or clinker put in, a water nozzle and pipe
led up to the shii)'s side abo\e the water le\el, and a cock to regulate
the flow. A high-pressure donkey pump connection is also required
* NOTE.—For accuracy, it is advisable to first boil fresh water and note the
boiling point, then allow i-2 degrees per 5 oz. for the boiler water boiling point
excess.
 Boilers 149

No. 90.— See's Ash Ejector.

W, Hopper.
P, Combined ejector cock, nozzle,
and escape valve.
M, Pressure gauge.
T, Air inlet valve.
S, Removable cover.
V, Discharge pipe.
Z, Ship's side valve.

to obtain the necessary force of water pressure. Before opening the

ejection cock it is necessary that the water pressure of the pump be
not less than 200 lbs. per .square inch, as shown by the gauge, also
that the valve on the ship's side is full open. When the cock is
opened the rush of water at high pressure past the grating carries
with it the ashes shovelled through, and discharges them overboard.
A small air valve is fitted on the pipe, and this must be kept open
when working the ejector.

Tube Expander (Sketch No. 91).

The expander consists of a built-up case containing three rollers
which project through corresponding openings cut in the shell of the
u

a
Ui

6
 Boilers 151

case. A taper mandril fits into the centre space of the rollers, and, on
being knocked in with a hammer and revolved by a bar at the end,
forces out the rollers a^^ainst the tube and tube plate, thus forming
a steam and water tight joint. In adjusting the position of the
expander care should be taken that the rollers are in line with the
tube plate, as otherwise the tube may leak, and, in addition, fracture
may result owing to the tube being unduly stressed by the rollers
acting at the wrong position.
All boiler tubes are expanded as described, with the exception of
the heaviest pattern of stay tubes, which are caulked in, the expander
beins in this case too licrht for the work.

No. 92. — Blow-off and Circulating Connections.

1, Bottom blow-off valve. 3, Bottom blow-off pipe.

2, Ships side blow-off cock (two-way). 4, Surface blow^-off pipe.
5, Donkey suction pipe for circulating.

The above is a common arrangement of surface and bottom

blow-off combined with the donkey circulating connection.
Pipe 5 leads to the donkey pump suction valve, and the colder
water lying at the bottom of the boiler can thus be pumped out,
and discharged back into the boiler through the check valve.
 —

152 Verbal " Notes and Sketches

To Cut out a Boiler Tube.

The usual method of removing a defective tube is illustrated in
the sketch, and may be described as follows :
The beading at the
 Boilers 153

back end of the tube is first cut off Hush with the plate, and the
tube end cut or ripped in three or four places. The end thus cut
up is then hammered inwards, and the bar or rod passed through
the tube, with a strong washer fitted in position over the tube end,
the washer diameter being of course less than the diameter of the
hole. At the front end a dog is fitted as shown and a screwing-up
nut if the bar is then held by the square on the end, and the nut
;

tightened up, the tube will, in most cases, be started and finally
drawn out.

No. 94.— Klinger " Reflex " Water Gauge

Klinger Patent Water Gauge.

In this admirable form of water gauge the chief improvement
and steam being shown in striking contrast to
consists in the water
154 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

each, the water in the glass appearing dark and the steam Hght the ;

water level can thus be read at some distance away from the gauge.
In the " Klinger " water gauge a metal casing connects the top and
bottom cocks, and a window of thick and strong glass inserted in the
casing allows of the reading of the water level. This window takes
the place of the fragile glass tube commonly fitted.

The observation glass or window being corrugated vertically at the

back, reflects the light in that part of the gauge which contains the
steam, whereby this part of the glass becomes opaque and of a bright
lustre.

In that part of the gauge containing the water the light is not
reflected, but passes in a slight deflection to the rear of the gauge.

The glass being thus transparent in this part of the gauge, the
water appear of the dark colour of the background of the casing,
will
in other words the water appears black, while the steam shines with
a silvery lustre. This, it must be admitted, is a vast improvement
over the ordinary glass, in which if any distance away it is often very
difficult to determine whether full of water or empty altogether.

A further advantage of the " Klinger " type of water gauge is the
elimination of stuffing boxes at the top and bottom of the glass, which
is in itself a consideration of some importance to practical men.

Auld's Patent Steam Reducing Valve.

The inflowing steam is admitted between the valve and a piston,
covered by an elastic disc.

The piston and the valve are in equilibrium on the high-pressure

side.

The reduced pressure on the outlet side is obtained by compressing

or relaxing the spring by the adjusting screw until the pointer or
spring cap is opposite the figure on index plate representing pressure
wanted. The valve being thus opened, the steam flows through valve
to low-pressure side of same, until the pressure on reduced
side balances the load on the spring by pressing on top side
of valve, and so regulating the reduced pressure to the point desired.

A column of water of condensation, shown by dotted lines, is

interposed between the steam and the elastic disc.

Should it be desired to obtain steam (the reverse way through

reducing valve) from donkey boiler for deck or engine-room
 Boil ers 155

machinery, when there is no steam in main boilers, open up the

reducing valve by compressing the spring by means of the adjusting

JAM NUT-
WASHER .

INDIA RUB6ER DISC

PISTON SEAT-
BOSS NUT

I -I—j- ADJUSTING SCREW

No. 95.— Auld's Patent Steam Reducing Valve.

screw till the reducing valve opens;of course, reset the reducing valve
to its usual working pressure on reduced side before getting up steam
in the main boilers.

NOTE.— A reducing valve will pass steam of lower pressure than it is set for,
but will not pass steam of higher pressure.
"Verbal" Notes and Sketches

u
'o

ho
c
'>.

6
2:
 Boilers 157

Boilers Secured in Position (Sketch No. 96).

The boilers rest on stools (which, if required, are wedged as

shown at C, C), and are prevented from moving longitudinally by
knees K, which are riveted or bolted to the ship's frames, clearance
being left (about | inch) between the boiler ends and the knees for
fore and aft expansion.
Side stays B are fixed by eyes and pins to brackets riveted to the
boiler shell, and block stays S are often fitted in between the boilers
at the centre. The pins and eyes of the side stays B allow for
expansion under heat.

Table giving Results of a few Experiments with Auld's Patent

Steam Reducing Valve, showing how much the Reduced
Pressure Steam is Superheated in passing through the
Valve.

Gauge
Pressure.
158 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

No. 97.— Autog-enous Welding Apparatus.

For this class of work this plant has great advantages over any-
other plant, which would, of necessity, have to be of the low pressure
type in which an acetylene generator is used, when there would be
risk of leakage caused through too fast generation or upsetting.
The high pressure plant, when work is being done inside a
furnace, is taken into that furnace, thus, being out of the way of any
one working in the stokehold, this is a decided advantage when a
ship is in port for a short time only and a lot of work has to be got
through.
Besides the above-mentioned advantage over the low pressure
system there are several others, such as safet)% high efficiency caused
through having both gases under about the same pressure, thus getting
 Boilers 159

a very intimate mixture and the gas being better purified, easy adjust-
ment of the flame, and the simple construction of the blowpipe, there
being nothing to go wrong inside it, and the lightness and balance of
the same, which is very important when it is considered that a man
has frequently to work in a very strained position, the work being done
on the horizontal, vertical, or overhead, it being immaterial, provided
he can get his blowpipe flame to play on the correct place in some
;

cases, in fact, a man cannot see directly what he is doing but has to
work more or less by feel, and makes as good a job as if it was
perfectly easy to get at.
For this process of repair the men employed must, when not
actually at work on board ship, be kept practising in the shops on an
old boiler, and no new man should be put to work on a ship before
he has had some months' tuition and practice in the shops practice
;

on lighter work is of no use whatever, in fact, if anything, it is detri-

mental to good work on heavy work, and all ship work comes under
this class.
As mentioned earlier, the main faults in boilers are found in
cracks and corrosions we will discuss the former first, giving a few
:

sketches and showing the method of repair.

Cracks are usually found in the furnaces on a belt of from 4 to
8 inches wide, a short distance above the fire-bars, and running the
whole length of the furnace.
If there are only one or two, each one is cut out, as shown in
No. 98, to a V shape, new metal is then added from a rod of Swedish

No. 98.

iron by the welder, who holds his blowpipe in one hand and this iron
in the other, adding it drop by drop to the molten mass at the tip of
the flame if he does not get the original plate properly molten before
;

adding new metal he will not make a weld, and the crack will open
on cooling. Other positions in which cracks are to be frequently
found are in the landing edges of the furnaces and combustion
chamber plates running inwards from the edge of the plate into the
 "
i6o Verbal Notes and Sketches

rivet holes and sometimes beyond ; these cracks are repaired in the
same way as furnace cracks, only great care must be taken not to
weld the top plate to the one underneath, if this is done endless
trouble will be caused.
In some cases there are a number of cracks within a small area ;

it is then advisable to cut out the whole of the affected part and

weld in an entirely new piece of plate. In case of a furnace with

thickened ribs it is an easy matter to build up the new plate to the
correct shape as shown in No. 99, the new metal being shown bj;

No. 99.

the dotted lines and shaded portions. Corrosion usually takes place
in the same region in a furnace as cracks, that is, in a belt 4 or
8 inches wide, a short distance above the fire-bars, extending the
whole length of the furnace ; to repair this all scale and dirt has to
be carefully removed from the corrosion which is then built up to
the original thickness of the furnace the method employed is exactly
;

the same as that for cracks, new metal being added little by little
as the plate is brought to a molten state.
Corrosions very frequently occur at the landing edges of the
furnaces and combustion chamber plates when this is so it is usually
;

found that the back plate is also corroded as shown in No. 100.

No. 100.
 ;

Boile rs i6i

To repair, the corroded places are first thoroughly cleaned, the

corrosion C then first made good, the landing of the front plate
is

is then built up to the required amount, the same care being taken
in this case not to weld the front to the back plate as in the case of
landing edge cracks.
Besides cracks and corrosions in furnaces and combustion
chambers, the same defects sometimes arise in the tube plates cracks
:

extend from one tube hole to another, and are very difficult to repair
as this is the least section of the metal (see No. loi), and is subject to
great strain, fortunately these cracks do not often occur. To repair,
the crack is cut out as previously explained, and welded a sheet of
;

iron should be put over the further end of the tubes to prevent a
draught being set up.

No. loi.

Corrosion in the tube plates occurs when there is a leak between

a tube and the plate this can be easily repaired by cleaning and
;

adding the necessary new metal.

Another frequent defect in a boiler is corrosion round the mud
hole flanges this can be repaired, if not too far gone, b>' building up
;

as previously explained. If, however, a flange is too far gone to be

repaired by this means, a new flange can be welded in as shown in

No. I02, and the joint of the cover can be made at the surface.

wM^m
No. IC2.

12
 —

i62 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches

With regard to repairs to hulls of vessels these are far more

limited than those of boilers this is to a great extent due to th'e
;

inferior metal used in their construction as compared to that used in

boilers, thus it is impossible to weld a piece into the middle of a
ship's side plate.
Welding of frames does not always succeed unless they are set free
over a great length.
No difficulty is met with in repairing stems as they are of com-
paratively small thickness. The repair is carried out as follows :

The crack is cut to a V both sides, the bottoms of the two incisions
meeting in the centre, the welding is then done from both sides
simultaneously.
Stern posts and rudder posts are much more difficult to repair
owing to their thickness. Before repairing, the work must be brought
to a red heat by means of a forge or some other method, the blow-
pipes are then brought into use and the work proceeds in the usual
way, only, when once started, the job must not be left till finished.
Besides the above-mentioned repairs, cutting away of furnaces,
ship's plates, rivets, &c., can be done with a specially-constructed blow-
pipe in which an oxy-acetylene flame is used to heat the part to be
cut, and an oxygen jet is used to do the cutting with this blowpipe
;.

a great deal of time can be saved, for example, a stem can be cut in
four minutes, and the largest stern post in ten minutes, or a furnace
can be cut out in about one and a half hours if it is desired to
replace it.

Autogenous welding is the uniting of metals by means of heat

alone, without the intervention of any different rnetal.
The heat is obtained by the combustion of acetylene with pure
oxygen, which gives a temperature of about 6500" Fahr.

—
Cutting by Oxygen Jet. In cutting plates a small surface spot
is firstheated up by the acetylene flame, and a jet of oxygen is pro-
jected on to this hot plate from a separate orifice, the metal being
burnt or oxidised away where the jet strikes, with the result that a
cut is made similar to that produced by a saw.

General.
Acetylene (C9H.,) is a gas of nearly the same weight as atmo-
spheric air.
Each cubic foot of gas generates about 1450 B.T.U.
During combustion of C9H2 carbonic acid gas is formed (CO2), also
water vapour (H^O).
The flame formed by the blowpipe consists for the most part of
CO gas, but at the point of CO.^.
is surrounded by a film of Hydrogen gas which
The welding flame
prevents oxidation from taking place, and thus allows of an efficient
weld being formed without the use of a flux,
 I _
oatn
i

/;
'^ i

1
1^ —
"I
 No 103— Water Gauge Cock on Boiler.

This type of cock has the plug taper reversed, thus reducing risk of the plug blowing out. In r
tlie plug from the shell, it must first be knocked down into the boiler.
A small set pin screwed through the shell of the cock prevents the plug from dropping out of plai
when in use.
The objection to this type of plug is the tendency for the hole in the plug to become choked up wi
grease and dirt, and thus reduce the opening of the port.

Virbal " Noles :md Sketches.

 3VJAV «?C

-i^O-WOje 3DA^RUa
~MAJG SI

//

F.^
t :3d. -rzT
 PAIR OF SAFETY VALVES
EACH 5? DIAM^

DONKEY FEED CHECK

2f orAM.

No. 104— Boiler Mountings-

ire dimensioned for a boiler 16 feet dia working pressure of iSo lbs. per square inch. The

. Safety T»lTe3. ~To relieve the pressure when it e: , Donkey Feed c _ —To show the <

the ufe limit

, Mfcb rtop-Talvea. — To admit the »te»t 9. Hydroki
6. Surface Blow 1 the greasy matter off tl

yalTe. — To gire a
4, M»in Feed check —To ftdmit a 1 cootrol the feed

I up from the bottom, for should the pipe break off o

NOTE.— Notice that the bottom c

 "^1

aA3flHT in TOa TA MAia ^^

I

•AT2 J331T

1 '

I
.MAIQ B\

Trrr^
-81 'P
L_A .,..
.|-w£^i£;;;,
-J
;5"

\ i

::i^

-i
^4
 No io6— Sketch of Marine Boiler, with Principal Dimensions (half section).

Students preparing for the First Class Exaniinaiion should practise drawing the above sketch from memory,
notinf^ carefully the dimensions and the flanging of the plate, &c.
Safe Pressure-— To find the required Safe Pressure, if the Diameter is 14 feet 6 inches, Factor of Safety 4-6,
and the joint strength 84 per cent.
Ru LE-
TS X 2240 > T y 2 X joints Factor x D in. Safe Pressure.
>c

Pressure, f^i^^'i,? ' ^ i""'^^ ^^^^^ySJ-^^^Al = 8^ lbs., sa, .80 Ib^

Therefore, ,
Factor :^ Diameter in 4'0 >< i74 "»•

NOTE.— 1| inches=i 375; 14 feet 6 iaches=i74 inches; ^= -84'

iTo fact page 163.

 xy

• • •
HDTiq gl1 MAiCJ
M. ^
t
I >
Si

3TAJ9 3aiiT

\
 No. 105 - Sketch of Marine Boiler with Principal Dimensions (Longitudinal section).

Students preparing the First Class Examination slioutd practise drawing the above sketch from
for
memory, noting and the Hanging of the plates, &c.
carefully the dimensions,
Notice that the furnace shown is of the Gourlcy-Stephen withdrawable type, as the slightly elevated
position of the flange at the b^ck allows of the furnace being canted up and withdrawn from the front end
opening.
—
Shell Thickness. To find the required shell thickness if the pressure is to be 180 lbs. per square
inch, joint 84 per cent., and Factor of Safety 4-6.
Rule —
28 X 2340 V T X 2 X joint= Factor D• in. ^ Safe Pressure.

Therefore, , Factor x D in. -: Safe Pressure _46 174 In.-i8o _ •

say i| i

38 X 2240 X3X joint 38x 2240x2 X '84

[n/oftpagt 163.

"Verbal " Nntcs ami SVelchcs.

 — —

Boilers 163

The pressure of oxygen supply to the blowpipe varies (with

different sizes) from 10 lbs. to 25 lbs.
In cuttini^ plates by means of an oxygen jet the oxygen ignites
the plate, which burns away as oxide of iron (similar to rust).

—
Bottom Blow-off. In the opinion of the writer the boiler bottom
blow-off cock to the ship's side might well be dispensed with alto-
gether, as, unless carefully handled, it undoubtedly constitutes a
danger, owing to the possibility of lowering the water level below
the combustion chamber tops, which may result in :

1. Collapse of combustion chamber tops.

2. Deposit of greasy scum matter on top of combustion chambers.

Many engineers are now in favour of discarding the bottom blow-
off as commonly fitted, and connecting the bottom pipe as a donkey
pump suction, which arrangement allows of either pumping out the
boiler, or of circulating when getting up steam by drawing out the
colder water at the bottom and pumping it back into the boiler through
the donkey feed check higher up.
The surface blow-off (Sketch No. 104), if properly fitted as shown,
when opened, only allows the water to be lowered down to the scum
pan level, and by its use the oily scum floating on the surface can be
blown out, whereas, if the bottom cock is employed, the scum referred
to is apt to settle down on the combustion chamber tops, and once
deposited will be found extremely difficult to remove except by
thorough washing out of the boiler.

Efficiency of Boiler. —
The average heating value of i lb. of coal
is 14500 heat units, and with a feed temperature of, say, 140', and

steam temperature of 380'' (180 lbs. gauge pressure), the evaporation

would be as follows if no loss of heat occurred :

Heat Units of Evaporation = 11 15 + -3x380°- 140" = 1089 Heat Units.

And, 14500 -r 1089 = 13-3 lbs. of water evaporated into steam per pound of coal.

If, however, the actual evaporation as measured is only 9^ lbs. of

water per pound of coal.
Then, Boiler Efficiency =9-5+ 13-3 = -714 or 71-4 per cent.

Equivalent Evaporation. — As a standard of comparison the evapo-

ration obtained by a fuel " from and at" 212° is usually taken, that
is, the feed is assumed as being at 212" temperature, and the steam
at 212° temperature.

—
Example. Feed temperature 140^, steam pressure 180 lbs., and
temperature 380' if the actual evaporation per pound of coal as
;

tested is 10 lbs. of water, find the equivalent evaporation.

Then, Heat Units for evaporation -1115+ -3 x T°- ^° = 1115 + '3x380 - 140
= 1089 Heat Units per pound water.
Therefore, ^°^9 10 ^ 11.27 lbs.
966
 —

164 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

One pound of the coal referred to can therefore evaporate 11 '27

lbs. of water into steam " from and at" a temperature of 212°.

Weight of Gases passing up Funnel.^The weight of the waste

gases which pass up the funnel can be estimated as follows :

Example. —
If the consumption is 25 tons of coal per twenty-four
hours, determine the total weight of the products of combustion
passing up the funnel during that period.
NOTE. — Each pound of coal requires about 24 lbs. of air for complete combustion.

Therefore, Weight of air required = 25 x 24 = 600 tons.

But (neglecting ash and clinker) the 25 tons of coal also pass off
in the form of gas.
So that, total weight of gases = 600 + 25 = 625 tons per twenty-four hours.

The actual weight of the gases would be perhaps about 10 per

cent, less than the above, if the residue of ash and clinker were
deducted.

—
Shortness of Water. If a boiler runs short of water through faulty
check valve, or other causes, the first thing to do is to pump in more
feed water, either hot or cold, preferably hot of course, but even cold
water will in most cases result in no serious injury or danger if the
water is not actually below the crowns. The seams or tubes may
afterwards leak slightly, but nothing more is likely to happen.
If, then, one boiler out of, say, a set of four boilers shows a low water

level, the engineer on watch should at once open up the check valve
of that boiler, and reduce the lift of the check valves on the other three
boilers : in addition to this it may become necessary to put on an
extra feed pump (if one is available) to the boiler which shows no
water in the glass. The point to be remembered is to get water into
the boiler as soon as possible, and, as before stated, even cold feed
water may be pumped in without risk of accident if the boiler is
merely short of water.

Velocity of Gases.
The mean velocity of the gases passing through the uptake and
funnel is about 13 feet per second; the mean velocity of the gases
passing over the furnace bridge is about 75 feet per second the mean ;

velocity of the gases passing through the tubes is about 60 feet per
second.

Evaporation per Pound of Coal.

One pound of average coal gives out about 9000 units of
heat(B.T.U.).
 nsu^ 'idui. *&Katoi
^ U— J* :
-Zr.O-Mic^Xenxiih-^-
•2V.0' Mea7vI.enjgtK -^— >)

Doubie-Ended Boiler of White Star Liner " Britannic'

(Reproduced by permission from "Engineering," Feb. 27. 1914.

BOILER DATA-
White Star Liner "Britannic."

(By Messrs Harland & Wolff Ltd.)

GENERAL DATA-
Length over aU
Breadth •

Depth, moulded
64 .. 3 "
Height from keel to bridge
104 .. 6 ,

Gross toimage
50000 tons
Load draught ft-
34 7 in,
Displacement at load draught
53000 tons
Combined 1. H. P. of wing reciprocating engines (ahead i 32000 .,

Sea speed ...

Shaft horse power of centre turbine (ahead only) -

31 knots.
 —

Boilers 165

To find the units of heat required io evaporate i lb. of water into

steam, the rule is as follows :

III5 + -3 :T - <^ Units of heat.

T ~ Steam temperature, t -- Feed temperature.

—
Example. The steam pressure is 160 lbs. or 370" temperature,
and the feed water temperature is 140° find the units of heat required
;

to evaporate i lb. u( water into steam, and the number of pounds of

water evaporated by i lb. of coal.
Then, 1115 + -3x370°- 140" = 1086 units of heat required per pound of coal.

Therefore, ^^ —8-28 lbs. of water evaporated per pound of coal.

—
NOTE. To evaporate i lb. of water at 212' temperature into a pound of steam
at atmospheric pressure requires 966 units of latent heat.

Boiler Dimensions.
The following data refer to a modern type double-ended boiler
carrying a pressure of 170 lbs. per square inch, and the various plate
thicknesses and details of riveting should be carefully noted.

Pressure
Diameter -
.... -
Boiler Data.

-
170 lbs. per .square inch.

13 feet 10 inches.
Length (double ended) - -
-
20 „ i| ,,

Number of furnaces - - -
6.

,, combustion chambers -
6.
Grate length - - - -
6 feet 10 inches.
„ width - • -
-
3 .. 4i „
Total grate area - - -
-
138 square feet.
Heating surface of tubes -
2840 ,,

„ ,, furnaces - -
242 ,,

,, ,, combustion chambers 444 ,,

Total heating surface - - -

3664 ,,

Heating surface to grate - - 26-5 is to i.

Area over bridge - - - 3-11 square feet.

Shell consists of three courses of plates, each course having three

plates ; the centre course is outside of the end courses.
Shell thickness - - - - ij inches.

Longitudinal Shell Seams.

Double-butt strap thickness - - i inch.
Rivet diameter - - . - i^ inches (holes ly^ inches).
Maximum Pitch of Rivets (five rivets
per pitch)
Distance between inner rows - -
z^V ,,

" )> outer ,, - -

3Yg „
Rivet section strength - - - 93-2 per cent.
Plate „ „ - . .
83-7 „
i66 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

Centre Circumferential Shell Seams

Rivet diameter - I /g- inches (holes i| inches).
„ pitch (three rivets per pitch) 4f? 5>

,, section strength - 68-6 per cent.

Plate „ „
- 66-6 ,.

End Circumferential Seams.

Rivet diameter - I J inches (holes ij^ inches).
„ pitch (two rivets per pitch)
„ section strength - 70-15 per cent.
Plate 62-5

End Plates.
Top end plate thickness i^ inches,
Centre ,, „ (front tube plate) f inch.
Bottom ,, ,,
(furnace plate) - i^ inches.
Furnace length - - - -
7 feet8 inches.
„ diameter 3„ 7 .,

„ thickness h inch.
Combustion chamber width 2 feet 6 inches,
Back tube plate thickness f inch.
Thickness of combustion chamber plates 1 H _'»

Diameter of combustion chamber stays - i^ inches (bottom of thread),

Pitch „ „ from 6h to Sh inches.
Length of combustion chamber girders - 2 feet 6| inches.
Depth ,, „ „ 7f inches.
Thickness ,, „ „
(two plates each) - - -
f inch.
Each girder fitted with three i i-inch diameter bolts.

Tubes.
Diameter of tubes 3 inches outside.
Length „ 7 feet 4I inches.
Pitch of tubes -
4^ inches horizontally.
4 ,, vertically.
Number of plain tubes per boiler 324 (No. 8 B.VV.G.).
.. stay „ „ 180 ( „ 6 „ ).

Diameter of main stays (steel) - 21 inches.

Manhole 16x12 inches.
Mudholes (five in number) 15x11 »

NOTE. — The grate surface for each furnace is equal to the length of bars
multiplied by diameter of furnace.
6' 10" 3' 4^"
12 12

Therefore, 405 ^23 sq. ft., and 23 x six furnaces- 138 sq. ft. (total).
144

And, Total Heating Surface ^ Grate Surface = Ratio.

Then, 3664^138-265 to i.
 Boilers 167

Referring to the joint strengths of each seam, it must be remembered that

the smaller per cent, of rivet section and plate section at seam is the joint
strength, therefore,
Joint strength for longitudinal shell seams = 83-7 per cent.
,, ,, centre circumferential shell seams = 66-6 ,,

" " ^^<^ >. ,, ,, = 62-5 ,,

The screwed portions of the stay tubes and combustion chamber stays
have twelve threads per inch.
Vertical Donkey Boiler (see also page 653).

No. 107.— Vertical Type Donkey Boiler.

Pressure, 80 lbs. (gauge).
 — ;

"
i68 Verbal Nolcs and Sketches

Sketch 107 shows clearly the construction of this kind of boiler. The
cross water tubes are for improving the circulation and increasing the heating
surface, and it is to be noted that a handhole is fitted opposite each tube for
cleaning purposes.
There are usually from four to six stays of about 2 inches diameter for
supporting the fire-box.
This boiler has a wet uptake, and corrosion takes place at the water level
corrosion also goes on at the bottom, between the shell and the fire-box,
and is caused by what is called "grooving," that is, the upper part of fire-box
expands by the heat, but the lower part at the bottom being riveted to the
shell is kept rigid ; therefore the skin of the metal cracks slightly at the
bend, and allows of corrosion taking place. The corrosion is also increased
by the want of circulation at this part of the boiler.
As the fire-bars are low down, and the ash-pit immediately underneath,
the boiler is a dry bottomed one. For ordinary proportions, the shell i:
about I inch thick and the fire-box | inch thick.
The average dimensions for this type of boiler are as follows :

Pressure 80 lbs. gauge. Cross tubes 10 inches diameter.

Diameter 5 feet. Uptake - - IS ..
Height 10 „ Water space round fire-box 6 inches to 3 inches.
Shell plates-
g to 5 inch thick. Vertical stays - 2 inches diameter
Fire-box plates A to a (six in number).

riREHOLC.

OOCE RINO.
SPtCIALLY THICK
TO 0<VC MaKOiN
FOR CORROSION tTC

No. 108.— Cochran Patent Vertical Type Multitubular Boiler.

For Marine Use.
 —

Boil
toilers 169

The chief advantages of this type of donkey boiler as compared

with the ordinary type are :

1. Greater steaming capacity, with same space occupied.

2. Increase of heating surface as compared with grate surface.
3. Improved construction of parts, including new patent seamless
furnace, having neither riveted nor welded seam exposed to flame,
which is a matter of considerable practical importance.

Haystack Boiler.

This type of water tube boiler is fitted with four furnaces, and two
circulation pockets, as shown. The water circulates down the pockets,
and enters the pan by means of large pipes, and after evaporating
rises up through the tubes into the steam space.
The Haystack boiler is of large capacity, and is a fairly quick
steam raiser, but in a number of cases a serious disadvantage exists
in the difficulty experienced the true water level, as the
in locating
glass often indicates incorrectly. In a number of boilers, which have
come under the writer's observation, the water in the gauge glass

WAT h PAN/ \ J ^
FURNACE FURNACE r^
AJ^ ^::41K

No. 109.— Haystack Boiler.

I/O " V^erbal " Notes and Sketches

behaved in a most erratic manner, when under weigh and when

stopped, indicating falsely under both conditions, as sometimes the
glass would show full when the engines were running, and empty
when stopped. This is evidently due to the position of the tubes and
the shell, and the peculiar effect of the rising circulation currents.
This boiler has a dry bottom, and a wet uptake.

Water Tube Boilers.

This class of boiler has not as \-et been adopted to any considerable
extent in the Merchant Service, comparati\ely few steamers having
been fitted with them from this it would appear that shipowners are
;

awaiting the thorough testing, in the Navy, of this type of steam

generator before seriously considering the advisability of having it
included in the specifications of new steamers. It should, however,
be borne in mind that a certain class of boiler may suit Naval practice,
but not be so well adapted for the Merchant Service, owing to the.
different requirements existing in each particular case.
The cylindrical, or, as it is usually termed, " Scotch " boiler which
has for so long a period done its duty satisfactorily as an effective
steam generator, is still the favourite boiler in use for passenger and
cargo steamers but should the demand for a still further increase
;

of pressure become general, as seems probable, it is almost certain that

engineers will require to turn towards water tube boilers of one type
or another to obtain the requisite pressure, compatible with safety and
convenience of manufacture, as, for a pressure of, say, 3CXD lbs. per
square inch, the diameter of a cylindrical boiler would require to be
very small, or the shell thickness very great, to allow of this being
safely carried.

Yarrow Boiler.

Perhaps the two best known types of water tube boilers in general
marine practice are the Yarrow and the Babcock & Wilcox. The
Yarrow boiler is of simple construction, consisting of two bottom
water and mud drums, and one top steam drum with straight tubes
connecting the top drum to the bottom drums. The top drum is
circular and the bottom drums of oval shape. The tubes are
expanded into the drums, and also bell-mouthed (an extra pre-
caution) to prevent drawing out of tubes. The tubes are easily
cleaned and do not silt up so easily as the curved tubes in other
types of boilers. Two large tubes are led from the top drum to
the bottom drums at each side these tubes are termed downcast
;

tubes, and serve as a return connection from the top to the bottom
drums when circulation is going on. These tubes, it may be mentioned,
are outside of the boiler casing and are not in contact with heat.
A large casing, built up of asbestos lined plates, is fitted outside the
tubes, and doors are fitted to allow of easv cleaning out of soot which
 '/^

1, II i!'
 ' Verbal " Not«* and SVeichcs.
No. no.— Yarrow Patent Water Tube Boiler. (Admiralty Type.)

•
 Boilers 171

gathers at the bottom of the casing (Sketch of Boiler, No. no).

A large grate and combustion chamber is one of the features of the
Yarrow boiler. Zinc plates are fitted, as in Scotch boilers, in the
upper or steam drum, and also in each of the bottom drums. Yarrow
boilers arc usually installed in close stokeholds, fans being driven to
give air pressure required. It is found that water tube boilers give
the best results with an even fire of 6 to 7 inches thick, and
level firing. In the upkeep of Yarrow boilers it is necessary to clean
out soot chambers at least every second day, and the space between
tubes also requires cleaning as often as is possible, but the soot
chambers can be cleaned while boiler is steaming. Furnace doors
and ashpit doors are so arranged that, in event of boiler tube bursting,
all doors will close, thus confining escaping steam as much as
possible. The tubes vary in diameter from i|- to i^ inches.

Babcock Boiler.

The Babcock & Wilcox boiler is of different construction, the

tubes being expanded into boxes usually termed headers. These
headers are fitted with small doors in line with the tubes to allow of
cleaning same. The headers or sections are again connected to the
top or steam drum. This boiler has also a large grate surface, and
is best fired on the same principle as the Yarrow, that is, a level fire

of 6 or 7 inches thick. This boiler has the advantage of working on

natural draught, and is a good steaming boiler under those conditions.
As in the Yarrow boiler the circulation takes place in a similar
manner, downcast tubes being fitted leading back to the mud drum
or bottom header. Blow-off cocks are fitted on this header for
cleaning out header. The furnace in water tube boilers is lined
with fire-brick throughout, and the ashpits are kept supplied with
water so as to avoid damage to the fire-bars. Superheaters are being
fitted in the Babcock & Wilcox boiler, superheating the steam to
100° to 150°, The superheater is fitted athwart-ships, and consists
of a series of U-shaped tubes connected to headers in a similar
manner to the main boiler tubes. After steam is generated in the
main boiler it is passed through the superheater before passing to
the machinery. Steam connections for cleaning tubes of soot are
fitted, access being obtained by doors on each end of boiler. Zinc
plates in perforated holders are fitted in the steam and water drum,
and also in the bottom or mud drum. These boilers are possessed of
several advantages, steam being quickly raised, but to maintain this
efficiency it is necessary to keep boiler in a clean condition, which
necessitates the cleaning of the outside of the tubes as often as
required. This operation can be carried out while boiler is steaming,
as in the Yarrow boiler.
Water tube boilers require to be kept as clean as possible owing
to the possibility of the tubes silting up, and require constant
attention as regards treatment with lime, &c.
 —

172 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

The lower two rows of tubes are about 4 inches diameter, and the
others 2^ inches diameter the larger size of the lower rows reduces
;

the tendency to upward bending, due to the intense heat, a fault

common to the lower tube rows in all water tube boilers, the severe
expansion produced by the high temperature acting to bend the
tubes away from the heat.
The larger sized lower tubes also allow better for the scale deposit,
which, if the feed is of any appreciable density, quickly forms on
these tubes.
Both of the above described boilers are specially suited for the
burning of oil fuel, which is now in general practice in the Navy
(see page 609).
special advantages of w^ater tube boilers as compared with the
The
ordinary cylindrical type are as follows :

Advantages.
1. Suitability for high pressures (often 300 lbs. per square inch).
Less weight for the same power.
2.
Greater safety in event of accident owing to the smaller amount
3.
of water carried.
4. Quicker raising of steam (about one hour is the time usually
required).
As a set-off against the above stated advantages it should be
mentioned that the water tube boiler requires more skilful firing than
ordinary, also careful attention to the feeding is necessary, the amount
of water carried being so small that should anything temporarily check
the feed supply the water might all evaporate in a very short time and
the boiler become empty, with the consequent danger of explosion.
In some of the types of water tube boilers in use, the lower sets of
tubes are liable to become overheated and damaged by oil or scale
deposits, and for this reason the feed water has to be kept as pure
as possible, and the boilers run at a very low density.

Disadvantages.
1. More skilful firing required.
2. Regular feeding.
3. Pure feed water necessary.

4. Large number of joints to be kept tight (in certain types).

5. Small amount of water carried, which would quickly evaporate
if feed supply is temporarily checked.
6. Difficulty in cleaning the tubes of scale deposit.

General Construction.
The construction of a water tube boiler consists, in general, of a
steam drum at the top, connected by means of straight or curved tubes
 —

Boilers 173

to the water and mud drums at the bottom in some cases the upper
;

ends of the tubes open into the steam space of the drum, and in
others into the water space.
The feed check valve is placed on the top or steam drum, and as
the water enters the drum it falls through the down-take pipes to the
sediment collector at the bottom, where the dirt is deposited and after-
wards blown off. The cold water becoming heated and evaporating
rises up through the sets of tubes or "elements" as they are termed,
and passes into the drum at the top in the form of steam. The
mountings of water tube boilers are similar to those of the
cylindrical type, and it should be stated that all the various parts
forming the boiler are covered in by an iron casing. In some types,
such as the " Bellville," feed water heaters or " economisers " are fitted
in the uptake, and usually consist of a series of tubes through which
the feed water passes before entering the steam drum, and is conse-
quently raised in temperature by the otherwise waste gases of
combustion. This heating of the feed water increases the steaming
power of the boiler and reduces the consumption.

" Bellville " Boiler.

In the " Bellville " type of water tube boiler the tubes are straight,
but lie at a slight angle, the ends being connected, and so form an
" element." Each " element " consists of a set of tubes forming a zig-
zag from the water drum below to the steam drum above. The front
ends of the tubes are fixed into "headers," and the back ends, as
before stated, are connected to form the spiral arrangement. Doors
are fitted at the ends of the tubes for purposes of examination and
cleaning.
The tubes, which are made of good iron or mild steel, vary in
thickness according to the position they occupy, the lower sets being
made thicker than the upper ones, to withstand the intense heat to
which they are subjected, and which has the effect, in some cases,
of causing them to become bent this is most likely to happen when
;

deposits of oil or scale form in the tubes.

The mountings, as before stated, are similar to those of the
ordinary marine type of boiler, with the exception perhaps of the
reducing valve which is fitted to the " Bellville " t}-pe, as the boiler
pressure carried is usually in excess of that required in the engines
often 250 lbs. pressure in the boiler, which is reduced to 200 or 180
for the H.P. valve chest. The "Bellville" boiler is supplied with
a special feed regulator, consisting of a chamber containing a float
in connection with the water level in the boiler the float connects
;

with a system of levers, which in turn are in connection with the feed
regulation valve, and as the float rises and falls with the amount of
water contained in the upper drum, the levers open or shut the feed
valve, and so regulate the water supply to the requirements of the
boiler.
174 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

CCOtlOMISCI)
OUTLET

No. III.— Bellville Boiler and Economiser.

As mentioned previously, careful feed regulation is one of the

most important points to be attended to for the successful working
of this class of boiler.

" Babcock & Wilcox " Boiler,

"
Ageneral idea of the construction of the " Babcock & Wilcox
water tube marine boiler will be obtained by referring to the illustra-
tions, which clearly show the various parts.
The boiler is constructed entirely of wrought steel, and consists
 Boil ers 175

of a series of straight water tubes placed in an inclined position, under

which the furnace is situated the tubes are expanded at each end
;

into boxes of sinuous shape called "headers," Opposite each tube

there is a separate handhole in the "headers" for inspection and
cleaning of the tube, and it is peculiar to note that no stay tubes are
fitted. The upward and downward headers are in communication
at the top end with the steam and water drum, the downward headers
being connected with a mud drum at the bottom end, which is fitted
with blow-off cocks for clearing out the sediment which collects there.

LopiGlTUDl[^/\L SECTtoH

No. 112.
176 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches

At the sides the boiler has sets of incUned tubes arranged slightly
different from the centre series, but forming with them the effective
heating surfaces of the boiler. The furnace sides are lined with fire-
bricks, and the boiler itself is covered in by a light wrought-iron casing

Froi4t eLEV/vTioM SccTiofvl ^t /^ B

No. 113.

which can be removed \\hen it necessary to obtain access to the

is

tubes, &c., for repair or cleaning. In this type of boiler the circulation
is particularly well provided for, the water rising up through the
inclined tubes, past the uptake headers, and into the steam and water
drum, and returning by means of the downward headers. 1 he mud
 Boilers 177

drum at the bottom traps the impurities, such as sediment, &c., and
these are blown out of the collector by the cocks fitted for that
purpose.
The joints are all metal to metal, and in the case of the tubes the
ends are simply expanded into the plates, no screwed joints being
used.
Expansion of the boiler under heat is allowed for by the manner
in which the mud drum is he'd down to the foundations.

M
 SECTION III.

NOTES AND SKETCHES OF VARIOUS DETAILS.

No. I.— Crank-Pin Centrifugal Lubrication System

(Naval Practice).
Oil fed into the container L, and by the action of centri-
is

fugal forceis delivered to the crank-pin bearing surfaces H, H

through the pipes. P, P shown. Radial holes are cut through
from the inside of the crank-pin.
 No. I A.— Triple Expansion Engines.
View from H.P. end, looking- Aft.

Observe that the expansion slot of the reversing crank arm is in a slightly
"ahead," but when run over to "astern" position (as shown
inclined position for
by the dotted arc) the slot will be vertical, thus ensuring that full-gear conditions are
obtained when going astern, no matter how much the gear was shut in wlicn running
ahead.

[To/cwepa^e 178.

Verbal" Notes and Sketches.

/

i
 Notes and Sketches of Various Details 179

. rr^ .

No. 2.— Reversing Gear Complete (Cruiser Type).

This gear is known as the " all round " type, as if the gear
is " missed," the wheel continues moving round without damage
or shock to the link motion.

For an engine of 1200 I.H.P. the reversing engine cylinders

(two) will be about 4^ inches diameter by 4-inches stroke, and
from 20 to 25 revolutions of the reversing engine will be required
to reverse the gear. The engine is usually made reversible by
means of a hand operated piston valve, similar in design to the
control valves of steering gear engines, which admits steam
either to the centre or to the ends of the cylinder valves as
required.

The reversing engine shown on left drives a worm shaft

geared into a large worm-wheel, to which is attached the link
from the bell crank. Hand-wheel gear is also shown, and a
brake strap connection to the worm-wheel, to increase the
control.
i8o "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

No. 3.— Twin Cylinder Turning Engine with

Double Worm Gear.

The lower end of the main worm can be drawn out of gear
by means of the wheel shown on right. The turning engine
runs at about 300 revolutions per minute, and travels about
2000 revolutions for one revolution of the main engine, thus
requiring 6| minutes to turn the main engines once round, as
2000-^300 = 6-6 minutes. For engines of, say, 1500 I.H.P.
the turning engine cylinders will be about 3^ inches diameter
and 4 inches stroke.
ai'i. fo tp(; <Oii

ujtfGl pOffOUJ
 No 4 HP Main Steam Connections, &c
1, Engine room stop valve. 5. Heating up steam valve lused before
2, Scicwcd rod to wheel below. starting).
3. Nut on stop valve lever 6. Wheel for operaUng heating up valve.
4. Wheel actuating stop-valve lever 7. ThrotUe valve
by means of nut Drain on stop valve
3 8.
9, Dram on cylinder buttom-
NOTE. -The handles shown twiow for working the throttle valve, stop-valve
dram, and cylinder drain are numbered similarly to the connections named
 Notes and Sketches of Various Details i8i

No. 5.— Section of Stern Tube showing Lignum Vitae Strips.

K, Check plate to keep strips in position aft. L, Lignum vitae strip.

The shaft (hollow) is shown in section. The clearance

spaces between the strips is to allow of the admission of water
for lubrication inside the tube. Lignum vitce wears better than
brass when grit or sand is present in the water.

No. 6.— Condenser Tubes and Ferrules (with dimensions).

The tubes are about -?^ inch in thickness and are composed
of 70 per cent, copper and 30 per cent, zinc; sometimes a small
per cent, of tin is also added. Lamp wick soaked in oil is used
as packing in Naval practice.
 — —

182 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches

No. 7. End View of Thrust Block Shoe.

The right half shows the white metal bearing surface of the shoe, and the
left half the hollow cast interior with cooling water connection. The seating
of the block for bolting down is also shown on the right.
The pressure on the shoes is usually about 50 lbs. per square inch, and the
total pressure on the thrust is estimated as follows:

L]?^Pi^330^Lll = total lbs. on thrust.

ship knots X 6080
60
NOTE.— Two-thirds of the total I.H.P. is assumed as the effective power applied
to the thrust block.

No. 8. —Thrust Block (Part Section) with End Bearing.

The thrust seating shown, and the check angle plates fitted at
is clearly
the ends to secure the block in position. The oil service to the white metal
surfaces of the shoes is also shown. Each shoe has separate adjustment by
means of the two horizontal studs and double nuts shown.
NOTE. — With engines running- ahead the pressure is on the after surface of the
thrust rings for either a right or left hand propeller.
 Notes and Sketches of Various Details i8

No. 9.
— I. P. Cylinder Starting Valve.

S, Steam to valve. C, Steam to I. P. receiver.

E, Steam to L.P. receiver.

By means of the valve shown, the live steam can be given to

either the LP. or L.P. receiver to assist the starting of the engines.
The LP. cylinder illustrated is fitted with a piston valve (outside
steam), the liner for the top end only being shown in the sketch.
1 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches
84

No. 10.— LP. Piston (Naval Type).

P, Ring plate, to hold piston rod nut in place agfainst screwing back.

The piston ring is forced outwards by a number of small

spiral springs fitted in recesses in the piston body, the pressure
exerted being about 2 lbs. per square inch. The junk ring and
piston flange are checked to prevent the piston ring from
coming in.

The junk ring J is secured to the piston by steel collar studs

with gun -metal nuts, which are held in place by a steel guard
ring G. The guard ring G is again secured by square-necked
studs with nuts and split pins.

For an L.P. piston 8ii- inches diameter, the piston thickness

T = 2| inches, and S= i^ inches.
 Notes and Sketches of Various Details 185

No. II.— Air Pump Driven by Separate Lever (Naval Type).

D, Inspection Door.

On up stroke, foot valves and head valves open.

On dov7n stroke, bucket valves open.

The air and vapour together with the condensed water is

removed by the air pump, thus reducing the pressure in the

condenser below that of the atmosphere, the result of w-hich is

to increase the M.E. pressure on the L.P. piston and the work
done by the engine,
i86 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches

(fOXh

No. 12. — Displacement Type Air Pump ("Edwards" Type)

Bucket with Water Packing Grooves.

Air pump buckets are often packed as shown, in place of

the usual rope packing.

No. 13.—Valve Spindle Eye Bush.

The bolts shown are reduced in diameter between the

bearing parts similar to those fitted in connecting rod bottom
ends.
 ^

m—

No. 14.— Do .Iniol, notsrRqx.'

X, Double beat or equilibriu .U-Vi ::

2, Throttle or butterfly vali .!5??1w Infill t^'i nwob r.MbtuqS ,^

3, Drain. .n:3ri3 MAi .'t

The valve shown is

the steam entering from
arrangement allowing ol
at the top valve, due
the valve.
The expansion join
iong studs nutted as sh( •lO. .

check collar, studs, and

steam on, say, a bend <

The drain is an jrr

accident when steam is

Verbal " Nutes and Sketches

 No. 14.— Double- Beat Valve, Throttle Valve, and Expansion Joint.
I, Double-beat or equilibrium valve. 4, Brass internal pipe. 7, Nut.
z, Throttle or butterfly valve. 5, Cast iron.
3, Drain. 6, Copper or steel pipe.

The valve shown is commonly fitted as an engine room stop v;ilve, and is of the balanced type,
the steam entering from the centre and flowing out by means of the lower and upper valves ; this
arrangement allowing of easy manipulalioD. The chief drawback is the tendency to leakage
at the top valve, due to unequal expansion of the brass spindle and the cast-iron chest of
the valve.
The expansion joint consists of a small stutifing box gland and safety collar with at least two
long studs nutted as shown ; the internal portion of the steam pipe is separate and of brass. The
check collar, studs, and nuts shown prevent the pipe from being blown out by the action of the
steam on, say, a bend of the pipe.
The drain is an important fitting, as by neglect of its use water may accumulate and cause
accident when steam is turned on by the action known as "water hammer."

\r»f^€pag, .86
 Notes and Sketches of Various Details 187

JrPtTl

No. 15— Testing Fairness of Cylinders and Shaft.

To test if the centre line of the cylinders is exactly at right

angles to the centre line of the shaft, slacken back bottom ends,
place crank on top,and measure the distance between the butt
of the connecting rod and the crank cheek, as shown at B ;
now place crank on bottom centre and again measure between
butt of rod and crank and the two distances will be the same,
;

if the cylindersand shaft centre lines are set fair (at 90° to each
other).
1 88 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches

^%^
No. i6.— Air Pump Valve No. 17. —Air Pump Valves.
(Indiarubber Type).
The upper valve is of rubber,
The plan shows the holes formed the lower one is metallic (" King-
in the valve guard (left half) through horn '), the lift of the latter being
which the air pressure forces the about 1^ or y^^ inch and the lift of
valves back on to their seats. The the former about | inch at outer
right half of the
plan shows the circumference of valve.
holes in the grating through which
the vapour and water passes.

No. 18.—Air Pump Valves (Metallic Type).

The lower valve shown is filled with a light spring.
Notes and Sketches of Various Details 189

o 'O
(U

6
.H bo
OJ
-M
CO

(U
Ui
u
f-ri ^

'u
H I-
u
O •s 3
c X!

bo

<^
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4-)

Mu x:

PQ

o
H
d
igo "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

(A
 Notes and Sketches of Various Details 19T

-K—^f

No. 21.— Edwards Type Air Pump (with Displacement

Bucket).

Observe the air inlet ports near the bottom, also that head
valves only are fitted. The pump as shown is independent and
is driven by a separate engine (Naval practice).
19: " Verbal " Notes and Sketches

S
c
o
HOTWELL
OVERFLOW
TO BILGE

AIR VESSEL

/!
 FEEDPUMP SUCTION
DONKEY PUf4'P SUCTION
FEED PUMP SUCTION

SUCTION FROM C0NPEN5ER

No. 23.— Condenser and Air Pump Connections.

After the exhaust slcani from the I.. P. cylinder is condensed, the water of condensation falls to the bottom of the
condenNer, and lui^i^iln i with iln- air and vapour present is drawn out by the air pump, passing successively through ihe
foot valves, bu< ki wilw
1 iiu! In .hI valves into the hot-well, some of the air and vapour escaping through the hot-well
.

overtifiw pipe ; iIk n ^, r n ..ff liy the feed pumps, and passing through the suction valve and delivery valve, is
r i
Ii .

(orcL-d iiitu iht: Ur-\ ii. li n .i^r- of accideiU to the main feed pumps the general service donkey is usually arranged
1 I

to draw from ihe Imi ,v. II, ii n iiuiu-d, as shown in Ihe sketch.

Pet Valve— Th." pt : to dn r for cushioning purposes in the

-/ ,/,.'.{y niily, thus l.-a

Tail Valve. —This valve opens outwardly and is intended to relieve the pump from over pressure of water.

> donkey is also arranged to draw from tbt bottom of the condenser in case of
1 when Weir pumps are fitted.
\Tt>jtutfagt 193.
 Notes and Sketches of Various Details 193

No. 24.— Piston Rod Crosshead and Shoe

("Single" Guide Type).

D = Crank pin diameter x -55.

L = Dxi-2. "

NOTE. —The astern guide surface = 80 per cent, of ahead guide surface.

Jt4
194
*'
Verbal " Notes and Sketches

r^Oi

i^^-JdWffi

^c=px=^
tr

Kn I
llij

* No. 26.— Single Guide T3rpe Solid Crosshead.

In this pattern the Crosshead Pin is shrunk into the

connecting Rod Jaws.

No. 27.— Balance Weight for Crank.

B, Riveted bolt.
C, Dowel pins fitted half into web and half into weight (a driving fit).

* Reprinted by permission from "Marine Engine Design. "

Prof. Edward M. Bragg.
D. Van Nostrand Co., New York, 1910,
/

L
o ^
 No. 25.— Condenser and Circulating Water Connections.

A, Main injection valve. L, Exhaust (or eduction) pipe from L.P. cylinder to Condenser,
B, Bilge injection valve. M. Air pump suction pipe from condenser bottom.
C, Bilge stnim. N, Auxiliary sea water feed.
D, Injection pipe leading to purap suction. O, Auxiliary fresh water feed from tanks
E, Ballast pump circulating pipe to condenser. P, Vacuum gauge pipe.
F, Centrifugal circulating pump. R, Soda cock.
G, Centrifugal pump delivery to condenser. S, Cock to allow escape of sir.
H, Condenser division plate. T, Cock to allow esci^ of air.
J, Circulating discharge pipe. W, Cooling water to guides.
K, Side discharge valve. V, Evaporator feed.
NOTE. —^In the condenser about 60 per cent, of the heat in the st 5 rejected, representing an unavoidable loss : this is due to the transfer
of the
atent heat units of the steam to the circulating water, which transfer essary for condensation to take place, If the injection water enters at. say. a
temperature of 65* Fahr., the discharge temperature would be somewhei about 110° Fahr., so that the discharge water is
thus raised in temperature
by absorbing the latent heat (approximately 1000 B.T. U. per poui of steam) of the exhaust s
NOTE. —The evaporator is fed with the condenser discharge rater, at a teniperature of. say i i less heat is then required for evaporatioiL

yrojact jsast 194,

I
Notes and Sketches of Various Details 195

CO CO ^ *o
II II II II

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(A

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o
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M N w rjl-* ^
bo II II II II II

'13
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196 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

No. 29.— Piston Rod (Naval Type) showing Method of

Removing- Piston.

F, Dog by means of •which the double clamp E draAws the piston off the rod.

NOTE. — When the nuts of the hinged bolts are tightened up the
clamp E acts to draw the piston off the rod.
 Notes and Sketches of Various Details 197

No. 30.— Syphon Feed Oil Box (on Cylinders).

1, To ahead guide. 4, To crank pin.

2, To astern g^ide. 5, To crank pin.

3, To crosshead.
 * No. 33— Crosshead Block with Dimensions for a
5^-inch Piston Rod.

No. 34.— Reversing: Bell Crank with Expansion Slot.

F, Ahead position. S, Astern position.
Notice that linking up is only possible when in ahead gear, as when in
astern gear the expansion slot is in a vertical position, so that any change of
position of the block has little or no effect on the drag link.

No. 35.— Diagram Sketch of Double-Beat Valve.

Steam enters from the boilers by the right hand branch, and is admitted
to the engine through both valve openings ; the upper valve having the
larger area allows of easy manipulation owing to the equilibrium obtained.
* Reprinted by permission from "Marine Engine Design." Prof. Edward M. Bragg.
D. Van Nostrand Co., New York, 1910.
u *
 Name
OF
Auxiliary
n-'i
p)i tf sltLsrX o| cojqet tfJiGV
j}G naniTJ MSfX- J,pG jJCSfGL
pr.GU qiSTMU HOIH* 3^>k' f}JG

it.-i:; fv.ii'fja-

*| \jrR. bibe t.

'I i Oi.; Hi I jro sfajo«l>jici.c A4.peu arobLmK tPJiCjiw

 No. 32.— Feed Pump Connections.

1, Main Teed pump s jctlon from hot-well. 7, pressure balance connection between feed pump and hot-well. 13. Donkey feed pump delivery to boil
2, Maui feed pump ! ucUon pipe, 8, Test cock (for temperature of water). 14. Boiler feed check valve.
Suction valve of i lain feedpump, 9, Regrulating valve. 15. Cord fur quick opening of heater t atmosphere when stopping eni^tcca-
3,

4, Delivery vaive of main feed pump. 10, Main feed pump discharge to 61ter and heater. t6. Air pipe connection to coodcnser
Relief valve of mi in feed pump. 11, Heating steam from I.P. or L.P. receiver. 17. Steam to donkey feed pumps.
5,
6, Pet (air) valve. 12, Donkey feed pump suction from heater. 18. Pressure gauge.

Descriptton. —The main feed pumps deliver the feed water at a tempcrau .-
of. the and reenters the boilers. Had the steam gone lo the condenser instead of the heater the latent heat
filter after passing throuf^h ihe filtering cloths it enters the feed lieater at the same tcniperatiire, I
;
would have been rejected in the form of heated sea water (condenser discharge). This saving of the latent
here heated to a temperature ranging frura 195* to about 220', the temperature depending on the pre heat units more than counterbalances for the loss of work by the steam having been drawn from, say, the
carried in the healer. L.P. cbest, and not having expanded and done work in the L.P. cylinder in the usual way. The heater
As is well known, the heating is effected by live steam placed in direct contact with the water, is therefore similar in action to a jet condenser as the steam is condensed direct by a spray of colder water.

this results in the condensation of the iteam, the latent heat of which is thus given up to the feed \

ITtfOiepa^t 198.

'Verbal" Note* and Sketches.

 —

SECTION IV.

SLIDE VALVES, PISTON VALVES, VALVE

DATA, ETC.
Duties of Valve.
The slide valve (or piston valve) has the following duties to
perform :

1. To admit the steam to the cylinder.

2. To cut off the supply of steam.
3. To open the port to exhaust (Release),
4. To close the port to exhaust (Compression), and so retain some
of the steam for cushioning.

Valve Travel.
The travel of a valve is equal to (Steam Lap + Port Opening) x 2.
Suppose lap to be 2 in. and port opening i| in., then 2+ii = 3i in.,
and 33X2 = 7 in. travel of a valve.

The narrow part of the eccentric subtracted from the broad part
equals the travel (Sketch No. i).
Therefore, 7-2 = 5 in. Travel.

Or, take the distance from the centre of shaft to centre of eccentric
and multiply by 2 this also gives the travel of valve.
;

Thus, 2-5x2 = 5 in. Travel.

199
 "
200 Verbal Notes and Sketches

Steam Lap is the amount the valve face covers the steam port when

the valve is at half stroke, and is for cutting off the steam to cause
expansion, therefore the more lap the valve has, the sooner on the
stroke will the cut-off take place, and vice versa. The bottom steam
lap is less than the top.

Exhaust Lap (usually at bottom end of valve) is the amount the

exhaust edge of the valve covers the bar when the valve is at half
stroke, and is for causing compression and cushioning.

No. 2.— Slide Valve.

S, Steam Lap. E, Exhaust Lap.

Minus Exhaust Lap (usually at top end of valve) is the amount

the exhaust edge of the valve is short of the bar when the valve is
at mid stroke :it causes the exhaust to open early and close late,
and thus reduces the cushioning.

Lead is the amount the port is open for steam when the crank is on
the top or bottom centre, and is for giving the engine a turning
movement over the centre.
The bottom lead is always more than the top, to allow for the
weight of the moving parts to be lifted up against gravity.

To cut off sooner with the main valve, steam lap must be put on and
the eccentric advanced an equal amount to keep the lead the same.
 —

No. 3. —Trick Double Ported No. 4.— Trick Double Ported

Valve. Valve.
At Position of Mid-Travel. At Position of Maximum Steam Opening
at Top.
For the valve shown the width
= half travel
of steam port of valve. Notice that half the steam
The advantages of this type of supply is admitted over the top
valve are :
edge of the valve, and the other
half from the bottom by means of
1. Reduced travel. the internal port, as shown clearly
2. Reduced face friction. by the arrows.

Pulley Position for above. Pulley Position for above.

" Note.s To face page 200.

Verbal and Sketche.s. [
 ,3V If. V
bvBiT biM lo itoilizol JA

xiil)iw -nil nv/oriii avffiv tjdl loM

.'.v/Ik/ 'Io iavfiil Uxid - Jioq rriKv>J2 1

: -JIB tjvic,

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/

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V/Z
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 Slide Valves, Piston Valves, Valve Data, &c. 201

No. 5.— Common Double No. 6.— "Trick" Double

Ported Valve. Ported Valve.
S, Steam Lap. E, Exhaust Lap. Valve Opening to Steam at Top,

/^
 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches
202

To cut off later with the main valve, steam lap must be taken off and
the eccentric put back an equal amount to keep the lead the same

No. 8.— Piston Valve and Balance Piston (Admiralty Type).

NOTE.— The packing rings are, in this case, of the solid pattern, the cut ends
being bolted together by lugs shown in the upper section view.

This valve takes steam from the ends and exhausts to the
centre ; the eccentric keyseat position is therefore similar to that
of a slide valve at 90° + mean steam lap and lead in advance
:

of the crank. The balance piston has the chest steam pressure
on the under side, and the condenser pressure on the upper side,
a pipe connection from the top of the balance cylinder leading
to the condenser.
 Slide Valves, Piston Valves, Valve Data, &c. 203

Double Ported Valves.

A double ported slide valve has only half the travel of a single
ported valve, and the face friction is less, owing to the steam pressure
in the inner ports tending to ease the valve off the cylinder face. In
the common valve the inner ports receive steam from the sides, but
in the Trick valve the steam passes either from bottom to top or from
top to bottom.

No. 9.— Double Ported Slide Valve and Relief Ring.

T, Steam port width (about -7 of which = steam opening).
L, Minus exhaust lap (sometimes called "internal lead").
E, Exhaust port of cylinder.
N, Depth of valve inside.
F, Packing of ring.
C, Connection to condenser (to relieve friction).

NOTE. — In the case of L.P. valves it is sometimes found of

benefit to bore, say, ten or twelve | inch holes through the back metal
of the valve, thus opening up additional connections to the condenser.
This alteration has resulted in an improved vacuum on the back of
the valve, the usual vacuum carried ranging from 18 in. to 22 in.
204 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches

No. 10 —Slide Valve Relief Frame.

L, Faced brass ring.
T, Springs to keep ring up to back of valve.
C, Space in connection with condenser.
NOTE.— The studs (six or eight in number) can be screwed up to give additional
compression to the springs.
The small black sections shown in the brass ring represent soft packing.

No. II.- "Restricted" Type Packing Rings.

The ring expansion is limited by the small projections formed
on them whicli fit into corresponding recesses in the carriers.
The tongue piece is shown in the small views on the top.

Depth of Rings W= Lineal piston clearance x 2.

 Slide Valves, Piston Valves, Valve Data, &c. 205

No. 12.— Andrews and Martin No. 13.— Piston Valve fitted with
Balanced Slide Valve. Two Solid Packing Rings.

This valve is of the balanced or The rings are turned larger than the
equilibrium type, steam being ad- bore of valve chest liners, cut, bolted
mitted from back and front through together as shown in the plan, and fin-
the ports shown ; the face friction ished to fit liner diameter. A tongue
is thus considerably reduced. piece of usual construction is also fitted.

The Andrews-Martin valve is shown in the position of steam " admission "
at top, and exhaust at bottom. This valve is known among engineers as
the " Matchbox valve.
''
The wear of the valve faces can be taken up by
means of liners fitted in behind the spring on the back casing, which is
adjustable.
206 Verbal " Notes and Sketches

No. 14— Solid Type Piston No. 15.— Hollow Type Piston
Valve (Inside Steam). Valve with Rings (Outside
Steam).
In this type of piston valve
(steam inside) the eccentric keyseat In this type of piston valve (steam
position = 90° - mean steam lap and outside) the keyseats are cut at an
lead, following the crank. angle of 90° + mean steam lap and
lead, in advance of the crank.

NOTE. -Piston valves are in nearly all cases arranged with steam
inside and exhaust over ends, as in No. 14.
Slide Valves, Piston Valves, Valve Data, &c. 207

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208 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

No. 18.— Piston Valve Packing: "Restrained" Type

(Admiralty Type).
The split ring is allowed only a limited expansion and contraction as shown
by the pin in oval hole, and by the small clearance at F. A tongue piece of
ordinary pattern is fitted as shown for steam tightness.

No. 19.— Inside Steam Piston Valve with

"Restrained" Type Packing Rings.
NOTE.— The clearance allowed at C C regelates the amount the
ring may expand or contract if the clearance is increased by scraping
;

up, the ring w'\\\ then expand more in proportion. •

 Slide Valves, Piston Valves, Valve Data, &c. 209

No. 20. —Joy's Patent Assistant Cylinder.

S, Steam admission port. N, Reduced diameter of rod.
C, Full diameter of rod which acts to cut off the steam supply.
U, Outlet port of piston to top of cylinder.
—
Note. The inlet ports are shown at the bottom of the piston.
H, Recess for steam flow from under side of piston to inside of piston.
L, Recess for steam flow from inside of piston to upper side of piston.
E, Exhaust from cylinder.

—
Action. Steam enters by port S, is cut off by rod shoulder C on up stroke,
and expands in lifting up the piston when expansion is completed, the steam
;

exhausts into the recess H, and from there flows into the cavity of the piston,
where it is retained until the small piston port U comes in line with the port L,
the steam then enters the top of the cylinder and cushions the piston on top
centre, afterwards assisting the piston on down stroke, and finally exhausting
away (at greatly reduced pressure) by means of port E.
Notice that the same supply of steam is used both for bottom and top, also
that the piston cavity acts as a receiver. The piston is double acting, but the
driving pressure for the top is obtained from the exhaust steam of the bottom.
15
2i6 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

No 21. — Diagrams from Joy Assistant Cylinder.

The lower diagram is from the bottom and the upper one from the
top of the cyhnder.

T, Admission at bottom. O, Admission at top.

C, Cutoff at bottom. F, Compression at top.
P, Exhaust at bottom to top. E, Exhaust at top.
 Gear in "Astern '
Position (crank going down).

ison the drag links are omitted in both views.

I
and in the act of coming up the valve is in mid-
position :

am then shut off, and the engines stopped in this position,

is

It and the top ports opened, thus admitting steam to the top

is then reversed. The same principle holds good for other

e used for reversing, as the LP. and L.P. receivers will lose
am direct to the top or bottom of the I.P. or L.P. pistons

I lap and lead or 6x2, but when in full gear the travel is equal to

ig for steam.

\To f<^e page 210.

 'Ahead" Position fcrank coming: up>. Astero '
Position (crank going down).

DATA.
Type of Valve fitted -Double-Pot
Position of eccentric rods with
Valve Travel (C'
Mean steam lap and lead iBi
Distance valve travels when gear

Action of Reversing Gear-

corresponding posiuon and in the act of coming up ihe v
:

be top and simn is ih«n shut off. and the engines stopped ii
will eaiily be seen thai if ihe g. awn in sketch B, the valve ii fuHtd down certain amount and the lop porlt opened, thus admitting SK
•ie is compMoi, thus revn ig the direcllon of crank and shaft roUlio : the engine it then leversed. The same prindple holds i

ind valve, but in additi tarling or impulse valve* (see inge iSjjn
preifure after ttopping, ; fitted. The starting valves admit
 1

Slide Valves, Piston Valves, Valve Data, &c. 2 1

No. 22.— "Open and "Crossed" Eccentric Rods (in

" Ahead " Gear).

With crank on bottom centre, the full lines show the eccentric
rods as"open" and the dotted lines as "crossed," the ahead
pulley being A. " Open rods " is the usual arrangement as it
allows of better link expansion when the gear is shut in (see
page 257) and gives full lead in any position of link.
 Verbal " Notes and Sketches
212 *'

No. 23. — Eccentrics in "Ahead" and "Astern" Positions.

D = Valve travel x 3.
E = Distance between ahead and astern pulley.
Full lines show gear "^ ahead."Dotted lines show gear astern.

The difference in the hnk position in the two cases shows

how the valve operates in reversing the engine, as the top port
may be open for steam in one position, and the bottom port
open for steam in the other.
 Slide Valves, Piston Valves, Valve Data, &c. 213

-~I^

No. 24.— Reversing Gear and Link Expansion Slot.

In this arrangement the reversing engine is fulcrumed on

the bed-plate, the piston rod of the gear then acting direct on a
forked arm keyed to the reversing (wyper) shaft. As usually
arranged, the hydraulic cylinder is above and the steam
cylinder below.
 —

214 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

No. 25.— Combined Steam and Hydraulic Reversing Gear

(Brown's Patent).

This type of reversing gear consists of a steam cylinder

below and a controlling oil cylinder above, the piston rod being
common to both. The piston rod connects by a crosshead and
pair of links to the reversing shaft bell crank.

Action. —
The steam cylinder valve has no lap, and a bye-
pass valve on the oil cylinder is worked by a continuation of
the steam cylinder valve spindle. The two valves mentioned
are actuated by a lever (shown in sketch), also by a secondary
gear connected with the reverse motion, so that a " hunting "
arrangement is obtained which causes the gear when moving to
bring the valves back to mid position (shut). For hand reversing
a stop-cock is fitted in the bye-pass pipe of the oil cylinder and a
small pump connected up to it. The oil cylinder piston is packed
by means of two cup leathers (Sketch No. 26). For an engine
with cylinders, 35^ inches, 53 inches, and 63 inches (two), stroke
48 inches, the reversing engine dimensions are:

Steam cylinder diameter 16 inches

Oil cylinder diameter -
8^ „
Stroke 2o| „
 Li, e K ;

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Marking-off of Sticks. Sticks in position for "Top Lead.''

No. 27.

Si. Top steam lap. B, Distance top piston is from top of casing, and
S-,Bottom steam lap. sticks have to be placed to same distance.
E, Bottom exhaust lap. P, Bottom exhaust opening at top lead position.
 Slide Valves, Piston Valves, Va^lve Data, &c. 215

No. 26. — Leather Packing for Hydraulic Piston of

Reversing Gear.
Notice the grooves cut in the piston to allow of the fluid
pressure finding its way to the back of the cup leathers and
thus forcing them out against the cylinder walls.

To Measure Lead of Piston Valve (Sketch No. 27).

To measure the lead or the lap of a piston valve with steam

inside and exhaust at the ends, two long sticks must be cut. Having
drawn the piston valve out from the chest, place one of the sticks
alongside of it and mark the depth of the pistons, &c., on the stick
in the exact positions they are on the valve, as shown in the sketch
marked " valve stick." On the other stick, which must be equal in
length to the depth of the valve casing, mark the various spaces
corresponding to the bars and ports in the cylinder, shown on
"casing stick." If the valve is then placed in mid travel, and the
sticks put together in the same relative position, the amount of steam
lap and exhaust lap will be shown, and can be measured. Tc
measure the lead, top or bottom, have the valve chest cover off, and,
turning the crank to the top or bottom centre as the case may be,
and with the valve gear in the required position, measure how far
the top piston is from the top of the casing then, placing the two
;

sticks together in a similar position, the amount of the lead will be

shown, and can be measured on the sticks. The sketch shows a
valve with steam lap top and bottom (S^ and S.,), with exhaust lap
on the bottom E, but having no exhaust lap on the top. N.otice that
the top piston is larger than the bottom one this allows better for
;
2l6 Verbal " Notes and Sketches

the withdrawing or fitting in of the valve, and also gives it a floating

tendency, the difference of area and of pressure lifting up the valve
and reducing the weight on the pulleys.
NOTE. — Sticks for ordinary slide valves (single or double portedj are
made and used in the same way as above.

Lead.
Slide Valves and Piston Valves. —
Advancing the eccentric increases
the lead top and bottom equall}-.
Putting back the eccentric decreases the lead top and bottom
equally.

No. 28.— Piston Valve.

S, Steam Lap. E, Exhaust Lap.

Slide Valves or Outside Steam Piston Valves. Taking out a —

liner increases the top lead and decreases the bottom lead.
Putting in a liner increases the bottom lead and decreases the
top lead.
To give lead to the top only, advance the eccentric for half the
amount and take out a liner for half the amount.
To give lead to the bottom only, advance the eccentric for half
the amount and put in a liner for half the amount.
To reduce the top lead, put back the eccentric for half the
amount and line up for half the amount.
 "

Slide Valves, Piston Valves, Valve Data, &c. 217

To reduce the bottom lead, put back the eccentric f(jr half the
amount and take out a liner for half the amount.

NOTE.— With double ported valves advancing the pulley for, say, J in. g^ves
J in. lead in all, as the lead is duplicated by the double ports top and bottom.

—
Piston Valves (Inside Steam). Taking out a liner decreases the
top lead and increases the bottom lead.
Putting in a liner decreases the bottom lead and increa.ses the
top lead.
To give lead to the top only, advance the eccentric for half the
amount and put in a liner for half the amount.
To give lead to the bottom only, advance the eccentric for half
the amount and take out a liner for half the amount.
To reduce the top lead, put back the eccentric for half the
amount and take out a liner for half the amount.
To reduce the bottom lead, put back the eccentric for half the
amount and put in a liner for half the amount.
NOTE. — The upper piston is usually slightly larger in diameter than the
lower one,
say 14 diameter at top and 13 in. diameter at bottom. This is more convenient for
in.

entering or drawing the valve, it also allows of balance, the top piston floating '
'

and relieving the pulleys of the weight.

A piston valve (getting steam in the inside) has the following

advantages over a common slide valve : —
1. Less and is better balanced.
friction,
2. Only
e.xhaust steam pressure on the valve spindle gland
packing, instead of high pressure steam.
3. Reduced travel, the ports being circular and therefore longer.

Examples of Lead Adjustments.

Slide Valves.
2l8 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

Answers.
1. Advance pulley yV in.

2. Put back pulley — in.

3. Take out ^5- in. liner.

4. Put in y\ in. liner.

5. Advance pulley ^^ in. and put in ^V in. liner.

J
I 6. Put back pulley for .j'^ in. and take out ^}.i in. liner.

A. The sum of the steam lap + lead is the same for top and bottom.
B. What is gained in lead at the bottom is lost in lap, or vice-versa.
C. Advancing the pulley increases the sum of the lap + lead at both
ends.
D. Lining up increases the top steam lap and decreases the bottom
steam lap.

E. Lining out decreases the top steam lap and increases the bottom
steam lap.

F. Advancing or putting back the pulley does not alter the valve travel.
G. Increasing or decreasing the steam lap does not alter the valve
travel.

Inside Steam Piston Valves.

Present Lead.
 — —
— =

Slide Valves, Piston V' alves, V^alve Data, &c. 2 1 8a

Steam Lap and Lead.

Rule i. —
Top steam lap 4- Lead = Bottom steam lap + Lead. Therefore, Top steam
lap + Lead — Bottom lead = Bottom steam lap.

Rule 2.

For unequal increase or decrease of lead top and bottom.

A. Alter pulley for half si/m of lead increase or decrease.
j9. Alter liners for half difference of lead increase or decrease.
NOTE.— If bottom lead is to be the greater, line up, but if top is to be the
greater, line out.

Rule 3.

For unequal lead increase and decrease, top and bottom.

A, Alter liners for half sum of lead increase and decrease.
B. Alter pulley for half difference of lead increase and decrease.
—
NOTE. The nature of the question will decide whether lines have to be
inserted or taken out, also whether the pulley has to be advanced or put back.

Example i. —
Top steam lap 2 inches and lead ^ inch ; find bottom steam lap if the
lead at that end is to be \ inch.
Then, 2 + ^ = Bottom steam lap -r \ inch.
Therefore, 2j-J = i| inches steam lap at bottom. Answer.
So that, (Top) 2 inches + 1 inch = {Bot.) ig inches + ^ inch=2j inches (in both cases).

Example 2.

Present Lead, Top g inch, Bottom \ inch.

Required ,, „ ^ „ „ i „
The sum of the lead increase = J + i = §•

Then, Pulley advance = 1 4- 2 ^^ inch.

And, Liner to go in = (J inch - ^ inch) -f 2 = yV inch thick.

NOTE. — Advancing pulley {., inch increases lead at both ends by -^z inch, but
by lining up odd -^z inch, the top is now reduced by
for the i\ and the bottom
still further increased by iV, giving finally \ inch at top and \ inch at bottom,
as required by the question.

Example 3.

Present Lead, Top \ inch. Bottom i inch.

Required „ „ ',
,, „ \ „
Sum ofLead difference = ^ + 1 = inch. ;

Then, Liner to go in, i; inch -f 2= {^ inch.

- 5 i"ch ^
And, Pulley advance = ^^-^^ ,^ ^^j^

NOTE. —The f^-inch liner put in increases bottom lead to i^^ inch, and reduces
top lead to i\ inch, but the pulley advanced iV inch again corrects this by giving
iV inch more at both ends, thus obtaining ^ inch at top and ^ inch at bottom, as
required by the question.
 — 1 —

2 1 8^ "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

NOTE.— If minus lead is given, treat this as so much additional or plus lead

required, then proceed as explained above.

Example 4.

top lead is - i inch and the bottom lead

The is h inch. The lead required is
I inch on top and g inch on bottom.

Then, +4: + s=i i"ch more lead required on top.

And, J-i = i ,y less ,, ,, ,, bottom.

a J-
Therefore by Rule 3,
" * = :^ inch liner out.

And,
3
"^
—_ =
1

* J inch pulley forward.

Answer -f
^"^"<^^ ^^"^'' *° ^^ taken out.
\ 8 -inch pulley put forward.

Example 5.

The
original lead was, top \ in., bottom | in., the present lead, on testing,
is found to be, top - f in., bottom —
Find how much the pulley ha^
i^ in.

worked back on shaft, and the thickness of liner which has dropped out from
under foot of rod.
Then, Total lead decrease = (f + f) + (i^" + ^") = i" + ii" = 2f.
2 5"
Pulley has gone back = _!L = i jB^". Answer.
2
t5' _ 1"
Liner thickness (out) = -^ =1^". Answer.
2

This question will be much easier understood if the student takes it

backwards, that is, assume that the present lead is top — | in., and bottom
- li in., and that the lead required is, top | in., and bottom ^ in.
Then by rule previously enunciated

Total lead increase = f + ^" +1^" + h" = 2^".

2-"
Advance pulley half sum = ^ — i j\ ". Answ^er.

"" ^
Line up rod half difference = ?" = 1=5". Answer.

These answers reversed give the solution to the question as originally stated.

Lead of Double Ported Slide Valves.— For this type of valve the
examples given for the single ported valve also hold good, but it must be
remembered that the pulley or hner alterations only refer to one of the two
top leads or one of the two bottom leads, as advancing the pulley, say,
-^V i"-.
will give I in. extra lead in all top and bottom. In the same way, lining up
for say yV in. gives | in. more lead at bottom and
| in. less lead at top, and
taking out a j^}n. liner gives i in. more lead at top and ^ in. less lead at
bottom. This is owing to the duplicating of the leads at both top and
bottom due to the double ports.
* NOTE.— In slide valve example No.
5 observe that the pulley requires to be
advanced half the sum of the two lead increases top and bottom, which is equal to
 Slide Valves, Piston Valves, Valve Data, &c. 219

,V in. 1 in. or i\ in. in all ; the pulley is therefore advanced half of this, or ,''5 in.
+
and a 3S in. liner put in to make up the difference top and bottom.
In example No. 6, as the leads have to be decreased top and bottom, the pulley
is put back .;\ and a .'. in. liner taken out.
in.

For the steam piston valve notice that

inside liners are taken out instead of
being put in, and and put in instead of being taken out, to give similar lead results
top and bottom.

Valve Setting. —
The following example of valve setting from an
engine of 2500 I.H.P., will give a fair idea a-s to the varying pro-
portions of lap, lead, and port opening usually arranged for.

Valve Setting.
Cylinders, 27 in., 43 in., and 72 in.; stroke, 51 in.; pressure, iSo lbs.
 —

220 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches

4. The
cut-off is earlier on the up stroke in all three engines ;

this due to the angularity of the crank and connecting rod when
is

link motion valve gear is fitted.

The reverse should be the case, were it possible, as on the up
stroke the weight of the working parts have to be raised against the
force of gravity.
With patent valve gear such as Brock's, Morton's, Joy's, &c., the
cut-off can generally be arranged to be later on the up stroke, or
equal on both strokes.
5. As less compression is required at top than bottom, it will be
seen that the top exhaust lap is always less than the bottom, and
is generally " minus " exhaust lap.

To Find (approximately) the Depth of a Slide Valve.

is broken up or not to be got, proceed as follows
If the valve :

Obtain a flat board, and draw out on it, full size, the shaft diameter,
the valve travel, and two centre lines.
NOTE.— The valve travel can easily be found by taking the difference of the
narrow side and the broad side of the eccentric pulley.

Next, calliper on the shaft the exact distance between the

eccentric keyseat centres, as shown at A, B of the shaft sketch, and
transfer this distance to the shaft circle on the flat board, also marked

No. 29.

A, B. Now, from any one of these two points run in a line to the
shaft centre, and where this line cuts the travel circle draw a horizontal
line giving the distance C.
The distance C is equal to the steam lap and lead added together
 Slide Valves, Piston Valv^es, Valve Data, 8cc. 221

so that if a certain lead is determined on, say } in., and subtracted

from distance C, the amount left will then be the steam lap. Finally,
measure the distance from the top of the top steam port to the bottom
of the bottom steam port, as shown at D, and add to it tza'ce the
steam lap, to allow for the top and bottom the result will then be
;

approximately the required depth of valve.

Or, D + (C - lead) x 2 = valve depth.

NOTE. — The most accurate method is by that of the valve diagram (see
page 249), but as the cut-off is not given in the question as stated above, this
method cannot be applied.

Connecting Rod Angle, &c.

When the piston is at half stroke, as at B on the sketch, the crank
islying at the ani^le B above the horizontal. Again, if the crank is
placed exactly horizontal, as at C, the piston will be a little /ozver than
half stroke, as C on the sketch. The cause, in both cases, is the angle
of the connecting rod, and the shorter the rod is made the greater

No. 30
 —

222 ''Verbal" Notes and Sketches

will be the difference between the piston and crank positions at half
stroke.
If the slide valve has the same amount of steam lap and lead top
and bottom, and the valve gear is of the ordinary link motion type,
the effect of the connecting rod angle is to cut off the steam sooner
on the up stroke than on the down stroke.
In practice this difference of cut-off is partly corrected by lining
up the slide valve, so that the top lap is more and the bottom lap less,
and the bottom lead more and top lead less.

Patent Valve Gears.

Patent valve gears are fitted with the object of correcting the
defects peculiar to the ordinary Stephenson link motion, and which
are as follows :

1. Wire drawing of steam owing to slow motion of gear at

moment of cut-off.
2. Variation in lead and compression when linked up (usually
increased).
3. Difference in cut-off on up and down
stroke, with equal steam
lap top and bottom, due to effect of connecting rod angle with crank,
the cut-off being much earlier on the up stroke.
4. Space saved in fore and aft direction, as the valves can (in
certain cases) be placed on the sides of the cylinders.
5. Eccentrics are done away altogether in certain gears (Joy,
Morton), while in others (Hackworth, Brock, Bryce-Douglas, Bremme-
Marshall) one eccentric only is required.

Advantages of Patent Gears.— i. Most of the patent gears arrange

for a quick travel of valve at the instant of cut-off, and thus reduce
the wire drawing losses by giving a much sharper cut-off.
2. In the majority of patent gears the lead remains constant for
all positions of the link, whether " full out " or " shut in."

3. Certain gears are arranged with compensating rods or links

which give equal cut-off on both strokes, or allow for a later cut-off
on the up stroke, which is better still.

—
Disadvantage of Patent Gears. The chief disadvantage of patent
gears lies in the number of joints required, the slight wear of which
(in the majority of gears) upsets the valve adjustment to a more or
less serious degree, as the wear of, say, -^j in. in a brass may become
magnified to three or four times that amount at the valve by means
of the lever or link connected to it.
In some gears as many as sixteen small pins and brasses are
fitted, all of which require to be kept in practically perfect adjustment,
if the correct setting of the slide valves or piston valves is to be
maintained.
 No. 31.— Marshall Valve Gear.
1, Eccentric rod. 5, Link travel for "ahead,"
2, Swinging on reversing bell crank.
link centre 6, Link travel hr "astern."
3, Astern position of swinging link centre. 7, Reversing engine.
4, Swinging link (Radius Rod). 8, Slide valve spindle.
[To fact page 23M.

" Verbal " Notes and Sketches.

 .3VJAV
T 11 L

TJ

ilj

rJ

O 9vIbV Il6rf81£.«"^/^ ,.T>t

 Slide Valves, Piston \^alves, Valve Data, Sec. 223

The general experience of engineers is that the disadvantages

of patent gear more than balance the advantages, with the result that
the ordinary Stephenson link motion will be found fitted in even the
most modern and up-to-date marine engines, as being simpler and
more reliable than patent \alve gears of any type.

Marshall- Bremme Gear (one Eccentric) (Sketch No. 31).

Marshall's and Bremme's gear are similar, the chief difference
being that the valve link is connected to the efid of the eccentric rod
in Bremme's gear, and the swinging link to the middle, whereas in
Marshall's the valve link is connected to the eccentric rod about the
middle of its length, and the swinging link at the end.

Marshall Gear (Sketch No. 31).

Type of Valve fitted. — Slide valve or piston valve with steam

over ends

Position of Eccentric. — Opposite crank (180°).

Action. —
The eccentric rod i is connected to the swinging link 4,
which is hung on a pin 2 from the bell crank. The gear is shown in
" ahead " position, and the travel of the link is shown at 5. The

No. 32.— Link Travel of Marshall Valve Gear.

" astern position of the gear is shown at 3 and 6, as then the

"
bell crankis moved over to the right by the rod 7 from the reversing

engine. When the swing link is at position 3, the free end travels
the arc 6, and thus changes the direction of the valve travel.
The small Sketch, No. 32, shows the travel of the swinging link
produced by the eccentric when in ahead position.

Bremme Gear (Sketch No. 33).

As
before described, in this gear the valve link is placed at the
end of the eccentric rod, which thus reverses the motion of the valve,
r6
224 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

so that the pulle}- position is now with the crank in place of being-
opposite to it as in Marshall's gear, otherwise the gear is similar.

No. 33. — Bremme Valve Gear.

1, "Ahead" position of link. 3, Valve rod link.
'
Astern " position of link. Reversing engine rod.
2, '
4,

Type of Valve fitted. — SHde valve or piston valve with steam over
ends.

Position of Eccentric. — With the crank.

—
Action. The action of the swing link 2 is as before described for
Marshall's gear, but it should be noticed that the angle of the link
is reversed in this case, position I being for " ahead " and 2 for
"astern." The distance between the swinging link pin on the
eccentric rod and the valve link allows for the required lead, and it
should be noted that the end of the eccentric rod and valve link
describe an irregular ellipse when in motion, the long sides of which
incline to the vertical and produce the quick travel of valve at the
cut-off positions.
It may also be stated that with equal steam lap top and bottom
the cut-off and release can be arranged to take place earlier on the
down stroke than on the up stroke, this result being obtained by the
 tt.
!

V -y '

v')-

6
\\ uhl

inBtbBup i{h^ biloa .^Ih.i'

*lt Tr\»\»ni\vV }
 No. 34 - Morton Valve Gear

1, Link suspended frorr rrosshead. 4. Suspension Imks from guide bracket

2, Lever connecting to quadrant rod 5 through small 5. Quadrant rod
lever 3. 6, Crosshead of valve spindle, solid with quadrant.
3, Compensating lever. ? Wyper shaft
8, Reversing engine rod.
{To/ate page 22%.

'
•
VerUI Noles and Sketches.
>f,^0 nvIfiV ^( M

4 :i3oid

,&>'. n>r. '•'I.

 No. 35 —Joy Valve Gear.
1, Suspended link. Quadrant block (travelling).
4,
2, Compensating link. Angle of quadrant for "ahead."
5,
3, Lever connecting compensating link Angle of quadrant for "astern."
6,
and valve rod through quadrant Slide valve spindle.
7,
block 4. 8, Reversing engfine rod.

\To fate page 22g.

'
Verbal "'
Notes and Sketches.
 Slide Valves, Piston Valves, Valve Data, &c. 225

lenf^th o-iven to the swinging link, the oscillations of which produce

the^difiference in cut-ofif mentioned. It should also be noted that the
remains constant for all grades of expansion.
lead

Morton Valve Gear (Sketch No. 34).

This valve gear consists of a series of levers and links, connected

to a vertically moving quadrant which is in one with the valve spindle,
no eccentric being required, as the valve motion is obtained from the
connecting rod.

Type of Valve fitted. — Slide valve or piston valve with steam

over ends.

Action. — The valve lever

2 is suspended from the crosshead by the
link from the connecting rod by the pivoted arm 3, and from the
I,

guide bracket by the heavy links 4, at a point near the outer end,
the end of the lever being connected direct to the valve link 5, which
gives vertical motion to the quadrant and thus to the valve: the small
compensating arm 3 corrects the unequal effect of the connecting rod.
Notice that the centres of the suspension link 4 are not in line with
the valve spindle, and when the crank is centred the links 4 are
parallel to the centre line of the engine, and in this position the valve
link 5 ma)'be moved over the quadrant from one side to the other
without moving the valve. When linked up, the lead remains the
same as in full gear, and equal steam lap gives equal cut-off top and
bottom.

Joy Valve Gear (Sketch No. 35).

This gear is similar to Morton's in the fact that links and a

quadrant take the place of eccentrics, the connecting rod supplying
the necessar)' motion to the valve.

Type of Valve fitted. — Slide vahe or piston valve with steam

over ends.

Action. —
The suspended link i on the column connects to a vibrating
link 2 on the connecting rod, and the \ahe lever 3 is fixed to a pin
on this link at an intermediate position. Near the other end of the
valve lever is a fulcrum point which slides back and forward on the
quadrant bar by means of a block 4, the actual end of the lever being
connected direct to the valve link and spindle 7. The angle given
to the quadrant hy the reversing engine 8 determines the direction of
rotation, 5 being for "ahead" and 6 for "astern," the block 4 sliding
back and forward in the dotted arc shown.
When the quadrant is in a horizontal position (as shown in Sketch
No. 35) the gear is in the neutral position. It should be noted that
226 ''Verbal" Notes and Sketches

the quadrant bar is hinged at the centre to a supporting bracket

bearing on the left column.
The leverage given by the distance from the fulcrum point on the
lever to the end allows for the "steam lap + lead" travel of the
valve, while the to-and-fro travel of the block 4 on the quadrant
bar allows for the additional port opening travel required.

Hackworth Gear (Single Eccentric) (Sketch No. 36).

This gear works on the same principle as the Bremme-Marshall
Gears, but instead of the swinging link an inclined bar is emplo\'ed,
on which a bearing block connected to the end of the eccentric rod
slides up and down with the motion of the pulley.

Type of Valve fitted. — Slide valve or piston vahe with steam

over ends.

Position of Eccentric. — At 90' leading the crank.

—
Action. The bracket i supports the pair of slide bars 2 by a pin and
brass as shown, and the angle given to the slide bar by the re\ ersing
engine rod 9 determines the position of the gear whether " ahead " or
" astern." The motion of the eccentric rod is carried to the valve
link 7 through the bell crank 6 by means of the double link 5 con-
nected to the eccentric rod by a large pin joint adjustable slippers
;

3 are fitted to the end of the eccentric, and the dotted lines show the
angle of the bars for ahead or astern running.
In the Sketch the gear is shown in mid position, the valve travel
being then equal to the steam lap +
lead for either end, the side
way slide motion of the eccentric rod in the bars allowing for the
additional port opening required. The slide bars angle is changed by
means of the usual drag link 8 from the reversing engine, and an
expansion slot of the usual type is fitted for working " linked-up."

No. 37.— Eccentric Rod at Limit of upper travel on Slide Bar,

 No. 36— Hackworth Valve Gear.
1, Supporting bracket for slide bars. 6, Valve bell crank working on
2, Slide bars for slippers 3. fixed bearing.
3, Slippers on end of eccentric rod. 7, Valve link.

4, Eccentric rod. 8, Drag link.

5, Links connecting eccatric « od and 9, Reversing engine rod.

valve bell cranlr
\.To face page 226.

" Verbal " Notes and Sketches.

 No. 38,— Brock Valve Gear.
I, Eccentric rod. 5, " Ahead " position of valve link. 9, Valve spindle-
3, Rocking quadrant- 6, " Astern " position of valve link. 10. Drag link.

3, Valve link. 7, Crosshead link 11. Reversing engine rod.

4, Lever connected at one end to valve link, and 8, Crosshead sliopet- 12. Guide on column.
at the other end to crosshead link 7, also
connected to the valve spindle near the end.
in/iuefagt 227.

'Vurhal' Notc?.-.nrI Sketches.

 ^^ "
s^^

II

^
il

i]A3HA

.IB^D 5vUiV 3i301

3vLaV ,Q .jlnil ^vi

- »3^v»&\tr i
 No 39 — Bryce-Douglas Valve Gear.
I, Link suspended from crosshead. 4, Quadrant rod.
3, Lever connecting crosstiead with valve rod 5 5, Valve rod.
through a fulcrum oil bell crank 3 6. "Ahead" position of quadrant
3, Bell crank working on fixed bearuig. 7.
• Astern" position of quadrant
8, Reversing engine rocL

'
Verbal " Nol I Sketches.
 Slide Valves, Piston Valves, Valve Data, &c. 227

The small Sketch, No. 37, shows the gear in " ahead " position, with
the slipper at the upper limit of its travel on the incHned bars. In
this gear the bearing of the bell crank (6) shaft is subject to the most
wear, and requires the most frequent overhaul, as the setting of the
valve is affected by wear down of this bearing.

Brock Gear (Single Eccentric) (Sketch No. 2,8).

In this gear a rocking quadrant actuated by the eccentric is

employed to convey the motion to the valve.

Type of Valve fitted.— Piston valve with steam inside.

Position of Eccentric. — Following the crank at an angle of 90' less

steam lap and lead.

NOTE.— As in the case of other single eccentric gears (such as Hackworth's

and Bremme's) the travel of the pulley exceeds the actual travel of the valve, as
the motion is reduced down from the extended end of the quadrant in the
present case.

Action. — The eccentric rod i gives motion to the rocking quadrant

2, which is hinged on a bracket cast on the engine framing, and this
is transmitted to the valve by means of the link 3 and travelling
lever 4. This lever is held at the other end to a bracket cast on the
crosshead, and travels to and fro with the piston rod stroke. The
valve spindle is connected to lever 4 at a point near the end, thus
giving a small leverage which allows for the " lap + lead " travel of the
valve, the remainder of the travel required to give port opening being
obtained by the rocking motion of the quadrant produced by the
eccentric 5 being the " ahead " position, and 6 the "astern " position
of the link, as shown by the dotted lines. The drag link 10, moved
by the reversing engine links ii, changes over the link block to the
"ahead" or "astern" position as required, and the gear can be linked
up by means of the expansion slot shown in the reversing bell crank.
In all positions of gear the lead remains constant, and is unaffected
by linking up.
NOTE.— The Sketch shows the gear as applied to a diagonal type paddle
engine, but the reader turns the page round so that the gear, assumes a vertical
if

position with the shaft below, the position of the gear as applied to an ordinary
triple expansion marine engine will be obtained, and can be studied.

Bryce-Douglas Gear (Single Eccentric) (Sketch No. 39).

In this gear a fixed quadrant and travelling block, actuated by a
single pulley, is employed, together with a link, lever, and bell crank.

Type of Valve fitted. — Slide valve or piston valve with steam

over ends.
228 Verbal " Notes and Sketches

Position of Eccentric. -At an angle of 90" plus lap and lead in

advance of the crank.

—
Action. The eccentric rod block travels back and forward in the
slot of the quadrant, which is hinged on a bracket bearing as shown,
the angle given to the quadrant by the reversing engine 8 determining
the direction of rotation whether "ahead" or "astern," 6 being ahead
and 7 astern from the quadrant the motion is carried to a fixed
:

TRAVEL
CENTRE

No. 40.
 Slide Valves, Piston Valves, Valve Data, &c. 229

bell crank 3 by a link 4, the otlier arm of the bell crank finally
giving the motion to the valve link 5, through the lever 2, suspended
from the engine crosshead by the small link i. Observe that the
lever 2 is fulcrummed near the end by a pin to the bell crank, and the
leverage to the valve spindle obtained in this way allows for the " steam
lap + lead " travel of the valve, the additional travel necessary to give
the required port opening being obtained by the travel of the block of
link 4 in the quadrant the lead is therefore constant for all positions
;

of the gear, whether " full out " or " shut In."
As before stated, the quadrant is hinged by the centre, and is
canted over to the required ahead or astern angle by the drag link of
the reversing engine, and remains in that position, the block travelling
back and forward by the action of the eccentric.
—
Link Motion. In the most modern types of reciprocating engines,
the " Stephenson " link motion gear is generally fitted, patent valve
gears having been not altogether satisfactory in many respects,
experience proving the superiority of the old t>pe of gear.
Observe that the link radius is equal to the distance from the pin
centre B to the pulley centre, and the centre of curvature is found
by describing an arc from the pulley centre to the shaft centre line,
as shown by the small cross.
S = valve travel x 3.
T = throw or eccentricity.
E = steam lap plus lead.

No. 41. — Reversing Quadrant and Block.

NOTE.— Distance D should be equal to three times the valve traveL
 —

230 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

Linking Up.— Assuming pin A

to be in line for "full gear," in
linking up, the pin B is moved over towards the valve spindle block
C, so that the effect is to reduce the valve travel.
The general results of linking up are as follows :

(i) Travel reduced.

(2) Port opening reduced (producing wire-drawing of the steam).
(3) Cut-off sooner,
(4) Lead increased (with rods " open," crank on bottom).
(5) Compression increased.
Generally speaking, all points occur earlier.

—
NOTE. With the gear in mid position as shown, if the engine is turned one
revolution with the turning gear, the valve will travel a distance equal to twice the
Steam lap and lead.

—
Example. To prove by a valve diagram that with equal laps on
the valve, top and bottom and ordinary link motion valve gear, the
steam is cut off sooner on the up stroke.
NOTE. — This difference in cut-off is caused by the connecting rod and crank
angle.

ADMISSION

No. 42.

Referring to No. 42, set oft" top and bottom of the valve travel
circle,small circles equal in radius to the lead also from the centre
;

of the travel circle set off" with the compasses the amount of steam
lap on the valve now draw tangents to both the lead circles and the
;

lap arcs, and the crank angles at " Admission " and " Cut-off" will be
obtained.
 "

Slide Valves, Piston Valves, Valve Data, &c. 231

Next, take with the compasses the length of the connecting rod
as radius, and putting the pencil on the crank position at "Cut-off,
and the needle on the centre line, draw arcs inwards to the centre
line to obtain the distance the steam is carried on the down and up
strokes respectively. It will then be found, on measuring, that the

distance U is less than the distance D, that is, the cut-off occurs earlier
on the up stroke than on the down stroke, owing to the angle formed
by the connecting rod and the crank.
NOTE.— For complete explanation of Valve Diagram, see page 248.

Eccentric Keyseat Templates.

Without Steam Lap and Lead. —
If a valve has no steam lap
lead, as, for stearing gear engine valve, the keyseat
example, a
position is at right angles, or 90" to the crank leading it (Sketch
No. 43). In this case the steam is carried the full length of stroke,
and, with the crank on the centre, the valve is exactly at mid position,
ready to open for steam. The valve travel will then be equal to
twice the port opening.

With Steam Lap and Lead. —When a

slide valve has steam lap and
lead the sum of the lap and lead must be measured down
mean steam
from the centre, and a horizontal line drawn through the travel circle,
then lines drawn out to the shaft circle through the points of inter-
section from the centre, will give the correct keyway positions ahead
and astern (Sketch No. 44). The valve travel circle diameter is
equal to tzvice the steam lap anc' steam port opening. The key-
seat position is therefore 90", plus lap and lead, in advance of the
crank, as when the crank is centred the valve is lower than mid
position by a distance equal to the steam lap and lead.

Piston Valves. —
For a piston valve of the inside steam type as
commonly constructed, the valve travel motion is reversed from that
of a slide valve, as, instead of moving down to give lead and steam
to the top port the valve requires to move up. This necessitates the
position of the keyways being changed to scarcely the opposite side
of the shaft (Sketch No. 46), the position being therefore 90° behind
the crank less mean steam lap and lead. In setting off the keyseat
template the mean steam lap and lead have to be measured up from
the shaft centre.
To sum up, for a common slide valve or a double ported slide
valve the keyway is cut at an angle greater than 90' leading the
crank, but for a piston valve the keyway is cut at an angle less than
90° following the crank.

NOTE. — After the keyways are cut and the pulley secured to the shaft, a liner
may require to be fitted under the rod if a slide valve, or a liner taken out if a piston

valve, to give more lead at bottom than top.

232 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

Eccentric Keyseats.

Crank on Top Centre.

LEVELLED
No. 43. —Valve without Steam Lap and Lead

(Steering Gear Engine Valve).

Keyseat at right angles to crank, if a slide valve leading the

crank, if a piston valve following the crank.
 Slide Valves, Piston Valves, Valve Data, &c. 233

Crank on Centre.

LEVELLED
No. 44.— Slide Valve with Steam Lap and Lead.

Shaft, 12 in. diameter.

Mean steam lap, 2 in.
Mean port opening, ij in.

Mean lead, | in.

Then, (2+i-5)x2 = 7 in. valve travel.
iA.nd, B = steam lap + lead =2 + ^ = 2^ in.
234 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

Crank on Centre.

VALVE TRAVEL

LEVELLED
No. 45.— Double Ported Slide Valve.

Shaft, 12 in. diameter.

Mean steam lap (each of two, top or bottom), 2 in.

Mean port opening „ „ „ i| in.

Mean lead, ^ in.

Then,(2 + 1-5) x 2 = 7 in. valve travel.
And, B = steam lap + lead = 2 + | = 2| in.

NOTE.— Only one of the two top or bottom laps and port openings are taken,
and not the combined or total lap and port opening at either end.
 Slide Valves, Piston Valves, Valve Data, &c. 235

Crank on Centre.

LEVELLED
No. 46.- Inside Steam Piston Valve.

Shaft, 12 in. diameter.

Mean steam lap, 2 in.
Mean port opening, i| in.

Mean lead, ^ in.

Then, (2+1-5) x 2 = 7 in. valve travel.
And, B = steam lap + lead = 2 + | = 2^ in.

—
NOTE. As the valve motion is reversed from that of a slide valve, the mean
steam lap and lead are measured up from the centre with crank on top.
 236 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

LEAD CUT-OFF

Wv^'yvVv'; '.vs.v ^^^^v^v ^ ^^^'^

^^^^^\\\\-.x^:s\x\\xV''''^^''^^^Y'-'^'''''^^'^^'-'^^''-

EXHAUST OPENING
No. 47.— Slide Valve and Piston Positions.
 Slide Valves, Piston Valves, Valve Data, &c. 237

LEAD CUT-OFF

EXHAUST OPENING EXHAUST CLOSING.

No. 48— Piston Valve and Piston Positions.
238 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

Action of Steam in a Cylinder.

During one revolution the action of the steam on one side of the
piston is as follows :
—
With the crank on the top centre the top steam
port is open for the amount of lead the valve then moves down
;

and opens the port further, and the piston moves down to, say, half
stroke, when the valve moving up again cuts off the supply of steam.
The steam in the cylinder expands and forces the piston down towards
the end of the stroke, and when near the bottom centre the port opens
to the exhaust the piston then completes the stroke and travels
;

up again, and when near the top centre the port is closed to exhaust.
The steam thus retained in the cylinder is compressed by the return-
ino" piston to an increased pressure, and cushioning is effected the ;

piston next reaches the top centre, and the port again opening for
lead, the same cycle of operations is repeated.
Notice that " exhaust opening " occurs when the piston is near
the end of one stroke, and " exhaust closing " when the piston is near
the end of the other stroke.
NOTE. — A piston valve travels in the reverse direction to that of a slide valve in
the above cycle of operations, as vdll be seen by comparing the sketches of each.

Observe that in " lead " and in " cut-off" the valve is in the same
position, but going down for " lead " and going up for " cut-off."
Also that for "exhaust opening" and "exhaust closing " the valve
is also in the same position, but going up for "exhaust opening" and
going down for "exhaust closing." Again notice that the piston
is near the bottom for " exhaust opening," and near (not at) the top
for " exhaust closing."
Observe that as steam is entering from between the pistons, the
valve requires to travel in the rev^erse direction to that of a slide valve
to give similar results.
In "lead" and in "cut-off" the valve is in the same position, but
is going z// for "lead" and going down for "cut-off." In "exhaust
opening" and in "exhaust closing" the valve is in the same position,
but is going doivn for "exhaust opening" and up for "exhaust
closing."

NOTE. — Between the positions of "Cut-off" and "Exhaust Opening"

("Release") the steam in the cylinder expands in approximate accordance with
Boyle's Law of Expansion that is, the volume is increasing and the pressure
;

decreasing proportionally: between the positions "Exhaust Closing" ("Com-

pression") and " Lead" the steam is also following out this law but reversed in
action, as in this case the volume is decreasing and the pressure increasing
proportionally.
~'~^~~~
 i^FV-.

&

\ae( Cf09iu&;

VX
w

lio

\
VALVE DATA. |
 Slide Valves, Piston Valves, Valve Data, &c. 239

Valve Setting Tables.

The following tables of valve settings, showing lead, steam lap,

exhaust lap, cut-off, &c., for both up and down strokes, are from a set
of engines of a modern fast passenger steamer, and should be care-
fully studied. The differences in lead, steam lap, port opening, cut-
off,&c., occurring on the up and down strokes, and chiefly due to
the effect of the angle of the connecting rod and crank, when link
motion is fitted, are of great importance to the student, and the
writer strongly advises special attention to this subject, as being one
of particular interest and benefit to the marine engineer.

No. I —Type; — Fast Passenger Steamer. — I. H. P., 4500; Speed, 21

knots Cylinders, 27, 44, 70 inches Stroke, 2 feet 9 inches
; ; ;

Boiler pressure, 185 lbs.; Revolutions, 180; H.P. cylinder

M.E.P. = 65 lbs. I. P.
;
cylinder M.E.P. = 32-2 lbs. L.P. ;

cylinder M.E.P. = 16 lbs. ; Link motion valve gear.

H.P. Piston Valve.

 2^0 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches

L.P. Double Ported Slide Valve.

Expansion
Grade.
 —

Slide Valves, Piston Valves, Valve Data, &c. 241

Example 2. — H.P. valve at -58 cut-off grade, valve travel =

6f inches.
/ Steam lap = 1 1^ inches
j Port opening = I -j^g- „
Then, Top
'
3-| inches = half valve travel,

/Steam lap = i| inches

)Po'-topening=i|. „
and, Bottom
3^ inches^ half valve travel.

This holds goods in nearly all cases, the exceptions being those due to
eccentric rod angles at linked up positions, which result in a very-
small difference in the sum of the steam lap and port opening as
compared with half the valve travel.
2. In "gear full out" positions, the difference of the lead top and
bottom is just equal to the difference in the steam lap top and bottom,

or in other words, what is lost in steam lap is gained in lead, or the

reverse.

Example i.— H.P. valve at -75 cut-off grade.

Steam lap= i|f inches

Lead = ^
Then, Top
2^^ inches.

Steam lap= i| inches

Lead. = vTT 1,
and, Bottom
2Yg inches.

Therefore the sum of the top steam lap and lead is equal to the sum
of the bottom steam lap and lead.

—
NOTE. This necessary difference in lap and lead is obtained by means of liner
adjustment under the valve rod, liners having to go in if a slide valve, but to come
out if for a piston valve with inside steam.

3. With the link shut in, the following effects are produced :

A. Reduced valve travel (with open rods, crank on bottom).

B. Reduced port opening (exactly equal to difference in valve
travel).

C. Increased lead.
D. Earlier cut-off, exhaust opening (" Release "), and exhaust
closing (" Compression ").

NOTE The steam lap and exhaust lap remain constant throughout as shown
in the tables, as these are part of the valve dimensions, and are therefore unaffected
242 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches

by link alteration.The amount of steam or exhaust lap can only be varied by

either pinningon a brass strip to give an increase, or by chipping off a piece of the
valve to give a decrease. By linking up all points occur sooner, and the port
opening is decreased in proportion to the decrease in valve travel.

E. to the angle of the connecting rod and crank, when hnk

Owing
motion is the cut-off on the up stroke (bottom) is invariably
fitted,
sooner than on the down stroke, and this cannot be avoided, although
the reverse order of things would be much more suitable if it could be
arranged for. Although the valve is up as far as possible to
lined
give less steam lap, and therefore more port opening on the bottom
than the top, even this fails to equalise the cut-off, as reference to the

tables of valve settings reproduced will show.

F. In astern gear the link is often designed to give an increased

valve travel, and consequently port opening, to allow of rapid
reversing of the engines, and it should be observed that the gear
cannot be "shut in" in this position as the expansion slot in the
reversing bell crank is generally arranged so as to lie in a Jiorizontal
"
position when in " ahead " gear and in a vertical position for " astern
gear (see page 43), thus making the position of the block in the slot
non-effective as regards linking up when vertical.

G. The exhaust lap on the top of each valve is negative, and that
on the bottom positive, much more compression being required on
the bottom than on the top, but as this difference of exhaust lap
is neutralised by the angle of the connecting rod, the actual position
of exhaust opening and closing is not much different for either the up
or the down stroke, and is often at the wrong end (see table).

" —
Extra " Gear. Occasionally the link radius bar is extended, so
that a small additional travel can, if desired, be given to the valve,
known as extra gear, which gives a still later cut-off than full gear by
the port opening being thus increased. In the "extra gear" position
of the link the lead is slightly decreased, the travel of valve increased,
and the port opening increased, with a correspondingly later cut-off,
say from -60 at " full gear " to -67 at " extra gear." The extra gear is
generally brought into action for a special spurt on trial trip runs,
but of course can be used at any time if it is required to increase the
power and speed.
In engines of well-balanced power the cut-off is generally latest
in the H.P., earlier in the I.P., and earliest of all in the L.P. cylinder.

No. 2—Type ;— Cargo Steamer.— Speed, 11-2 knots; I.H.P., 2360;

Cylinders, 27, 46, ^6 inches Stroke, 48 inches ;
; Receiver
pressures, H.P., 180 lbs., LP., 55 lbs., L.P., 16 lbs.; Vacuum,
27 inches Revolutions, 63.
;
 Slide Valves, Piston Valves, Valve Data, &c. 243

Valve Settings.
HP. Piston Valve.

Expansion Grade
(mean of top and
bottom).
244 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

each cylinder of the engine, the adjustment of which depends greatly

on the setting of the links of each valve.

No. 3 —Type; — Cargo Steamer. — Cylinders, 27,43, 72 inches; Stroke

51 inches; Boiler pressure, 180 lbs.; I.H.P., 2550; Link
motion gear.

Valve Settings.
H.P. Piston Valve.

Expansion
Grade
(mean of
top and
bottom).
 —

Slide Valves, Piston Valves, Valve Data, &c. 245

Example 3.

L. P. valve, top steam lap =i}^ inche^.

,, ,, port opening = i[J ,,

Then, iic + iiti— si inches half travel.

L. P. valve, top steam lap = i}g inches.
,, ,, lead = ^ inch.
Then, lie + 2 = 2y'% inches.

Again, L. P. valve, bottom steam lap = i j

*
inches.
,, ,, lead = ^ inch.

Then, ixh + ^ = 2i% inches.

Again observe that in each cylinder the cut-off takes place earlier
on the up stroke.

No. 4 — Type; — Fast Cargo Steamer. — I.H.P., 2200; Cylinders,

26, 44, 70 inches ; Stroke, 48 inches.

Valve Settings.
H.P. Piston Valve.

Expansion
Grade
(mean of
top and
bottom).
 246 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

No. 5 —Type; — Large —

Cargo Passenger Steamer. Speed, 14 knots I.H.P.,
;

6000; Quadruple expansion cylinders, 3U, 45, 64, 92 inches; Stroke,

60 inches Boiler pressure, 200 lbs.
;

VALVE SETTINGS.
H.P. Piston Valve (20 inches diameter).

Expansio n
Grade
(mean of
top and
bottom).
 — — —— ——

Slide Valves, Piston Valves, Valve Data, &c. 247

Mean Cut-off and Expansion Grade. — These are determined as

follows :

H.P. Cylinder, Full Gear

Top cut-off =44 J inches,

Bottom cut-off = 39| ,,

Then, 44:^ ±39:5 _ 41.875 inches mean cut-off.

Expansion Grade = 4i-875 inches -;-6o inches (stroke) =69 of stroke

ist LP. Cylinder, Full Gear

Top cut-off -43 inches,

Bottom cut-off =393 ,,

Then, ^—^^'^'^
2
= 41-18 inches mean cut-off.

Expansion Grade = 41 -18 inches -f 60 inches =-68 of stroke.

2nd LP. Cylinder, Full Gear

Top cut-off =44i inches,
Bottom cut-off =40 ,,

Then, 44i-?_5_M9_, 42-31 inches mean cut-off.

Expansion Grade =42-31 inches -f 60 inches = -70 of stroke.

L.P. Cylinder, Full Gear

Top cut-off =39^ inches.

Bottom cut-off =35 J ,,

35' 5
Then, 5?-5 -37-37 inches mean cut-off.

Expansion Grade = 3737 inches -f 60 inches = -62 of stroke.

 248 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches

No. 6 —Type; — Cargo Steamer. — I.H.P., 1630; Speed, ii-6 knots;

Cylinders, 26, 42, 70 inches Stroke, 48 inches
; Boiler
;

pressure, 180 lbs.; H.P. receiver, 175 lbs.; LP., 56 lbs.;

L.P., 9 lbs.
; Vacuum, 24 inches Revolutions, 60-5.
;

VALVE SETTINGS.
H.P. Piston Valve.

Expansion
Grade
(mean).
 — ;

Slide Valves, Piston Valves, Valve Data, &c. 249

—
Example. Engine stroke, 42 inches connecting rod, 7 feet ;

6 inches in length valve travel to be 7^ inches top lead, ^ inch

; ; ;

bottom lead, ^ inch; bottom exhaust lap +^ inch; top exhaust

lap —I inch.

(A.) Find the required steam lap and port opening for a maximum
down stroke cut-ofif of -7. (B.) Also find the cut-off on the up stroke
due to the necessary difference in steam lap and lead at the bottom
as compared with the top.

NOTE.— The sum of the steam lap and lead is the same top and bottom, there-
fore what is gained in lead at the bottom end is lost in steam lap ; this also propor-
tionally alters the maximum port opening.

Application. — Stroke, 42 inches x 7 = 29-4 inches cut-off on down

stroke,

(A.) First set off to a small scale (say i inch to i foot) the small
diagram of crank-pin circle and crosshead or piston travel as shown
in No. 49, proceeding as follows :

1. Set off vertically 42 inches by scale, then measure down from

the centre of this, or half stroke the connecting rod length of 7 feet
6 inches which gives the centre of shaft next with a radius of ;

21 inches (half stroke) set off the crank-pin travel circle. Now
measure down from the top of stroke 29-4 inches (shown by the inch
divisions from the 24-inch distance) and with the connecting rod
length of 7 feet 6 inches in the compasses set the needle point on the
crosshead centre and make a mark, F, on the crank-pin circle this :

mark F is the position of crank-pin centre at cut-off. Connect the

shaft centre and F, the crank-pin centre, which gives the crank angle
at the "cut-off" position.

2. To a scale of full size, or at least half size, set off the valve
travel circle of 7^ inches diameter, and with the lead radius of inch -^-

also set off an arc from the top diameter of the circle marked as L
now transfer the angle of the crank at cut-off from the small diagram
to the larger one, by describing a radius as at B, which is again

repeated on the large diagram at B, and the length between taken

in the compasses from the small diagram and measured off on the
large one as shown this gives the exact angle of the crank at cut-off,
:

which is carried out as shown to point 2 on the valve travel circle.

3. Draw a line from point 2 tangentially to the lead arc L, and

where it cuts the valve circle put in by hand a small locating circle,
also one at point 2 now bisect the line extending between points
;

I and 2, by either describing arcs as shown, or by trial with the

dividers, and draw out a line from the centre. We then find the
required steam lap and maximum port opening as measured, the
steam lap being 2yV inches, and the port opening ifV inches, the sum of
the two (2^-V+ii% inches) being, of course, equal to half the valve
2 50 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

travel, or 3I inches; finally describe a circle on the line as shown,

called the primary valve circle.

I2''

24"

36"

42'
 No. 50.— Vah
L = Lead ^ inch.

f, Crank Angle at Lead.

2. ,, „ Cut-off.

VerUal"' Notes and Sketches.

 No. 50-— Valve Diagram for Top.
L = Lea<i i incb. E= -1 inch Exhaust La;
. Crank Angle at Lead. 3, Crank Angle at
 Slide Valves, Piston Valves, Valve Data, &c. 251

top, and run out lines from the centre through the points intersected
on the primary valve circle the lines thus drawn give the crank
;

angle at exhaust opening, or " Release " (3), and exhaust closing, or
" Compression "
(4).

NOTE.— If the valve had neither plus nor minus exhaust lap, the dotted line
shown (drawn parallel to the line i. 2) would then give the crank angles at
exhaust opening and closing.

Points of Importance. — i. Notice that, "Port opening" + "Steam lap"

= Half travel.
2. The exhaust openings 3f + i = 4 inches, but as the actual port
width is less than this the opening is necessarily limited to the
port width.

3. No. I crank angle at lead opening (" Admission ").

., 2 „ ., Cut-off.
„ 3 „ „ exhaust opening (" Release ").

„ 4 „ „ ,, closing (" Compression ").

( From I to 2 steam is being admitted.

" ^ „ 3 „ . expanded
Therefore, \ exhausted,
'
) „ 3 „ 4 „ „
'
„ 4 „ I „ „ compressed.

Observe that in the vertical centre line the lead L is shown measured
between the steam lap curve and the primary valve circle, and this (if
the drawing is accurately done) will be exactly equal to the small
arc L at the top, in this case =| inch.

—
Release and Compression. To find how far the piston is from the
end of the stroke at " release " and " compression," transfer the angles
of the crank at positions 3 and 4 dack to the siiiall diagram from the
large one as shown in Sketch No. 51 (as described for B), then set off
the connecting rod length 7 feet 6 inches on the small diagram
upwards from point 3 and from point 4 to the centre line, at which
positions draw horizontal lines for the crosshead centres now set off ;

a few inches by scale from either end, and measure how many inches
are included from the crosshead centre line and end of stroke, which
will be the positions of release and compression required. Notice
that release occurs 5 inches from the bottom end of stroke, and
compression 4I inches from the top end of stroke.

(i5.) Referring to the data already given we find that the top steam
lap and lead = 2i^V + F = -TV inches, so that if the bottom lead is to
be \ inch, then '2x^ — \ = 2^^ inches steam lap at bottom, as the sum of
the two must be the same.
^52 Verbal" Notes and Sketches

-^ -'^ CLOSING

No. 51.
Application (Sketch No. 54).
I. As before, set off the valve travel circle 7 J inches diameter
either full size or half size, and set off the lead arc at the bottom
centre with -| inch radius in the compasses. Nowtake in a radius
of 2iV inches representing the steam lap at bottom, and describe an
 Slide Valves, Piston Valves, Valve Data, &c. 253

CUT-OFF.

No. 52.

arc from the centre of the circle as shown next draw a Hne tangential
;

to both lead and lap arcs, and where this cuts the valve travel circle in
points I and 2 it gives the crank angles at " lead " and " cut-off."
2. Transfer the angle B of crank at "cut-off" (position 2) from the
valve travel diagram back to the small diagram at F (Sketch 52), and
254 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches
'
II

0=r '^ OPENING

No. 53.

with the connecting rod length 7 feet 6 inches in the compasses, and
the needle point on position F, mark the centre line for the crosshead
centre as shown finally measure by the scale of the small diagram
;

how many inches are included between the bottom end of stroke and
the crosshead, which will give the up stroke cut-off, in this case
25.5 inches. The positions of " Release " and "Compression" can be
 y^
/

i V .i «

J3\/A

^ii-

I, Crank An
2.

'

Verbal ""
Notes and Sketches.
 No. 54,— Valve Diagram for Bottom.
L=:Lead i inch. E=-(-^ inch Exhaust LAp.

3, Crank Angle at Release.

4t M »t
Compressioo.

I n fact page «S4.

'
Verbal Notes and Sketches.
 Slide Valves, Piston Valves, Valve Data, c<:c. '55

located by the method described for the down stroke, and when
applied give a release of 4|| inches from top end of stroke and
compression of 5 inches from bottom end of stroke (Sketch 53).
3. Set off the bottom exhaust lap j inch on circle described on
the right half o{ the valve travel diameter and shown as E. Now
draw out crank lines at the intersection of this arc on the circle
mentioned, and the positions of crank angle at release 3, and com-
pression 4 will be found. As before described for the down stroke,
set off these angles back on the small diagram, measure up the con-
necting rod lengths, and the positions of" Release" and "Compression"
from the end of stroke can be measured as shown (Sketch 53).

No. 55.— Slide Valve.

For Valve Diagfram. Showing the required steam lap and exhaust lap top
and bottom as determined by the valve diagram.
NOTE. — Lining up a bottom steam lap and increases
slide valve decreases the
the top steam lap ; a piston valve, the reverse effects are obtained, the
but, if
bottom steam lap being increased and the top decreased. The total steam lap
remains constant in both cases.
18
 —

256 ''Verbal" Notes and Sketches

As before stated, release occurs 4I inches from end of stroke, and

5 inches from end of
compression stroke.

General. — The general valve data now work out as tabulated

below :

NOTE.— Half travel 3f inches - Bottom Steam lap 2h inches=iH inches

Bottom Port opening.

Observe that even with less steam lap on the bottom end of valve
than on the top the bottom or up stroke cut-off is earlier than the
down stroke. This is due to the angle formed by the connecting rod
and crank, and occurs in most cases in practice.

No. 56.— Keyseat Template.

For Valve Diagram.

"Open" and "Crossed" Eccentric Rods.

By this is understood the position of the eccentric rods when the
crank is on the bottom centre, as in running the rods open and cross
each other alternately all the time. For slide valves or outside steam
piston valves the rods are usually arranged as " open," but with inside
steam piston valves the rods are fitted " crossed " when the crank is
on the bottom centre. This is to obtain the full benefit of link expan-
 Slide Vah^es, Piston Valves, Valve Data, &c. 257

sion, as if the rods were arranged the reverse way the lead would be
diminished when h'nked up, and the range of expansion more limited,
as shown on diagram No. 58. To obtain similar effects with piston
valve gear of the inside steam type, as the motion of valve is reversed,
the fitting of the rods must be also reversed, so that crossed rods take
the place of open rods for the latter type of valve. The general effects
may be summarised as follows (see also page 21 1).
Effects of Linking up (Slide Valves).

Arrangement
of Eccentric Rods.
 —

258 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

Diagram for Gear Linked up.

To construct an approximate valve diagram showing the various
effects produced by shutting in the gear, proceed as follows :—

Method.
1. Measure the length of the eccentric rods from centre of pin on

quadrant to centre of pulley. Measure the distance between the

eccentric pulley centres and between the eccentric rod pins on link
bar (usually equal to three times valve travel).

2. Find a radius for the equivalent valve travel circle arc, by the
method devised by the late Mr Macfarlane Gray, and which reads
as follows :

A — Eccentric rod lengthx d istance between pulley s

A'
2 X distance between quadrant pins

Assuming, then, that for the case already described, the eccentric
rod length centre to centre is 96 inches, the distance between the
quadrant bar pins 22|- inches, the distance between the pulley centres
can be measured on the previous " full gear " diagram, or can be
measured direct on the new "linked up" diagram.
In sketch No. 58 it will be seen that the previous top diagram is
shown complete, but in dotted lines. On this the linked up diagram
can be filled in, and the points of difference, in " Lead," " Cut-off,"
" Release," and " Compression " can then be easily compared.

3. First draw a horizontal line across from E to C, and this

measured will be the required distance between the pulleys, which
in this case is 5^ inches.
Now apply the rule given to find the radius of the arc shown
connecting C and E.
Thus, Radius=:96in.x5-875in.^ .^^^^^^
2 X 22-5 in.

With a radius of \2\ inches in the compasses describe the arc as

shown.
4. Now suppose that the link expansion gear is shut in so that
the cut-off is -40 (40 per cent.) of the stroke, and that in this grade
the quadrant block occupies the position shown, that is, 5|- inches
from the pin on quadrant ; or exactly one-fourth of the total distance,
as 22-5 -^ 5-625 =4.
Now mark on point D
on the diagram arc in the same relative
position, that is, DE
= one-fourth of CE, and from the point draw in D
a centre line on which construct the " steam " circle shown in full lines,
then continue this line to the other side, and describe the "exhaust"
circle. The sum of the two circle diameters is equal to the linked-up
valve travel which in the present case measures 6 inches. To complete
the other points notice wh&re the steam lap arc, and small minus
 Slide Valves, Piston Valves, Valve Data, &c. 259

^ - - 22*i' - - -^

No. 57.— Quadrant and Eccentrics.

exhaust lap arc, intersect the circles described, and project radial
lines out to the valve travel circle for the crank angles to correspond.
If this is done carefully it will be found that all points now occur
sooner, and that the lead is increased from | in. to yg- in.
 —

26o "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

1. Crank at lead Full gear.

IB- )> >>
Linked up.
2. Crank at cut-off Full gear.
2B. „ „ Linked np.
3. Crank at release Full gear.
3^' >) " Linked up.
4. Crank at compression Full gear.
4B. „ n Linked up.

If the various crank angles are now transferred back to the small
scale engine stroke diagram, as described previously, the new positions
of release, compression, &c., can be determined.
In the example shown the Hnked-up data work out as follows :

Valve Data (Linked up).

Valve Travel,
6 in.
 c

Of
—
4b

sro :

VALVE
TRAVEL
7 2

S V

o>

SB'
5'

IB
"
C^^vp iru&{& \
MO
 4b»'

VALVE
TRAVEL
7''2"

No. 58.—Valve Diagram showing Effects of Linking Up.

1, Crank angle at "'lead," full gear. 3, Crank angle at "release," full gear.
IB. ., ,. ., linked up. 3B, ,, linked up.
2, Crank angle at "cut-off," fullgear. 4, Crank angle at • compression," full gear.
2B. „ » „ linked up. 4B, .. ., „ linked up.
 Slide Valves, Piston Valves, Valve Data, &c. 261

No. 59.— Construction to find Valve Travel.

No. 60. — Bellis and Morcom High Speed Compound Engine.

 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches
262

or inside edges, and the L.P. valve receives steam at the ends or
outside edges, so that the exhaust of the H.P. valve being over the
ends serves as the admission steam for the L.P. valve, the exhaust
of the L.P. valve opens up to the exhaust casing and exhaust pipe
to the condenser. Notice that the valves are hollow cast to allow of
steam flow from end to end.
The sketch and following data of valve setting for this type of
engine are taken from the Mechanical ^Fi!7r/(f/ of September 1910.

Data for Bellis and Morcom Engine.

Cylinders, 10 inches diameter and 17 inches diameter; stroke, 9 inches;
piston valves, 6| inches diameter ; revolutions, 400.

Valve Travel, 2% Inches.

 slide Valves, Piston Valves, Valve Data, Sec. 263

Effects of Link Adjustments on I. H.P.

No.
 SECTION V.

GENERAL NOTES AND DESCRIPTIONS.

The Author is indebted to the Editor of the Scottish Bankers''
Magazine for permission to reproduce the following article on the
Manufacture of Metals from the pages of that journal.

Manufacture of Iron and Steel.

Sources. —Native iron, as it is called, possessing similar properties to
that extracted from ores, has been found in Greenland and elsewhere
in small quantities, but for practical purposes it is from the ores we
derive our iron supply. These are widely distributed throughout the
earth, and vary considerably in their characteristics and purity. The
chief kinds in use are (i) the Magnetic (loadstone or black oxide),
which is the richest of all, containing as much as up to over 70 per
cent, of iron, A
high class iron is made from this ore in conjunction
with charcoal in Sweden. (2) Red Hcsmatite, which contains up to
60 per cent, of iron. This ore is plentiful in the district of West
Cumberland and North Lancashire, and also in the north of Spain.
(3) Brozvn Hcematite, which is similar to the red, and from which the
bulk of the French and German iron is made. And (4) the carbonates
of iron, called spathic when comparatively pure, and also blackband
and clayband ironstone. This ore contains from 37 to 48 per cent.
of iron. It has the advantage of being found usually along with
coal measures ; and it has been the staple ore of Scotland. Great
deposits also exist in the Cleveland district, but not of equal quality.

The —
Blast Furnace. The reducing or extraction of the ore is
effected by smelting in a blast furnace. In the case of the poorer ores
where more impurities are present, calcining or roasting may be a
preliminary operation. The effect of this is to get rid of carbonic
acid, water, and such other undesirable ingredients which are volatile,
and so render the material more suitable for treatment in the blast
furnace.
Blast furnaces, fairly familiar objects, are large, circular, tower-like
264
 General Notes and Descriptions 265

erections. The interior, which is not straight in form but contracts

towards top and bottom, is lined with refractory fire-brick and ganister
(a very refractory siliceous rock); around this is an annular space or
ring filled with loose material to allow of expansion, and the outer
wall of masonry is enclosed in iron sheathing strongly bound together.
The furnaces range from 40 feet or so to 100 feet, and even more, in
height, with internal capacity of 500 to 25,000 cubic feet or over. The
modern furnaces are the highest, but it has been found that practical
difficulties in working counterbalance the advantages of greater height
when carried beyond a certain point. One advantage of the higher
furnace is to render previous calcining of the ore less necessary, the
same effect being accomplished in the upper part of the furnace. At
the top of the furnace is a gallery or platform from whence the charge
is admitted. The mouth of the furnace is closed by means of a large
cone, which can be lowered by a chain when charge is being admitted,
and then closed again. The closed top is a modern advance.
Formerly the mouth was open and the great, lurid flames belching
out made the blast furnace a picturesque feature of the district where
it was erected. Many will remember the time when " Dixon's
blazes," as they were familiarly called, formed a landmark in
Glasgow and when shipmasters on the Ayrshire coast could shape
;

their course by the glare of the Ardeer furnaces. But the old order
changes, and the picturesque has to give way to the practical.
The closed tops came into being when the gases generated in the
blast furnace were utilised with resulting efficiency and economy.
By-products have also become a feature of present-day practice.
With the utilising of the gases and slag, recovery of ammonia, and
so on, a combination of iron and chemical work is now common.

The Charge. — The charge consists of fuel, ore, and flux. The
first is commonlycoke, but may also be coal or a combination of
both and charcoal is mostly used in Sweden, where coal does not
;

abound. The ores, as has been said, vary considerably. The flux is
commonly limestone, although other agents are also used. It is
introduced in consequence of the impurities remaining in the ore. It
combines with the silica and other prejudicial matter, and forms a slag
or cinder separated from the iron. Astrong blast of air is introduced
through piping surrounded by water tuyeres (outer casings). Power-
ful blowing engines force the blast into furnace and through the
charge therein. The water circulating through the tuyeres serves to
cool the inlet where the heat becomes intense, and might cause
trouble by fusing the parts. At one time a cold blast was used, and
another of the most important modern improvements was the inven-
tion and use of the hot blast by Neilson of Dundy van. By heating
the air before its admission into the furnace great efficiency and
economy of working were attained. Various forms of heating stoves
have been devised, and these are now usually fired by the escaping
blast furnace gases.
266 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

Pig-iron.
The proportions of fuel and flux are so far determined by the
nature of the ore used, and there are modifications of appHances and
methods according to varying circumstances and requirements. The
close tops and greater height of the furnaces have led to thinner walls
and iron casings. As the charge becomes affected by the intense
heat, chemical and other changes take place, impurities being taken
up by the flux, though some others partially remain, as sulphur,
phosphorus, and carbon. After these changes fusion speedily ensues,
and the molten iron falls to the bottom, the slag floating on the top,
while other waste elements escape in the form of gases. Once started,
a blast furnace may be kept in operation for years. At the bottom
of the furnace is an aperture called a tapping-hole, kept closed until
the melting of the iron is completed. A large bed of sand is formed
in front of the furnaces in which channels are made with smaller
furrows branching off from them. These are called sows and pigs
respectively, whence the term pig-iron. The tap-hole being opened,
the melted iron runs out like a stream of liquid fire, flows down the
large furrows into the smaller ones, where, on cooling, it assumes the
familiar form of the oblong bars called pig-iron. The cinder or slag
is drawn off over a dam at a higher level, independent of the iron.
The pig-iron thus produced is of different grades, the fracture dis-
closing divergencies of character and quality. The colour varies,
ranging from grey to white, and the degree of hardness varies corre-
spondingly. Grey is the softest, running through the mottled to the
whitest, which is also the hardest. The quality is distinguished by
numbers, beginning with No. i, and these numbers also indicate the
suitability of the iron for further uses, all not being alike adapted for
the same purposes. The grey iron is most suitable for foundry
purposes, the white for forging.

—
Castings. We now arrive at the parting of the ways, so to speak
The pig (or cast) iron may be applied, broadly speaking, in two ways.
It may be employed for the producing of castings, or it may be con-
verted into malleable iron or steel. Although large and rough
castings might be made direct from the blast furnace, and malleable
iron direct from the ore, these methods have been discarded, as it is
more advantageous to make both indirectly from the pig-iron.
The grey or softer pig-iron, as has been said, is most suitable for
castings. But as there is great variety in the size, shape, intricacy,
and purpose of castings, ranging from, say, a boot protector to a large
steam-engine cylinder, mixture and manipulation of the different
brands of iron are often required. For example, the bottom of a pan
mill subject to constant grinding and heavy pressure, naturally
^

requires to be of very hard metal whereas, an ornamental article

;

showing design will require fluid and easily running metal. Again,
castings which have to be machined— that is, turned, planed, drilled.
 General Notes and Descriptions 267

&c., cannot be economically treated if too hard, and yet generally

require toughness and strength.

The Foundry. — The castings are produced in the foundry, to which

the pig-iron conveyed and there it first undergoes a process some-
is ;

what analogous to that already described. The iron, along with the
fuel and flux, is remelted in a furnace called a cupola, and drawn off
at a tap-hole, the slag being afterwards thrown down through an
aperture at bottom. Frequently scrap iron (old castings broken up)
is used along with the pig-iron. Obviously the additional refining
gives purer and better metal, but all is regulated very much by the
purpose for which the castings are required. The metal runs from
the tap-hole into a large iron ladle lined internally with fire-clay, and
for pouring the metal into the lesser moulds small hand ladles are used.
The castings may be made in sand or loam moulds. Patterns or
models of the articles required have, mostly, to be made in the first
instance, and may be of stucco, wood, or iron, but generally the last
when many articles are required, as it stands tear and wear better,
and lasts longer. The sand is enclosed in an iron frame or box,
made in halves and hinged and the patterns of the article required,
;

which may be simple or complicated and in one or more pieces, are

embedded in the sand so as to form an exact mould. The patterns
are then withdrawn and the box closed, an aperture being left for
pouring in the metal, and small holes pierced to allow the escape of
air and gases. When sufficiently cool the castings are removed from
—
the boxes and dressed that is, cleaned and filed.
Loam is a mixture, such as sand, clay, and horse manure, faced
with blacking or coal dust, and built in a pit or brick-work.
Appliances called loam boards are used in forming the moulds, and
the skill of the moulder is called into requisition in building these
together. For water and gas pipes, iron moulds coated with plumbago
are now sometimes used. More expensive to begin with, they save
afterwards, seeing they are not destroyed at each casting like sand
or loam moulds.
What are called chilled (hardened) castings are made in metal
or mixed metal and sand moulds, in which the melted iron cools
rapidly and becomes extremely hard. This does for shot, &c. Cast
iron is distinguished by its granular formation, which can be seen
on fracture, its brittleness, and its hardness. It cannot be welded or
riveted, and is not pliable. So-called malleable castings are of the
opposite kind from the chilled, and are soft and to a certain extent
pliable. For this process the articles are placed in powdered haematite
ore or similar preparation, packed in chests, heated in a furnace for
several days, and allowed slowly to cool until annealed.

Malleable Iron.
For the manufacture of malleable or wrought iron a different
process is employed. Malleable iron, as the name implies, is ductile
268 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

and fibrous. It is softer than cast iron and can be bent, twisted,
welded, and riveted. The difference between it and cast iron is
principally due to the larger proportion of carbon in the latter. It

has been described as free from carbon, but this is hardly correct,
as usually it contains a very small percentage of that element.

—
Puddling Furnace. The first step is to treat the pig-iron in a
—
puddling furnace. This is of the reverberatory type that is, one
where the fuel and the iron do not come into contact as in the open
and closed hearth furnaces. As usual, the inner lining of the furnace
is of a refractory material encased in strong iron outer sheathing.

The bed or hearth is divided into two parts by a low wall or bridge,
the fuel being placed in one and the charge of pig-iron in the other.
The flame passes over the bridge against the roof, which is so shaped
as to reverberate or throw it down in a fierce heat upon the iron and
then pass on to the flue. The furnace may hold a charge of about
4 cwt. of metal, and is worked by two men, a fore and an under
hand. When partially heated the furnace is fettled —
that is, plastered
with composition embodying oxide of iron in the form of haematite
made into paste with water, or else of slag from previous meltings,
which comes in cheaper. Lumps of metal are thrown in, the fire
is then raised, and by means of long iron bars (changed as required)
the puddlers, in turn, keep working or stirring and distributing the
metal. During melting the iron is decarbonised (divested of the
carbon remaining in the pig-iron) and various other impurities
removed. Before complete fusion the mass becomes of a pasty
consistency, and is well " rabbled " or distributed by the puddlers.
When melted it seethes and bubbles, and shortly afterwards begins
to thicken, the iron separating from the impurities unites in solid
pieces which gradually become welded together, while the waste
or slag is run off in liquid form. It will be obvious that the process
of puddling is a very exhausting one to the men engaged in it, and
means of accomplishing the required work by mechanical action have
been devised. These need not be described, as the object is the
same whether manual labour or machinery be the method employed.
Besides the mechanical contrivances for puddling, experiments have
been made in the opposite direction by constructing rotary furnaces
actuated by machinery. These have not, however, displaced the
stationary furnaces.
The mass of iron having combined, is now removed from the
furnace, and for convenience of handling is divided into parts or
balls, and at once taken to a steam hammer to be beaten. Thereafter
the balls can again be united and hammered into shape. During
these operations the waste or slag is being further pressed out. The
next stage is to convey the iron to the roughing or cogging mills
with rolls of large diameter through which it is passed, the openings
between the rolls being gradually reduced. The iron is thus con-
verted into slabs, while it is also being additionally cleansed. By
 General Notes and Descriptions 269

reheating and rerolling the quality can be improved up to a certain

point, but beyond that harm results from burning, &c. The final
step is the passing of the wrought iron through the rolling-mills
with rollers having sections of the different forms required. These
mills are massive in construction, and driven by powerful steam-
engines. The billets are passed backwards and forwards through
the rolls — —
the mills being reversible and the rollers brought closer
until the desired sizes and shapes are obtained. These are principally
sheets, plates, round, square, and flat bars, angles, and other sections.
The quality of the iron is denoted (after the puddled bars) as
—
common, best, best best, and treble, the superior quality being the
result of the reheating and rolling of the previous grade. The
qualities of different works, however, vary. There are some special
—
brands such as Lowmoor and the products of other Yorkshire
—
works of a high class, where the results are dependent on special
methods and local advantages as regards fuel and ore.

Steel.
Steel a material of valuable and unique properties.
is It may be
extremely hard, or soft enough to be bent, twisted, hammered, or
drawn out to the thinnest sheet or finest wire. It can be so hard
as to cut any other metal or material and to scratch glass, or it may
be elastic to a degree.
It has been described as a metal intermediate between cast and
wrought iron as to the carbon it contains. But this, correct enough
as far as it goes, is somewhat misleading, as it does not take all
considerations into account. According to the amount of carbon
it contains, steel is harder or softer. According, also, to the propor-
tion of carbon it contains, the tensile breaking strain and the limit
of elongation vary. The tensile breaking strain will range from
20 to as much as 80 tons per square inch, or more if the steel be
wire-drawn.

—
Cementation Process. The highest quality of steel is made
by what is termed the cementation process. The best puddled
wrought-iron bars, preferably Swedish charcoal iron, are used. The
cementing furnace is of fire-brick, circular or rectangular in form,
having a wide, conical top and dome-like chimney. The fireplace
is in the centre at the bottom, with door at each end for firing.
On each side, supported above it, are pots or chests, so arranged
that the flames pass underneath and all around, rising against the
arched top, which, as it becomes heated, radiates down on the pots.
These are perhaps 1 5 feet long or more, and 3 feet deep or thereby,
A manhole at each end permits of charging the pots or converters,
but these are closed during the working. A layer of charcoal is first
deposited on the bottom of the pots, then a layer of bars with spaces
between also filled with charcoal, and so on in alternate layers.
270 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

The charcoal is partly fresh and partly previously used. Then a

plaster of cement (used charcoal and ground waste) is applied to
the top, and the whole is sealed with clay to exclude air. The
charge will range from 12 to 18 tons, according to size of furnace,
and may even reach 30 tons. One or two of the bars are longer
than the others and project outside for testing purposes. The
furnace heated for eight or ten days, when a testing-bar is with-
is
drawn and examined to see if the material has been sufficiently

carbonised. Afterwards the furnace is left for a day or two to cool

down gradually. It will be found that the carbon is not uniformly
distributed through the bars, but is greatest at the surface, decreasing
as the centre is reached. The skin is raised in blisters (blister steel).
If not intended to go through the further crucible process, the bars
are then sheared into short lengths, bound together in bundles,
powdered with mixture of clay or sand, heated to welding-point,
and then subjected, while in a plastic state, to rapid action of a
tilting-hammer or rolling-mill till welded. This gives what is called
sijigle shear steel. By repeating the process double shear steel is
obtained, and so on. This shear steel is of cheaper description
than the crucible steel, and serves for shear blades, certain kinds
of knives, &c.

Crucibles. —
For a finer steel under same process, to attain uni-
formity, the bars after being withdrawn from the furnace are remelted
and mixed. This is done in crucibles. What is called the melting-
house varies somewhat in arrangement, as light or heavy ingots are
to be produced. The melting furnaces form a series of rectangular
chambers, separated by thin brick partitions, the tops being level
with floor of house, while the fireplace and ashpit are at bottom,
accessible from underground passages running in front of them.
Each hole or chamber is lined with ground ganister (a refractory
siliceous rock), leaving an opening sufficient to hold two pots or
crucibles resting on stands placed over the fire-bars. Crucibles differ
in dimensions, but a common size is 18 inches high by 9 inches
diameter. They are made of a mixture principally of fire-clay, with
added coke dust, old ground pots, and for some purposes plumbago.
They have to be very carefully made, and are dried, annealed, and
fitted with lids before use. The first melting will take four or five
hours for complete fusion, but subsequent meltings about half that
time in consequence of the previous heat being maintained. The
molten steel is poured from the crucibles into ladles with tap-holes
for discharging into the ingot moulds, or for small moulds with hand
ladles. The crucibles in good condition are at once replaced in the
furnace for a second heat. Great care has to be exercised throughout
in order to secure sound ingots. It will be obvious that the specially
high class of iron used and the slow method makes this description
of steel costly, but on the other hand there is nothing that can take
its place.
 General Notes and Descriptions 271

Tempered Steel. — From the high class steel are made the various
tools for hand and machine use to operate on metal, wood, and
stone,
also cutlery, surgical instruments, swords, springs of various kinds,
saws, &c. To render it suitable for these varied uses it has to be
—
tempered a distinctive feature of steel. When heated and then
suddenly cooled, and afterwards reheated to the given temperature
required, it becomes available for the particular service to which it
has to be applied. The cooling is usually efifected by plunging in
water. But if hardened and tempered in oil a somewhat greater
toughness, more
elastic limit, and tensile strength are the result.
Workmen have a simple means of ascertaining the temperature by
the colours which the steel assumes at the different stages of heating.
These may be described as follows pale straw, straw, yellow, brown,
:

purple, bright blue, deep blue, according as the temperature increases.

Bessemer Process. —
There were many purposes where a class of
steel, not necessarily possessing the properties of the crucible product,
would be of immense advantage, and this led to research and experi-
ment. On the assumption that steel was a material containing a
proportion of carbon intermediate between cast and wrought iron, the
inference followed that a mixture of these would give steel, and this
method was tried but without success. The fact overlooked was that
cast iron contained impurities (in particular sulphur and phosphorus)
in a degree sufficient to render it useless for steel making. There
was also a practical difficulty in regulating the exact proportion of
carbon necessary. The Bessemer process, however, accomplished
the purpose, supplanting in great measure the use of malleable iron
for many purposes, particularly rails and other railway material,
forgings, plates, and various sections for structural work. The first
step in success was by using selected pig-iron, containing very little
of the objectionable elements, and the addition of spiegeleisen also
exercised a purifying effect. It was found that by first eliminating
all the carbon and then adding the spiegeleisen (a particular pig-
iron containing a considerable and known amount of carbon) or
ferro-manganese in proper proportion, the difficulties were overcome.
Finally, Thomas and Gilchrist devised their method of lining the
converter with a refractory basic material containing lime and
magnesia. These agents having an affinity for phosphorus absorbed
this impurity, and thus the bulk of the impurities being removed,
ordinary pig-iron could be utilised.
The essential feature of the process is the forcing of a current
of air through melted pig-iron in a special vessel named the con-
verter. The original Bessemer method is called the acid process,
because of the converter being lined with siliceous (ganister) material.
The Bessemer converter is an iron vessel, and may contain from
5 to 15 tons, lined as usual with refractory material, the bottom
being perforated with holes through which a blast of air is conveyed.
It is mounted on axles which allow of its being swivelled round one ;

19
272 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

of these being hollow is utilised to admit the blast. The converter

after being heated is brought to a horizontal position, giving access
to the mouth. Melted pig-iron is poured in, the blast turned on, and
the converter raised to its vertical position. The blast is sufficiently
strong to counteract the weight of the charge, so that the metal does
not run down through the perforations. The air is forced through
the molten metal, burning up the carbon, and a kind of fairy fountain
effect is setup by the flames, spray, and colour which ensue, while,
to paraphrase Tennyson, " The blast is roaring and blowing." The
near exhaustion of the carbon is indicated by the waning of the
flames. The converter is once more brought to the horizontal
position, while the melted spiegeleisen is added in the proportion
required to give the necessary amount of carbon, and then reversed.
The mixing of the metals causes at first a violent agitation. Alto-
gether about twenty minutes is occupied in converting, say, 10 tons
of hsematite pig-iron into steel. The temperature at the close of the
blast is said to reach 3250" Fahr.
It will be readily understood that the intense heat generated in
all these smelting operations, together with the corrosive action of
the slags, necessitates the use of materials for lining the different
furnaces capable of withstanding as far as possible the destructive
effect of these agents — hence the frequent allusions to refractory
linings. For the most part special deposits of fire-clay and of siliceous
or flinty rock ground to form ganister have been found best adapted
for the purpose.

—
Basic Process. The distinctive feature of what is called the basic
process of producing the steel —
as distinguished from the original
acid Bessemer process — is the substitution of a basic lining of
magnesian lime for the coating of the converter instead of the acid
ganister. As already noted, the basic material extracts the phosphorus
from the iron, which cannot be done by the ordinary process, and so
renders it possible to use Cleveland and other lower class iron in
the making of steel. With some modifications the processes and
appliances are, in general, similar to those already described.
The amount of slag produced in the basic process is much larger
than in the other, but is of a different character, and as it contains a
considerable proportion of calcium phosphates useful for fertilising
land, it is employed after suitable treatment for this purpose. Apart
from the capability of using the inferior iron by the basic method,
the large quantity of material which can be handled at a time, the
rapidity of the conversion, and the comparative absence of manual
labour combine to render the Bessemer process of steel making one
of the most important of the present day, and great quantities of
material are turned out for the purposes already named.

Siemens- Martin Process. — Another succe.ssful method largely in

'ise is the Siemens-Martin, by which a mild steel with a low percent-
 '

General Notes and Descriptions 273

age of carbon, approximating to wrought iron, is obtained. .\ batii

of melted pig-iron of high quality is first made, and to this there is
gradually added wrought iron and steel scrap in small quantities at
a time. Impurities are removed during the melting, and the presence
of the scrap already refined by the previous puddling gives very good
results. Spiegeleisen is added to supply the desired amount of
carbon, as in the Bessemer process. The furnace employed is
generally a Siemens Regenerative Gas Furnace.
The roof and sides are of refractory silica or brickwork, and the
bed (of considerable depth) of sand of a like nature. There are
doors for introducing the charge and also for stirring and mixing.
Externally it is encased in iron plates. The regenerative chambers
are built underneath the furnace, with spaces between. The gas is
produced in separate furnaces, of which there are several patterns.
The gas and air necessary for combustion, ascending through one set
of regenerators, are admitted by separate valves through portholes
into the furnace hearth. The furnace having been already heated,
an intense heat and volume of flames soon ensue. The hot air and
gas enter at one end of furnace, and the flames and waste gas
pass out through ports at the other end down to the other set of
regenerators, and thence to chimney. There are means for reversing
this cycle, so that a constant heat is maintained. Different kinds of
gases are used, and in America natural gas is sometimes employed.
As much as 50 tons of metal can be treated at one operation, or
it may be only a few tons, according to the size of furnace. The
proportions of pig-iron and scrap vary according to conditions and
requirements and the melting of a lo-ton charge will occupy three
;

and a half to four hours. A small sample is ladled out to see if the
desired degree of decarbonisation (removal of the carbon) is reached,
then the spiegeleisen or ferro-manganese is added, and these quickly
melting, the tap-hole can be opened, and the steel flows out into a
large ladle with a stopper in bottom, and thence is discharged into
the moulds. In order to ensure soundness in the ingots several
devices are used, principal among these being the addition of some
alloy at the end of the melting and the compression of the steel while
in the fluid state.

Siemens Process. — In the Siemens process, besides the pig-iron

and scrap used in the Siemens-Martin method, rich haematite ores
are introduced, and somewhat different chemical reactions take place,
but the working arrangements do not differ much, though longer
time is required for fusion. If pig-iron of a lower class with many
impurities be used, then the sand-bed of the furnace must be replaced
by a basic material, as in the Bessemer converter.
There are also some important alloys used in the manufacture
of steel. For instance, nickel alloyed with steel intensifies its hard-
ness, while it can be rolled or hammered to advantage. Harveyised
nickel steel is much used for armour-plates. Chromium is also used
2/4
'*
Verbal " Notes and Sketches

as an alloy. imparts greater strength, toughness, and ductility.

It
It is employed the production of armour-plates, and also of
in
projectiles, conferring on the latter the property of keeping intact
when striking steel plates at the highest velocity. In the making
of large and heavy forgings, whether in wrought iron or steel, besides
the steam hammers already alluded to, very powerful hydraulic
presses have been devised and come into use for shaping and
compressing.
It may be said that the great development of the machinery
and appliances for dealing with iron and steel in recent years, and
the developments in the treatment of these materials themselves,
together with the reciprocal interaction of these two factors, have
made possible advances unthought of even at the beginning of the
present generation. It is difficult to forecast what further progress
may be in store in the future.
—
Strength and Composition. The following table gives the average
tensileand crushing strengths of Cast Iron, Wrought Iron, Mild Steel,
Nickel Steel, and Hard Steel, also the per cent, proportion of Carbon,
&c., in each.

Manganese,
Tensile Crushing Carbon.
Silicon, j^.j^j.^,
Metal.
Strength. Strength. rhospliorus.
Sulphur, &c.

Tons per Sq. In. Tons per Sq. In. I'ercent. Percent. 'Percent.
Cast Iron -
7 45 3-5
Wrought Iron 20 16
Mild Steel - 28 to 30 22 -16
Nickel Steel I

40 •3 3-5
Hard Tool Steel '

50 100 I

I -I

Alloys.

Alloy,
 —

General Notes and Descriptions 275

Properties of Metals and Alloys.

Cast Iron - Can be cast.
Wrought Iron „ forged, welded.
Mild Steel ,, forged, welded.
Nickel Steel ,,
forged, tempered, cast.
Hard Steel ,, forged, tempered, cast.
Brass „ cast.
Naval Brass „ cast, rolled, forged (hot).
Muntz Metal „ cast, rolled, forged (hot).
Gun-metal „ cast, rolled.
Phosphor Bronze ,, cast, rolled.
Babbit's White Metal ,, cast,
Parson's White Metal cast.

Composition of Steel.
The following extract from Greenwood's work on steel and iron
gives the average composition of various steels :
 —

2/6 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

Tempering Steel.
In tempering a piece of steel, as for example, a chisel, the tool is
first heated to a cherry red and the point of it dipped into water ; if
the metal be then rubbed with a piece of stone, the various colours
will appear as the heat travels along to the point. When the required
tint shows, the tool must be plunged into cold water and kept there
until cold, and the temper will be fixed.
The following are the colours and corresponding temperatures
required in tempering different articles:

Article.
 General Notes and Descriptions 2/7

Brazing:.
Brazing is hard soldering, and consists of the joining together of
parts made of copper or brass, such as, for example, a brass flange
to a copper pipe.
The pieces to be joined are first carefully cleaned, then fitted in
place and clamped together in the required position, and, after they
have been covered over with spelter (composed of one part copper
and one part zinc), heat is applied by means of a charcoal fire, and
the spelter runs into the spaces of the joint. Borax is sprinkled over
the parts as a flux to make the spelter run easily. After cooling, the
spelter sets hard and the parts are then firmly soldered together.
—
NOTE. Soft solder is made up of equal parts of tin and lead, resin or spirits
of salts being employed as a flux.

Welding.
In welding, two pieces of metal are joined by being first heated to
about 1600° Fahr. (white heat) and then hammered together.
The ends to be joined require to be scarfed or tapered away at an
angle, and before putting the two surfaces together sand (if iron) or
borax (if steel) is sprinkled over them as a flux, and the hammering
proceeded with. It is important that the two pieces be heated to as
nearly the same temperature as possible before joining.
NOTE. — The flux (sand or borax) acts to clean the surfaces of the magnetic
oxide which forms on the heated surfaces, and which would otherwise prevent
perfect adhesion.

Strength of Materials.
Tensile strength of nickel 34 tons per square inch.
steel,

,, ,,
boiler steel, 28 ,, „
,, ,, wrought iron, 20 ,, „
„ ,,
Muntz metal, 20 ,, „
„ ,,
brass, 12 „ „
„ „ copper, 12 „
„ cast iron, 7

NOTE. — Nickel steel is mild steel with about 3-2 per cent, of nickel added.

Crushing Strengths.
Crushing strength of hard steel, 100 tons per square inch.
„ „ cast iron, 40 „ ,,

„ ,,
wrought iron, 16 ,, ,,

Alloys.
An alloy is a combination of two or more metals.
Brass consists of about 2 parts of copper and i part of zinc.
Muntz Metal consists of about 3 parts of copper and 2 parts
of zinc.
White Metal consists of about 84 per cent, of tin, and the
remainder of copper and antimony.
NOTE.— White metal melts ^t about 600° Fahr,
 —

278 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

Stresses on Various Parts.

Boilers.
On the stays the stress is tensile. On the shell plates the stress is
tensile. On the furnace the stress is compression. On the tubes the
stress is compression. On the stay tubes the stress is compression and
tensile. On the back tube plates the stress is compression. On the
combustion chamber dogs the stress is compression on top edge and
tensile on bottom edge. On the rivets the stress is shearing.
Engines.
On the shafting the stress is torsion, but the tail end shaft has also
a bending stress due to the propeller weight outside of the stern tube.
On the shafting from the thrust shaft aft there is an end com-
pressive stress going ahead, and a tensile stress going astern.
On the crank-shaft there are also bending and crushing stresses
combined with torsion.
For these reasons the tail shaft and shaft crank are usually made
a little larger in diameter than the tunnel shafting (about i inch).
Coupling bolts have a shearing stress. Crank webs and pump
levers have a bending stress.

Built Shafting. —
Instead of shrinking the webs on to the shaft, some
engineering firms force them on by hydraulic pressure, the ram
exerting a load of anything from 100 to 125 tons. The holes in the
webs are bored out a i&\\ thousandths less in diameter than the pin
or shaft, and for a shaft of, say, 14 inches diameter, the difference
would amount to y^w iiich, which is just under /^ inch.

Strength of Shafting.
The strength of a solid shaft varies as the cube of its diameter,
therefore, thecomparative strength of two shafts of, say, 8 inches
diameter and 10 inches diameter will be
Dameterio' _, . ,
= Ratio 0/ strengths = as 1-95.
Diameter- "8"^
i :

A hollow shaft is stronger than a solid one of the same

sectional area, as, the diameter being greater, the leverage of the
power acting to twist it is less in proportion.
In addition to this, the removal of the central core of metal
reduces the risks of flaws, which often develop at the centre and then
extend outwards. Internal inspection for flaws is also to some
degree possible.
NOTE.— The torsional stress is o at the centre of a shaft, and increases from that
point out to the circumference the mean stress may therefore be taken as acting at a
;

leveraere of half of the shaft radius, or one-fourth of the shaft diameter.

The strength of a hollow shaft varies as

D^ - tf ^ D = outer diameter.
D </ = inner diameter.
 General Notes and Descriptions 279

A shaft will stand twice as much torsion stress as bending stress,

the Constant ior torsion being 5-1, and for bending io-2.

Rule (Torsion). —
5-1 Load Crank Length - Torsional Stress per square inch > Shaft'.

Therefore,
^
A- 1 X Load Crank Lengfth
X ^. ^,
.
\'
/ ~ -
r"r5T
Torsional Stress
Diameter of Shaft,
, ,

S-i X Load X
"Shaft Diameter^
Crank Length
" = ^Torsional . . ^
Stress.

NOTE.— For Torsional Stress the maximum Load may be taken as approrxi-
mately equal to that on the piston, or,
Piston area ; Pressure -Load.

Rule (Bending). —
10-2 X Load X Length = Bending Stress x Shaft^.

Twisting Moment (T.M.) = Crank Length x pounds load on pin.

Bending Moment ( B. M.) = Length x pounds Load.

Example. —
Calculate the bending stress per square inch on a
tailend shaft 12 inches diameter, distance from stern post to centre of
propeller boss 30 inches, weight of propeller 10 tons. Also express
the Bending Moment in inch-pounds.
Then, io-2x B.M. = </^ x stress,

^°-^",f-^- ^stress,

B.M. =30 inches X 10 X 2240 - 672000 inch-pounds.

^°'^ X 07^00 -
Stress - gQ66 155. per square inch.

Power and Revolutions.

For a given power the higher the revolution speed the less the
diameter of shaft required, as the stress decreases with the speed.
To find the diameter of shaft necessary for a certain length of
crank and piston load (allowing 7000 lbs. as the safe torsional stress).

Rule.
5-1 X Load X Crank Leneiii
8_ _ ^. , ^,
:/'P Diameter
,
of Shaft.
7000

NOTE. —The above rule requires the extraction of the cube root, as shown by
the sign.

Torsional Stress on Shafts and Constant, 51. To prove that the —

strength of solid shafting depends on the cube of the diameter, and
to determine the origin of the Constant 51.
Explanation. — The shaft area is the shearing area resisting
 — ;;

28o "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

torsion,and the mean leverage is equal to one-half of the shaft radius,

or one-fourth of the shaft diameter, as the stress is o at shaft centre and
o-f Radius
maximum at the radius, therefore,
r
= mean ,
leverage, or,

which is the same thing, P^^"^^^^^ - mean leverage. If, then, we find
4
the shaft area, and multiply by the stress (8000 lbs. per square inch
for steel) and by the mean leverage, we obtain the resistatice to torsion
offered by the shaft metal.

Thus, Diameter- x 7854 x Stress x ^- Shearing Moment,

4
^. ,o ^-1416" oi Diameter =
or, Diameter- x ^ ^'' x Stress x
4 4
Diameter^ x 3-1416 x Stress x Diameter _
or,
4M
Diameter- x 3-1416 x Stress x Diameter _
or,
16

Diameter^ x 3-1416 x Stress _

or,
16

Notice that Diameter^ x Diameter = Diameter', also that instead of

we may say ^^'^- ^ which equal to -7854; it will thus be seen
•7854 is
4
that the strength varies as the " Diameter cubed."

D"' X 3-1416 X Stress

Again, Load x crank leverage = ^^
'>

Load x crank leverage^ Diameter^ x Stress

or, ;

3^1416
16
Load X rranW
crank leverage x 16 ^ p^ameter^ x
or, Stress
31416
or. Load x crank leverage x 5-1 = Diameter' x Stress

so that in dividing by ^ -
•^16 — , we invert it, and obtain
3-1416
;;, which

gives 5-1 Constant for torsion, and as the resistance to bending stress
is only half of this, then 5-1 x 2 = io-2 = Constant for bending stress.

Twisting Stresses and Tunnel Shaft Diameter. — The ratio of

piston travel to crank-pin travel per revolution is in the ratio of
2:3-1416, as during one revolution the piston travels through two
strokes and the crank-pin through a circle equal in diameter to the
stroke. The crank-pin has therefore more travel than the piston, and,
by the principle of work, what is gained in travel is lost in pressure,
so that the average pressure on the crank-pin is less than the average
pressure on the piston in the ratio of 3-1416 2. :
 ^ — —

General Notes and Descriptions 281

Example. — The stroke is 4 feet and the total mean pressure on

the piston 36000 lbs. F'ind the mean pressure on the crank-pin.

Then, 4 x 2 x 36000 = 4x3-i4i6xp,

4j<2 X 36000^3
and, g ij,g
4x3.1416

Mean Twisting Moment.

The mean twisting moment (T.M.) = Crank Length x Pounds
(LxP).
Therefore, T. M. - 24 inches ; 22918 - 550072 inch -pounds.

For one minute the equation will read as follows :

I. H. P. X 33000 X 12 inches - Crank Length x 2 x 3- 1416 x Pounds x Revs.

I-H. P. x 33000 x 12
Therefore, ^^^^^ Length x Pounds (T. M. ).
2 x 3-1416 x Revs.

Example. — I.H.P. 1,400, stroke 4 feet, and revolutions 62. Find

the mean T.M.
Then, 1400 x 33000 x 12 = 24 inches x 2 x 3-1416 x 62 x Pounds.

Therefore, T. M. - Moox^ssooox ^^ 12 ^
^^^ jg^ inch-pounds,
2x3-1416x62 ^

and, Pounds = 1423180 ^24 inches = 59298 lbs.

Notice that the Twisting Moment in inch-pounds divided by the

crank length in inches brings out the pounds applied at end of crank.

Maximum T.M.
The
foregoing onl)' takes into account the mean or av^erage T.M.,
and to allow for the usual cut-off and the varying effects of the crank
angle a constant of about i-2 is usually employed, so that
Maximum T.M. = Mean T.M. x 1-2.

Shaft Diameter.
From the foregoing principles the required diameter of tunnel
shaft for a three-crank engine can be calculated as follows :

C.
I.H.P. X 33000 X 12x5-1 X i-2 = <f X2X3-1416X Revs. X Stress.
C.
Therefore, d= 3 / LH.P. 33000 x 1 2x51x1-2.
x

V 2 X 3-1416 X Revs. X Stress

Allowing a stress of 7,000 lbs. per square inch the shaft diameter
will be equal to
/ 1400^3;
33000 X 12 X 5-1 i.2 ^iQ.y inches Diameter.
V 2x3. 1416 X 62 X 7000
 /

282 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

Board of Trade Rule for Tunnel Shafts.—

- 3 Crank Length x Absolute boiler pressure x L. P. '^

Sh ft D' ^

^?5x(2+h:p::)
C."
The boiler pressure ^i6o lbs. (gauge) and the cylinders 22 inches, 38 inches,
64 inches diameter.
Therefore, Shaft Diam. - ^Z ^421175^4^ = 11 inches (nearly).
\ i295x(2 + 64;\

It will be noticed that the Board of Trade Rule brings out a

slightly larger shaft than that previously calculated, which, of course,
allows for a larger margin of safety.

Combined Twisting and Bending Stresses. As the crank-shaft is —

subjected to a combined twisting and bending stress, both of which
require to be allowed for in estimating the size, the Board of Trade
Constant is 11 10 in place of 1295: for tunnel shafts this gives a
larger diameter of shaft, which also holds good for the thrust length ;

but the propeller shaft requires to be still larger, as the Constant for
this length is 943.

Board of Trade Shaft Constants.

(For Engines with Three Cranks at 120°.)
 General Notes and Descriptions 283

according to Lloyd's Rules for an engine with cylinders, 24, 40,

and 66 inches diameter. The stroke is 42 inches, and the boiler
pressure 190 lbs. The propeller diameter is 14 feet.
Tunnel shaft diameter - (-038 x 24 + -009 x 40 f -002 x 66 + -0165 x 42) x ViQO-
(•912 +360 I-I32 + -6930) X 574 ^20970 X 574 ^12-03 inches.

Say, i2]i inches diameter.

mches.^^Say^^^^^
Crank-shaft and thrust shaft diameter = 12- 125 x ^^^ {^273

Propeller shaft diameter^ 12-125 x ('•63 + -^^^^^

I2-I25XJ-63+ ^'°^ Wi2-i2Sx(-63 + -4i56)- I2-I25X I-0456-I2-68 inches.
\ 12* 125/
Say, 12J inches diameter.

NOTE. — Vp means extract cube root of boiler pressure.

14 feet diameter = 168 inches.

—
Example 2. Calculate the required diameter of tunnel shaft,
thrust shaft, crank-shaft, and propeller shaft for an engine with
cylinders of 27, 42, and y^ inches diameter, the stroke being 48 inches,
and the boiler pressure 180 lbs. per square inch. The diameter of
the propeller is 15 feet 6 inches, and the tail shaft is brass-lined from
end to end.
Then tunnel shaft diameter - (-038 x 27 f -009 x 42 4- -002 x 73 + -0165 x 48) x ViSo^
(1-026 + -378 + -146 + -792) X 5-64:=2-342 X 5-64-13-2 inches.
Say, 13^ inches diameter.
^3-9i2 mc^es^.
Crank-shaft and thrust shaft diameter = 13-25 x ?^= | ^.^^^-^^^

Propeller shaft diameter =

„,-,.
ij--^5
-^
/a,
I
•03xi86\
-oj-t-—
,

—— - I
r
^
13-25 < (-63 + -421) = 13-25 ^1051 = 13-92
Say, 14 inches diameter.
inches.

NOTE.— 15 feet 6 inches = 186 inches diameter of propeller.

Crank Angles.
Suppose we take five different engines, each to develop the same
I.H.P. No. I has one crank, No. 2 has two cranks at 90^ No. 3 has
three cranks at 120', No. 4 has four cranks at 90', and No. 5 has two

^A+
5001 HP 500.I.HP 500.1 HP 500 IHP
500 IHP

i +
CONSTANT CONSTANT CONSTAr.-V CONSTANT
'''"^V/T'*^
'^0
140 \04T 1110 lO^T

No. I.— Board of Trade Constants for Shafting.

284 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

cranks opposite each other then the accompanying sketch shows the
;

comparative diameter of shafts required in each case, and the

corresponding Board of Trade constants.
Observe that one crank and two cranks at 180^' require the same
diameter of shaft, the constant being the same. Also the two cranks
at right angles and the four cranks at right angles require the same
diameter of shaft.
The three-crank engine requires the smallest diameter of shaft, as
in this shaft arrangement of cranks the twisting stress on the shaft
is more evenly divided, and gives less variation than in any of the

other arrangements.

Flaws on Shafting.
Suppose that in a triple-expansion engine each cylinder develops
about 300 I.H.P. then between the H.P. crank-pin and the M.P.
;

crank-pin we have 300 horse-power on the shaft between the

;

M.P. crank-pin and the L.P. crank-pin we have 600 horse-power on

the shaft and between the L.P. crank-pin and the propeller we have
;

M p

LP H P

\^ VB \A
~>

No. 2. — Flaws on Crank Shafting.

900 horse-power on the shaft, as all the power effectively developed

travels along the shafting aft to the propeller, each engine successively
adding its share.
If the M.P. shaft shows a flaw at A, link up the M.P. gear, and
this will reduce the stress on the weak part, as less horse-power will
now be developed in the H.P. engine, and more in proportion in the
M.P. ; therefore less will be transmitted through the weak part of
the shaft.
If a flaw shows at B on the M.P. shaft, if possible turn that shaft
end for end, as this will give only half the stress on the weak part.
Shutting in the M.P. gear would still further reduce the stress, as
more power will now be developed in the M.P. and less in the H.P.
For a flaw at C on the L.P. shaft, as before, turn the shaft end
for end, and link up the L.P. gear, on the same principle as before.
If the H.P. shaft is a duplicate of the other two, in the event of
flaws appearing in either the M.P. or L.P. shafts, change the H.P.
shaft for either one which has the flaw, instead of doing as above
 General Notes and Descriptions 285

described, as the further forward the weak shaft is placed, the less
stress will there be on it.

Crank-Shaft Repairs.
The following description of crank-shaft repairs, supplied by John
M'Callum, Esq., are reprinted from the pages of hiternatio}uiL Marine
Engineering.

(i.) —
Loose Web. The crank-shaft had been kept under observa-
tion, as a certainamount of slackness had been noticed between the
shaft and the web. Later on, when at sea, knocking was heard, and
it was located in the loose web. The repair was effected by drilling
a number of holes round the end of the shaft, as shown in Fig. i, and
fitting taper screw pins, if inches diameter, in each hole, and screwing
them up as tightly as a key with a good leverage would accomplish.
if inches was the size of the largest screw tap on board.
Holes were drilled in the end of the shaft for about one-third of
its circumference, as shown in the figure the line of the holes being
;

arranged to leave h inch of metal between them and the edge of the
shaft. The holes were drilled 6 inches deep, and screwed with taper
tap only. Each hole and pin was finished, and the pin screwed up as

FiC Z
^
' j- mEm -

No. 3.— Repair for Loose Crank Web, &c.

far as it would go before commencing the next. The line of screwed

pins swelled the shaft in the neighbourhood of the holes, and tightened
the shaft in its web sufficiently to carry the ship to her home port
without further trouble. When arrived in port a new shaft end was
fitted to the existing web. The possibility of this being done, and so
avoiding the expense of new shaft and web, had been foreseen when
286 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

the method described above was adopted. If plugs had been fitted
interlocking the shaft and web, apart from the fact of their liability
to slack back when at work, a new shaft and a new web would have
been required on arrival home.

(2.) Flaw in Fillet. —

When at sea, a flaw was noticed in the fillet
of the low-pressure crank-pin, which though slight at first developed
very rapidly, necessitating a very careful repair, or stoppage of the
ship would have been necessary. The flaw extended over about one-
third of the circumference of the after fillet and underneath the pin,
"crank on top," as shown at B in F'ig. 3. In the writer's experience,
defects in crank-shafts, whether solid or built up, usually occur at this
point, and are mainly attributable to the faulty position of the thrust
block. Instead of the thrust being taken up by the shaft bearing, the
thrust block has to be adjusted, and a nip is thrown on the crank-pin
at the point B in Fig. 3, which usually results in a loose pin in
a built-U4) crank-shaft, or a flaw, as in this case, in a solid one. As
the runs between the ports were not long the engines were kept
running, but were well watched, while the engineers thought out
the difficult problem of repair and got the necessary appliances
ready.
The repair was effected by
fitting a pin through the crank, as
shown at A a spare main-bearing bolt with collar and nut,
in Fig. 3,
shown in Fig. 2, being employed for the purpose. Drills and ratchets
were got all ready before the engine was stopped, and drilling was
commenced from each end, a i|-inch hole being drilled through
both webs and crank-pin, the holes meeting in the centre. Coloured
labour being plentiful on the coast, the holes were got out in good
time.
After the holes were drilled the complete hole was bored by means
of the arrangement shown in Fig. 4. A boring bar E was fitted with
a pilot end H
screwed into the boring bar, to save forging down and
to keep the bar true. The slot for the cutting tool was arranged, as
shown in F in Fig. 5, so that the body of the bar E took up the weight
of the cutting. Another slot was cut at G in the boring bar, and a
larger cutting tool was placed in it, which came into operation after
the cutter F.
Fig. 4 shows the arrangement of the boring bar. The plates DD
were used to support it, with the distance pieces C C, long bolts, as
shown, holding the whole thing together, and keeping the bar and the
boring central with the pin. The hole was recessed at each end to
receive the collar and nut, as shown in Fig. 3, and the nut was cut
down for the recess.
When the boring was finished the crank was well warmed by
means of a wood fire, the bolt tapped in with an anvil slung in ropes
for the purpose, the bolt end outside of the collar being left on until
the bolt was right in its place. The nut was then put on, hardened
up, and the bolt end riveted over it. The ship completed her charter,
 General Notes and Descriptions 287

and ran home with tlie repaired shaft. A new shaft had been sent
out, but it was not necessary to use it.

Repairs for Flawed or Broken Shafts.

—
Flaw on Crank Web. Two iron or steel straps, say about 2 inches
thick, heated and shrunk on, then bolted as shown.

tr strap

No. 4.— Repair for Flaw in Crank Web.

The bolts should be as large as possible, for ordinary size of

shafting about 2h inches diameter, but larger than this if they can
be obtained. Coupling bolts would do very well in most cases.

Broken Crank-Pin. — Bore out the crank-pin to about one-third of

its diameter, and put in a repair-pin, a driving fit. small locking- A

t - . . .
 i88 Verbal " Notes and Sketches

7
and bolts

No. 6.— Repair for Broken Thrust Shaft.

break is situated. The thrust block rings next the broken part will
have to be removed.

Repair for Tunnel Shaft— The shaft to be cut for keys of the
shape shown, the number of keys depending on the extent of the

<- clavvi^

No. 7.— Repair for Broken Tunnel Shaft.

flaw or crack, and the shaft clamped round over the ke}'s and
securely bolted.
NOTE. — In the foregoing cases the revolutions will require to be reduced.

—
Notable Shaft Repair. The following is a brief de.scription of the
method adopted in repairing the broken tail end shaft of the steamer
" Fazilka," of the British India Steam Navigation Company, in the
Indian Ocean.
The binding of the shaft together by means of a set of bottom
end brasses applied as a clamp, and the further locking of the clamp
by steel pins driven in through the brass into the shaft, constitute
the most noteworthy and original points of this repair.
The tail end shaft gave way in the stern tube at two places, so
that a piece fully 3 feet 6 inches in length was detached, and in
breaking also broke through the stern tube. The engines were
promptly stopped and the .stern of the ship afterwards tipped to
prevent the entrance of water to the tunnel while the work of repair
was being carried on.
A number of holes were first bored into the tube and the metal
broken awa}', so that a hole was made large enough to allow of
 ,

General Notes and Descriptions 289

access to the shaft inside. The broken piece was removed and the
propeller shaft disconnected from the last tunnel length, and pushed
out aft until the broken ends touched. Two sets of bottom end
brasses were then taken and used as clamps to bind together the
two parts of the shaft, and to obtain one of these sets the H.P. engine
had to be disconnected. Plates of h inch thickness were fitted across
the two brasses top and bottom, and the bolts passed through to
more effectually support the broken parts, and, to allow of going
astern, holes, two of 2 inches diameter and two of 2^ inches diameter,
were bored into the shaft through the brasses, and steel pins driven
in. It will be noticed that a gap was left between the last tunnel
length of shafting and the tail end, owing to the bringing together
of the broken ends of the latter. To join these the after length of
the tunnel shaft (132 inches diameter) was at^ through, by first boring
round it twenty-two holes of about i inch diameter and cutting
between them. The flange was then brought aft and coupled to the
propeller shaft, and the cut parts of the tunnel shaft connected by
means of a " Thomson " patent coupling. To complete the job and
make the whole, as far as possible, one solid mass, molten metal was
run in to fill up the various spaces left by the ragged ends of the
broken shaft inside of the clamps, and when the engines were turned
round the parts were found to hold together satisfactorily enough to
allow of a reduced speed being easily maintained.
The work spent on repairing the shaft occupied about three
weeks' time, but this was mainly due to temporary failure of one
or two of the methods tried, which are not given here in detail. It
is sufficient to add that the " Fazilka " steamed safely, and without
assistance, into Colombo Harbour by the use of her M.P. and L.P.
engines, working at a reduced boiler pressure.

"Thomson" Patent Coupling.

This coupling is specially designed for clamping up a broken
shaft, and forms the best means of repair. It consists of three

' i.... :

nmrm
! I

lOncD
1 1
 — —

290 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

pieces bolted together, and is so arranged that it may extend between

two lengths of shafting if required, an enlarged part of the coupling
allowing for the flanges.

Stopping of Engines.
Sudden stopping of the engines may be caused by the following :

1. Slide valve loose on spindle, or spindle broken.

2. Stop valve seat lifted with valve.
3. Go-ahead eccentric broken, or loose on shaft.
4. Throttle valve turned round on its spindle.

If any steam connection on the H.P. is opened and steam blows

out, this proves that the stop valve and throttle valve are clear.
If the slide valve is loose on the spindle, the piston of that engine
will most likely stop on the top centre, as the valve will stick on the top,
and the bottom port remain full open to steam. If the steam be shut off
quickly, the noise of the valve dropping down would locate the trouble.
In the case of a valve slack on the spindle the following generally
holds good :

1. If H.P. inside steam piston valve is slack on spindle, H.P.

engine will stop with piston on bottom centre.
2. If LP. or L.P. slide valve (or outside steam piston valve) is slack
on spindle, the corresponding engine will stop with piston
on top centre.
Failing the foregoing, testing, by means of the indicator cock con-
nections top and bottom, will usually locate the valve which has
slackened back.

Engine Breakdowns.
If the H.P. engine breaks down, take out the valve and disconnect
the engine, and work with the I. P. and L.P. The pressure should be
reduced to about 100 lbs., as the LP. cylinder is of larger diameter
the H.P., and therefore weaker.
If the LP. engine breaks down, take out the valve and disconnect
the engine (if the pumps are not worked off it). The steam will then
pass direct from the H.P. exhaust to the L.P. chest. The boiler
pressure may require to be reduced in this case, owing to the fact
that the steam in expanding down to the L.P. pressure does not drop
in temperature, as no work is done during this expansion, and to
obtain the same condenser vacuum the boiler pressure may, as stated,
require to be reduced. To develop the same I. H.P. the consumption
will be more, owing to the great difference of temperature existing
between admission and exhaust in the H.P. cylinder, and the con-
sequent excessive condensation of steam causing loss of heat.
NOTE.- In the foregoing cases it is advisable to leave in the valve spindle
to close up the gland.
 General Notes and Descriptions 291

Pumps.
The suction valve of a feed pump should be placed low down on
the barrel, and the delivery valve as high up as possible. This
arrangement allows of better working when the feed-water tempera-
ture increases, as the air or vapour will rise clear of the pump suction,
and allow of a better vacuum being formed.
Most patent feed donkey pumps are not fitted with relief valves,
the reason being that should anything occur to choke the delivery
valves, the pump would stop working by over-pressure on the water
side.
With feed pumps worked main engines the case is different
off the
for if, up with the valve, the pumps
say, the delivery valve seat rises
would of course still go on working, and unless a relief valve is fitted,
the chest or connections would be damaged.
The feed relief valve should be placed on the pump chest between
the suction and delivery valves, so that, should the delivery valve
seat lift up with the valve, the relief will act and prevent damage to
the chest. If the check valve on the boiler stuck or was left shut,
the relief vahe would also act and save the feed pipe from bursting.
In an ordinar)' feed pump, it should be noted that, with the chest
cover off, the top of the suction valve is always open to the pump
plunger, and the bottom of the delivery valve is open to the plunger.
A Plungfer pump has suction and delivery valves, and is a single-
acting force pump.

No. 9.— Bucket Air Pump.

292 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches

A Bucket pump has foot, bucket and head valves, and is a single-
acting lift pump.
Broken or leaky foot valves do not, in most cases, affect the
vacuum, as the pump is placed much lower down in position than the
bottom of the condenser, but the foot valves act to control the action
of the pump and induce more regular flow. Broken or leaky bucket
valves affect the vacuum most, and broken or leaky head valves next.

The Edwards Patent Air Pump.

Edwards air pump, as will be seen in the sectional illustra-
In the
tion, and bucket valves are dispensed with the water flows
foot ;

continuously by gravity into the base of the pump, and being dealt

No. 10.— Edwards Air Pump.

with mechanically by the conical bucket working in connection with

a base of similar shape, is projected silently and without shock at
a high velocity through the ports into the barrel.
As soon as the ports open, there are clear inlets for the admission
of the air, and the water is immediately afterwards injected, thereby
tending to compress the air in the barrel and carry in more air with it.
Another important feature of the Edwards pump is that the top
clearance is reduced to a minimum. Before any air pump can dis-
charge, the pressure in the pump must exceed that of the atmosphere,
and thus all air remaining in the pump is compressed. As soon,
however, as the bucket descends, and the pressure is reduced, the
air in the clearance water is given off, and expanding, occupies space
 ;

General Notes and Descriptions 293

in the pump which should be available for a fresh supply from the
condenser, consequently the smaller the top clearance the more
efficient is the pump.
The practical advantages of the Edwards pump are numerous
there being no foot and bucket valves, the risk of breakdown and
stoppage through the failure of valves, which cannot be -examined
while the pump is at work, is eliminated, and there being only one
set of valves instead of three sets, the cost of maintenance and the
time necessary for overhauling are reduced to a minimum.
By means of the door at the top of the pump the only valves used
can be readily examined, and if necessary can, in some cases, be
renewed while the engines are running, without loss of water or
vacuum.

QEUVERY
SUCTION

DELIVERY
SUCTION
INTECTlON

No. II.— Double-acting Circulating Pump.

A Piston pump has suction and delivery valves at either end, and
is a double-acting pump. On the up stroke the bottom suction and top
delivery valves are open, and on the down stroke the top suction and
bottom delivery valves are open. Air-\alves are usually fitted to
either end of the pump to admit air to allow of cushioning of the
water.
A Centrifugal pump, as the name implies, works from the centre,
and consists of a cast-iron chamber containing hollow vanes kej'ed to
a spindle; a small engine coupled direct to the spindle rotates the
vanes, and the water entering, by suitable passages, the pump casing
at the centre, where the vacuum is created by the rapid vane rotation,
travels through the hollow vanes and is delivered tangentially at the
circumference of the vane circle: thus peripheral force is converted
into pressure head. This type of pump has no valves.
The usual driving speed of the pump is from 180 to 220 rcvolu-
 — —

294 ' "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

lions per minute. If by mistake the engine is started to run in the

wrong direction, the water will merely be churned by the impeller,
and no effective discharge will take place. Sometimes a steam pipe
and cock is fitted on the pump chamber to assist in starting by blowing
through a jet of steam, which, on condensing, produces a partial
vacuum. In place of this, the pump may require to be first " primed,"
that is, up with water the air escaping meantime by a small
filled ;

air-cock on the top. In ordinary practice, however, neither of the

above aids to starting are required, as the position of the pump being
lower than the sea level, the water flows by the force of gravity into
the pump chamber, the air being allowed to escape by the small cock
fitted on top of the pump casing. This type of pump is of low dis-
charge pressure and would not be suitable for, say, boiler feeding,
unless two or more pumps of the same type were coupled up " in
series" (as in coal mine practice), which arrangement would result in
increase of water pressure.

Breakdown of Pumps.
If the air pump breaks down, feed the boilers by " Weir's " pump,
which usually has a suction direct from the condenser.
If no such connection is fitted, remove the air pump bucket and
valves, leave on the cover and rod, close the hot-well overflow pipe,
and allow the water in the condenser to drain into the hot-well. Draw
the feed from there by the main feed pumps or the donkey pump.
The vacuum will of course go back in this case, and most likely
disappear altogether.
If the circulating pump breaks down, put on the ballast donkey
to the condenser for circulating if it is not suitable for this, then the
;

engines must be worked jet condensing.

To effect this draw' a number of the condenser tubes, aitd open
up the air pump discharge valve also when under weigh again take
;

the boiler density oftener, as the feed will be chiefly salt water.
To find number of tubes to draw :
Injection pipe diameter^
^ ^^^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^^^
Condenser tube diameter^

Loss of Vacuum.
Vacuum may be lost through the following causes :

1. Head or bucket valves of air pump broken.

2. Valves of circulating pump broken, or injection choked.

3. Division plate in condenser door carried away.
4. Leaky L.P. gland.
To find the probable cause of the vacuum going back, feel the
temperature of both ends of the condenser. If both ends are cold,
broken air pump valves are the cause, or leaky L.P. gland. If both
 No. 12.— Centrifugal Type Circulating Pump-

I, from main injection.

Inlet Vacuum position.
3, Water flow to each side of pump. Delivery at periphery of pump.
3, Water inlet to pump at centre. Driving shaft of engine.

DATA. •

in inches of suction or deliver; pipe:=

/ l.H.r. (04S
V •7854
'7*

NOTE.—Allow -045 square inch of pipe area per I.H.P.

Diameter of impeller = Diameter of pipe x 2-5.
Diameter of inlet opening at centre = Diameter of pipex [•!.

Example.— Determine the diameter of circulating pump suction and delivery pipe, the diameter of the impeller, and the diameter
of inlet opening at pump centre for an engine of 1800 I.H.P.

Then, Diameter of circulating pipe= / i8oox-045 ^ ,„ inches.

and,
V 7854
Diameter of impeller = 10 x2-5==25 inches,
Diameter of inlet at centre^ 10 xx-x=ti inches-
[Tr/iu* fit^ 294-

' VerVial " Notes and Sketches.

 General Notes and Descriptions 295

ends are warm, either broken circulating pump valves or choked injec-
tion valve is the cause. If one end is cold and the other end warm,
the division plate in the condenser is most likely carried awa}'.
NOTE. — 24 inches of vacuum means that the air pump has drawn 12 lbs. of
air pressure out of the condenser, leaving 3 lbs. absolute back pressure on the
L. P. piston.

Pet Valves.
On feed or bilge pumps the pet valve is usually placed between
the suction and delivery valves.
On double-acting circulating pumps a pet valve is placed on the
suction side of the pump at both ends.
On air pumps the pet valve is placed high up on the pump
chamber, just under the head valve, so that the air drawn in for
cushioning the water will not affect the vacuum under the bucket.
Many air pumps have no pet valves fitted.
On horizontal double-acting piston air pumps no pet valves are
fitted, as, no matter where they might be placed, the air drawn in
would affect the vacuum more or less seriously, since suction valves
are fitted at both ends of the pump.

Air Vessels.
Air vessels are usually fitted on single-acting pumps, to give a
continuous flow of water similar to that of a double-acting pump.

15

^liCt
FR3M Pump TO fl>>r>.tRS

'S arc;
No. 13. — Closed Type Air No. 14.— Open Type
Vessel. Air Vessel.
296 *' Verbal" Notes and Sketches

They are made in two ways— (i) A

plain dome with the air for
compression in the top, the water entering and leavmg by the same
branch. (2) A dome open at the top, with a pipe extendmg
down
the vessel the pipe to allow
about three-quarters of the length of ;
is

of an air space round it, and the water in this case passes up through
the pipe and top of vessel into the main feed pipe.
On the down stroke of the pump plunger the water pressure
compresses the air in the top of the vessel, and on the up stroke,
the pressure being released, the air reacts on the water, and forces
it out of the chamber and along the feed pipe,
thus giving a continu-
ous flow, similar to that obtained by a double-acting pump.

NOTE.— The Board of Trade appear to object to cocks or connections of any

kind being fitted to air vessels.

The Condenser and Air Pump.

The function of the air pump is to draw out the air and water from
the condenser, and, b}' the vacuum formed, to reduce the back pressure
on the L.P. piston.
As all water contains a certain proportion of air, the feed pumps
deliver air into the boilers along with the feed water, and most of the
air so brought in is carried back with the steam to the condenser,
where it remains in the form of back pressure. Air cannot be con-
densed in the same manner as steam, and for this reason the air pump
is required to take out the air and reduce the back pressure by the
formation of a vacuum in the condenser.
The valv^es most necessary in the air pump to maintain the vacuum
are the bucket and head valves foot valves are not absolutely neces-
;

sary when the pump is placed lower down than the bottom of the
condenser, as the water will then flow by gravit}' into the pump
chamber.
The air pump only delivers about inch depth of water over the
-J

valves each stroke, the remainder of the pump being filled with air
and vapour.
On the up stroke of the air pump the foot valves and head valves
are open, and on the down stroke the bucket valves onl}- are open.
If the vacuum gauge indicates 24 inches, it means that the air
pump has taken 12 lbs. of air pressure out of the condenser, which
leaves a back pressure of 3 lbs. gross, as 15—12 = 3 lbs.

Oscillating Engines.

The steam enters the valve chest through one of the trunnions
(usually the outer), and after doing its work in the cylinder exhausts
through the other trunnion.
The trunnions allow the steam to pass to and from the valves, and
also allow for the oscillation of the cylinder.
fdy-'

-x**^^
fsjjC^-
 No. 15.— Surface Condenser (Two Flow Independent Type).
1, Exhaust or eduction pipe from L.P. cylinder to condenser. 7, Hand hole.
2. Air pump suction. 8, Bafflff plate for steam.
3, Delivery from circulating pumps to condenser. 9, Supplementary feed.
4, Circulating discharge from condenser to ship's side. 10, Tube plate.
5. Stays. 11, Screwed ferrule.
6. Division plate. 12, Packing space.
DATA.
Cooling Surface.
I.H.P. = i8oo.
Allow 1.4 square feet cooling surface per I.H.P
Tubes, 10 feet by J inch external diameter.
1800 y]
Then, number of tubes- -75 1283 tubes.
3-1416'

NOTE.-The cooling surface of a tube in square feet = Iength in feet x circumference in feet

Circulating Water.
Assume exhaust ste; I pressure =5 lbs. absolute and temperature 162°, hot-well temperature 130°, sea 60', and di9v.-harge 102',
then. 1115 h -3 ^ 162^-1163-6 total heat of steam,
"d, 1163-6- 130-1033-6 units to be extracted.
Again, 102 -60-^42 units absorbed by each pound of cooling water,
then, 1033-6^^2-24-6 lbs coolmg vgater required per lb. steam.
Assuming 15 lbs. steam per I.H.P. per hour,
then, 1800X 15^24-6 = 664200 lbs. of circulating water required per hour.

-Air Pump Water.

Exclusive altogether of expanded vapour and neglecting losses,
the air pump will lift per hour 27000 lbs. of feed water and
discharge it into the hot well, as 1800 x 15 = 27000 lbs.

\Tc/au page 2961

' Verbal " Notes ami Sketches.

 General Notes and Descriptions 297

An expansion joint is formed between that part of the steam pipe

which enters the trunnion and the trunnion itself.
The flanges of the steam pipe are bolted to a bracket on the
engine framing, as will be seen by referring to the sketch, and this
does away with the necessity of having a collar on the pipe and long
tuds, as are usually fitted to expansion joints of steam pipes.

..r\

No. 16.— Oscillating Cylinder and Trunnions.

To test if one or other of the trunnion bearing brasses have worn

down, slacken back the piston rod head bolts and measure the
clearance between the crank web and piston rod brass at the top
centre and the bottom centre if the sizes do not agree one of the
;

trunnions has worn down.

In oscillating engines the feed and bilge pumps are worked by
large eccentrics, fixed either on the shaft or on the trunnions, and the
air pump by an extra crank on the main shaft :to allow of this the
pumps are usually of the trunk pattern (see sketches).
The valve gear of the oscillating engine (see sketch) consists of
two vertical pillars, connecting the top and bottom framing, with a
slotted quadrant working between them on brass shoes. The reversing
link from the eccentrics connects to a block on the quadrant. The
radius of the slot in the main quadrant is taken from the centre of
the trunnion with the gear at half position, the radius of the reversing
link slot is taken from near the shaft centre. Usually two valves are
fitted, one on either side, each suppl}'ing steam simultaneously to
the cylinder or exhausting simultaneously from the cylinder. The
block on which the reversing link slides is a fixture, it should be
298 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

PUMP
CRANK

TRUNK

PUMP
ECCENTRIC

No. i8. — Method of working Pumps in Oscillating Engines.

noted, to the main quadrant, and the drag link changes the position
of the link and rods from ahead to astern as required. rocking A
lever works on a pin fixed on the side of the cylinder, and one end of
the lever moves in the slot of the quadrant as the cylinder oscillates ;
the other end is connected to the valve spindle, and so gives the
necessary travel to the valve, but in the opposite direction.
NOTE.— For a slide valve, the eccentric key centre is placed behind the crank
at an angle of 90% minus lap and lead, because the rocking lever reverses the
motion, but if a piston valve (inside steam), the key is cut at an angle of 90° plus
lap and lead before the crank, as the one position corrects the other.

Diagonal Engines.

No. 19.— Diagonal Engine and Air Pumps.

A-^
 TOP CENTRE

No. 17.— Oscillating Engine and Valve Gear Complete.

Cylinder bell through which the steam passes ftom ihe admission truiimoiis
.
to the valve chest or thn

'
Valve chest.
Valve rod.
Pin fixed to cylinder side and on which the rocking lever moves
Guide bracket for valve rod.
Rocking lever, one end of which
connected to the valve spindle by a movable joint, thus
conveying t : travel to the valvt
. Moving blocks of rocking levers.
. Fixed block on main quadrant an d on which the reversing
link slides 1 i( the drag link.
, Tail guide rod of main quadrant
. Reversing link.
. Drag link.
. Vertical pUlara or columns on which work

. Valve travel circle.

. Main quadrant
. Ahead pulley. B = steam Lap and lead.

m
 General Notes and Descriptions 299

In diagonal engines the pumps are often worked by bell crank

levers connected to the piston rod crosshead (see sketch), and the
pumps are usually made of the trunk type.

Trunk Engines.
A trunk engine has no piston rod, but simply a connecting rod
extending between the crank-pin and the piston. The trunk passes

No. 20.— Trunk Engine and Double-Acting Air Pump.

through both ends of the cylinder, and is bolted by a flange to the

piston. For a right-handed propeller this type of engine is placed on
the starboard side of the engine-room, so that when going ahead the
stress will be thrown on the top side of the trunk and piston for a
;

left-handed propeller the engine would be placed on the port side to

obtain the same result.
The air pump shown on the sketch is of the double-acting type,
and has footand head valves at either end, and a solid piston the ;

condenser suction is below, and the hot-well above. When the engines
are of the inverted type, the pump is worked from the main shaft by
an eccentric, or by a pin on the crank web.

Paddle Engine Cranks.

In nearly all paddle engine crank-shafts, the crank-pin is only
fixed to one web, and is an easy fit in a brass bush in the other web
(see sketch). This is to allow for the extra wear which takes place
at the outside bearing due to the weight of the paddle wheels. The
crank-pin is fitted into one web by a taper and nut, and in the other
web it is simply a loose fit in a brass bush as previously stated.
This arrangement allows for the shaft wearing down outside, and
prevents undue stresses being thrown on the web and on the pin.
In ordinary paddle engines with double cranks the crank-pin is
fixed to the inner web and is loose in the outer web, but in discon-
necting paddle engines the reverse is the case, that is, the pin is
fixed to the outer web, and is loose in the inner one. This is to allow
 —

,300
" Verbal " Notes and Sketches

No. 21.— Method of Testing Fairness of Paddle Shaft.

of the inside crank being drawn away from the pin when the engines
have to be disconnected.
From the above it will easily be understood that to test if the
outer bearing is wearing down, the cranks must be placed on the top
centre, and the distance between the webs at the top taken by a
length stick then the cranks put on the bottom centre, and the same
;

distance again measured if it is found that the top width is greater

;

than the bottom, the outer bearing will be down.

To find Thickness of Liner for Outer Bearing.

Referring to the sketch, suppose that the distance between the
webs is I inch more at the top than at the bottom, and the distance

from the top of the web to the centre of the shaft is A, and from the
caitre of the outer bearing to the inside of the web is B, then by
proportion as follows :

As A B
: : : i inch = thickness of liner required.

NOTE.— Observe that it is only half the amount that the webs are open at
top more than at bottom, which is taken for the third term.
 —

General Notes and Descriptions 301

Paddle Shaft Flexible Coupling.

If the crank-shaft of a paddle engine is made similarly to that of
a screw steamer, that is, with the webs and pins forged solid, or built
up, allowance for wear down is arranged for by a flexible coupling
fitted between the paddle shaft and the crank-shaft (see' page 325).
The coupling consists of a hard rubber ring fitted between the
two flanges with the coupling bolts an easy fit in one side, the holes
being made larger for that purpose. This allows for the outside
bearing wearing down, and prevents the pin and webs from being
subjected to heavy stresses in consequence.

Feathering Paddle Wheel.

In a feathering paddle wheel the floats are hung by pins to
brackets on the circumference of the wheel, the brackets being bolted
to the rim and forming continuations of the paddle arms.

No. 22. Feathering Paddle Wheel.

The floats have small feathering levers (see sketch) fitted on the
back, to which the eccentric rods are connected by pins hi brass
bushes, the other end of the rods being fitted in a similar manner to
the feathering strap.
302 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

The feathering- pin is fixed to a bracket bolted to the outer paddle

box, and its centre is placed forward of the shaft centre and higher
"
up so that the pin position is " eccentric to^ that of the shaft ; the
feathering strap revolves round the pin which is stationary. One rod,
called the " driver," is made of greater strength than the others, and,

No. 23. — Feathering Paddle Wheel.

instead of being secured to the strap by an eye and pin, is fitted in to

a specially arranged recess and firmly bolted there the other end of
;

this rod is connected to the float in the same manner as the other
rods the driving rod gives the motion to the feathering strap, and
:

therefore to the other rods. The feathering pin being eccentric to the
shaft, the floats are feathered as the wheel turns round, that is, they
alter their angle so as to enter the water in a vertical position, and
thus obtain a good thrust, and leave it at an inclined position, which
prevents loss of power by water being lifted up.
The various pins mentioned are brass bushed, and lubricated
with water.
 General Notes and Descriptions 303

Engine-Room Appliances.
125° To eondenw

rrom Auxil.
Feed Pumps

OOO^gj)

to Pupps

No. 24— "Weir" Feed Heater

In this well-known type of feed-water heater, the heating steam

is taken from the low-pressure receiver of the main engines and
exhaust of the auxiliary engines, and enters the heater through
a non-return valve on the side the feed water is forced up
;

into the top of the heater by the main feed pumps on the engine, and,
the pressure of the water overcoming the tension of the spring, forces
open the internal valve and allows the water to enter the body of the
chamber, through a perforated ring in the form of a fine spray, which,
21
]04 ''Verbal" Notes and Sketches

iS*<

No. 25.—Weir Vertical Type Evaporator.

 General Notes and Descriptions
305

No. 26. —^Weir Vertical Type Evaporator.

 —

3o6 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches

meeting the heating steam entering by another set of perforations

becomes raised in temperature to that of the steam: the air present
in the water is set free by the heat, and rising, escapes from the heater
by a cock on the top to either the condenser or the atmosphere. The
float shown near the bottom of the heater is connected by a system of
levers to the steam stop valve of " Weir's" pumps, which take away
the hot feed water and deliver it into the boilers, and as the water
level in the chamber falls, the float sinking shuts off the steam supply
to the pumps, so that they work slower, and, on the other hand, when
the water level is high, the float rising correspondingly opens the
steam valve, and the pumps work faster in proportion.
Two pressure gauges are fitted on the top of the heater, one to
indicate the water pressure entering, and the other to indicate the
pressure in the body of the chamber, upon which latter depends the
temperature of the hot feed water.
NOTE.— With a pressure of 5 lbs. in the L.P. receiver, the feed temperature
in the heater will be about 220^

Advantages of Feed Heating.

The practical advantages of feed heating are as follows :

1. Less straining of the plates in high-pressure boilers.

2. Less air enters the boilers, and consequently the corrosion due
to oxygen is reduced.
The boilers steam better with hot feed water, as circulation is
3.
checked when cold water enters a boiler.
4. The heat of condensation of the steam is given up to the feed
water instead of being given to the circulating water and lost over the
side, as would be the case if the steam condensed in the condenser.

"Weir" Evaporator.
The Weir Vertical Type Evaporator is a single casting of close-
grained cast iron. The heating surface is formed of heavy solid
drawn copper tubes attached by hollow conical couplings, at one
end to the steam inlet chamber cast on the side of the evaporator,
and at the other end to the corresponding outlet chamber cast
alongside it.
The tube space is separated from the steam space by a deflector.
The arrangement of this deflector allows the steam to rise, but
throws down the water so that it is returned again to the water
space. With this arrangement it is almost impossible to make the
evaporator prime under anything like reasonable limits.
The usual mountings consist of steam inlet valve, steam outlet
valve, feed check valve, brine valve, drain valve and coupling to
hot-well, blow-off cock, safety valve, gauge glass fittings, pressure
gauge, compound gauge, salinometer valve, also gun-metal feed
pump to work off main engines.
 General Notes and Descriptions 307

1, Steam Slide Valve Chest.

2, Double Joint.

3, Front Stay.
4, Bottom Spindle.
5, Valve Gear Levers.
6, Front Stay Bush.
7, Ball Crosshead.

8, Main Crosshead.
9, Crosshead Pin.
10, Piston Rod.

11, Piston Body.

12, Piston Rings.

13, Cylinder Cover.

14, Discharge Valve Seat.

15, Discharge Valve Seat Ring.
16, Suction Valve Seat.
17, Suction Valve Guard.
18, Discharge Valve Guard.
19, Water Valves.
20, Bucket.
22, Pump Cover.

23, Valve Chest Covers.

24, Steam Stop Valve.
25, Exhaust Stop Valve.

No. 27.- Sectional View, Weir Standard Feed Pump.

3oS "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

List of Parts of Evaporator.

1. Shell of Evaporator. 17. Salinometer cock.
2. Main door of Evaporator (i) for 18. Cock for blowing off to sea.
withdrawing tube coils (6). 19. Top cock for water gauge.
3. Hand cleaning door. 20. Bottom cock for water gauge.
4. Bafifle plate, or deflector. 21. Safety valve.

5. Shelves for supporting tube coils (6). 22. Outlet valve for generated steam.
6. Evaporating tube coils. 23. Compound gauge for generated
7. Inlet steam couplings for coils (6). steam in shell (i).
8. Drain outlet couplings for coils (6). 24. Cock for compound gauge (23).
9. Coupling nuts for 7 and 8. 25. Pressure gauge for inlet steam to
10. Inlet steam header. coils (6).
11. Drain header. 26. Cock for pressure gauge (25).
12. Drain collecting pocket. 27. Swing crane bar for door (2).
13. Inlet vaJve for steam coils (6). 28. Eye bolt for supporting door (2) on
14. Valve for drain from coils (6) to hot- crane bar (27).
well. 29. Connection from top of water gauge.
15. Feed check valve. (19) to steam space in Evaporator
16. Brine valve. shell ( I).

Weir's Patent Direct-Acting Feed Pumps.

(To work in connection with Main Feed Pumps and Heater.)

The Weir pump is of the direct-acting type, and has suction and
delivery valves for top and bottom independently.
The pump is vertical, single cylinder, and is usually supplied in
pairs.
The steam piston is fitted to the top end of the rod, and the
water piston to the bottom end, the latter being smaller in area than
the former.
Weir's feed pump is a slow-speed, high-pressure, full-stroke pump.

Group Valves. —
These are milled but of the solid metal, and are
arranged to give a large area with a small lift. Each seat contains
a number of small valves, and in all cases these are duplicate, with a
lift of ^ inch. The delivery valves have light springs fitted. The
suction seat contains a /argernumher of small valves than the delivery
seat it will therefore be noted that the delivery valves have /ess area
;

than the suction valves, and in addition have small springs fitted to
keep them down.
The screwed pin in the centre of the valve box covers is for
keeping the valve guards in position, and is not for regulating the lift

of the valves.

The Weir Steam —

Valves. The steam valves of Weir's pumps are
simple in action, and the main valve face (known as the "shuttle"
valve) is half round instead of flat, and instead of travelling up and
down is moved by steam horizontally from side to side. The ports
 General Notes and Descriptions 309

End View. Cylinder Face (Half Round).

A, Steam Port to Cylinder Bottom. C, Steam Port to Cylinder Top.
B, Exhaust Port.

No. 28. —Weir Pump Cylinder Ports.

are therefore arranged to allow of this, and are cast side by side in
place of one above the other. The result is, of course, the same, as
the left-hand port leads to the bottom of the cylinder, and the right-
hand port to the top (see sketch).

—
Main Valve. x'\s before stated, this valve is moved by steam hori-
zontally in the chest, and in this way opens up the cylinder ports from
steam to exhaust at the end of each stroke. It must be remembered,
however, that previous to this the steam passing through the main
valve into the cylinder ports has already been cut off by the expansion
valve at three-quarters stroke. The ends of the main valve are round,
and work in extended cylindrical casings at each side of the chest,
the valve being moved across by steam alternately admitted and
exhausted from the ends which act as pistons.
The main valve has two faces. That on the front contains four
ports, two steam and two exhaust. The face on the back contains
five ports (see sketch).
The port E leads from back to front and admits steam to the
cylinder bottom by port A.
The port D leads from back to front and admits steam to the
cylinder top by port C.
The port G admits steam to, or allows of exhaust from, the left
side of the chest in which the round end of the main valve works
steamtight.
The port H admits steam to, or allows of exhaust from, the rigJit-
hand side of the chest in which the round end of the main valve works
steamtight.
The centre exhaust port F is common to all the ports. Observe
that port G leads to the left-hand end, where a small hole allows the
steam to pass out and act on the piston end of the main valve to
,10
" Verbal " Notes and Sketches

No.
JUL
29— Main
F F

(Shuttle) Valve Front Face (Half Round).

No. 30.— End View (Left).

^
 — ;

General Notes and Descriptions 311

pump rod striking a pair of adjustable nuts fitted in the valve spindle,
the distance between the nuts allowing of a certain amount of lost
motion.
The auxiliary valve has two separate functions
:

1. To work the main slide valve by admitting steam and exhaust-

ing it from the valve ends and
;

2. To cut off steam at a definite part of stroke.

No. 32.— Expansion (Auxiliary) Valve Face.

No. 33.— End View of Main and Auxiliary Valves in Position.

—
Action of Valves (Up Stroke). When the cylinder piston is on the
bottom centre, the main valve is at the right-hand side of the chest,
and the auxiliary valve at its lowest position. Steam is then entering
through the main valve port E into the bottom port A of the cylinder,
and to the left-hand end of the main valve by port G this continues
:

as the piston moves upward until about half stroke, when the lever
strikes the nut on the auxiliary valve spindle, and the valve coming
up cuts off the steam entering port E at about three-quarters stroke
the steam in the main valve and cylinder then expands and completes
the stroke. When the piston reaches the end of the stroke the
auxiliary valve opens up the exhaust port G from the left-hand end
of the main valve, and the steam acting on the other end, forces the
valve across, thus opening the bottom cylinder port A to the exhaust
312 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches

No, 34.
— Plan of Main and Auxiliary Valves in Position for
Steam to Bottom of Cylinder.

and at the same time opening the top cylinder port C to steam for
the down stroke.
For the down stroke the same process is gone through with the
other ports, the main valve moving in the opposite direction, that is,
from left to right. It is important to note that the main valve does
not move until one end is opened to exhaust it is then forced across
:

by the steam pressure on the opposite end.

The auxiliary valve after opening the end to exhaust by port G
or H, is arranged to close again, so that steam is retained to act as
a cushion to the main valve when it flies over, and thus prevent
hammering on the chest end covers. It will be seen from the fore-
going that the valve gear is positive in action, the main valve being
always open to steavi for one end of the cylinder, and to exhaust for
the other end, with the piston on the corresponding centre. It is
therefore impossible for the pump to stick on the centre points.

—
Bye-Passes. Small bye-passes are fitted at each end of the cylinder
to admit steam full stroke when required. This may be necessary
when starting the pumps, as the cylinder may then contain a quantity
of water. " Knocking " can also be reduced by suitable adjustment of
the bye-passes.
The bye-passes are formed either by notches cut in the edges of
the cylindrical caps, which may be opened or shut by turning round
the caps, or by parallel plug cocks, one at each side, which can be
adjusted to admit as much steam as required for the occasion.

To Adjust the Length of Stroke of a Weir Feed Pump.

This is done by screwing the valve spindle up into the joint until
the piston comes to rest against the cylinder cover, without having
raised the auxiliary valve sufficient to throw the main valve. By
noting the distance of the crosshead from the gland when the piston
is against the cylinder cover, the spindle can be brought down until

the valve throws and the piston clearance is h inch. The lock nut
 General Notes and Descriptions o'o

should now be carefully fixed to prevent the spindle from shaking

loose. The bottom stroke adjustment is done by slacking the nuts
on the bottom end of the spindle. These should be screwed down
until the piston rests against the bottom of the cylinder, and by again
notin"- the distance of the crosshead from the pump gland you can
again adjust it for the valve to throw when the pump has ^ inch of
clearance. Always run the pump slozvly when adjusting the stroke.
It is most important that anyone having the working of a "Weir"
Pump should become familiar with the method of adjusting the stroke.

Feed- Water Filters.

A feed-water filter is employed to prevent oil and grease from

entering the boilers with the feed water. It is usually placed between
the feed pumps and the feed check valve, and consists of a cast-iron

No. 35.— Feed Water Filter.

(American Steam Gauge and Valve Manufacturing Co.)

chamber containing a series of perforated brass plates with filter

cloths fitted between them, or brass grids arranged in a similar
manner.
The feed water is forced through the perforations and cloths, and
leaves behind the greasy matter, which is blown out at intervals.
The fittings on the filter are : —
Bye-pass valve (used when cleaning
out or changing the cloths), safety valve, pressure gange, soda cock,
and drain cock.
Sometimes, instead of cloths, ashes or charcoal are used as the
filtering medium.
314 ^'Verbal" Notes and Sketches

Aspinall's Patent Governor.

Aspinall's patent governor is usually bolted to the side of the

pump levers, and consists of a frame containing a hinged weight W,
which operates on two pawls P, P the pawls when in action striking
;

a lever connected to the throttle valve and so regulating the steam

supply to the engines.

No. 36.—Aspinall Governor.

When the revolutions increase by about 5 per cent, above the normal
speed, the weight W is left behind by the increase of momentum,
and this reverses the position of the pawls, causing the bottom one to
fall out and strike the lever H, and lift it on the upward stroke ; the
throttle valve is by this means closed : on the downward stroke the
detent D is lifted, and this again sets free the weight W, and, if
the racing is over, the top pawl P strikes the lever H and brings it
back again to its original position, which has the effect of reopening
the throttle valve. An emergency gear is also fitted, which locks
the weight W in the shut-off position, in the event of a serious
accident happening, such as, for example, the shaft breaking or the
propeller coming off. This type of governor is fitted to the turbine
steamer " Carmania."

Vorthington Vertical Type Feed Pumps (Sketch No. 37).

These pumps are supplied in pairs, the crosshead of one pump
actuating the steam valve of the other pump. The steam valve is
generally of the piston type and is allowed about \ inch or
f inch
" lost motion " to allow of full steam admission each stroke double
;

ports are arranged for at top and bottom, the outer one being for
steam admission only and the inner one for exhaust only, compres-
sion and cushioning being provided for by the piston travelling over
and closing the inner or exhaust ports, and so retaining the required
amount of compression steam.
The water valves are spring loaded, and are, of course, four in
number, one suction and one delivery for either end of pump. By the
momentary pause which occurs at the end of each stroke, the suction
valve of one end and the delivery valve of the other end get time to
seat themselves quietly and without shock.
 General Notes and Descriptions 315

No. 37.— Worthington Patent Feed Pump.

3i6 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

To Set the Valves of a Worthington Type Pump.

The steam valve of a Worthington pump has no outside lap,
consequently, when in its central position, it just covers the steam
ports leading to opposite ends of cylinder.
By lost motion is meant the distance a valve rod travels before
moving the valve or, if the steam chest cover is off, the amount of
;

lost motion is shown by the distance the valve can be moved back
and forth before coming in contact with the valve rod nut.
To set the piston in the middle of its stroke, open the drip cocks
and move piston by prying on the crosshead (not on lever), until it
comes in contact with the cylinder head make a mark on piston rod
;

at face of steam end stuffing box follower ; move piston back to

contact stroke at opposite end. Make second mark on piston rod
half-way between first mark and the aforesaid follower. Then if
piston is again moved until second mark coincides with the face of
same follower, it will be exactly at the middle of its stroke.
Bear in mind that the piston on one side moves the valve on
opposite side.
{a) When the steam valve is moved by a single valve rod nut.
Place one piston in the middle of its stroke disconnect link from
;

head of valve rod on opposite side. Then set the valve in its central
position ; place valve nut evenly between jaws on back of valve, screw
valve rod in or out until eye on valve rod head comes in line with eye
of valve rod link then reconnect. Repeat the operation on opposite
;

side and the valves will be properly set.

{b) When the valve rod has more than one lock nut.
Place one piston in the middle of its stroke and the opposite slide
valve in central position ; adjust lock nuts so as to allow about yV inch
lost motion on each side of jaw, and valve is set. Do not disconnect
the valve motion. Repeat operation on other side.
The best way to divide the lost motion equally is to move the
valve each way until it strikes the nut or nuts, and see if the port
openings are equal.
It is advisable to place both pistons at the middle of their strokes
before touching either slide valve.
Too much lost motion will tend to lengthen the stroke, and may
cause the piston to strike the cylinder heads vice versa, when there
;

is not enough lost motion the stroke will be perceptibly shortened.

Lament Pump (Sketch No. 38).

Action. — P is the auxiliary piston, which, with both slide valves
S and T, is moved by the main piston B before coming to rest, by
means of the links and levers to a little over the central position,
and this puts one end of the auxiliary cylinder R in communication
with pressure and the other end with the exhaust, whereby the
auxiliary piston and valves S and T are moved by the steam pressure
on P to the extent necessary to give full port openings to the main
 General Notes and Descriptions Z^7
cylinder, and at the same time the auxiliary piston P covers the
supplementary port V to the end of the main cylinder, which is open
to the exhaust and uncovers the one at the end open to steam
pressure. The opening and closing of the supplementary ports
VS V by the piston 1* takes place simultaneously with the opening of
steam or exhaust to the ends of the auxiliary cylinder R, so that
as soon as either supplementary port V^ or V is uncovered by P,
steam is admitted to that end of the auxiliary cylinder by the slide

No. 38.— Lamont's Patent Pump.

valve T, and conversely as soon as the slide valve T opens either

end of the auxiliary cylinder to exhaust the supplementary port in
that end V^ or V is covered b}- P. The drawing shows the piston P
and the auxiliary valve T in the central position, but the main valve S
is still open, and will cause the main piston B to move in the direction

of the arrow until it passes the port \V, which is open to the exhaust,
when it will graduall)- be brought to rest by the imprisoned steam
forming a cushion between the piston and the end of the cj-linder, as
 —

3i8 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

this space is now completely closed. The stop nuts N N

are fixed on
the valve spindle M in such a position as just to move P a little over
the central position before the main piston B comes to rest. The
auxiliary valve T will then admit steam by the auxiliary port Z to the
end of the auxiliary cylinder R, and at the same time the other end of
the auxiliary cylinder will be opened to the exhaust through the port
Z^ The pressure of the steam will thus cause the auxiliary piston,
with both slide valves S and T, to move to the other end, and so
reverse the steam and exhaust passages to the main cylinder, but
as the main piston B still covers the port W in the cylinder, the steam
will only be admitted through the supplementary port V
until the
piston B has moved so as to uncover the port W and allow the full
flow of steam. The compression and slow reversal of motion is the
same for both ends of the stroke.

Engine and Boiler Data.

A good idea of the general proportions and dimensions for a
steamer of given speed and power will be obtained from the following
data taken from a modern fast ocean-going steamer :

Boilers, Number
2 single-end ; 2 double-end
Pressure
 ;

General Notes and Descriptions 319

24 inches. Allow a drop of pressure between boilers and engines

of, say, 5 lbs.

Then, Boiler pressure - - - -

160 lbs. gauge.
Initial pressure in H.P. cylinder -
155 lbs. „
Back pressure in H.P. - - -
55 lbs. gauge.
Initial pressure in M.P. - - -
53 lbs. „
Back pressure in M.P. - - - 10 lbs. gauge.
Initial pressure in L.P. - -
- 8 lbs. „
Back pressure in L.P. - - -
4 lbs. gross.
Pressure in condenser - - "
3 lbs. „

Notice that the gross back pressure on the L.P. piston is obtained by
taking the vacuum in pounds from the atmospheric pressure. Thus :

24 inches -^ 2 =12 lbs., and 15 — 12 = 3 lbs. pressure in the condenser,

which is, within a pound or so, the back pressure on the L.P. piston.
—
NOTE. Allow a difference of about 2 lbs. between the back pressure of the
one engine and the initial pressure in the next engine, as naturally a fall of
pressure must take place between the two.

The Barometer.
The barometer is an instrument used in measuring the pressure
or weight of the atmosphere.
The mercurial type of barometer consists of a glass tube fully 31
inches in length, closed at the top, and open at the bottom to a cup
containing mercury. Between the mercury and the top of the tube there
is a vacuum practically perfect, and the pressure of the atmosphere
acting on the surface of the mercury in the cup forces it up the tube
against the vacuum in the top, and so indicates the air pressure.
When the weight of the atmosphere is 1 5 lbs. per square inch, the
difference in level of the mercury in the cup and tube will be 30
inches, and this is termed the height of the barometer.
It will thus be seen that every pound of atmospheric pressure
raises the mercury 2 inches up the tube, and the atmosphere being
15 lbs., then 15x2 inches = 30 inches of mercury. If the atmo-
spheric pressure fell to 14 lbs. the barometer would show 28 inches,
and if the atmosphere increased to 15^- lbs. the barometer would
indicate 31 inches, and so on, every pound causing a difference of
2 inches, and every h lb. i inch in the mercury level.
High up, as, for example, on a mountain top, the barometer will show
less than 30 inches, because the air pressure will be less than 15 lbs.
and low down, as at the bottom of a mine, the barometer height will be
more than 30 inches, as the atmospheric pressure will exceed 15 lbs.
If water were used instead of mercur}% then the height of the
barometer would be 34I feet, because i 5 lbs. x 2305 = 34-5 feet : this
is, at the same
time, the theoretical limit that a pump can draw up
water. In practice the limit is 26 feet, as it is impossible to obtain
a perfect vacuum, even with the best pump fittings, &c.
NOTE.— One pound of pressure per square inch is equal to a column of water
2-305 feet in height.
22
 .

" Verbal " Notes and Sketches

320

If the pump has to draw water at a high temperature, then the

limit of Hft becomes less, as the temperature rises, and at, say,
200° Fahr. the pump would hardly draw up the water any height,
owing to the vapour formed destroying the vacuum. This is the
reason that "Weir's" feed-heater is placed high up in the engine-
room, so that the water may fall by gravity to the pump suction.
The barometer can be made to act as a vacuum gauge by opening
up the closed end, and connecting it by a pipe to the condenser, the

VACUUM

MERCURY
30

OPEN

_v_

No. 39.— Mercurial Barometer.

other end being still left open to the atmosphere. Every pound of
pressure taken out of the condenser by the air pump will cause the
mercury to rise 2 inches in the tube; therefore if, say, I2i lbs. are
drawn out by the air pump, the difference of level in the^cup and
the tube will be 25 inches. If there be no vacuum in the condenser,
the level of the mercury will be the same in the cup and in the tube,
that is, there will be no difference of level.
—
Aneroid Barometer. The barometer in general use at the present
day is of the " aneroid " type, consisting of a vacuum box at the back.
 General Notes and Descriptions 321

and a set of very sensitive levers connecting to the indicating pointer

on the dial face.
The variations in the atmospheric pressure act on the back of the
vacuum box, and either slightly force it in, or allow it to ease back,
and this setting in motion the set of finely adjusted levers and gear,
causes the pointer to move round the dial and indicate correspond-
ingly the pressure of the atmosphere.

The Thermometer.
The thermometer is" an instrument used in measuring the
temperature of bodies. It consists of a glass tube of fine bore, partly
filled with mercury or spirits, and having a bulb at the bottom end,
and the top end sealed.
In graduating the instrument, the tube is placed in a closed
vessel with the steam from boiling water surrounding it, and the
heat causes the mercury to expand and rise in the tube when the ;

mercury stops rising a mark is made at the level and fixed as 212°,
representing the boiling point of fresh water in the atmosphere. The
tube is next placed in a dish containing pieces of broken ice, and the
cold causes the mercury to contract and fall in the tube, the point
when the liquid falls being marked as 32°, which is the melting point
of ice, or the freezing point of water.
Between the 212' and the 32" marks, the scale is divided into 180
equal parts, each part representing i"" of temperature.
NOTE.— Mercury solidifies at -38-5° and boils at 725° Fahr.

Tail Shaft Corrosion.

On propeller shafts fitted with two separate liners corrosion occurs
at the placesmarked A, that is, at the end of the brass liners. This
is caused by galvanic action between the iron or steel of the shaft

and the brass of the liners in sea water, and the effect is intensified
by the heavy stresses thrown on the shaft when the stern rises and

rf~ fevasj Imtr ^"'^^^ tiHtT

/\->| |<"A A^l

No. 40.— Corrosion on Tail End Shaft.

falls in a heavy seaway, and the propeller and shaft strike the water.
When a tail shaft breaks it usually gives way at one of the places
marked A.
The bending stresses are concentrated at the end of the liners,
owing to the difference in diameter of the liners and the shaft, and
it will be noticed that the wasting away of the latter is due to a

combined mechanical and chemical action, one leading up to and

assisting the other.
 — —

322 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

If the sea is prevented from coming in contact with the

water
shaft, galvanic action cannot take place, and the shaft is preserved.
Therefore all remedies for the preservation of the tail shaft consist
of arrangements for keeping the sea water from the shaft. The three
most important methods are :

1. The brass liners carried the whole length of the shaft.

2. A rubber sleeve extending between the two brass liners, and

made watertight at the ends.
3. A
packed gland at the stern post (outside) between the boss
and the stern tube, and oil let into the stern tube for the shaft to
run in instead of sea water, the shaft being without brass liners, and
running on white metal instead of lignum vitae strips (see Cedarvall's
patent stern tube).

—
Iron Shafts. Many makers prefer good iron for tail end shafts
instead of steel, for the reason that under conditions of galvanic action
iron does not corrode so fast as steel.

Propeller Pitch.
The pitch of a propeller means the distance the propeller would
travel in one revolution if working in a solid nut.
As the propeller works in water, the actual advance is less, owing
to slip. The usual amount of slip is from 5 to 15 per cent.
The hollowed after surface of the blades is called the "thrust
surface," and the rounded forward surface the "drag surface." In
running ahead the after surface of the blades thrusts back the water
and the resultant reaction thrusts forward the steamer.
In running astern, the drag surface thrusts the water forward, and
the reaction resulting sends the steamer aft.

To Measure —
the Pitch. With the ship in dry dock, and the shaft
turned round so that one of the blades is horizontal, take a string
with a weight tied to each end of it, and hang the string over the
blade, about two-thirds out from the boss. Now take a straight-edge
and fix it parallel to the shaft, and just touching the bottom end of
the blade where the string hangs.
The distance between the string is piece of pitch =/, and the
length of string from the top of the blade to the straight-edge is
piece of circumference = Next measure from the string to the
<:.

centre of the boss, and multiply by 2 and by 3-1416. This will give
the full circumference =:C, at the position of the string and straight-
edge then by proportion as follows
; :

As piece of circumference : Full Circumference : : piece of

pitch : Full Pitch.
Or, as ^ : C : :
/ : Full Pitch.
NOTE.— If the pitch varies radially, take the pitch as described at three
different radii, and the mean of the three may then be taken as the average pitch.
 \

.lelnoshoH ion zi iUriS

bodJbOi anil fhriulq idJ ^rbla;!?'. rti ?.& b^nibni
 No. 41a. -To Measure Pitch when Shaft is not Horizontal.

When shall line is not dead horizontal, hut is slightly inclined as in sketch, the plumb lin

of pilchmeasurement does not apply, and steel or wood squares or straight edges should be ar
shown to obtain part pitch and part circumference, after which the full pitch can be determined
the same manner as shown in No. si-

41 —To Measure Pitch of Propelle

(With Shaft Homonlali-
/ = Piece
 ^w

J3MMAHT J3^
O-

^,11 . H K )1 v-v ji

3f8*:A ii
 41a.— Crank on Centre.
First Mark B Second I C. Centre Mark. D. Position of Guide and Shoe at each Crank Angle.
 General Notes and Descriptions 323

To Find the Cut-off.

To measure the distance the steam is carried on the down stroke,

put the crank on the top centre and mark the crosshead and guide,
take off the valve casing cover, and turn the engine round with the
turning gear until the valve comes up and closes the port when it ;

does so, or cuts off, stop the turning gear, and the distance measured
down from the mark on top centre to where the crosshead stops will
be the cut-off or distance the steam is carried.
NOTE. —^The exact time of closing the port is best determined by inserting a
slip of paper into the steam
port, so that the edge of the valve "nips" the
paper on the instant of closing the port.

Crank on Centre.
To put the crank on the top centre, first turn the engine up to near
the top, and mark the guide and shoe at D
then with a trammel
;

fixed on the column, and long enough to reach the crank, mark the
top of the crank at A. Now turn the engine over the centre until
the marks on the guide and shoe come together again at D, and again
mark the crank top with the trammel at B, Find the centre between
the two marks on the top of the crank, and make a mark C, and
turn the engine until the mark C comes in line with the trammel
point. The engine will then be on the top centre.
The crank is put on the bottom centre by the same method, the
trammel being applied to the bottom end of the crank instead of the
top.

Cutting of Key Seats (see also page 232).

To mark the position of the eccentric key seats on the shaft, first
put the crank on the top centre, and with the eccentric gear connected
up, turn round the pulley until the valve is open for the required
top lead, and mark the shaft. Having fixed the pulley by a set pin,
turn the engine to the bottom centre, and easing back the set pin,
shift the pulley further round the shaft until the valve is open for the
required lead at the bottom, and again mark the shaft. Find the
centre between the marks on the shaft, and this will be the position
of the key seat. Cut the key seat, bolt on the pulley, and put a liner
under the rod to make up the difference of leads top and bottom.

NOTE.— If the lead is to be i inch at the top, and i inch at the bottom, the
liner v^ill require to be rV inch thick.

To Set Valve in Mid Travel.

Turn round the engine until the valve comes to its top position,
and mark the valve rod at the gland then turn the engine until
;
 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches
324

the valve comes to its bottom position, and again mark the rod at the
gland next divide the two marks, and set the valve to the centre
;

mark so found, which will be the exact mid position of the valve. By
marking the c)linder face, top or bottom, at the position of the steam
edge of the valve, the steam lap can be found by simply taking the
distance between the marks and the edge of the steam ports of
the cylinder.

Shaft Sighting.

To of shafting by " sighting," obtain

test the fairness of a line
three strips of iron all the same length, and with a small hole in two
of them, say ^ inch in diameter, cut in each at the same distance up,

ilt)HtT\<l

No. 42.— Method of " Sighting " a Shaft,

and in the third one have cut a vertical slot now fix one strip on the
;

thrust shaft coupling, another on the tail end shaft coupling, and
place the other one with the vertical slot on the intermediate shaft
couplings turn about, and with a light behind the hole of the strip
on the propeller shaft coupling sight the shaft from the strip on the
thrust shaft.
If the light is visible at the same level through all the strips the
shaft is fair, but if the light is sighted higher up on the portable
strip the corresponding length of shaft has worn down (see sketch).

Lining Up Shafting.

A
yV-inch hole is drilled through forward engine-room bulkhead ;

hole in stern post bridged and a y^s-inch hole drilled through bridge,
both drilled holes to correspond with shaft centre. A light is then
placed forward of engine-room bulkhead hole, and it can easily be
 General Notes and Descriptions 325

seen through these two yg-inch holes. After-tank bulkhead hole is

then bridged, a ^V-inch hole drilled through bridge, and bridge
adjusted so that the light can be seen through these three jV-inch holes.
Circles can now be described around these holes in the stern post and
after-tank bulkhead with the yV-i'ich holes for centres, bridges
removed, and boring bar set by circles. Of course any number of
intermediates may be erected before bridges arc taken out, to get
height of seatings, &c. All errors of a sagging line are thus avoided.
To line from tail-shaft coupling, the tunnel-shaft bearings, of
which there is often only one for each section of shafting, are not

CRANK SHAFT PADDLE SHAFT

COUPLrNG COUPLING

No. 43.— Flexible Coupling.

used. Each length of shafting is blocked on two blocks in such a

way that the overhanging ends balance the portion between blocks,
otherwise the shaft will sag, throwing couplings out. Faces of
couplings are left a little apart for lining up' so that a very keen
taper wedge can be used between them. If now the after coupling of
after line shaft section central with forward coupling of tail shaft,
is
and the taper wedge enters the same distance all around between their
faces, tail shaft and after section of line shaft are surely in line, and
the next length forward may be proceeded with. When all the
shafting is in, engine bed with crank-shaft in place is set in the same
way, and forward crank-shaft centre will correspond with the y\-inch
hole drilled in forward engine-room bulkhead. Before blocks are
removed from under line shaft, the tunnel shaft bearings are put
in place.
326 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches

Paddle Shaft Flexible Coupling (Sketch No. 43).

Sometimes in paddle steamers allowance for the outside bearing
wearing down arranged for as shown, but in this case the crank-
is

shaft, crank-pin, and webs are solid.

A hard rubber washer is fitted in between the coupling faces, and
the bolts fit into brass bushes in the outer or paddle shaft coupling.
These bushes are made large enough in diameter to give a slight
clearance to the bolts as shown, which thus gives flexibility to the
shaft.

Flaws in Shafts.
In the sketches below two flaws, A and B, are shown on the shaft,
one (B) running longitudinally, and the other (A) extending circum-
ferentially. Notice that the circumferential flaw A
seriously affects
the strength of the shaft by decreasing the sectional area available to

No. 44.— Shaft Flaws.

resist torsion, whereas the flaw B, which extends along the

shaft, pro-
duces very difference in the area or strength.
little It should be
remembered that the strength of a solid shaft to resist torsion varies
as the diameter cubed.
NOTE. —The depth of a flaw can be found by either boring a hole into it or by
chipping out.

To Test the Fairness of Shafting.

To test if the main shafting is down, slacken back the coupling
bolts, and with a feeler, test the distance between the two flanges all
round.

To Test the Fairness of the Rocking Shaft.

To test if the pump lever rocking shaft is down at one end or the
other, place the levers at half stroke and disconnect the crosshead
links, then measure the distance between the engine crosshead pin and
the pin on the end of the lever on the after side and on the forward
 —

General Notes and Descriptions 327

side ; if the two measurements do not agree, one of the two brasses
has worn down.

Link Brasses and Pump Clearance.

If the engine crosshead link brasses are tightened up, the pump
clearance will be increased on the top and decreased on the bottom.
If the pump crosshead link brasses are tightened up, the pump
clearance will be decreased on the top and increased on the bottom.

NOTE.— The foregoing assumes that the Hnks are suspended from the engine
crosshead : if overhung the clearance will be reversed.

To Test the Fairness of the Piston Rod.

To test if the piston rod is working fair between the guides, ease
back the gland and take the distance between the guide and piston
rod at the top and bottom centres.

Air Pump Clearance.

To measure the air pump
clearance top and bottom, put the crank
on the top centre ;
pump on the bottom centre
this will place the ;

then mark the rod, say at the gland. Next put the crank on the
bottom centre ; this will place the pump on the top centre, and again
mark the rod. If the pump links are then disconnected, and the pump
lifted against the cover and the rod marked, we will have the top
clearance and if the pump is lowered to the bottom and the rod
;

marked, it will give us the bottom clearance.

To find Length of Valve Spindle.

valve rod is broken and the length for a new rod required,
If the
this can be found as follows :

Turn the engine up to the top centre (see page 323) and shore up
the valve to the lead determined upon also suspend the links in line
;

with the valve spindle for the required ahead position. Now pass up
through the gland and valve a long length stick or rod, and mark on
it the distance from the under side of the valve to the centre of the

link block, which will therefore be equal to the required length of

valve spindle between these points. The position of the washer or
collar under the valve, and the position of the nuts above the valve,
can also be marked on the stick, and the necessary extra length of
rod allowed for accordincfh-.
'fc>'.?

To find the Connecting Rod Length.

To
find the length of the connecting rod, put the engine at half-
stroke, and measure from the centre of the crosshead pin to the centre
of the shaft.
328 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

To find the Eccentric Rod Length.

find the length of the eccentric rod (the pulleys being on the
To
shaft),put the crank on the top centre, and set the valve to the required
lead, then measure from the centre of the link block to the top of the
eccentric strap this gives the exact length of the eccentric rod.
;

Another method is as follows : —

Place the valve at mid-stroke, and
measure the distance between the centre of the link block to the centre
of the shaft then subtract from this half of the pulley diameter and
;

the thickness of the eccentric strap at the place where the rod joins
it : this will leave the length of the rod.

Piston Clearance.
The piston and cylinder cover clearance at top is usually about
f inch, and at bottom about f or f inch.
The bottom clearance requires to be more than the top, to allow
for the wear down of the top end and bottom end " brasses " or " white
metals."

To Measure the Piston Clearance.

It is measured by turning the crank to the top centre and marking
the shoe and guide, then disconnecting the crosshead brasses and lift-
ing or wedging up the piston until it touches the cover then again
;

mark the guide, and the distance between the marks will be the top
clearance.
The bottom clearance is measured in a similar manner.

Excessive Clearance.
Excessive clearance means a distinct loss of heat, because the
steam must first fill up the clearance spaces before it can do work on
the piston, and, when the exhaust opens, this steam is exhausted out
of the cylinder.

Prevention of Ridge in Cylinder.

Cylinders are usually made bell-mouthed at the bottom to prevent
the piston wearing a ridge on the cylinder or liner.

Defective Check Valve.

With two
boilers, if the check valve of one gets so damaged that it
cannot be shut and the boiler is getting too much feed, regulate the
feeding by the stop valves, partly shutting down the one on the boiler
which is getting too much water and opening up the one on the
boiler that is not getting enough of feed water. The difference of
evaporation will then keep the water from entering the one boiler and
allow it to enter the other. The same result can be obtained by firing
one boiler more than the other.
 General Notes and Descriptions 329

U Tube in Pressure and Vacuum Gauges.

The gauge tube is of flattened section, as shown in the sketch,
and when acted on by increase of pressure, the tube section tends
to become more circular, but when acted on by decrease of pressure
the tube section tends to become more flattened. This difference in
section produces a reaction, the effect of which is to straighten out
the tube when the tube becomes more circular in section, and to curl
up the tube when the section becomes flatter. For pressure, the tube
loses diameter in one direction and gains diameter in the other, being
forced more into a circular shape by the action of the steam pressure,
whereas in a vacuum gauge, for example, the reverse effect takes place,
that is, the tube becomes less circular in section, and takes its length
on a more curved line in consequence.
be understood that with the tube quite flat in section
It will easily
the curvature of its length would be at a maximum, and with the
tube fully circular in section its line would naturally be straight.
Therefore (i) under pressure the long diameter of the tube
decreases, and the short diameter increases, and this results in the
tube length straightening out and indicating (by means of the small
quadrant and toothed gearing) increase of pressure.
(2) Under decrease of pressure the long diameter increases and
the short diameter decreases, and this results in the tube length
forming a smaller curve, and indicating decrease of pressure, or

o
vacuum.

SECTION
No. 45. — Pressure Gauge Tube.
NOTE. — If the pressures are equal inside and outside of the U tube, the gauge
will register o therefore when the atmospheric pressure increases, the gauge
:

will register less pressure in like proportion, although the actual pressure in the
tube is exactly the same as before similarly, if the atmospheric pressure decreases,
:

the gauge will register more, although the actual pressure in the tube will be the
same.

Main and Bilge Injection (Sketch No, 46).

The illustration shows the usual arrangement of the main and

bilge injection connections.
Observe that the bilge injection pipe leading from the bilge strum
is connected to the main injection pipe by means of a non-return
valve, which is peculiar in the fact that the valve and spindle are
separate. The valve can be shut down but not lifted up by the
screwed spindle, as only the pressure of the water below acts to lift
the valve.
330 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

No. 46. — Injection Connections.

This type of valve is advisable, as it prevents the return of water

back to the bilges.

NOTE.— If, when using the bilge injection, the strum becomes choked up, cut

the pipe above the strum, and fix a basket over the end of the pipe, or close up
the pipe end and pierce a number of holes through the pipe.

Thrust.

With a right or left hand propeller and the engines going ahead,
the thrust is on the after side of the thrust block rings, and on the
forzvard side of the shaft collars.
With a right or left hand propeller and the engines going astern
the thrust is on the forward side of the thrust block rings, and on the
after side of the shaft collars.
 •

General Notes and Descriptions 33^

The total or combined effective horse-power of the engines come

on the thrust block and is transmitted to the ship's hull through the
holding down bolts.
The
following are the points in connection with the thrust block
demanding the most careful attention : —
1. Proper lubrication.
2. Proper adjustment of the rings.
3. Secure bolting down to the ship.

No. 47— Thrust Block (Horse-Shoe Type), with bearing at each end

No. 48.— End View of Thrust, showing Oil and Water

Service, &c.

Crank-Pin and Piston Travel.

The travel of the crank-pin is about one-half more than that
of the piston, for while the piston travels two strokes (up and
 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches
332

down), the crank-pin travels round a circle, the diameter of which is

equal to the stroke.
The speed of the crank-pin is about one-half more than that of
the piston, or in exact proportion to the extra distance it has to travel.

Flaws in L.P. Crank-Pin.

The
after end of the L.P. crank-pin often develops flaws, usually
due to the wearing down of the after lengths of shafting throwing
heavy stresses on the L.P. shaft.
A built shaft is not so liable to flaws as a solid shaft, owing to
the webs and pins being separate pieces also with a built shaft, if
;

flaws develop on the pin a new one can be fitted without entailing
the condemnation of the whole shaft.

Loose Eccentric.
This t}'pe of single eccentric is not keyed on the shaft, but is
loose circumferentially, and is driven round by a stop on the shaft,
striking a corresponding stop on the pulley.

Bod

®^^^^

No. 49.— Single Eccentric.

The position of the centre of the pulley stop is found by the same
method as is used in finding the key seat for ordinary eccentrics
(see page 232).
 General Notes and Descriptions 3'>
3

The balance weight is to counterbalance the weight of the broad

side of the pulley, and is fitted on the narrow side.
The top of the eccentric rod has a gab or clutch, which, when in
gear, fits on a pin in the end of the valve spindle, and gives the
motion to the valve. In reversing, this gab is thrown off the pin by
a hand lever, and the valve is put in the reverse position by another
hand lever, and when the shaft travels round, and the shaft stop
strikes the pulley stop on the other side, the gab is again put in gear
with the valve spindle, and the engine continues to run in that
direction. A spring is often fitted on the rod to force the gab on to
the pin.

WOOD ZA WOOD
x

No. 50.— L. P. Cylinder with Top Ports Closed Up.

Broken L.P. Cylinder Cover.

If the L.P. cover breaks and cannot be repaired, the L.P. engine
can be run on the atmospheric principle, that is, with atmospheric
pressure on the top side, and steam on the under side.
To arrange for this, take off the L.P. valve chest cover, draw the
valve, and drive wooden plugs into the two top steam ports, taking
care that the plugs are clear of the face then replace valve and cover
:

and go ahead.
The atmospheric pressure will now assist the down stroke of the
piston, and the steam pressure, as before, will act on the up stroke.
334 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

As the pressure carried in the L.P. chest is often only a few

pounds above the atmosphere, the difference in pressure on each
side of the piston will not, in most cases, be excessive.

No. 51— LP. Card with Top Ports Closed Up.

With the top steam ports closed up the bottom ports will receive
steam of a higher pressure than before, as shown by the dotted line,
and the back pressure on the M.P. piston will be more in proportion.
Observe that the atmospheric line now represents the top diagram.

Sight Feed Lubricator.

The principle of construction is that of displacement. Oil being
lighter than water rises to the surface of the w^ater, and is forced

down the internal tube to the sight glass and steam chest.

NOTE. —The specific gravity of oil is .9, and of water i.

No. 52.— Improved Sight Feed Lubricator.

(By Messrs Schaffer & Budenberg Limited.)

—
Action. Steam from the steam pipe condenses in the small con-
denser shown on the left of the sketches, and the water of condensa-
tion entering the bottom of oil chamber displaces the oil, which rises
and flows down the small internal tube.
 —

General Notes and Descriptions jj^

Theoil then enters the sight tube by the nozzle shown, and passes
up the sight feed tube in drops, from the top of which it is forced into
the steam chest. Sometimes the condenser is formed of a copper coil
placed a good height above the lubricator.

Instructions for Using. — The oil chamber is charged by unscrewing

the plug (T. The sight feed glass should then be filled up with water
or a solution of salt and water (concentrated). To start the lubricator
first open the valve d, then gradually open the valve c, and the drops
of oil will be seen ascending through the water in the glass. Valve c
regulates the amount of lubrication desired. When the engine is
stopped, the two valves d and c must be closed.

Hydraulic Accumulator.
As will be seen from the sectional drawing, the accumulator piston
is steam loaded by a reduced pressure of 80 lbs. per square inch.
The pumping engine first of all pumps up the ram against the steam
pressure, and when the piston reaches the top the pumps are auto-
matically stopped by a rod and lever connected to the ram. The
water is then stored up at a pressure of 800 lbs. per square inch and
ready for use in the cranes, hoists, &c. The relative area of ram and
piston being as i is to 10, a pressure of 80 lbs. per square inch on
the one gives a pressure of approximately 800 lbs. per square inch on
the other. As the water pressure is used in the cranes the ram and
piston descend, until at a certain position the automatic gear in
connection acts and starts the pumping engine the ram is then
:

raised back again to its former position.

NOTE.— The ram is packed by a leather ring which constitutes the best hydraulic
packing yet discovered. The water pressure inside the ring forces it out against the
ram and against the chamber.

The crane consists of three rams, one large central lifting ram and
two smaller side rams slewing round the crane post.
for
The water is admitted by a hand valve to each ram as required,
and after doing the work of lifting or slewing exhausts by return
pipes back to the supply tank of the pumping engine (see sketch
of accumulator).
When the water is admitted by the hand valve the ram is raised,
and when exhausted the ram is lowered, but if the valve is put in
mid position the ram is locked and therefore maintains the position
it may be in at the time.

Advantages.
Among other advantages possessed by the hydraulic .system, the
following may be specially mentioned :

23
 -Li LUxn
TO CRANES
r.Di

WATER PRESSURE
800 LBS, PER 5Q. INCH.

No. 53.— Hydraulic Accumulator.

(Brown Bros., Edinburgh.)
336
 General Notes and Descriptions ZZ7
Great smoothness of working.
(i.)
Quickness of handling.
(2.)
(3.) Absence of noise in working cargo ; a consideration in
passenger steamers.

^lM^^i';^:ji?i^l"^»
"'>

No. 54.
— Hydraulic Crane.
(Brown Bros., Edinburgh.)

Brown's Patent Combined Steam and Hydraulic Reversing

Engine.
The engine as shown is attached to the bedplate or column of the
main engine by the oscillating joint A formed on the end of the
338 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

steam cylinder. In this cylinder is fitted a piston B with rod C, upon

which is cottered a block piston D, working- in the hydraulic cylinder
E, the fluid beinj^ allowed to pass from one end to the other of the
cylinder E by means of a small hole bored in the piston D. The
rod C passes through stuffing boxes on the steam and hydraulic
cylinders, terminating in a joint F, which lays hold of the weight shaft
lever G. The lever is carried out to the joint H, upon which works
the rod and rack I geared into the pinion J, both being shrouded to
the pitch line. Upon the pinion shaft is keyed a worm-wheel K,
which is actuated by the bronze worm L, this being revolved by the
hand-wheel M. The worm and hand-wheel shaft are thrown out of
gear with the worm-wheel K by the eccentric N, which is turned by
the handle O, and held in position by the checkpin shown in dotted
lines. When the hand-wheel and worm are disengaged, the rack and
worm-wheel are free to revolve on the engine, making a stroke either
way. This hand gear, therefore, forms no integral part of the starting
engine, and is unaffected by any derangement of either hydraulic or
steam cylinder or the steam valve.
A locking arrangement on the hand gear is provided, so that the
main valve gear can be linked up in any position of the ahead stroke.
This consists of a pawl P, which is made to engage the teeth of the
rack, and the engine is held up against the pawl by means of the slide
valve being left slightly open to steam. The pawl is provided with a
balance weight Q, so that, on the engine being reversed for the astern
position, immediately pulls the pawl out of gear.
The hydraulic cylinder is kept charged by means of the condensed
steam in the bottom of the valve casing being driven by the steam
through the non-return valve R, and led by a small copper pipe, as
shown, into the lower end of the cylinder.
The engine is handled by a simple reversing lever S, which is
connected by two links to the fulcrum of a lever at T. This lever has
its end extended to U, which is connected direct by a link to the
valve spindle V. A curved link W is securely attached to the lever

T U, and on this there slides a block X, which is carried from

the piston rod.
The action of this valve gear is as follows: —
When the lever S is
pulled into the ahead position, the lever T U, which is attached to the
curved link W sliding in the block X, is depressed. The valve spindle
is also moved down, opening the top end of the cylinder to steam.
The piston rod now begins to move down, and carries with it the
guide block X, which forces the end of curved link to move into the
centre line of the block, thus moving the point U of the lever T U in
an upward direction, the fulcrum at T by means of the reversing
handle S being held stationary. In this way the valve spindle V is

brought back into its original position, thus bringing the engine to
rest. The same operation is performed for the astern or any
intermediate position.
 General Notes and Descriptions 339

No. 55— Brown's Patent Combined Steam and Hydraulic

Reversing Engine.
340 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches

Steering Gears.

c « o

g W t)

ao o
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^
ho
c
i 3 ^
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0) «ti

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c
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O O g cS

* t bo J<
bo
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-M '=^
a

IS ^ -3 -i^ o,
K t/J 05

rf in ^

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mJLn S 3
u s
*} o
-(J
<"
•a a ^
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 ""^
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^z^

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s^j.yz s ^d £ b*dw ojoj nasg i:

l^£ *^\ »>5J>. '7%.

]
 No. 58— Steering Engine Transmission Gear.

1, Horizoatal shaft coonectiiig; steering wheel and engine.

2, Vertical shaft connecting [by bevel wheels) to control valve lever.

3, Hunting or return gear from engine womi to control valve. 6, Wonn <

NOTE.— The small spindle connected to the control valve 1 ) wheel 3 by a

'
Notes and Sketches
General Notes and Descriptions 541

o
u 73

s s
'rt "rt

•- o - •g ^-g

"rt *i r; w .ii
°^ «
o s 3 t:

> W > E U 0, (/) W •

W
M N fo ^ m^
O
 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches
342

Steering Gear Engines.

The majority of patent steering gear engines are fitted with three
valves — a central control valveand two piston valves or slide valves,
one for each cylinder of the engine. The control valve distributes the
steam to the engine valves so that the gear may run either to port or
starboard as required, and this being the case it will be observed that
each piston valve or slide valve requires only one eccentric, the control
valve acting as the reversing gear. The piston valves or slide valves
have little or no steam lap, so that the steam is carried for the full
length of the stroke, and to allow of this the eccentric kej'seats are
cut at risjht angles to the cranks.

—
Control Valve. This valve is sometimes a flat valve, but more
generally a round or piston valve. It is operated directly (i) by hand
from the steering wheel on the bridge, and (2) automatically by a
counteracting return gear from the chain drum or crank-shaft of the
steerinsT engine.

"
 If

•V--..—:*.X«,»-U._-

25vl&\

anoi'ii^iib
 STEAM

STEAM SHEWN THUS. ^

EXHAUST - - . >
E EXHAUST PORT
No 59a.— Steering Gear Valves.

Steam is bting admitted to the cylinder from the centre of piston valves, and is exhausting to ends o
back to exhaust port E, and the direction of engine rotation is as shown.
NOTE. -In this type of gear the steam ia admitted from the ends of the control valve for both dii

of running, as clearly shown in the sketches.

l7«/<>«/«i-'i4J-
XZZiii.

w
 STEAM

Direction of Rotatioi)

STEAM SHEWN THUS,

EXHAUST •

E. EXHAUST PORT
No 59b.— Steering Gear Valves

Steam ta being admitted to the cylinder from the ends of the piston valves, :entTe of
ame back to exhaust port E : the direction of engine rotation is as shown, and
 General Notes and Descriptions 343

valve back to mid-position and thus stop the gear. As before stated,
the control valve does away with the necessity of having two eccentrics
for each valve, one only being required, as the reversal of rotation is
obtained by the action of the control valve.

—
Engine Valves. The valves of the engine are generally of the hollow
piston type, although in some cases special flat valves are used, as in
the gear of Messrs Alley & M'Lellan.
The hollow piston valves are arranged so as to receive steam at
the ends and exhaust in the centre, or, to receive steam at the centre
and exhaust at the ends, the ports being suitably cast to admit of this
(see sketch of control valve).

—
Action of Valves. If the steam is admitted to the ends of the piston
valves by the control valve C being moved in the direction of A, the
cylinders obtain the steam from the ends and the exhaust takes place
in the centre of the piston valves, the engine running so that the
rudder is brought over to, say, the port side but if the steam is
;

admitted to the centre of the piston valves, by the control valve C

being moved in the direction B, then the cylinders receive steam from
the centres of the valves and exhaust at the ends the direction of
:

motion being thus reversed, the rudder is brought over to the centre
asrain and so to the starboard side.

Types of Gear. — The following five types of steam steering gear

engines ingeneral use will give a very good idea of the principle of
working and of the mechanism employed by some of the best
makers of this important piece of auxiliary machinery.
It will be noticed that, with the exception of Messrs Hastie's
gear, the control valve is moved laterally to open and close the ports,
but in the gear produced by Messrs Hastie & Co. the control valve
moves round somewhat after the manner of a Corliss valve the ;

spindle therefore of this gear does not move laterally, but simply
revolves for part of a ircle, as will be seen by examining the
sketch.

Steering Gear by Messrs Caldwell & Co.

In this gear the control valve is opened or closed b}' a cam in

connection with the "sun and planet" motion contained in the brass
casing. The toothed wheel A is in connection with the hand-wheel
on the bridge, and the toothed planet wheel B is in one with the
cam, while the toothed casing C is in connection by bevel wheels
with the chain drum.
 H

344 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

FROM
STEERING—
WHEEL

/CAM

CAB
CONTROL
VALVE ,
^
f
GUIDE
^
Siin and Planet Motion.
No. 60.— Steering Gear by Messrs Caldwell & Co.
 General Notes and Descriptions 345
Action. — (i.) If wheelA is moved round by the steering wheel with

C stationary, B moves round the casing and opens the control valve,
thus starting the engine and setting C in motion.
(2.) If A is stopped, C moves round in the reverse direction, carry-
ing B and the cam back again until the control valve is brought to
mid-position and the engine stopped,
(3.) If A
and C move at the same relative speed the control valve
will remain open and the engine keep running, but if the speed of C
exceeds that of A
the control valve will close and the engine stop.
In the same way, to open the control valve further the speed of
A must exceed that of C.

FROM
STEERING WHEE
_

SHAFT TRAVELS
LATERALLY
-H^
 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches
346

nut C causes a lateral movement. The feather shown on the spindle

allows the spindle to move horizontally without turning, if actuated
by the nut wheel C travelling round.

Action. — (i.) If wheel A moved round by the steering wheel with

is

C stationary, the spindle B

turns and moves either in or out of the
nut wheel C and opens the control valve, thus starting the engine
and setting wheel C in motion.
(2.) If Ais stopped, C moves round and causes the spindle to

travel (without turning) back again to mid-position of the control

valve, thus stopping the engine. The feather and slot referred to
allow of this taking place.
(3.) If A
and C move round at the same relative speed the control
valve will remain open and the engine keep running, but if the speed
of C exceeds that of A
the control valve will close and the engine
stop.
In the same way, to open the control valve further the speed of
A must exceed that of C.

Steering Gear by Messrs Davis & Co.

In this gear an expansion or regulating steam vah'e is fitted in
addition to the control valve. The expansion v^alve is operated by
a nut, which travels up or down the vertical shaft connecting the
steering wheel and control valve spindle and opens the expansion
valve a certain amount on either side, admitting the steam to the
control valve in proportion to the amount of work to be done.
The spindle B of the control valve works in or out of the nut
wheel C as required, and admits the steam to the main valves of the
engine. The wheel A
is connected to the spindle B by a slot and
feather which allows of a lateral movement of the spindle B when it
is not turning.

—
Action. (i.) If wheel A is moved round by the steering wheel the
spindle B moves either in or out of the nut wheel C and opens
the control valve, thus starting the engine and setting wheel C in
motion.
(2.) If A
is stopped C moves round and causes the spindle B to
travel (without turning) back again to mid-position of the control
valve, thus stopping the engine. The feather and slot referred to
allow of this taking place.
(3.) If A
and C move round at the same relative speed the control
valve will remain open and the engine keep running, but if the speed
of C exceeds that of A the control valve will close and the engine
stop.
In the same way, to open the control valve further the speed of
A must exceed that of C. The expansion valve is arranged to open
when full steam is required in the engine.
General Notes and Descriptions 347

o
U

>
Q
(0
V)

U
at
a;
O
bo

o
(0

53

6
2
 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches
548

Steering Gear by Messrs Alley & M'Lellan.

In this gear the spindle B moves horizontally for a small distance

in or out of the teeth of the bevel wheels, which are cut specially deep
to allow of this, a'nd, acting on the lever in connection with the
control valve spindle, moves the valve to right or left as required.
The small travel of the spindle B is increased at the control valve

FROM
STEERING^ CONTROL
WHEEL VALVE

DEEP
-TEETH
PINION WHEEL,
FORMING NuT

. FIXED C-
TO SHAFT
THE SHAFT
TRAVELS LATERALLY CONNECTS
<

No. 63.— Steering Gear by Messrs Alley & M'Lellan.

by the leverage obtained. The pinion wheel C, which gears with the
chain drum wheel, forms the nut in which the spindle travels.

Action. —
(i.) If wheel A
is moved round by the steering wheel with
C stationary, the spindle B moves horizontally to right or left and
opens the control valve, thus starting the engine and setting C in
motion.
(2.) If A is stopped C moves round, causing B to move back
again until the control valve is brought to rnid-position and the
engine is stopped.
(3) If A
and C move round at the same relative speed the control
valve will remain open and the engine keep running, but if the speed
 General Notes and Descriptions 349
of C exceeds that of A the control valve wiil close and the engine
stop.
In the same way, to open the control valve further the speed of
A must exceed that of C.

Steering Gear by Messrs Hastie & Co.

In this gear the control valve moves round on its axis instead of
travelling laterally as in the others, and so opens the ports to the
centre or to the ends of the engine valves. The control valve
mechanism consists of three bevel wheels, one of which travels
round the other two and operates the rolling quadrant connected
to the control valve. The left-hand bevel wheel of the three is
keyed to the rotating spindle actuated by the steering wheel, and
the right-hand bevel wheel is keyed to the worm-wheel, which,
observe, is clear of the spindle. The top bevel wheel B is free, and
is one with the rolling or "tumbling" quadrant which connects by
teeth to the control valve spindle to move it round to right or left
as required.
It will thus be seen that the top wheel B travels roiuid between
the teeth of the other two bevel wheels. With B at top the control
valve is in mid-position and therefore closed, but if it travels down
on either side the control valve is opened.

Action. — (i.) If A is moved round by the steering wheel with C

stationary, wheel B travels round and down between the other two
bevel wheels and opens the control valve, thus starting the engine
and setting C in motion.
(2.) If A is stopped C moves round in the reverse direction, causing
B to travel back and up again to the top position, so that the control
valve is closed and the engine stopped.
(3.) If xA and C move round at the same speed one counterbalances
the other, and the control valve will remain open and the engine
keep running, but if the speed of C exceeds that of A
the control
valve will close and the engine stop.
In the same way, to open the control valve further the speed of
A must exceed that of C.
NOTE.— In of the foregoing- types of steering gear engines a limit is fixed
all
to the running of the engine by means of "stop" arrangements, which prevent
damage to the steering gear in general. The "stops" check the travel of the
rudder chains beyond a fixed point.

be noted that when the steamer is going ahead, say at

It .should
full speed, with the rudder hard over to either port or starboard, the
friction of the steering gear prevents the chain barrel from revolving,
and so allowing the rudder to slip back again to mid-position. This
will perhaps be understood when it is remembered that though the
worm may cause the worm-wheel to revolve, it is almost a mechanical
350 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

o
u

X
tn
u
t/i
(/)

us
u

O
bo
C
a;

6
2:
 u

^1
:^
OJ

'I 'J
n \

fjmrn^r'] ,

(J

^^ f
 No. 65.-Browns Patent Steam Tiller (Direct
Geared Type).

.i.r'N«.s,ndSk,u.h„.
 General Notes and Descriptions 351

impossibility for the worm-wheel to cause rotation of the worm, in

fact, the teeth would give way first.
Supposing, however, that the worm-wheel and barrel did revolve
and cause the worm to go round, the effect would be to set in operation
the control valve, which, opening, would then start the steering engine
to run in the opposite direction, and thus prevent further movement
of the chain barrel.

NOTE.— By having two cylinders and the valves for each without steam lap,
certainty of action is ensured, as one or other of the cylinder ports will always be

open to receive steam, and so effect instant starting of the gear. Also, the key seats
being at right angles to the crank, this allows the engine to run either way as
required.

Description of Brown's Patent Steam Tiller.

(Direct-Geared Type.)

This type of gear, which contains many improvements over the

older designs of direct gears, has been introduced specially for ships
that require a smaller power of gear than the 1905 design with
countershaft. The general arrangement is similar to the old direct
gear, except that the worm-wheel has been considerably increased
in diameter, and the worm is now double-threaded. The oil pumps
are worked direct from the eccentrics, and placed in a well at the
bottom of the engine pan. The friction clutch is increased in size,
so as to make it more powerful. Brown's patent economic valve,
which absolutely shuts off steam every time the engine comes to
rest, is also fitted. The great advantage possessed by this valve is
that, should dirt or any foreign matter get in so as to obstruct its
working, it can only remain in the open position, so that the gear
does not become disabled, and would work under the same conditions
as an ordinary steering gear without this attachment. The cut-off
gear Q embodies the 1907 patents, with which no stops on the valves
are ever reached, thus preventing any strain or damage to the gear
by forcing over the telemotor when no steam is on the engine. This
gear gives a very quick opening at the commencement of the move-
ment of the control gear, and the motion of the valve is gradually
reduced to practically nil, though the control gear moves uniformly.
—
The same thing occurs in closing that is, it commences to close
very slowly, and just at closing the motion is very quick and decided.
This gives a very fine and delicate control of the gear without an}'
danger of reaching the stops on the control valve or its gear. With
the standard design and a rudder angle of 40°, it is possible, when
there is no steam on the gear, for the tiller to be hard over in one
direction while the telemotor is pulled hard over to the other and ;

a greater angle of rudder can be arranged for, if necessary. This

does away with any need for disconnecting the control gear when
using the hand or other gear for moving the rudder.
24
352 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

The crank-shaft A is forged from high-tensile steel ; and the

worm B iscast on to it from a special hard and tough bronze. The
valvelessoil pumps C are placed in a well, and discharge up into the
tank D, from whence the oil is carried by small brass pipes to the
various bearings, guides, &c. The main pinion E is machine cut
from a forging of high-tensile steel, and is solid with its shaft. The
rack F, having machine-moulded knuckle teeth of special design, is
made in halves, which are interchangeable, bolted together, so that,
should the teeth in the middle get worn through long usage, the
two ends can be turned in to the centre, the worn portions going of
course to the outside. The slipper G slides on the top of the rack,
and helps to carry the weight of the tiller, engine, &c. The slipper
or friction block H is made of cast steel. The slides on inclined
planes for about lo"" each side of midships, being tightest at the
centre and it has been found to hold the tiller quite steady, and act
;

perfectly. The stops I attached to the ends of the rack fit into the
teeth, and are secured by through bolts, so that they can be moved
when the rack is changed. The form of control valve J, fitted with
this gear, is of the well-known piston type, having one of Brown's
patent economic valves K fitted on top. The worm-wheel M forms
part of the friction clutch casing, and has its teeth cut in a special
machine, so that great accuracy is obtained. The distance piece
between the cylinders N has been increased in length, so that no part
of the piston rod that goes into the engine pan passes into the steam
cylinders or the packing in the stuffing boxes. This prevents oil being
taken over from the engine pan into the cylinders, and thus into the
feed water.
The hand gear has been redesigned and brought up to date. Both
the steam and hand gears are connected and disconnected by the large
friction bralces L, which give every satisfaction, and quite take the
place of the separate brakes frequently fitted. As the "cut-off" is of
the floating type, the steam and hand gear can be put in and taken
out in any position of the rudder, it not being necessary to connect
them in the position in which they were disconnected, or bring the
gear to the rudder.
The mechanical standard O has also been considerably modified
in design and brought up to date. This is, of course, for use in lieu
of the telemotor, or when it is desired to control the steering gear aft.
When changing from the telemotor to this standard, or vice versa, the
connection can be made in a second or two, as all that is necessary is
to take out a pin from one hole (marked P) and put it in the other,
according to which change is being made. These pins are of brass,
and have a large eye at the top, with a tapered point for easy entrance,
so that they can be easily unshipped and put in.
R is the receiving cylinder of the telemotor installation, and is of
the latest design, with patent single spring.
This gear can, of course, be arranged To work with control shafting
m place of the telemotor, if desired but as the type of telemotor is
;
 lil
»

-^

-^

••VerU
No. 66.— Brown's Patent Hydraulic Steering Telemotor.
 General Notes and Descriptions 353

thoroughly reliable, its adoption can be recommended in every case

where the distance from the steering gear to the steering position is

of any considerable length.

Description of Brown's Patent Hydraulic Steering Telemotor

(Sketch No. 66).

When the distance between the steering engine and the position of
the steering wheel is considerable, as in most modern ships, and it
is desired to have as frictionless as possible a connection between
the steering wheel and the steering engine, the telemotor shows to
the greatest advantage over shafting and its equivalents. One of the
advantages is that the small copper pipes can be led almost anywhere,
provided they are protected from heat and damage in fact, through;

places where it would be very undesirable to hav^e shafting, such as

saloons, berths, &c., as there is no noise, or oiling required, and no
motion, except, of course, the fluid through the pipes, so that there
is no danger of anything getting foul of bevel wheels, &c., and dis-

abling the gear. The telemotor described and illustrated herein is the
outcome of the original inventor's and makers' experience up to this
date.
Fig. I shows the vertical section of the transmitting cylinder A,
fitted with the piston B attached to the rack C, into which gears a
pinion D, the shaft E of which is made to revolve by the hand-wheel
through pinion and spur wheels F and G, by which a suitable number
of turns of the hand-wheel are obtained.
Pipes H
and I from the top and bottom of the cylinder respectively
are led to the gear aft, and are joined up to either end of the cylinder
K by means of the pipes L and M, the connection being made accord-
ing to which way the after cylinder is required to move in relation to
the forward one.
(Fig. 3.) This cylinder is fitted with a piston N with the usual
piston rod, and connecting links O which are attached by a lever to
the conti oiling valve of the steering engine. The piston rod is fitted
with two crossheads P P, between which lies a spiral spring Q, under
initial compression, and which is compressed further by any motion
of the piston, the object being to always cause the piston to return to
—
mid-position the steering engine control valve, of course, moving
—
with it when the pressure on both sides is equal, or tending to
become so.
When the apparatus is fully charged with fluid, any movement of
the steering wheel will bring about a corresponding movement of the
piston in the receiving cylinder K, and consequently the valve gear of
the steering engine.
In pulling the wheel round, it will be found to become sensibly
stiffer until it is hard over, .so that the steersman feels the amount of
helm he is giving the ship, much in the same way as in steering by
hand with the antiquated winding drum and chains and, on "letting
;
324 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

go," the steering wheel will run back to midships together with the
steering gear aft.
The increase of resistance of one large spring is very much less
than with the old design with two springs of small diameter, and as
the minimum power required here is fixed by the amount required to
move the control valve of the steering engine and bring the steering
wheel back to its central position, it follows that with the single
spring considerably less power is required to put the wheel hard
over. Further advantages are that a much better design of spring is
possible, with a larger factor of safety, and being co-axial with the
cylinder it is more efficient, as, with the two springs, one on each side,
there is generally a cross-winding action, or tendency of the cross-
heads to bear hard on the guide rods, due to it being practically
impossible to get two springs to exert equal resistance, or give out
equal power, through equal ranges of motion.
The telemotor on the bridge is fitted with an indicator R, as shown
in Fig. 2, which, when everything is in order, shows the actual position
of the helm. It is possible, however, that the piston packing leathers
may in time become worn, so as to admit of considerable leakage, and
it may happen that the piston B may be working altogether in the

top or bottom of the cylinder A, with the piston aft in the mid-
position, and the ship steered on a straight course with the indicator
pointing at, say, 20°, and this may go on until the indicator pointer is
almost past the degrees marked on the quadrant, still without dis-
abling the gear, as the capacity of the cylinder A is considerably more
than that of the cylinder K aft.
To readjust the indicator and position of the helm, it is only
necessary to turn the steering wheel until the indicator is brought to
zero, and the piston enters the bye-pass or central position, allowing
a free communication of liquid between both sides of the system, when
the compressed spring aft will immediately bring everything into
correspondence. As, however, the piston B in steering a ship is
always more or less passing the centre position in "porting" or
"starboarding" even to the smallest extent, the tendency is for the
piston N in the cylinder K always to return to the mid-position every
time the forward piston B is in that position.
The bye-pass is now greatly improved, being formed by drilling
two rows of very small holes, which are the correct distance apart
longitudinally, so that the two leather packings of the piston B are
between them, thus allowing a free passage for the fluid through the
holes and so round the piston. This, of course, allows the pressure
between the two sides of the system to come into equilibrium should
there be any difference, and the spring on the cylinder K then brings
the piston N and the control valve of the steering engine to their
central position. The small holes are not liable to catch the leathers
and turn the edges over, as frequently happened with the old style of
bye-pass where the opening extends right round. This is quite
obvious when it is explained that the holes are only just over
^V i"ch
 General Notes and Descriptions ^cc

diameter and nearly ] inch apart, the leathers being thus supported
by the metal between the holes. Another advantage is that the
cylinder is all in one piece and can be bored right through at one
operation, which prevents any possibility of getting out of line at this
part, such as was always liable to take place with the old arrange-
ment, through the joints not being properly nipped up, or any defect
in machining, &c.
It is sometimes necessary to set the gear so that the central
position does not actually represent the rudder as true fore and aft,
but a certain amount of permanent helm is required to counteract the
action of the propeller, &c., when the ship is under weigh. This is
done by making the connecting links longer or shorter, as the case
may require, by means of the adjusting nuts provided, thus altering
the central or shut position of the steam control valve.
In some exceptional cases, where it might be inconvenient to
adjust the gear by running the indicator into its midship position,
should the two pistons have got out of correspondence, there is
provided the hand-wheel S which opens the stop valve T, giving a
free communication between the top and bottom parts of the cylinder,
taking the place of the automatic adjustment by bye-pass at the
central position, and so allowing the indicator to be brought to zero
without moving the rudder aft. This valve must be shut and
kept so when working. It should only be used in cases where
there is very little room to manoeuvre the ship, as in narrow waters.
The reason for this precaution is that it may be opened when
unnecessary and left open or slightly open. In port it may be left
open with advantage, as should any one move the wheel, nothing is
moved aft, and so no damage can result.
A small tank U is provided with gauge glass, as shown. This
is usually charged with a mixture of glycerine and water, one part

of the former to two or three of the latter. The cock V is provided

for shutting the tank off from the system when charging up, &c., but
it must always be kept open when the telemotor is being used

for steering.
As it is very important that the whole system of pipes and
cylinders should be fully charged, and no air should be present, it
is necessary to provide for the expansion and contraction of the

fluid, due to changes of temperature, &c., and for this purpose a

valve box is fitted on the bye-pass, a section of which is shown on
Fig. 4. It contains a small inlet and outlet valve, the latter being
simply an ordinary safety valve loaded above the working pressure,
which is about 200 lbs. per square inch. As the temperature rises,
a portion of the fluid passes into the tank U, and as the pressure
falls the fluid returns through the inlet valve.
The entire telemotor on the bridge is constructed of gun-metal,
so as not to affect the compass. The motor cylinder aft is of the
same material, and the pipes are of solid drawn copper of diameters
varying from § to f inch internal diameter, according to the length
356 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

fitted. These are easily run, and may be bent into any number of
corners without adding materially to the friction of the gear.
A hand pump Y with tank Z is provided for charging up the
system, and suitable pipes for connecting are supplied according to
the arrano^ement of the gear on the ship. The cock on the tank is
for shutting off the fluid from the pump when not in use. Screw-
down valves J^ and J- are provided for shutting off the pump and its
connections when the system is charged, the discharge pipe from the
pump being connected to J' and the return pipe to J^ Two similar
valves, J^ and J*, are provided so that they can be closed when it is
desired to open out the cylinder K, and so prevent loss of fluid from
the system. When working, these latter valves must be kept
open, as also when charging up. A spring-loaded valve ]' is
provided, as shown, so that when charging up a system where the
forward cylinder is a great height above the cylinder K, the fluid is
retained in the pipes instead of coming down and leaving a vacuum
or empty space at the highest point.

Instructions for Charging, Adjusting, and Working.

It is of the utmost importance that all joints be watertight, as
any leakage will empty the small tank. After all the pipes are
coupled and the connections made to cylinders and to tank in
wheel-house, close the cock underneath the tank and fill to about
one-third full with fresh water. For cold climates, add 30 per cent,
glycerine, which ke'eps the parts lubricated, and will resist frost to
about zero Fahrenheit (see table of freezing temperatures of
various mixtures of water and glycerine on page 359 ). Put the
hand-wheel in mid gear, which will be seen by the pointer coming
between the two zero marks on indicator. This opens the bye-pass
between the top and bottom ends of the cylinder, and allows the
whole system to be charged by one operation from the after part of
the ship.
Open the cocks on the side of the cylinder K
or motor cylinder,
and see the cocks J^ and J* are open. When pumping, great care
should be taken that the liquid in tank Z never gets so low as to
allow the pump to draw air, as the good working of the gear depends
upon the air being expelled. The liquid will shortly be seen to run
from the small pipe back into the tank Z, but the pumping must be
continued for some time, say three times as long as it took to come
back. By this time the air should nearly all have been driven out,
and each stroke of the pump should show a corresponding rush,
and not a continuous flow back through the return pipe to the
tank.
Being satisfied as to this, the air cock J^ on the top of the
cylinder should be closed, and a slight but continuous strain kept on
the pump. Now, go forward to the wheel-house, and on the valve
casing cover on the transmitting cylinder Awill be seen a brass plug
 General Notes and Descriptions 357
W^ ;remove it, and press down the spindle of the inlet valve, which
is immediately underneath, when the liquid will rush up owing to
the pressure being kept on by the pump from aft. When the casing
is quite full, and no more air bubbles up, screw in the plug W^ also
;

the plug A^ on the top of the transmitting cylinder should be

slacked back to allow any air imprisoned in the cylinder to escape,
afterwards tighten up the plug, close the cock J" on the under side
of the motor cylinder K, when the installation will be fully charged ;

open the cock V underneath the tank U, and all is ready for use.
The tank U in the wheel-house should be kept half full.
The gear may now be tried by putting the wheel over to port and
starboard, and noticing aft if a corresponding movement takes place
in the piston of the motor cylinder. Should it not respond on one
side or the other, then an internal leakage may be suspected in ;

which case, examine the leathers in the telemotor and motor

cylinder.
To take out for examination or renewal the leathers on the piston
B (a section of this piston with its leathers, springs, nuts, &c., is
shown to a larger scale in Fig. 7), it is only necessary to remove the
cylinder cover and turn the wheel so as to bring the piston up. The
rack is sufficiently long to enable the piston to be run up right out
of the cylinder and so be easily got at. If the bye-pass valve T is
opened, and the cover left on until the piston comes against it, this
can be done with little, if any, loss of fluid. To get at the leathers
in the after cylinder K (Fig. 8 shows the piston with its leathers,
springs, nuts, &c., to a larger scale), it is necessary to shut valve J^,
remove the cylinder cover, slack off and remove the two large nuts
that bear on the top yoke P, when the piston rod, &c., can be drawn
sufficiently far out to examine or renew the leathers. As soon as the
piston comes out of the cylinder, valve J^ should be shut, so that no
more fluid may be lost. It should not be closed before the piston
is out, or difficulty may be experienced in getting it so. All the
leathers used for the two pistons (four in all) are exactly alike, which
is a great advantage, as only one size of leather has to be carried as
spare instead of two sizes as in the older designs. Care should be
taken that any new leathers obtained are the proper depth, as the
action of the automatic bye-pass on the cylinder A may be rendered
inoperative, if they are too deep and cover the holes. The leathers
in the pistons themselves will not cause any trouble until actually
worn out, and even when in a leaky condition will work quite well
and keep in correspondence with the gear aft, in virtue of the spring
always putting the rudder in a fore and aft central position when the
piston enters the bye-pass portion of the cylinder.
The inlet and relief valves in the valve box W are not workiiig
but automatic valves they merely open and shut as occasion requires,
;

to allow for expansion and contraction of the fluid in the pipes due
to change of temperature.
After having made any repairs that may have been necessary,
 ;

35S "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

and before recharging, it advisable to clean out the pocket under-

is

neath these valves, the purpose of which is to collect any dirt or

sediment that may have been in the liquid. This is done by
removing the brass plug in the bottom, when the small quantity of
liquid that flows out of the pocket will carry anything with it.
When first charging up after erection, or after any repairs or
alterations to pipes, &c., it is advisable to disconnect the pipes from
both cylinders and force clean water through them, so as to wash
out any dirt or other foreign matter that may be in the pipes, and so
prevent it getting into the cylinders and valve boxes.
In addition to the stuffing box of the valve T, there are only
three more one on the cylinder on the bridge and two aft — and as
the water pressure need never exceed 250 lbs. per square inch, there
is no reason for any serious loss of the fluid in the tank. Keep the
stuffing boxes full of greasy cotton packing, and screw up as lightly
as is necessary to secure tightness, but not stiff}icss. It is advisable
to occasionally examine the leathers in the telemotor and motor
cylinder aft when the ship is in port. The necessity for this can
be ascertained by pulling the steering wheel hard over to port and
securing it there. The motor cylinder will be found to have responded
to same extent. If the gear is now left, say for half an hour, the
spring in the motor cylinder will have moved the piston towards
midship position if there is any leakage in the port leather. A
similar trial may be made to starboard, which will test these
leathers.
It need not be expected that these leathers should be quite tight,
but the motor piston should remain over for say ten minutes without
any serious movement towards midship position, that being about the
maximum time that, in practice, a helm would be held hard over
and so any little deviation due to leaky leathers would be at once
adjusted when the steering wheel is let go, the motor springs running
it back to zero, and the bye-pass allowing the free circulation of the

fluid.
Fig. a section of the telemotor through the centre of the shaft,
S is
and shows a screwed plug X. When it is desired to take out the
shaft E (the indicator being at zero), this plug is withdrawn and the
other end screwed into the cylinder until its point enters a recess in
the rack C. The rack is thus kept in its central position until the
shaft and the pinion are replaced.
Care should be taken to lubricate with good oil the various
working parts of the gear.
A glycerometer and thermometer are supplied with each installa-
tion, so that it is possible to test the actual proportion of glycerine in
the fluid at any time when the gear is not in use, by drawing some
of the fluid out of the circuit and testing in a similar manner to that
adopted for ascertaining the density of the water in boilers, the
glycerometer reading right off the percentage of glycerine.
 General Notes and Descriptions 359

Non-Freezing Fluid for Telemotors.

Water conlaining Refined ^^^^ ^^ ^^^,. j^ Kahrenheit.

(jlycerine.

25 per cent.
- - +18°
33 ^^ - - +1°°,
50 „ - - - -20
60 „ -
- - - 30 >
gt-'tliiig lliick

70 „ - - - Too thick to work at - 25.

Metallic Packing (Sketches Nos. 67 and 68).

The United States type of packing is entirely metallic, and is thus

specially suitable for high pressure steam or gas. Consisting as it does
of various members or sections carefully fitted into each other, any
side play of the rod is compensated for, the accommodating nature of
the springs, cones, rings, and blocks forming the packing, and which
constitutes perhaps the most valuable point of this well-known system
of packing the regulation of the packing block pressure is automatic,
;

constant, and reliable, and is regulated to suit equally well the out
and in stroke of the rod.
To exert a minimum packing
pressure against a rod, a packing
must be of the floating type, and
this important result is attained in
the U.S. packing, which is automatic and floating, exerting a minimum
but effective pressure against the rod, and thus preventing the escape
of steam in the case of high pressures and intermediate cylinder
rod glands, and the admission of air in the case of the L.P, cylinder
rod gland. The packing is free to " follow the rod," and this being so,
the pressure of the packing against the rod is reduced to a minimum.

Description.

Duplex Packing is designed for use with high pressures. It consists

of a block packing as described above used in conjunction with a cone
packing which includes a set of white metal rings (ii) placed in a
vibrating cup (10), the interior of which is partly conical. The duplex
follower ring (12) holds the cone rings in position, and transmits to
the latter the pressure from the duplex follower springs, which are
held in the ring (14) and protected by the spring cover (13). In this
arrangement the inner cone packing checks the steam pressure, and
the outer block packing is thus assisted, and the escape of steam
absolutely prevented.

—
Atmospheric Duplex Packing. For use on low-pressure condensing
cylinders. It consists, like the Duplex Packing, of two parts, but with
this difference in the Duplex Packing both parts are steam setting,
:

and operate in the same direction to prevent the escape of steam in :

the Atmospheric Packing the parts are placed face to face and act in
36o "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

United States Marine Type Packings.

»o
— ——
-^-^ 1
^l„R! ^^"t;

fJ^y>-^yZ/A.^M/

No. 67.— Duplex Packing.

No. 68.— Atmospheric Duplex Packing.

 ^

jaAjHMJuas—

awm <1U 3>IAM"G00W

;f-4S^^--|^5^-->|

/-C

QMAJO
 r--24--t4-'

Check Ring and After-Bush. Section through Tube. Gland and Flange of Tube.
No. 6g.— Stern Tube and Propeller Shaft.
(With dimensions for a i2-iach shaft.)

r
 General Notes and Descripiions 361

opposite directions. The inner packing only is steam setting and

prevents the escape of steam. The outer part is open to and set by
the atmosphere. When there is a vacuum in the cylinder, the
atmosj)heric pressure is actually used to tighten the outer packing and
automatically prevent the passage of air, which would impair the
vacuum.

DESCRIPTION OF COMPONENT PARTS.

A,
 :

362 "VerbaP Notes and Sketches

screw, so as to be self-locking when revolving. Needless to say the

stern tube is put in place from the inside of the ship.
Observe that a small check collar is cast on the tube forward of
the stern post for tightening up the nut. In the drawing shown the
diameter of the shaft liner is 13! inches forward and 13I inches aft
this is for convenience in fitting in or drawing out the shaft.
In running, it is better that a small drip of water should show at
the gland, as otherwise the gland brass bushes and packing may heat
up, and possibly tear up the shaft liner.
A water service is fitted, leading from the tube to the bulkhead just
over the gland, the temperature of which will indicate if the shaft
inside the tube is running cool or otherwise. To allow for partial
repacking at sea, the gland is often fitted in halves, with long studs,
so that the gland need not be taken off altogether when inserting
the turn of packing required.

Cedervall's Patent Stern Tube (Sketch No. 70). — The lubrication of

propeller shaft bearings within the stern tube has hitherto been chiefly
effected by the eakage of a certain amount of water into the bearings,
and its combination there with the oily surfaces of lignum-vitae strips ;

or by forcing a mixture of oil and tallow between the plain unprotected

bearing surfaces. In the one case the shaft, although partially
protected by a sleeve of brass, has certain parts constantly exposed
to the corrosive action of sea water ;
while the other method, under
usual conditions, does not afford a satisfactory means of lubrication,
as the water w^ashes away the lubricant from the parts where it is
most required, and the resultant corrosion and wear of shaft and
bearings are most excessive.
To overcome imperfections, and to reduce first cost, " Cedervall's
Patent Protective Lubricating Box " has been invented. The principal
objects of this invention are to absolutely prevent the access of any
external water to the stern tube, and to provide a reservoir of oil
capable of supplying a steady and continuous lubrication to the
whole bearing surface. The invention consists, essentially, of an
annular box of brass or gun-metal, containing an inner packing ring,
which is pressed outwards by a series of small spiral springs. The
box fits over the shaft, and is fixed to the forward face of the propeller
boss by means of screws, thus turning with the propeller, and the
inner movable ring presses against the prepared face of the stern
tube bush. The springs, while of ample strength, are of such
elasticity that, irrespective of any play which the shaft may have
in revolving or reversing, the ring maintains a watertight joint
with the end of the tube. As the ring is faced with antifriction
metal and well lubricated by oil from the inside, it revolves with
the minimum amount of friction.
The method of applying the protective lubricating box, and the
arrangement for supplying the lubricant, are shown in the drawing.
Three or more grooves are cut in the stern tube bush.
 .'^o^OHUin

-f'

J!^-"-^"^ ^
 OvCTflo* Oltk.

^r^ff-'TT^'W^r^,

^DaatNCociv^

No. 70.— Cedervall's Patent Stern Tube.

" Verbal " Notes and Sketches.

 —

General Notes and Descriptions 363

The top one is for the escape of air, and the others are for leading
the oil to the inside of the movable ring of the protective box. From
the stern tube three pipes are carried through the aft bulkhead, or
to any other convenient place, and fitted with cocks. The oil is
forced in by means of a small hand pump, and when all the spaces
are filled, the oil shows at the overflow cock.
From the foregoing description it will be obvious that the
protective lubricating box has several highly important advantages.
Its adoption does away with the necessity for expensive liners and
metal bearings, the plain cast-iron stern tube bush being all that is
required, and as a consequence of the efficient and uniform lubrication,
coupled with the exclusion of all dirt and gritty substances from the
bearings, the wear and tear on the propeller shaft is reduced to a
minimum, and the usual vibration at the after part of most steamers
is practically eliminated. Experience with vessels already fitted
with the patent lubricating box amply proves its efficiency, as after
several years' constant working the shafts on examination exhibit
bearing surfaces quite as good as any smoothly working bearing
connected with the engine proper.
The safeguard which this immunity from corrosion and absolute
wear affords against breakdowns of the shafting must be obvious
to, and appreciated by, all having experience with the present
expensive and not very efficient mode of fitting and lubricating
propeller shaft bearings. Although heating of the stern tube
bearings is most unlikely to happen with the arrangements shown,
should it occur, the oil may be discharged at the drain cock, and
water forced through the bearing by means of a hose attached to
the filling cock. To obviate the possibility of the box being fouled
by ropes, ice, or other floating bodies, a strong guard ring, made
in halves, is fitted over the box, as shown.

—
Drawing- the Propeller Shaft. The usual method of drawing out
thetail end shaft for examination or repair is as follows :

With steamer in dry dock, have all necessary working gear at

hand, such as : chain and wire rope tackle, strong wooden blocks,
screw or hydraulic jacks, light ram for coupling bolts, &c.
1. Fit up suitable staging round propeller.

2. Disconnect tunnel shafting and remove to one side two

lengths of same.
3. Place tackle in position for drawing out tail end shaft (usually
consisting of rope and chain blocks).
4. Shore off coupling of tail shaft solidly from bulkhead by
means of the wooden blocks mentioned before, and remove gland
and packing.
5. Remove nut at back of boss, by means of blows from a hammer
on the large spanner, having previously secured the propeller from
turning.
 —

;64 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

6. Drive in steel wedges hard up between boss and stern post,

and by means of a ram (hydraulic) force boss off the taper.
7. Connect up propeller to tackle, and draw tail shaft gradually
into tunnel, supporting it by blocks as it emerges.

NOTE.— Very often the boss is found difficult to start, and when this is found to
be the case one of the following methods may be tried :

1. Build a fire below the boss, and when heated up apply blows from a large

hammer on the end of the shaft, or the pressure of a ram on the steel wedges.
2. Bore a number of holes into the metal of the boss, then try the heating up, &c.,

as before. The holes are to allow of easier expansion of the boss when heating up.

No. 71. — Pulsometer Pump.

Description of the Pulsometer Type Pump.
The body casting comprises the two working chambers A, the A
air vessel B, and the discharge box, which is shown by the dotted lines
in the illu.stration. Valves G
G are fitted between the suction branch
 General Notes and Descriptions
365
C and the working chambers, and a second set of similar valves F F
is arranged in the passages connecting the discharge box with the
working chambers. Hand-holes L L are provided to give access to
the suction valves, whilst the discharge valves are reached by removing
the cover of the discharge box. Surmounting the body there is the
"neck" casting J, which contains the gun-metal ball I, and is fitted
with the steam pipe K. The air vessel B communicates with the
suction branch C, by means of a prolongation running down in front
of and between the two chambers A A,
The action of the pump consists of the alternate filling and empty-
ing of each working chamber, as the condensation and pressure of the
steam respectively exert an upward and downward force on the
surface of the water. The alternation of these operations is effected
by means of the ball valve I in the following manner :
—
Assuming one
of the chambers A be open to steam and full of water, the steam
entering by the steam pipe K, and past the ball I, passes into the
chamber and presses upon the small surface of water exposed. This
depresses it and drives it through the discharge valves F F into the
rising main D. The moment, however, the water in the chamber falls
to the level of the opening in the branch leading to the discharge box,
the steam blows through, and the consequent disturbance of the water
surface causes the instantaneous condensation of the steam. The
vacuum thus formed in the emptied chamber immediately pulls the
control ball I over on to the corresponding seat and cuts off further
admission of steam, allowing the vacuum to be completed. Water
immediately enters through the suction pipe C, and lifting the inlet
valve G, rapidly fills the chamber again. A similar operation has been
taking place in the opposite chamber, the period occupied by filling
one chamber corresponding with that of emptying the other, and these
operations continue alternately in the two chambers so long as the
pump is supplied with steam and water. The alternations follow so
rapidly and with such regularity that the stream of water is practicall\'
continuous. A small " snifting" valve is fixed in the upper part of
each of the working chambers. Their function is to introduce a small
quantity of air at each pulsation for the purpose of cushioning the ball
as it changes its position and to separate the steam from the water by
a non-conducting film, thus preventing loss of steam by condensation
during the forcing part of the stroke.

Air Pump Valves and Vacuum.

Tlie condenser vacuum is affected most of all by broken or leaky
bucket valves, next by broken or leaky head valves, and least of all by
defective foot valves, particularly so in the case of the newer t>-pe of
independent condenser which is placed much higher than the bottom
of the air pump and allows of complete drainage of the water. Foot
valves, although not much required for the maintenance of the vacuum,
allow the pump to work steadier and more regularly than would be
the case if these valves were omitted or were broken.'
o 66
" Verbal " Notes and Sketches

Hot-well Temperature and Condenser Back Pressure.

Neglecting air leakage, the pressure in the condenser can be
determined from the hot-well temperature as follows Note the :
—
hot-well temperature and look up the " Table of Saturated Steam,"
page 622, for the corresponding pressure.
—
Example. The temperature of the water in the hot- well is 141 ^
Find the corresponding vapour pressure.
—
Answer. On looking up the Table, page 622, we find that
the vapour pressure for this temperature is 3 lbs. absolute, which is,
of course, the back pressure in the condenser.
In actual practice air leakage reduces the hot-well temperature
for a given degree of vacuum.

NOTE.— The actual back pressure on the L.P. piston is usually from i to 2 lbs.
in excess of this, as a slight difference of pressure must of necessity exist between
the two positions of steam flow.

From the foregoing it will be evident that it is impossible to

have both a high vacuum and high hot-well temperature as the two
vary in inverse ratio. With a high temperature of hot-well water
the vapour corresponding to the temperature is also high, with, of
course, a proportionally reduced vacuum in the condenser.

General Definitions.
Heat. — Heat is a form of energy. When the molecules of a body
are set in rapid motion or vibration, heat results, and the more rapid
the vibration the more intense is the heat generated. The amount of
heat given to a body produces a difference in its temperature. Heat
may, then, be expressed as molecular energy, and the value of one
unit —
generally known as one British Thermal Unit, or simply
—
one B.TU. is equal to 778 foot-pounds of work. It should always
be borne in mind that Heat and Work are mutually interchangeable,
Heat giving out Work, and Work done producing Heat.

Foot-Pound. — I foot-pound of work is equal to a weight of i lb.

raised i foot.

Power. — Power is the amount of work done in a given time (as, for
example, per minute).

Horse-Power. — i Horse-Power (Indicated) is equal to a weight

of 33000 lbs. raised i foot in one minute or to a weight of i lb.
raised 33000 feet in one minute.

Unit. of Heat—
To raise the temperature of i lb. of water one degree
requires the expenditure of 778 foot-pounds of work. This is known
as the Mechanical Value of one Heat Unit.
 (jeneral Notes and Descripiions 367

Sensible Heat. —
Sensible Heat raises the temperature of a body, and
is measured by the thermometer.

—
Latent Heat. Latent Heat changes the condition of a body (as, for
example, ice to water, or water to steam) without adding to its
temperature. To change or evaporate into steam i lb. of water at
212^ temperature requires 966 units of Latent Heat.

Total Heat. — Total Heat is the sum of the Sensible and Latent
Heats.

Energy.— Energy is the capacity to do work. All energy really

originates from the heat of the sun.
Potential Energy is stored up energy, as, for example, a raised
weight, a coiled spring, gunpowder, and steam in a boiler.
Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion, as, for example, a moving
piston rod, or pump plunger, a revolving shaft, and machines in
general.
NOTE. — Potential Energy when set free changes to Kinetic Energy.

Force. —
Force is that which moves or tends to move a body, as, for
example, the force of steam, the force of water, the force of gravity, &c.

Inertia. —
Inertia is the natural property possessed by bodies at rest
to remain at rest unless acted on b}- some force, or, if set in motion
to continue in motion unless acted on by other forces, such as
friction, &c.

—
Centrifugal Force. Centrifugal Force means a force acting outwards
from the centre. An example of this is the centrifugal circulating
pump where the water enters at the centre and is forced outwards to
the circumference or periphery of the vanes.

Friction. —
Friction depends on the pressure exerted and nature of the
surfaces in contact, and is independent of surface area. For example,
if a small guide shoe is changed for a larger one the total friction is
still the same, but the pressure per square inch on the shoe is less
The coefficient of friction for lubricated metals is -08, which means
that -08 of the pressure exerted is absorbed in overcoming friction.

Steam. — Steamis an invisible gas obtained by the evaporation of

water. It may
be expanded to a lower pressure, or compressed to a
higher pressure it can also be condensed back again to water.
:

Stress. —Stress means the forces set up in a material to resist strain

or fracture, as, for example, a pressure of, say, 100 lbs. acting on a
surface of 10 square inches will produce a tensile stress of lOOO lbs.
on a stay of i square inch area.
-5
 "

368 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches

Strain.— Strain means change of form in a structure due to stress, as

for examjilc, when a rod is lengthened by tensile stress, or shortened

by compressive stress.

Specific Gravity. —
Specific Gravity means the weight of a body com-
pared with water and of the same volume. The specific gravity of
Wrought Iron is 77, of Mercury 13-5, and of Oil -9.
NOTE.— Water is taken as representing the figure i.

Efficiency. — The efficiency of an engine is lowered by (i) Boiler

losses, (2) Engine losses, (3) Mechanical losses, and (4) Propeller
losses. The average combined efficiency of a marine boiler, engine,
and propeller is only about 6 per cent, of the total, or is represented
by the fraction yV

Specific Heat (Capacity for Heat). —

Is the heat required to raise
I lb. of anything i° in temperature compared with the heat required

to raise i lb. of water l°.

Water
Steam
-----
------
(at 39°)
(at 212°) -
Specific Heats.

- - - -
i-oo
-48
Ice .5
Wrought Iron - - - -
-113
Mercury - - - - -
.033

From the above it will be seen that the amount of heat required to
raise lb. of water 1° in temperature would be sufficient to raise i lb.
i

of wrought iron nearly 9° in temperature, as i-f-ii3 = 8-8^

—
Hyperbolic Expansion Curve. This is known as the " Isothermal
or even temperature curve of a gas, and is obtained from the law of
Boyle which states that Pressure x Volume = Constant.
:

From this it follows that if the volume of a gas be doubled the

pressure falls to half, or if, as shown in the diagram, the original
volume of the gas is increased three times, the pressure falls to one-
third. Observe that the steam is cut off at one-third stroke, and at
the end of the stroke the final pressure is only one-third of the initial
pressure.

Adiabatic Expansion Curve.— If heat is neither given to nor taken

away from the gas the curve follows out that shown and is then
called the "adiabatic" or varying temperature curve. Notice that
during expansion the adiabatic line falls below the " isothermal " and
during compression rises above it.
 General Notes and Descriptions 369
Entropy. — An " Entropy '
diagram represents heat and work, the
area representing heat units per pound, and the cle[)th of the diagram
the absolute temperature of the gas. The length of the diagram, or
parts of the length, represent the "entropy." This diagram is of
great value in estimating the expenditure of energy in steam or gas
engines.

Gravity. —
The attraction of the earth, known as gravity, causes an
accelerating effect in falling bodies of 32 feet per second. This
number is commonly expressed as ^'"=32.
—
Momentum. Momentum means the force or energy acquired by a
moving body, and is equal to the quantity of Matter multiplied by
its Velocity; or, Mass x Velocity = Momentum.

Atmospheric Pressure. — At the sea level the Atmospheric Pressure

variesbetween 14^ lbs. (average, 147 lbs.) and 15 lbs. per square inch.
This pressure is measured by the barometer.

Gauge —
Pressure. "Gauge" Pressure is pressure above that of the
atmosphere. Ordinary steam gauges indicate pressures above the
atmosphere only.

Gross, or Absolute, Pressure.— The gauge pressure added to the

atmospheric pressure is equal to the " Gross " or " Absolute " Pressure.

Initial Pressure.
"
— The pressure at the commencement of the stroke
is called the Initial" Pressure.

Final, or Terminal, Pressure. — " Terminal " Pressure is the pressure

at the end of the stroke.

Effective Pressure. —
The " Effective " Pressure is the difference
between the steam pressure on one side of the piston and the e.xhaust
pressure on the other side. If the steam pressure is, say, 80 lbs., and
the exhaust pressure 10 lbs., then, 80— 10 = 70 lbs. Effective Pressure
(not mean effective).

Mean Effective Pressure is the average effective pressure exerted

on the piston throughout the stroke, or during one revolution. This
is the pressure required in calculating the Indicated Horse-Power of

an engine.

Combustion is a chemical process, and consists of the combining

(chemically) of Carbon of coal with Oxygen of the air, producing COo
and heat.
Complete combustion produces COg and water.
Incomplete „ „ CO and smoke.
NOTE. -The small percentage of water formed in combustion is due to the
combination of the Hydrogen of the Coal and the Oxygen of the air, giving H^O.
 —

Z70 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

Conservation of Energy.
this is meant that energy, like matter, is indestructible, and can
By
only be transformed from one state to another. Energy is said
to be wasted or lost in overcoming friction, for example, and this
reduces the useful energy of a machine, but the total energy remains
the same as originally supplied. A dynamo engine of a certain horse-
power transforms mechanical energy into electrical energy, but the
amount of electrical energy given out by the dynamo is less than
the amount of mechanical energy supplied by the engine, as part of
the energy is wasted in overcoming friction, weight, &c. Neverthe-
less the sum of the energy wasted and the useful energy given out
by the dynamo is equal to the energy originally supplied by the
engine, and can be all accounted for

Capillary Attraction.
The force which causes the oil in an oil cup to creep up the
worsted, and so flow down the pipe, is known as " capillary
attraction," and is due to the attraction of the molecules of the
oil to those of the cotton strands. The absorption of water in
a sponge is due to the same force, and the difference in level of a
liquid outside and inside of a tube of very fine bore, as shown by
the sketches, is another example of the same.
If in tube A
the liquid moistens the tube, the level rises as shown
above the normal and is concave. If in tube C the liquid does not
moisten the tube, then the level is below the normal and is convex.

No. 72.
ABC
— Examples of Capillary Attraction.

Vessel B shows the normal level of the liquid when free from the
influence of capillary attraction.

Siphon.
By means of a bent pipe with a long and a short leg known as
a siphon, water may be caused to flow from one tank to another one
lower down in position.
For the efficient working of a siphon the following requirements
are necessary :
 — 1

General Notes and Descriptions 37

(i.) The
height H
(sketch) must not exceed 26 feet, which is
the practical lift of a pump by the atmospheric pressure effect.

(2.) The bent pipe must first be filled with water to start the flow,
and this is usually done by drawing- out the air in the pijie and so
forming a vacuum.

NOTE. —The siphon will work

equally well with cold or hot water, in which,
it will be noted, it differs The weight of the water in the length
from a pump.
D of the pipe is the cause of the flow of water from the one tank to the other,
and the longer this is made the faster will the upper tank be emptied of its contents.

TANK
No. 73.— Action of Siphon.

Density of Steam.
By
density of steam is meant the weight per cubic foot volume.
The density increa.ses with the pressure, as will be seen on referring
to the Steam Table, page 622.
If the specific volume of the steam be given, the densit)' can be
determined as follows :
272 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

Rule. — Density = i -^ specific volume in cubic feet.

Example. At i8o lbs. pressure absolute, the specific volume of

the steam is 2-49 cubic feet per lb. express the density. ;

Then density = I -r 2-49 = 40 1 lb. nearly ; therefore the dens-ty or

weight of each cubic foot of steam at the pressure given is -401 of
a pound.

Shaft or Brake Horse Power.

It is now wellthat so far no method has been devised, or,
known
in fact, is be devised, for the indicating of the horse-power
likely to
as done in the case of reciprocating engines, but the actual power
transmitted along the shafting to the propeller may be determined
by means of the "torsion meter," an instrument which measures the
twist or torque put on the shaft by a given power. For accuracy of
results it is advisable to have the shafting calibrated beforehand, as
different builds of shafts and materials give slightly varying results.
It should be noted that the shaft horse-power or brake horse-power,
as measured by the torsion meter, is the useful horse-power, and that
the I.H.P. by comparison is a matter of indifference, the effective
horse-power being actually transmitted along the shafting to the
propeller being of chief importance.

Equivalent I.H.P.
Repeated trials have proved that the ratio of shaft horse-power by
torsion meter as compared to indicated horse-power is usually in the
ratio of 90 to 100, or -9 to I.

Therefore, Equivalent LH.P.= Shaft Horse- Power -r -9.

Example. —The collective shaft horse-power by torsion meter is

found to be 8100; calculate the equivalent I.H.P.

Then, Equivalent LH.P. =8100 -^ -9 = 9000.

—
Dryness Fraction (or Factor). In considering the actual work
done by steam, it is important that the dryness fraction be taken into
account, as the result greatly depends on this quantity. After work
is done by adiabatic expansion, the steam contains a certain amount
of water, which proportionally reduces the internal heat still left in
the steam. The dryness fraction is the ratio between the weight of
dry steam per pound and the weight of the dry steam and water
added together ;

0>-. ^Weigh^oXdry steam ^ j^ Fraction.

.,.
Weight of dry steam + weight of water

Suppose the water to be 25 per cent, of each pound v/eight of

mixture.

100 25^ 75 ^ 15 ^
Then,
100 100 20
3 __
^ ^^ Fraction.
 —

General Notes and Descriptions 0/ v)

So that after expansion and work done by the steam the actual units
or foot-pounds of energy left are, in this case, equal to the internal
heat units multiplied by the fraction f.

—
Total Heat of Steam. By the total heat of saturated, or boiler
steam, is meant the number of heat units required to produce lb. i

of steam from a temperature of 32° Fahr. to any given temperature

and pressure. The total heat includes the latent heat of steam
formation and the sensible or thermometer heat.
Rule.— 1083 + -3 xT° = Total Heat (above 32" Fahr).
Where, T° = Temperature of the steam (Fahr.).

Internal Heat* of Steam. —

By this is meant the heat or energy
required to change i lb. of water into steam at any given pressure.

External Heat of Steam. — By this is meant the heat required to

produce increase of volume (water to steam) against an external
resistance or pressure.

Latent Heat of Steam. —

The sum of the Internal heat and External
heat equal to the latent heat.
is

The Latent Heat can be calculated as follows :

Rule.— 1114 - 7 xT°- Latent Heat.

Where, T' = Temperature of the steam (Fahr.).

Example. — Calculate the Total Heat, Latent Heat, and Sensible

Heat of I lb. of steam at 160 lbs. pressure by gauge.

160 + 15 = 175 lbs. Absolute pressure and 371° Temperature (from Table, page 622).

Then, 1083 + -3 x 371 = 1194-3 Total Heat,

and 1114- -7x371= 8543 Latent Heat.
Therefore, 371° -32°= 333-9 Sensible Heat.

NOTE.— The above are all calculated from a temperature of 32 Fahr.

Potential Energy is the energy contained or stored up in steam of

a given pressure and temperature, the amount of energy contained
increasing with the pressure and the temperature.

Kinetic Energy is the result of setting free the potential or stored-

up energy of the steam, which then shows as active energy in the
performance of work. In a steam-engine the steam acts on the
pistons, and by causing motion to take place work is done, and, as
a result, the steam falls in pressure and in temperature. In a turbine.
the steam at a given pressure and velocity leaves .the first row of
guide blades, and striking the first row of moving blades gives up
 —

374 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

part of its kinetic energy, which results in a decrease in pressure and

in heat.

Adiabatic Expansion. —
If steam expands in a cylinder or turbine
casing, and neither receives heat from any external source nor gives
out any heat externally, then the expansion is said to be "adiabatic,"
and all work done in the cylinder or turbine is obtained at the
expense of the internal heat of the steam, which in falling in pressure
and temperature conforms to this condition, and part of which
condenses. In the cylinders of a marine engine of the reciprocating
type, the expansion is approximately hyperbolic or isothermal, and
in a turbine the expansion is approximately " adiabatic."

Hyperbolic or Isothermal Expansion. This is founded on the —

well-known law of Boyle and Marriot that the pressure of a gas varies
inversely as the volume or, as it is expressed
;

Rule. — Pi X Vj = Po X v., = Constant.

Where, Pi = Initial pressure. Where, P., = Final pressure.

,, Vi = Initial volume. ,, Vo = Final volume.

Therefore,

and,

or,

and,

—
Foot-Pound. A foot-pound is the work done in raising a weight
ofI lb. up through a distance of i foot.

Torque. — Torque is the turning movement to which a shaft is sub-

jected when a force is exerted to rotate the shaft against a resist-
ance such as that of the screw propeller in water. In ordinary
engines the turning effort or torque is applied by means of the crank,
and in turbines by the direct energy of the steam acting on the
periphery of the blade circle of the rotor.

H^3,t. — Heat merely a form of energy, and as such exists in two

is
states
of
—
Kinetic
(i)
in that of Potential or stored-up energy, and (2) in that
or active energy. When the molecules of a body or gas
are set in rapid motion or vibration, heat is developed atid work
done. Con.sequently in the case of a steam-engine, either of the
reciprocating type or turbine type, the energy which produces
rotation of the shaft is obtained by means of the transformation of
heat energy into mechanical work.
 General Notes and Descriptions 375

150 I
 —

376 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

engine is therefore saturated steam. Sometimes the term "dry

saturated steam " is used to distinguish this quality of steam from
wet steam, or steam containing water from priming.

"Wet" —
Steam. If water is carried off with the steam due to
priming taking place in the boilers, the steam contains more water
per cubic foot than is natural to the " saturation " pressure, volume,
and temperature, and it is then known as " wet steam," or " wet
saturated steam."

—
Superheated Steam. If saturated steam from the boilers is passed
through the tubes of a superheater, the water contained in the steam
is evaporated out of it, with the following results :

1. Rise of temperature.
2. Increase of volume if pressure is kept constant ; or,

3. Increase of pressure if volume is kept constant.

The chief advantage of superheated steam lies in the fact that
cylinder condensation is practically eliminated, as the steam does
not then readily condense when exposed to cooled surfaces leakage :

is also reduced.

Another point of importance is that the specific heat of this

steam being only -48 (some authorities give -5), one B.T.U. of
heat supplied to the steam has the effect of raising its temperature
fully two degrees, as i -I- -48 = 2-08.
Boyle's Law of Expansion.
Boyle's Law of expansion states that "The pressure of a gas
varies inversely as the volume if kept at constant temperature."
Or, PxV = C; therefore, C^V = P, or, C^P = V,
where P = Absolute pressure,
,, V = Volume in cubic feet,
,, C = Constant.
This means that the pressure multiplied by the volume is always
equal to a constant number, or in other words what is lost in pressure
is made up in volume or vice versa, so that the result of the multi-
plication is always the same.
Example i. —The H.P. initial pressure is 185 lbs. gauge pressure,
and the cut-off -6 ; find the pressure at the end of the stroke.

Rule —
PxV = C ; therefore, (185+ 15) x -6=120 = C.
c v.,
Again, 120^1 = 120 lbs. absolute = P.,,

and, 120-15 = 105 lbs. gauge pressure.

It should be noted that the initial pressure is185 + 15, or 200 lbs.
absolute, and the volume -6, also that at the end of the stroke the
volume will be equal to i.
 — —

General Notes and Descriptions 377

Example 2. Initial pressure, 160 lbs. gauge, and volume, 2-56
cubic feet ; find the volume when the pressure drops down to 80 lbs.
gauge.
Then, i6o( 15=175- P,, 80 + 15 = 95 = ?.,.

Pi V,
Therefore, 175X 2-56 = 448 = 0,
C P,
and, 448 r 95 = 4-71 cubic feet = Vo.

JJOTE. — On referring to the Steam Table, page 622, it will be seen that the
actual volume of saturated steam at 95 lbs. pressure absolute is 4-54 cubic feet in
place of 4-71 cubic feet as brought out by Boyle's Law, which difference is prin-
cipally due to the fact that, under practical conditions, fall of pressure is accompanied
by fall of temperature.

Example 3. —The L.P. initial pre.s.sure is 11 lbs. by gauge, and

the cut-ofir-5 stroke ; find the pressure at the end of the stroke.

Then, 11 + 15 = 26 lbs. =Pi, and -5 = Vj,

so that, 26 X '5 = 13 lbs. absolute = C,
then, 13 -r I = 13 = P.. absolute.

Notice that V.3= i, that is, the whole volume of the cylinder.

Cylinder Clearance Allowance. — For even approximate results it

is necessary that the clearance volume of the cylinder should be

allowed for, so that the rule corrected for this reads thus :

(Cut-off + clearance) x Initial pressure = (Stroke + clearance) x Terminal pressure.

—
Example 4. H.P. initial pressure, 165 lbs. gauge; cut-off, -6;
clearance volume, 10 per cent, that of cylinder find gauge pressure ;

at end of stroke.

Then, Clearance = ^ ^-° = 'i (assuming cylinder as unit i).

100
Therefor*, (-6 + -i) x i8o = (i + -i) x P,

so that, P = '7^^^°= 114-5 lbs. absolute,

I.I
^^
and, 114-5- 15 = 99-5 lbs. gauge terminal pressure.

—
NOTE. If the I. P. receiver is, say, 1-4 times the capacity of the HP. cylinder,
then, ii4-5-M-4 = 8i-7 lbs. absolute, and 817 -15 = 667 lbs. on LP. receiver gauge.

—
Example 5. Apply Boyle's Law and find the H.F., I. P., and
L.P. terminal gauge pressures, also the I. P. and L.P. receiver
pressures; given H.P. initial, 155 lbs. gauge; H.P. cut-off, -6;
LP. cut-off, .5 ; L.P. cut-off, -4 clearance volume, 10 per cent, in each
;

case. LP. receiver=i-4 times H.P. cyh'nder vokime, and L.P.

receiver= 1-5 times LP. cyHnder volume.
 —

378 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

H.P. Cylinder.
155 + 15 = 170 absolute,
^ ^ ^°=-i clearance.
100
Tnen, (-6 + -i) x i7o = (i 4 -i) x P.
Therefore,

P = "^-^^°r^io8 lbs. absolute, and 108- iS = 93 Jbs. g-auge terminal pressure.

LP. Receiver.
H.P. terminal pressure -108 lbs. absolute,
Therefore, Receiver ^108^ 1-4^77 lbs. absolute,
and, 77- 15=^62 lbs. gauge.

I. P. Cylinder.

p--6x77^^2 absolute,
Therefore, lbs.
i-i

and, 42-15 = 27 lbs. gauge terminal pressure.

L.P. Receiver.
I. p. terminal pressure = 42 lbs. absolute.

Therefore, Receiver = 42 -M -5 = 28 lbs. absolute,

and, 28- 15=13 lbs. gauge.

L.P. Cylinder.
(4 + -I) x28 = (i + -i)xP.

Therefore, P = '-^^-^ = 12-7 lbs. absolute.

Observe that the last pressure found is equal to about 2^ lbs. belozv
that of the atmosphere.

Boyle's law of expansion may, as before stated, be expressed as

follows :

P] X Vi = P., X V.J, or. Pi X Vi = Constant.

Therefore, ^i^i = P,, or.^'-^l Y> ^ y.

Again, P^..v„or, P^^3=P,

"1 * 1

Where Pi = Initial absolute pressure,

,, V, — Initial volume,
,, P.2 = Terminal absolute pressure,

,, Vo = Terminal volume.

At constant temperattire the initial pressure absolute multiplied by

the volume is equal to the terminal pressure absolute multiplied
by the volume, which simply means that as the pressure decreases
the volume increases proportionally, or vice versa. What is lost in
 )

General Notes and Descri|)tions 379

pressure is gained in volume, or what is gained in pressure is lost

in volume. After the cut-off takes place we have an example of

decrease in pressure and increase in volume, and when the exhaust
closes we have an example of decrease of volume and increase of
pressure (compression).

Example i. H.P. initial pressure, 165— lbs. gauge ; cut-off, '6 ; find
the pressure at end of stroke.

(I. ) Then, P, x Vj = P.^ x V,= i8o x -6-= Po x i.

Therefore, ~— I
^i^ = P.,= io8 lbs. absolute,

and, 108-15=93 lbs. by gauge. Answer.

Observe that the volume at cut-off is -6 of stroke, and at the end

of stroke the volume is i or the full stroke, also 165 -|- 15 = 180 lbs.
absolute pressure. At the end of the stroke the pressure is therefore
93 lbs. gauge, but when the steam flows into the M.P. chest the
pressure drops still further owing to the receiver capacity being
greater than that of the preceding cylinder, assuming that the
M.P. receiver is 1-4 times the capacity of the H.P. cylinder.

Then, 108^1-4 = 77 lbs. absolute,

and, 77 — 15 = 62 lbs. gauge in M.P. chest.

—
NOTE. It must be remembered that in all steam expansion problems the
pressures must be expressed as absolute or gross.

Example — H.P,
pressure, 170 lbs. gauge; cut-off, -6;
2, initial
M.P. receiver capacity, times that of H.P. cylinder cut-off in M.P
1-4 ;

cylinder, -5 L.P. receiver capacity, 1-5 times that of M.P. cylinder;

;

cut-off in L.P. cylinder, -5. Determine (i) the H.P. terminal gauge
pressure, (2) the M.P. receiver gauge pressure, (3) the M.P. terminal
gauge pressure, (4) the L.P. receiver gauge pressure, and (5) the
L.P. terminal absolute pressure.

Then, 170+15=185 lbs. absolute H.P. initial pressure,

and, Pi X Vj = P.J X V... = 185 x -6 = P,, x i.

Therefore,
185 -6
X ^^^^ ji^g absolute, and 111-15 = 96 lbs. gauge terminal pressure H.P.

Again,
iii-f i-4=79-2 lbs. absolute, and 792- 15 = 64-2 lbs. gauge M.P. receiver pressure.

(2. Pj X Vi = P., X V, = 79-2 ;; -5= Po X i.

Therefore,
^^-"^^ = 39-6 lbs. absolute, and 396 15 = 24-6 lbs. gauge terminal pressure M.P.

Again, 39-6+1-5 = 26-4 lbs. absolute in L.P. receiver,

or, 26-4 - 15= ii'4 lbs. gauge in L. P. receiver.
 )

3S0 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

(3. Pi X V, - P, X V, = 26-4 X .5 - P, X I.

Therefore, ?^'A "^J=i3.2 lbs. absolute terminal L.P. pressure.

Observe that the L.P. terminal pressureis below that of the atmosphere.

should be noted that the foregoing rule assumes the steam

It
to act as a perfect gas, whereas in actual practice the conditions
are somewhat different as shown below.
(i.) Difference due to initial cylinder condensation and re-
evaporation.

(2.) Difference due to the steam being of the condition known

as " saturated " (see page 622).
(3.) Difference due to work done by the steam on the piston.

These differences produce a drop in the pressure for any given

expansion below that as determined by the rule given. The saturated
steam expansion curve drawn out on page 375 illustrates clearly the
difference referred to and should be compared with the isothermal
curve.

Steam Expansions by Pressures and by Volumes. — The differences

in the action of the steam under practical conditions, as compared
with Boyle's Law, naturally results in a difference in the number
of expansions obtained throughout the cylinders.

—
Example i. Find the total number of expansions by pressures if
the H.P. initial pressure is 165 lbs. gauge, and the L.P. terminal
pressure 12 lbs, absolute; also by volumes if the cylinder ratio is
as I 27 7-2 and the H.P. cut-off -6.
: :

Rule. — H.P. initial pressure (absolute) -^ L.P. terminal pressure

(absolute) = No. of Expansions by Pressures.

165 + 15 -180 lbs. absolute.

Therefore, 180-M2— 15 Expansions by pressures.
Rule. — L.P. ratio -^ H.P. cut-off= No. of Expansions by Volumes.
Therefore, 7-2^ -6= 12 Expansions by volumes.

In practice the pressure at the end of L.P. stroke, being less than
that found by Boyle's Law, gives a correspondingly increased number
of expansions as compared with the number of expansions obtained
by the volumes.

Charles' Law.

A. The pressure of a gas at constant volume varies with its

absolute temperature.
 11/ 1

?i3.;;Ct

dec
 No. 74a.— Pressure and I.H.P. for Heat Efficiency Calculation.

* \'erbal " Notes and SUetchu:

 — ,

General Notes and Descriptions 381

B. The volume of a gas at constant pressure varies with its

absolute temperature.

Example i. —A superheater contains 200 cubic feet of steam

at a constant pressure of 165 lbs. gauge ;
find the volume when the
temperature is raised to 450° Fahr.
NOTE.— Absolute temperature =^ Fahr. Temp. +461°.
Therefore, 165 + 15 ^^^ 180 lbs. Absolute and Temperature of 373° Fahr.
and, 373 + 461 - 834 Absolute Temp.
again, 450 + 461 = 911' ,, ,,

then. As 834 : 911 :: 200 218-4 cubic feet. Answer.

:

—
Example 2. If the pressure of a gas is 150 lbs. absolute, and
the temperature 366° Fahr., find the pressure if the gas is heated up
to 400° Fahr.
Then, 366 + 461 -827, and 4004 461 ^86i.
Therefore, As 827 : 861 150
: : 157-4 ^t)s. Absolute.
: Answer

Heat or Thermal Efficiency.

Data —
Cylinders — 24, 40, 65 inches.
Stroke — 3 feet 6 inches.
Revolutions — 72.
H.P. steam —175 lbs. gauge.
I.P. steam—60 ,,

L.P. steam —-lo „

Vacuum —-24 inches.
I.H.P. of H.P. cylinder - -
472
I.H.P. of I.P. cylinder - - 566
I.H.P. of L.P. cylinder - - 540

I.H.P. collective - - -
1,578
Coal per twenty-four hours 28 tons. —
Coal per I.H.P. hour T-65 lbs.

Rule. —
Work done + Heat supplied = Efficiency,
and, Heat supplied - Work done = Heat rejected.
Again, Heat supplied (per pound water or steam) = iii54--3x T°-^°.
Where, T' = H.P. Initial steam temperature.
/ =L.P. Exhaust steam temperature.

Work done in heat units per LH.P. =33000 ^ "^ = 2545 Heat Units per hour.

NOTE. — 778 foot-poimds of work-i Heat unit value.

Heat supplied per LH.P. hour -pounds feed water per LH.P. x Heat per pound.
 —

^82 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

Application. —
To apply the above rules to the case shown in the
sketch facing page 381 :

Heat supplied=: 1,115 > -3 X 377-5 -i6o=- 1068-25 Heat Units per pound steam.

NOTE.— 175 + 15=190 lbs. absolute, and temperature (from Table, page 622) 377-5.

Heat given up as work per I.H.P. hour = 2545 units.

Pounds water (or steam) per I.H.P. hour \ _. 28 x 2240 x 8-8 ._

^^ ^^^ ^^^.
(Evaporation assumed as 8-8 lbs.) / 1578 24

NOTE. The evaporation of water per pound coal is the most troublesome item
to obtain with any degree of accuracy it can, of course, be determined by actual
;

evaporative tests, but the most satisfactory method is that adopted in Admiralty
trials where measuring tanks are employed which record the actual amount of
feed water entering the boilers during a given period. It should be noted that

the steam (or water) used per I.H.P. is the true test of economy as the quality
of coal varies greatly, and therefore does not constitute a reliable standard of
comparison.

Then, 14-6 x 1068-25 -15489625 Heat Units supplied per hour

Therefore, Efficiency = 2545 ^ 15489-625 = -
164,

and •164x100=16-4 per cent. Thermal Efficiency.

It will thus be seen that of 15489-625 Heat Units supplied only

2545 Heat Units appear as actual work clone in the engine.

Pressures, Volumes (Sketch facing page 381).

The following data of pressures, volumes, and temperatures

throughout the range of c)'linders and receivers should be carefully
studied by the student.

[ Pressure = 175 lbs.gauge.

H.P. valve chest < Specific Volurae =2-43 cubic feet per pound.
( Temperature = 377-5° Fahr.

[
Pressure = 60 lbs. gauge.
LP. valve chest Specific Volume = 5-68 cubic feet per pound.
(Temperature = 307-5° Fahr.

( Pressure = 10 lbs. gauge.

L.P. valve chest Specific Volume = 15-97 cubic feet per pound.
( Temperature = 240° Fahr.

I
Pressure = 2-8 lbs. absolute.
Condenser - - Specific Volume =117 cubic feet per pound.
( Temperature = 140° Fahr.

NOTE. ^The above figfures assume saturated steam at all stages of expansion,
but this is not strictly the case in practice, as the steam expands to a certain
 General Notes and Description.s 3^3
amount which results in reduced steam volume per pound at the
adiabatically,
expansion, part of the steam condensing in the performance of
latter stag^es of
work. The "dryness fractions" of the steam produced in this way may therefore
show somewhat like the following :—
384 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

Let, T,° = Absolute temperature before expansion.

To° = Absolute temperature after expansion.
Hi = Latent heat before expansion.
Ho = Latent heat after expansion.
/, = Dryness factor before
expansion.
y;.= Dryness factor after expansion.
The heat energy given out in British Thermal Units
=
/, X Hi -/, X H. + Ti° - To° = B.T. U.

—
Example. Find the work done per pound of steam in expanding
adiabatically from an H.P. initial pressure of 180 lbs. gauge, to a
terminal L.P. pressure of 10 lbs. absolute, the dryness fractions
being -99 and 76 respectively.
Then, 180+15-195 lbs. absolute =3797 temperature from Table, page 622.
Latent heat = 846-5 B.T.U. from Table.
And, 10 lbs. absolute = 193-3 temperature.
Latent heat = 1140-3 B.T.U.
Therefore, 379-7 + 461=840-7 absolute temperature,
and, 193*3 + 461 =654-3 absolute temperature.
/i Hi /, H., Ti T,
Then, -99 x 846-5 - -76 x 1 140-3 + 840-7 - 654-3 =
838-035 - 866-628 + 840-7 - 6543 = 1678-735 - 1520-928 = 157-807 B.T.U.
Foot-pounds - 157-807 x 778 = 122768-4 foot-pounds.

Advantages of High Pressure Steam.

To prove the economy of high pressure steam as compared with
ow pressure steam.

Compound 80 lbs. pressure = 324° temperature.

Triple 180 „ „ =380°
1 1 15 +-3 X 324= I2i2'4 units of heat required.
1 115 + -3X 380= 1229 units „ „

Then 1229—1212-4=16-6 additional units of heat required to

give more than double the pressure.
High pressure steam is stronger and more expansive than low
pressure steam, therefore a lesser quantity of it will do the same work.

Advantages of Using a Number of Cylinders.

Neglecting the advantage of two or more cranks in regard to
the stresses on the crank shafting, the principal gain by jhaving,
say, three cylinders is that the pressure is lowered a certain
amount in each cylinder, and the drop of temperature does not
take place all at once, but is divided into three stages the re- ;

evaporation of the H.P. doing work in the M.P. cylinder, and the
re-evaporation of the M.P. doing work in the L.P. cylinder, only
the L.P. re-evaporation of the L.P. being lost in the condenser ;

therefore the condensation losses, due to the cylinder cooling down

during exhaust, are very much reduced.
 General Notes and Descriptions 385

If we were to use steam of 200 lbs. pressure in one cylinder,

instead of in three cylinders, the great difference of temperature
occurring between admission and exhaust would cause excessive
condensation to take place owing to the cooling of the cylinder during
exhaust, but, by dividing this drop of temperature into a number
of cylinders the condensation losses are proportionally decreased
owing to the counterbalance by re-evaporation.

Cylinder Ratios and Steam Expansions.

In compound engines the ratio of H.P. to L.P. C)'linder is

usually about i to 4, and in triple expansion engines about i to 7,

or I to 725.

To find cylinder ratios — L.P. dia.--rH.P. dia.2= Ratio,

or L.P. dia.--^ LP. dia.2= Ratio.

If the steam is cut off at half stroke in the H.P. cylinder, this
equals two expansions in the H.P. then 2x4 = 8 expansions
;

altogether in compound engines.

For triple, 2x7=14 expansions, or 7^ | = 14 expansions.

Or, L.P. Ratio -f H.P. cut-off = total Expansions.

Example. — Cylinder Ratios are as i : 2-7 and 7-2 H.P. cut-

off -6 ; find No. of expansions by volumes.

Then, 7-2 -^ -6= 12 Expansions (Volumes).

NOTE. — To find number of expansions by pressures, divide initial absolute

pressure by final absolute pressure.

If we take the cut-off at one-third stroke, the 3x4=12 expan-

sions in compound engines, and 3x7 = 21 expansions in triple
engines.
In working out the number of steam expansions the size of the
H.P. cylinder and L.P. cylinder only are required, as the I. P. makes
no difference in the result, the reason being that the viitia/ and fifial
volumes of the steam limit the expansion range.

Cut-off and Pressures.

The final pressure, or pressure at the end of the stroke, is exactly
proportional to the cut-off.
If the cut-off is at half stroke, the final pressure will be half of
the initial pressure, and so on.
—
Example. Initial pressure, 100 lbs. gross; cut-off, 15 in.;
and stroke, 30 in. find the pressure at 20 in. of the stroke, at
;

25 in., and at the end of the stroke.

 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches
386
lool bs. xi5in. _^yg lbs. at 20 in. of stroke.

100 lbs. X IS in.

^^ jjjg ^t 25 in. of stroke.
25 in.
lOOjbs^x^Sjn: =50 lbs. at end of stroke.
30 in.

NOTE.— The above are all gross pressures; therefore if the answer is required
to be expressed as gauge pressure, 15 lbs. must be subtracted from the result in
each case.

—
Expansion of Steam and Heat. Steam expanding in a cylinder,
and doing work on the piston, falls in pressure and in temperature,
the fall in heat ("heat drop") corresponding to i B.T.U. for each
778 foot-pounds of work done.
Steam expanding withojit doing work, as for example from
the exhausting position of one cylinder to the receiver of the next
engine, falls in pressure by expansion, but only slightly in tempera-
ture ;in a word, the steam becomes superheated. Steam therefore
in the I. P. or L.P. receivers, at a given pressure, is usually at a
higher temperature than that corresponding to the pressure shown
on the gauge.
A similar result is obtained with reduced steam from a reducing
valve, as the steam having only to do a small amount of work in
compressing the spring, falls in pressure, but not nearly so much,
proportionally, in temperature the reduced steam is thus, to a
;

certain degree, superheated.

Expansion of Water by Heat.

The following table shows the relative volume of water at various
pressures and temperatures, and the gradual expansion with rise of
temperature should be noted.

Temperature and Relative Volume of Water.

Pressure
(Gauge).
 — ;

General Notes and Descriptions 3^7

which in many cases shows a lower level than the actual water level
in the boiler, the difference being due to the colder water in the glass
occupying a lower level.

Suction Lift of Pumps.

The suction lift of a pump depends on the vacuum obtained and
on the atmospheric pressure, so that when the barometer indicates,
say, 28 inches, the pump lift will be less than when the barometer
indicates, say, 30 inches, the difference of i lb. accounting for nearly
2 feet of difference in lift. Strictly speaking, no such force as suction
exists, only difference in pressure, but the word suction is still in use
with reference to valves, &c.
At a higher level than the sea the atmospheric pressure is less,
therefore a pump will have less lift in due proportion. It should also
be remembered that the vacuum will show less when the atmospheric
pressure is lessened, as the pressure on the outside of the U tube
tending to bend it is reduced with the same pressure inside the tube
this will naturally give the tube less curvature.

Vertical Suction Lift of Pumps at Different Atmospheric

Pressures.
Barometer

28
266
Reading.
29-4 inches
,,
-----
- - -
'

- -
Practical \'enical
Lift (approx.).
25
24
feet.

„
23
22-6 „ - - -
.
- 19 „
- - - -
19-7 „ - 17 „

Material or Shafting.— Shafting is now generally constructed of

ingot steel, that is, large masses of steel known as ingots, which after
casting are afterwards turned down by machine to the required
diameter, the ingots being originally much in excess of the size
wanted to ensure soundness of material. Good scrap iron forged
is also employed for shafting, propeller lengths particularly, many
builders preferring this to steel, owing to its less corrosive action in
sea water.

Stresses on Shafting.— All lengths of shafting are subjected to a

torsional stress due to the twisting moment set up by the cranks
in addition to this the crank shafting has to withstand a bending stress,
produced by the bending moment of half the piston load multiplied
by the distance from centre of crank-pin to centre of main bearing.
The propeller shaft is also subjected to a bending stress, set up
by the bending moment of the propeller weight multiplied by the
distance from centre of boss to stern post. To allow for these excess
stresses it is necessary to increase the diameter of these shafts over
that of the tunnel lengths.
The general stresses on shafting may therefore be classed as
follows :
388 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

_ ,
e.-«, f
Torsional.
Crank Shafting -
JBending.
Torsional.
End compression (ahead).
i
End tensile (astern).
Torsional.
Bending.
Propeller Shafting End compression (ahead).
End tensile (astern).

It will be obvious that if the propeller rises out of the water

during racing- the bending moment and stress will be much
increased.

To Line up Crank Shaft.

1. Disconnect bottom ends and hang up connecting rods and

eccentric rods.
Take out keeps and top half bearings.
2.

Jack up the shaft until coupling faces all fair, or test with
3.
bridge gauge for level.
4. Take out bottom half bearings, refill with W.M. and bore out
true.
5. Replace bearings, lower shaft into place, and test again before
finally connecting up the engine.
NOTE. — If the wear- down is slight and the engine not of large power, liners
may be fitted in below the bottom half bearings instead of rebushing the same.

Pistons. —
For highest efficiency the piston rings require to join
steam-tight joints at three places.

1. Between rings and cylinder walls.

2. Between rings (top edge) and junk ring.
3. Between rings (bottom edge) and piston flange.

At the same time the rings require to be a floating fit, otherwise

the springs or compression of the rings would be ineffective in pre-
venting steam leakage from one side of the piston to the other.
All patent types of piston rings aim at forming the threefold joint
referred to, which, however, is not easily attained in practice. The
Buckley, Lancaster, and other rings fitted with coiled springs are
designed so that the spring pressure exerts a force outwardly and at
the same time presses the two half rings away from each other, thus
forming a steam-tight joint between the upper ring and the junk ring,
and between the lower ring and the piston flange, the idea being to
prevent steam leakage to the back of the rings, which, if taking place,
results in excessive friction and wear of the rings and cylinder barrel.
This will perhaps be understood when it is stated that a pressure of
 General Notes and Descriptions 389

about 4 per square inch 011 the rings is sufficient to prevent piston
lbs.
leakage ordinary cases.
in
On the down stroke the friction between the rings and cylinder
barrel will naturally produce contact between the upper edge of the
top ring and the junk ring and so form a steam-tight joint, but for the
same reason the lower ring is apt to come away from the piston flange
unless held firmly in position by the piston springs, if not, the exhaust
pressure (about 60 lbs. in the case of H.P. cylinders) will be admitted
to the back of the rings and results in the sericjus frictional effects
referred to. On the up stroke the positions of the rings are reversed,
the lower edge of the bottom ring bearing hard against the piston
flange and so preventing the admission of steam to the back of the
rings, but the upper ring will now be loose, unless kept in place by
the springs, and will allow the admission of exhaust pressure steam
to the back of the rings.

No. 75.
— Lancaster Piston Ring and Spring.

The rings are made from a special mixture of cast iron,

containing principally cold blast iron and hematite, giving a
tensile strength of 20 tons per square inch, making them ex-
ceedingly strong, close-grained, hard, and capable of taking a
high polish.
To alter the length and tension of the spring (if necessary)
the ends are screwed into each other, and by varying the
distance which one end screws into the other, the diameter of
the spring can be altered so as to put more or less pressure on
the rings, thus furnishing compensation for increased steam
pressure or wear. The spring has ample bearing inside the
rings so that it cannot wear away.

In the case of patent feed pumps the water pistons require even
more careful adjustment, as if leakage to the back of the rings occurs
the water pressure is much in excess of the steam piston leakage
pressure. The side of the water piston where the rings would be
loose may have a pressure of 220 lbs, or more in the case of boiler
feeding, and if leakage occurred would result in enormous friction
between the rings and pump barrel.

Beams.
Many examples of beam construction occur in marine engineering
practice, such as, for example, in main-bearing keeps, escape-valve
bridges, pump levers, crank webs, tail-end shafts, &c., and a few
 '•
Verbal " Notes and Sketches
590

simple examples of the general principles involved should be found of

service.

Neutral Axis. —A beam or lever fixed at one end (cantilever) and

loaded at the other end (Sketch No. i) is subjected to a tensile stress

NEUTRAL AXIS

No. 76. — Neutral Axis of a Beam.

at the upper edge and a compressive stress at the lower edge (Sketch
No. 2) but at the neutral axis, situated midway between the two,
;

there is neither tension nor compression stress.

This will perhaps be understood when it is noticed that the upper

_
edge is lengthened (Sketch No. 2) by the effect of the load producing

r
I^HT
TENSILE

COMPRlssn7F--STREs3-

No. 77.— Stresses on Loaded Beam,

a bending tendency, and the lower edge proportionally sJun-tened, but

at the neutral axis the length remains unchanged, and the beam is
therefore subject to neither tension nor compression at this position.
From the neutral axis upwards the tensile stress increases from o to a
maximum, and from the neutral axis downwards the compressive
stress increases from o to a maximum, and allowing for a mean
position of stress and for the beam cross-sectional area, the constant
number 6 is obtained, which is employed in the equation connecting
the bending moment, load, and stress per square inch.

i^T-^l

No. 78.
 General Notes and Descriptions 391
No. I (Sketch No. 78).

Rule.
6xWxL = D'-xTx Stress.
Bending Moment = L x W.

Therefore, 6 X W X L
= Stress xWx L
D^xT -v? x Stress
= D,

yfj _ D- X T X Stres s
6VL '

T _ D^ X T X Stress
6xW '

^_ 6 xWxL
D'^ X Stress'

NOTE.— The strength of a beam varies directly as the Depth- and Thickness
and inversely as the Length, or as D-xT

No. 79.
No. 2 (Sketch
 = )

"Verbal" Notes and Sketches

No. 3 (Sketch No. 80).

Rule. —
6xWxL = D-xTx Stress x 4.

Therefore,
Stress
6xWxL =;
D2 X T X 4*
Bending Moment = LxW

NOTE.— If Length is in feet and Weight in tons, then B.M. is expressed in

Foot-Tons.

A No. 81.
kT->
6

No. 4 (Sketch No. 81).

Rule.—
6xWxL — D"xTx Stress x 8.

Therefore,
Stress
6xWxL
D'^ x T X 8'
Bending Moment (B.M.)=k?„^.
8

" L ^T-»;

No. 82.
No. 5 (Sketch No. 82).

Rule. —
6xWxL = D2xTx Stress x 8. (Same as last example.

Therefore,
Stress^ l^^^^
D^ X T X 8

Q^ / 6X W X L
V T X Stress x 8'
B.M. = t2LW.
8
 =

General Notes and Descriptions 393

x\N

-T^,

No. 83.

No. 6 (Sketch No. S^).

Rule. —
6xWxL=D2xTx Stress x 12.
Therefore,
Stress
6xWxL
D2 X T x 12'
T= 6xWxL
T X Stress x 12'
6xWxL
'=x/T X Stress x 12
B.M.
LxW
12

Example No. i. — Find the bending on a

stress per square inch
beam fixed at one end and loaded end by a weight of 5
at the other
tons. The beam is 6 feet long, 10 inches deep, and 3 inches thick.

Then, 6 x 72 inches x 5 x 2240= 10^ x 3 x Stress.

Therefore, Stress =
6X72X5X 2240 ^^^^^^ ^ j^^ square inch.
I0'^x3

—
EXAiNlPLE No. 2. Calculate the required depth of lever for a lever
safety valve. Length from valve to weight 25 inches, weight 20 lbs.,
thickness of lever h inch, and the stress on lever metal 3000 lbs. per
square inch.
Then, 6 X 25 inches x 20 = D- x .5 inch x 3000.

6 X 25 X 20
= 1-4
Therefore, Depth
V^ 5 X 3000
inches (say ih inches).

—
Example No. 3. Piston 24 inches diameter, pressure 120 lbs.
per square inch, distance between centres of connecting rod bottom
end bolts 18 inches. Find the required thickness of the cap if the
width is 9 inches and the stress not to exceed 6000 lbs. per square
inch.

NOTE.— Assume the construction to be as that of a beam supported at both

ends and loaded throughout. (Sketch No. 8i.)

Load = 24- X .7854 X 120 = 54360 lbs.

Then, 6 x 54360 x i8 inches = D- x 9 inches x 8 x 6000.

Therefore, D ^ ^^f^^~6coo=2-7 inches (say 3! inches).

 —

^g^ "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

Example No. 4. — A condenser door weighs 1000 lbs., and when

taken off is hung on a bar ih inches thick and 18 inches in length.

Find the required depth of the bar if the stress on the metal is not to
exceed 4000 lbs. per square inch.
NOTE.—This case is similar to Sketch No. 78.

Then, 6 x 18 inches x 1000= D- x 1-5 inches x 4000.

Therefore,
^ = /6 X 18 x 1000
° \/ i x 4000 ~ ^^'^
. ,
inches (say 4^ inches).
...

—
Example No. 5. Find the required depth of the bridge bar of a
feed-pump spring-loaded relief valve if the distance between the pillar
studs is 5 inches and the width of bridge 3 inches, valve 2i inches
diameter, and loaded to 50 lbs. per square inch stress 3000 lbs. ;

NOTE. — This case may be assumed as being similar to Sketch No. 82.

Load = 2-5- x 7854 X 170 = 833 lbs.

Then, 6x5 inches x 833 = D- x 3 inches x 8 x 2250.

Therefore, D^^/3x8x2250
6
"
X ^ X 8*?^
"^^ ^"*=^ ^^^^ i* ^"*=^)-

Consumption and Speed.

At ordinary speeds the consumption or I.H.P. varies as the cube
of the speed.

Example. — The consumption per day is 14 tons and the speed

II knots ;
find the consumption if the speed is increased to 12 knots.
As 11^ : 12^ : : 14 = 18-17 tons per day.

From this it will be seen that to increase the speed by i knot per
hour the consumption increases 4-17 tons per day.

Example. —A
twin screw steamer develops 2000 I.H.P. in each
set of engines, or 4000 I.H.P. in all, and runs at a speed of 14 knots ;

find the speed when running with one set of engines only, and
developing 2000 I.H.P.

As V4000 : 2000 : : 14^ : : II knots,

SO that with 4000 I.H.P. the speed will be 14 knots, and with
2,000 I.H.P. II knots.
NOTE.— The cube root requires to be extracted.

Speed and Slip.

The engine speed in knots per hour is worked out as follows :

PxRx6o
g-g-—
— =engme speed per hour.
P- propeller pitch. 60 = minutes per hour.
R = revolutions per minute. 6080=^ feet per knot.
 — •

General Notes and Descriptions 395

If the ship's speed per hour be subtracted from the engine speed,
the difference is the apparent slip. To express the sh'p as a per-
centage proceed as follows : —
As Engine knots : Slip knots : : 100 per cent. = per cent, of slip
(apparent).

Example. —The pitch is 20 feet, the revolutions per minute 70,

and the speed of the ship 12 knots ; find the per cent, of slip.

20x70x6o _^
^ g^
6080
And. 13-81 - 12^ i-8i knots slip.

Then, as 13-81 : 1-81 :: 100 :: 13-1 per cent, of slip.

To find the percentage of slip if the distance run by the ship per
day is known, and the revolutions for the same time as indicated by
the counter.

Example. — The distance gone by the ship in twenty-four hours

is 360 knots, and the counter indicates 135 112 revolutions for the
same period ; find the per cent, of slip if the propeller pitch is 18 feet.

I35II2 X 18 i u
-^^-__j— =400 knots by 1
engine.

400-360 = 40 knots slip.

Then, as 400 : 40 : : 100 : : lo per cent. slip.

Indicated Horse-Power and Consumption.

After finding the mean pressure from a pair of diagrams, the I.H.P.
is obtained as follows :

D- X -7854 xSx2xRxM.P. _j pj p
33000

D = diameter of piston in inches. R = revolutions per minute.

S = stroke in feet. 2 = two strokes per revolution.
M.P. =mean pressure. 33000 = foot-lbs. per LH.P. per minute.

The I.H.P. of each cylinder must be worked out separately, and

the results added together to obtain the total I.H.P. of the engine.
To find the consumption of coal per I.H.P. per hour divide the
coal used per day in lbs. by the I.H.P. and twent\'-four hours.

Example.— The total I.H.P. of the three cylinders amounts to

1,100, and the consumption per day is 18 tons; find the pounds ot

coal burnt per I.H.P. per hour.

18^^2240^ J lbs. of coal per LHP. per hour,

iioo X 24
 —

" Verbal " Notes and Sketches

396

Example. — The
H.P. cylinder of a compound engine develops
420 I.H.P., I. H.P.
and the L.P. 460 if the consumption is 20 tons
;

per day, find the coal used per I. H.P. per hour.

420 + 460 = 880 total I. H.P.

20x2240^^ ^f ^.^^1 i.H.P. per hour.
Then, ^^ j^g
880 X 24

cylinders of a triple expansion engine are 24, 40, and 65 inches

The
in diameter, stroke 3 feet 6 inches, and revolutions 70 per minute.
The mean pressures obtained from the indicator cards are H.P. —
55-6 lbs., M.P. 24-8 lbs., and L.P. 8-9 lbs. The consumption per day
is 22-5 tons.
Find (i) the I.H.P. ofeach engine (2) the ;
total I.H.P. developed;
and (3) the consumption per I.H.P. per hour.

24^x 7854 X3-5X 2x70x556^

84-1 I.H.P. in H.P. cylinder.
33000 ^ ^ '

40' X 7854 X3-5X 2x70x24-8^

, j^ p j„ j^ p ,j„^^^
33000
65^^ X 7854 X 3-5 X 2^70 X 8-9^ g, I.H.P. in L.P. cylinder.
33000
Then, 384-1 + 4759 + 451 = 1,311 total I.H.P. developed.

Tons.
*°*^' 225 X 2240
^^^ ,^g ^f j,^^j J j^ p j^^jyj.
1311x24

NOTE.— For average cases the consumption should be somewhere between

1-3 and i-6 lbs. per hour per I.H.P.

Coal Consumption, I.H.P., Speed, and Distance Run.

In comparing coal consumption, speed, and distance run, it should
be remembered that within moderate speeds the coal consumption
(or I.H.P.) varies as the speed"^ x distance, which means that the coal
burnt per knot varies as the speed'^. This amounts to the same
thing as stating that the consumption varies as the cube of the speed.
Therefore we have the following laws which apply to moderate speeds
for any given steamer :

1. The consumption (coal or water) (or I.H.P.) varies as the

speeds
2. The consumption per knot varies as the speed-.
3. The consumption over a voyage varies as the speed- x distance.

NOTE.— Above a certain speed limit the I.H.P. may vary as the 4th, 5th, or
6th power
of the speed. From the foregoing it will be seen that if a steamer
runs short of coal, port may be reached if the speed is reduced, for although the
time taken is much longer, this is more than balanced by the reduced daily con-
sumption which, under the reduced speed conditions, may be found sufficient to last
the voyage.
 General Notes and Descriptions 397
Examples. —
(i.) The consumption per day is 14 tons and the speed 11 knots;
find the consumption if the speed is increased to 12 knots.

As 11' : 12^ : : 14=18-17 tons per day.

From this it will be seen that to increase the speed by knot per i

hour the consumption increases 4-17 tons per day.

(2.) A twin screw steamer develops 2000 I.H.P. in each set of
engines, or 4000 I.H.P. in all, and runs at a speed of 14 knots find ;

the speed when running with one set of engines only, and developing
2000 I.H.P.
As ^'4000 : 2000 : : 14^ : : II knots,

SO that with 4000 I.H.P. the speed will be 14 knots, and with 2000
I.H.P. II knots.
(3.) The speed is 14 knots and the coal consumption 40 tons per
day find the reduced consumption if the H.P. is linked in to give a
;

speed of only 1 2 knots.

Tons
As 14^ : 12^ : :40 = 25-2 tons (nearly).

Therefore the consumption falls from 40 tons to 25-2 tons, a

difference of 14-8 tons per day.
(4.) A
steamer after having run 1000 nautical miles at a speed of
10 knots and consumed 72 tons of coal, has yet to run 1200 miles,
but the coal has run short, as the bunkers only contain 65 tons find ;

the economical speed required so that port may be made.

Then, 65X looox io-=72x 1200X K-.

65X looox lo^^^^,^

Therefore,
72x1200

and, V75-23=8-7 knots (nearly).

Therefore by reducing the speed from 10 knots to S-y knots

(say 8| knots), the coal will last the voyage, although a longer time
is taken to complete the distance.

(5.) Distance run, 2880 miles; speed, 12 knots; coal consumed,

300 tons time taken, ten days find the required speed to make port,
; ;

and the time taken, distance yet to go 1500 miles, and coal supply
only 100 tons.

Then 100 x 2880 x 12^=300 x 1500 xK-.

Tt.
Therefore,
r
^^^ —
100 X 2880
^-^^-^
X 12- r^o _ ^
= K- = 02-i6,
300 X 1500
and, \ 92^ = 9-6 Knots.
Time taken = 1500 -=-9-6x24 = 6-5 Days.
 — ——

9,^8 "VerbaJ'' Motes and Sketclier,

Therefore the coal will last 6-5 days at a reduced speed ct" cy6 kiicts,
the steamer covering a distance of 1500 miles, as I5cx)-r9-6x 24 =
6-5 days, but would only last 3-33 days at 12 knots, and cover a
distance of only 959 miles, as 3-33 x 12 X 24 = 959.
The proof can be shown as follows :

300 Tons ^10 Days = 30 Tons per day at 12 Knots.

Then, As 12' 9-6'' 30 15-36 Tons at 9-6 Knots,
-.
: : :

so that, 30x3.33 = 99-9 Tons,

and, 1536 X 6-5 =998 Tons.

H.P. Cut-off and Consumption.

The consumption (either coal or steam), and therefore the Horse-
Power dev^eloped, vary as the cube of the speed (at moderate speeds).
As the H.P. valve cut-off is the approximate measure or rate of the
steam consumption, and therefore the coal consumption, then the
variation in cut-off required for a given speed may be approximated
as follows :

Example. — Speed, 12 knots, with H.P. cut-off at -6 ; find the H.P.

cut-off required to reduce the speed to 1 1 knots.
Then, As 12^ : 11^ :: -6 : 46 cut-off. Answer.

Therefore the H.P. link must be run in to cut-off at -46 for 46 per
reduce the speed from 12 knots to 1 1 knots.
cent.) to

NOTE. —In actual practice the consumption is found to vary more often as the
4th power of the speed in place of the cube of the speed.

Efficiency.
Thegeneral average efficiency of the boilers, engines, working
parts, and propellers are as follows :

No. I — Boiler Efficiency = — or -66, or 66 per cent.

NOTE. — I lb. good coal contains about 14500 heat units, and to change i lb.
water into steam, ifthe steam temperature is 212 and the feed water temperature ,

212" (see page 622), requires 966 heat units.

Therefore, Theoretical evaporation = 14500^-966 = 15 lbs. water.
In practice, however, i lb. evaporates only 9 or 10 lbs. water.

Therefore, Boiler efficiency = —.

—
No. 2— Steam Efficiency. The heat efficiency of the steam acting
on the piston to develop horse-power varies from 10 to 15 per cent,
in actual practice.

NOTE.— Maximum Theoretical Efficiency of an engine = ,

T''-)-46i'
V/here, T = Steam temperature.
/ = Exhaust ,,

461 = Absolute temperature Constant.

 —

General Notes and Descriptions 399

Example. — The initial pressure is 180 lbs., and temperature 380"
Fahr., the exhaust temperature is 2QO° Fahr, express the maximum
;

heat efficiency of the engine.

Then, Efficiency = ^„ ~ -21,

^ or 21 per
^ cent.
•'
380 + 461

In practice only about 56 per cent, of this efficiency can be

obtained.
'^
Therefore, Actual efficiency = ^
-11-7 per cent, efficiency.
100

Combined Boiler and Engine Efficiency. — Suppose that i-6 lbs.

of coal are burnt per I.H.P. per hour.

Then, Combined efficiency = —- 33000 -.116, or 11 -6 per cent.

1-6 X 14500 X778

NOTE I.— Heat Value per lb. coaU 14500 B.T.U.

,, 2. — Mechanical Value of each B.T.U. =778 foot-lbs. of work.
,, 3.— 60 minutes per hour.

This result, it should be noted, corresponds with the last.

—
Mechanical Efficiency. The power lost in driving the air pump,
feed and bilge pumps, together with that required to overcome the
friction and weight of the moving parts, amounts to about 10 or
1 2 per cent, of the total power.

Therefore, Mechanical efficiency = 100-10 = 90 per cent.

Combined efficiency of Boilers, Engines, Shafting, &c. = —^ = 10-44 per cent.

—
Propeller Efficiency. The actual power utilised in driving the
ship through the water is only about 60 or 65 per cent, of that
delivered to the propeller, as blade friction, slip, useless effort of
rotation, &c., waste the remainder of the power.

Therefore, Propulsive efficiency = -60, or 60 per cent.

Combined Efficiency of Boilers, Engines, Shafting, and

Propeller.

Total efficiency = —'.^^

100
— —6-264 per cent.

Therefore, of 100 per cent, coal, or power supplied at the boiler

end of the plant, only 6-26 per cent, of this is utilised by the propeller
to drive the steamer, or the combined total loss is equal to 100 — 6-26
= 93-74 per cent.
27
 —

400 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

Squared Paper Diagrams or Curves.

By means of paper ruled off into squares (which can be easily
made by ruling off a series of vertical and horizontal lines, say J inch
" curves can be con-
apart), useful diagrams known as " speed power
structed which will be found of immense service to the chief engineer
of a steamer. The writer is quite aware that the majority of marine
"
engineers do not trouble themselves much with so-called "theoretical
diagrams, but he would direct the special attention of readers to the
use of the curves here referred to, which are of a strictly practical
nature, once grasped will be found both interesting and
and if
instructive. curves can be applied as a comparison or check on
The
speed, consumption slip, horse-power, revolutions, &c., and a few
examples are given by way of application.

Speed and Consumption Curve.

Example i. — From observation, notes are made of the con-
sumption of coal at various ship speeds, which are as follows :

At 2-5 knots the consumption was 6 tons.

4 7
6-2 10
7.8 15
20
10 „ „ „ 34
From the above plot out a curve of " speed and consumption."
TOWS
40

35

30
2
O
jl 20

2o
 General Notes and Descriptions 401

Method. — Draw out on a sheet of paper a number of, say, ^-inch

squares, and each horizontal space represent i knot, and each
let
vertical space or division 5 tons. Where required each horizontal
division can be divided into five smaller divisions, each representing
f-^
or -2 of a knot, and each vertical division into five smaller divisions,
each representing I ton. Number the spaces as shown, up to, say,
1 1 knots and 40 tons.

Now, at the first noted speed of 2-5 knots erect a vertical line, and
draw out a horizontal line from the corresponding consumption of
6 tons to meet it at the intersection describe a small circle or large
;

dot. At the next observed speed of 4 knots draw out a horizontal

line from the corresponding consumption of 7 tons, and again describe
a small ring at the intersection. Repeat this successively for each
noted speed and consumption, describing small circles at each point
of intersection as shown. Notice that at the speed of 6-2 knots the
vertical line is run up at the first subdivision between the spaces of
6 and 7 knots, this representing 6-2 knots also that at 78 knots the
;

vertical line is run up at the fourth small division between spaces

7 and 8, this being equal to 7-8 knots, and so on for each decimal of a
knot. Last of all, draw either by hand or wooden curves a line
running through all the small rings so found, and the result will be a
speed consumption curve which shows at a glance the relation
existing between speed and coal consumed at various speeds.

NOTE. — The value of the spaces may

be changed to any convenient measure
without in any way affecting the That is, each vertical space may be
result.
made to represent 2 tons in place of 5 tons, or each horizontal space made to
cpresent half a knot, or if found more suitable 2 knots, in place of i knot.

Economical Speed.
By this is meant the speed which will give the greatest distance
run for a given coal bunker supply, or in other words the greatest
distance which can be run per ton of coal burnt.
This can be closely approximated on the diagram by simply
drawing a tangential line from the left-hand bottom corner to the
curve as shown, arid the point of contact gives the speed and con-
sumption for greatest economy of steaming. If, then, on a voyage
the coal supply runs short, this speed would be the best to adopt
under the circumstances (see page 400) to make the coal last out
the voyage. The economical speed is at position B, which corre-
sponds to about 5-5 knots.

I.H.P. and Speed Curve.

—
Example 2. This curve is constructed in a similar manner to
the last, and is of very nearly the same value, as generally speaking
the consumption and power are practically equivalent terms, and
vary in the same relative proportion to the speed.
 —

402 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

Method. — Set off horizontal spaces of I or l inch as found

most suitable, repre'senting knots and vertical spaces of similar size,
each representing, say, lOO I.H.P. Therefore if each space be divided
into five smaller divisions each will be equal to 20 I.H.P.
Suppose that the following observations were made of I.H.P. at
different speeds during progressive trials :

At knots the I.H.P. was 40

3
4
4-5
5
6
7
 General Notes and Descriptions 403
circles ; finally, connect these circles by a curve, which is then the
"speed and I.H.P." curve required.
NOTE.— Observe that each vertical space-ioo I.H.P., therefore each fifth
of each space = 20 I.H.P. Also that each horizontal space = 1 knot, therefore the
fifth of each division = -2 of a knot.

SCALE OF
SPEED IN KNOTS.
ro t* at CP o \

c/> o
>
r- _
m en

U
Tl O a
o

< o
o
5°
o a
Z «-
ut

rn a
73 0)

"•
Z 00
6

Speed and Revolution Speed.

—
Example 3. This curve is useful in showing the relation between
the ship speed and engine revolutions. Set off the vertical spaces
on the left as knots and the horizontal spaces as revolutions. Then
404 "Verkd" Notes and Sketches

at any observed or noted speed and revolutions connect the points

and describe small circles as shown repeat this for as many speeds
;

and revolutions as may be known or noted, and draw a curve through

the points so marked, which gives the speed and revolution curve.

Speed and Slip Curve.

Example 4. —
This curve shows the relation between speed and
slip,which, owing to cavitation, generally shows as increase of slip
with increase of speed.

Method. — Set off as before, horizontal spaces (I inch or | inch)

as knots, and vertical divisions as per cent., each space representing,
say, 5 per cent, of slip. Now from the log or other data connect

«fc »o
 —

General Notes and Descriptions 405

the corresponding positions of speed and per cent, slip (see page 404),
and describe little circles as shown. Suppose the data to be as
follows :

At 4 knots the slip is 7 per cent.

)> o >) ))
o ))

» 7 5J )) 9 >'

» 8 „ ,, 10 ,,

„ 10 „ ,, 125 „
„ 12-6 „ „ 16 ,,

Observe that 12-6 knots equal to twelve spaces horizontally

is

and three-fifths of a space or the vertical is then run up to join

-6,

the horizontal line, projected over at the 16 per cent, level. As before
explained, draw a line through all the points of intersection, and the
result will be the " speed and slip curve."

Points to be Observed.
—
Example i. As previously explained (page 402) at intermediate
speeds the consumption or power varies approximately as the cube
of the speed. This can be seen in the "speed consumption curve"
which shows the consumption to be 15-5 tons at 8 knots and 34 tons
at 10 knots. Be}^ond this speed the consumption may vary as the
4th power in place of the cube, which brings out a still greater
consumption ratio, but which nevertheless reduces the consumption
per I.H.P. per hour, so that at low speeds the coal per I.H.P. per hour
is more than at high speeds.

Example —
2. This curve is very similar to the last, and in some
cases is practically equivalent, but generally it is found that the
power varies as the cube or as the 4th power of the speed.

—
Example 3. Roughly speaking the revolutions vary directly as
the speed, and this is borne out by the curve shown, where it will be
seen that at nearly 6 knots the revolutions are twenty-five per minute,
and at 12 knots nearly fifty revolutions per minute.
—
Example 4. An ordinary reciprocating engine propeller de-
velops greatest efficiency at low revolution speed, therefore as the
revolutions increase the efficiency falls off, and the slip ratio increases
;

this is shown by the curve, in which the slip ranges from about 6 per
cent, at 6 knots to 16 per cent, at 12-5 knots.

Combined Curves.
In modern trial trip practice it is usually found more convenient
to combine the various curves previously described instead of having
them drawn out separately, as the various results can then be com-
pared simultaneously, and a more comprehensive idea obtained of the
general efficiency. The following is a combined curve diagram of a
 4o6 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

modern high speed passenger steamer, and the I.H.P., Speed, Slip, and
Revolution curves are all shown together, thus allowing of a general
comparison to be made.

SCALE OF INDICATED HORSE POWER.

O
O ^OOOCSO
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 General Notes and Descriptions 407

projecting the necessary points on to the I.H.P., revolutions, or sh"p

curves. In the same way the I.H.P. divisions are divided up into four
parts, each being equal to 100 I.H.P. ; the slip spaces are also divided
into tenths for decimals of per cent., and the revolution spaces are
divided into ten divisions, each being equal to a revolution. Dotted
lines are shown to illustrate as clearly as possible how the small rings
which form the connecting points of the curves are located.
The three curves shown on the diagram were developed from the
following trial trip data, and it should be noted that the mean results
of a series are taken in each case.

Data for Curves.

Mean Speed
in Knots.
 —

SECTION VI.

MARINE ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY NOTES.

It need hardly be pointed out that a slight knowledge of chemistr>%
or at least of chemical processes, is a necessity for the modern
engineer, surrounded as he is by numerous active examples of
chemical action and reaction, which ha\e, in many cases, to be
resisted or neutralised by means of other chemical actions or
reactions. Unfortunately, however, man)- of the effects referred
to, instead of being eliminated altogether, can onl)' be minimised.

—
Examples. The following are a few ordinary- examples of
chemical action and reaction :

1. Combustion of coal or oil in a furnace.

2. Rusting (combustion).
3. Explosion of gases (combustion).
4. Corrosion in boilers, Feed Heaters, &c.
5. Corrosion in tank tops, condenser tubes, tail-end shafts, rudder
posts, propellers, &:c.
6. Scale deposits in boilers, P3vaporators. &c.
7. Formation of Marsh Gas in bunkers, oil tanks.
8. Formation of COo gas and Free Nitrogen in ballast tanks, &c.
From the foregoing it will be admitted that, to cope more or less
successfully with the destructive effects produced by the processes
referred to, a knowledge of chemistry is really necessary, as b}- it
the engineer may know how to obtain good combustion in the
furnaces, how to correct the action of acid or oxygen in boiler water,
the best methods of preventing explosion of Marsh Gas in bunkers,
methods of protecting the boilers against corrosion and pitting, how
to keep down scale deposit in boilers, &c. &c., all of which come
under the general heading of chemistry.

Composition of Coal.
Carbon - - 80 per cent.
Hydrogen - -
5
Average Coal Oxygen - -
8
Nitrogen - . jl
Sulphur - - li
Ash. &c. - -
4

100 per cent.

408
 — — —

Marine Engineering Chemistry Notes 409

Heat Values.
Carbon = 14500 Heat Units per lb.
Hydrogen = 62000 „ ,,

Sulphur = 42 „ „

Heat in i lb. Coal.

I lb. good coal contains about 14700 Heat Units, made up as
follows :

1450 X 80 ^
^^gPQ Heat Units from Carbon.
100

62000 xs_ 3100 Heat Units from Hydrogen.

100 14700 Heat Units, total.

NOTE.— The heat of the other elements may be neglected.

Chemistry of Gases, &c.

In chemical formula; the various elements are represented b}- the
following s}-mbols :

C = Carbon. CI = Chlorine.
H = Hydrogen. Na = Sodium.
N = Nitrogen. Fe = Iron.
= Oxygen. Ca = Calcium
S = Sulphur.
Small numbers affixed to any of the above s}"mbols indicate the
atoms or volumes of that element which go to make up the chemical
compound expressed. For example, water is compos'ed of two atoms
of h)drogen and one atom of ox}'gen it is therefore expressed ;

chemicall)' as H.,0. Again, dr)- Ammonia is composed of one atom

of nitrogen and three atoms of H}'drogen, and is expressed as NHo.
The prefix " Mon " means one atom, and " Di " two atoms.
The following are the most important chemical compounds to be
studied and committed to memor)- :

Atmospheric Air.

Nitrogen-
Oxygen
....
-----
Composition,
By Volume. By Wei^h
79-04
2096
77
23
.

Ordinar}' atmospheric air contains water vapour and a very small

—
percentage of carbonic acid gas about -04 per cent. It also contains
small proportions of Ammonia, Argon, also Aqueous Vapour and
Nitric Acid.

One pound of air at ordinary atmospheric temperatures occupies

about 13 cubic feet, and consists of Oxygen 23 parts, Nitrogen "jy
parts by weight.
4IO "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

,. •
_ / Oxygen -23 of i lb.
I ID. air--^^
jj-^j.jjggjj .^^ Qf J ijj (nearly).

NOTE.— Atmospheric air also contains a very small proportion of C0._, gas-
about -04 per cent.

Air Required per —

Pound Coal. (i.) Assuming that each pound of
coal requires in forced draught 20 lbs. of air for perfect combustion,
Then, 20 x 13 = 260 cubic feet of air per pound coal.

(2.) If natural draught, 24 lbs. are required,

Then, 24x13=312 cubic feet of air per pound coal.

Water = H,0.
Carbon Monoxide, or CO = Carbonic Oxide. This gas is obtained —
by incomplete combustion, due to an insufficient supply of air
or oxygen. CO will change into CO2
if sufficient ox}'gen be supplied
to it. An example of this is flame sometimes seen at the funnel
top. CO burns with a pale bluish flame. The specific gravity of
CO = -96.
Carbon Dioxide, or C02 = Carbonic Acid Gas. This gas is obtained —
(one wa}-) b}' perfect combustion in the furnace. It supports neither
combustion nor animal life. It is used in the form of carbonic ^^

anhydride'^ (that is, "without water") for refrigerating machines, as

when reduced to a liquid under pressure and cold, it quickly evaporates
again at a low temperature if the pressure is withdrawn, and expansion
allowed to take place.
It can be prepared in large quantities by the action of Hydrochloric
acid on Limestone.
CO, (together with Free Nitrogen) is also found in empty ballast
tanks and boilers under the name of "foul air," and the CO., gas
being fully one and a half times heavier than the atmosphere,
accumulates at the lowest parts of the tanks, &c.
It has been recently found by careful experimental tests that " foul
air" is made up of fully 85 per cent. Free Nitrogen, and onl\' about
15 per cent. CO.,, instead of being, as was at one time supposed,
entire!)' made up of CO., gas.
The presence of COg and Free Nitrogen can be detected b)'
lowering a lighted taper (or open lamp) into the suspected place,
which, if extinguished, denotes these gases present in quantit}'. The
atmosphere contains about 0-4 per cent, of CO.,, and this is under-
stood to be one of the causes of corrosion in boilers, as the air admitted
with the feed water contains Oxygen and COg, both of which in
combination are conducive to corrosion when set free by heat in a moist
atmosphere.
In testing for the presence of " foul air," a light, if lowered into
the tank or boiler to be tested, will either burn smok\- and black or go
 —

Marine Engineering- Chemistry Notes 411

out altogether, according to the percentage of " foul air" present. If

the light is extinguished, CO3 is present in dangerous quantity.

Free Nitrogen. —
When oxidation goes on in a ballast tank or boiler,
Free Nitrogen is produced by the rapid combination of the Oxygen,
which is therefore used up, and leaves behind the Nitrogen gas.
Nitrogen liberated in this manner is similar in its effects on life and
combustion to CO.,, in that it neither supports life nor combustion,
and thus constitutes " foul air."

Light Carburetted Hydrogen, Methane, or CH^ = Marsh Gas. —

This gas is usually found in coal bunkers, and is generated by the
gradual evaporation of the coal and its absorption of oxygen from the
air especially if damp. As the gas slowly forms by chemical action,
heat is generated, and the temperature rises, it may be, to the ignition
point, thus causing what is known as spontaneous combustion. It
should be noted that this gas will explode on the introduction of a
naked light into the bunker. Small or wet coal is most liable lo
produce spontaneous combustion. Danger of explosion from a light
exists when the proportion of CHj to air is in the ratio of i to 10;
that is, I cubic foot of CH^ to 10 cubic feet of air. Coal shipped
direct from the mine contains more CH^ than coal which has lain
for some time previous to shipping, as in the latter case most of the
Marsh Gas has passed off. Air containing 5 to 6 per cent. CH^
willexplode sharply, and when 10 per cent, ispresent it explodes
with greatest violence, complete combustion taking place. When
CH^ is suspected in a coal bunker, the only sure way of detecting it
is by means of a miner's Davy lamp, its presence being shown by a
pale blue " cap " or halo on the top of the flame. When an explosion
of CH^ takes place in a bunker great caution should be exercised in
entering it as the resultant gases (CO and COo) are highly poisonous.
CH^ itself in a pure state is also poisonous.
Marsh Gas (specific gravity = -5 5) is lighter than the atmosphere,
and therefore occupies the highest parts of bunkers and tanks.
Marsh Gas supports neither life nor combustion.

Petroleum Vapour, or Light Carburetted Hydrogen, is also found

in empty oil tanks, and is formed by the evaporation of the layer or
skin of oil left adhering to the bottom and sides of tanks after they
have been pumped out. Oil gas is of nearly the same composition as
coal gas, with the difference that it contains less carbon and more
hydrogen. This will be understood when it is stated that average
mineral oil as used in furnaces for fuel is made up as follows:
Carbon, 84 per cent; Hydrogen, 14-5 per cent.; and Ox}-gen. 1-5
per cent. Carburetted Hydrogen, if mixed with air, is highly explo-
sive it is also fatal to life.
; For this reason oil tank steamers are
fitted with special fans for exhausting the foul gases from the tanks
after the oil is pumped out. Petroleum vapour from heavy mineral
 —

412 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

much heavier than the atmosphere (two and a half times), and
oils is
occupies the lowest level of a tank.

Ammonia = NH.5. — This alkali (the opposite of an acid) is peculiar in

the fact of its having what is usually the property of an acid, that is,
a corrosive action on brass and copper. Ammonia being an alkaline
substance, changes red litmus paper to blue whereas an acid changes ;

blue litmus paper to red. Litmus paper is the ordinary chemical

test for acid or alkali.

NOTE.— Acids and alkalies combine to form salts, and in combining the one
counteracts or destroys the effects of the other.

Ferric Oxide = Feo03. — This is obtained by the chemical combina-

tion of iron and oxygen in a damp atmosphere. When two atoms
of iron combine with three of oxygen we obtain five atoms forming
FeoOg.

—
Hydrochloric Acid = HCl. This is composed of hydrogen and
chlorine,and is often found in empty boilers. The chlorine is
obtained from Magnesium Chloride, a constituent of sea water.

Sodium Chloride, or Common Salt = NaCl2.

NOTE.— Na is the chemical symbol for Sodium (Natrium).

—
Calcium Chloride = CaCL. This compound is used as a brine
former in refrigerating machines, where the brine pipe system is
used for cooling. This salt is very much more intense in its effect,
and is better in every way than common salt.
In making up the brine with calcium chloride fresh water only
should be used, as sea w^ater sets up corrosion in the brine pipes and
brine pump. Common salt has the same injurious effect.
Acids. —
An acid is a chemical compound possessing the following
characteristic properties :

(i.) Is sour to the taste.

(2.) Changes blue litmus paper to red.
(3.) Neutralises alkalies, and with them forms chemical salts.
(4.) Contains hydrogen.

Alkalies. —
An alkali is a chemical compound possessing the following
characteristic properties :

(i.) Is soapy to the taste.

(2.) Changes red litmus paper to blue.
(3.) Absorbs CO., gas.
(4.) Easily combines with acids to neutralise them and form
chemical salts (is then known as a *'
base ").
 —

Marine Engineering Chemistry Notes 413

Spontaneous Combustion in Coal Bunkers.

This likely to occur in bunkers exposed to the effects of fairly
is

hiijh temperatures, such as may exist when the bunkers are placed
very near the boilers of a steamer.
By the oxidation of coal the carbon is set free, and combines with
the oxygen of the air and forms CO^ and CO.
The gas produced by the gradual oxidation of the coal is CHj or
Marsh Gas, and it should be noted that this gas of itself is not
explosive, but only when mixed with certain proportions of atmo-
spheric air. A
lighted taper plunged into a jar of pure Marsh Gas
will not produce an explosion, but if the Marsh Gas were mixed with,
say, 10 cubic feet of air to i cubic foot of gas, a violent explosion
would result.
If the air supply is reduced to one-half of the above proportion,
the resulting mixture will not produce an explosion, or if the air
supply is increased to tzvice the above proportion, the resulting mixture
will not be explosive. The most violent explosion occurs when the
proportion of air to CH^ is as 10 is to i, a weaker explosion, however,
taking place when the proportion is as 8 is to i.
Marsh Gas can be detected by means of a safety lamp similar to
that used by miners, for if the flame of the lamp is turned down low
a blue " cap " or top will form and burn above the flame, thus indicating
the presence of Marsh Gas.
Marsh Gas can only be got rid of by means of ample ventilation
of bunkers or tanks, or, in the case of the latter, by means of special
exhausting fans, as employed in oil-carrying steamers.
NOTE.— The gases obtained after explosion of Marsh Gas (CH4) and air
are:— CO.;, H,0, and N.
Or, Carbonic Acid Gas, Steam, and Free Nitrogen.

Marsh Gas (CH,).

The following points regarding the explosive properties of Marsh
Gas when mixed with importance
air are of :

1. Ignition point, 1200" Fahr.

2. If atmosphere contains 5| per cent, of Marsh Gas ignition only

will take place if a light such as a match, candle, lamp, or fat electric
spark is applied.
3. If atmosphere contains 10 per cent, of Marsh Gas a violent
explosion will take place if a light is applied.
4. If atmosphere contains 18 per cent, of Marsh Gas ignition only
will take place if a light is applied and if the percentage of
;

Marsh Gas is more than this the combustible nature of the mixture
decreases.
Briefly, if the oxygen (or air) supply is low (5 A per cent.) the
mixture is not favourable to combustion, and if the oxygen (or air)
supply is high or excessive (20 per cent), the same holds good the ;

most suitable mixture for explosion being 10 per cent, of Marsh Gas
 ——

^l^ ''Verbal" Notes and Sketches

in the atmosphere, as with this proportion the chemical combination

is most favourablefor instantaneous combustion.

Causes of Spontaneous Combustion. —

F"ires in coal bunkers or in

coal cargoes are due to the rapid absorption of oxygen by the coal, and
the most favourable conditions for this occurrence are as follows
:

1. With freshly worked coal.

2. With small coal, slack, or dross.
3. With moist coal.
4. By heat in surrounding atmosphere.

The first signs of spontaneous combustion in a coal cargo are a

peculiar smell like burning oil, and the appearance of a mist-like vapour
in the air currents, also a rise in temperature of the surrounding
atmosphere. Inferior coal is more likely to ignite spontaneously
than good coal and coal of small size than lump or thick coal.
;

With small coal there are more spaces containing air, as for a given
cubic mass the weight will be less than for large coal. The oxygen of
the contained air is greedily absorbed by the coal under the con-
ditions mentioned, and this results in a rise of temperature, as when-
ever chemical combination takes place heat is developed. The heat
may in time rise to the ignition point of Marsh Gas (CH^), which
is 1200" Fahr., and fire will then break out. This firing of coal
generally originates in the centre or heart of a pile of coal and well
down in the mass, as on the surface the heat generated is carried off
by the ventilating atmosphere, and the temperature is thus kept
down below ignition point.

Prevention. — With coal cargoes, as usually stowed loose in the

holds, it is practically impossible to adopt really effective preventive
measures against the generation of Marsh Gas and danger of spon-
taneous combustion, but the following suggestions may be of use
1. Liberal ventilation.
2. In handling coal ashore, the coal is divided up into
sectional lots, with divisions betw-een.
3. Great care as regards ventilation is necessary with small
coal for the reasons given previously.
4. Coal to be kept as cool as possible.

Treatment of Fires. —
When a coal cargo or bunker takes fire the
following methods of dealing with the outbreak may be employed

1. For small fires the use of sand thrown on the flame will
be found sufficient for the purpose.
2. For more serious outbreaks "digging out" may in some
cases be successfully resorted to that is, the mass of
;

coal which is burning is (if possible, and safe to do so)

dug out altogether.
 —

Marine Engineering Chemistry Notes 415

"Sealing Off." —
In other cases of fire it is advisable to close down
or "seal off" the hold altogether, so that the fire may be starved of
oxygen. This method is only effective, however, if the closing
down is really effective, and all ingress of air actually prevented.
If leaks of air, however small, take place, the fire will be intensified
instead of diminished.

Water. — Water played on the flame may in some cases be

effective if the supply is ample and directed on the coal actually
burning, but if otherwise, the water applied may generate "water gas"
and only make the state of matters worse.
COo. —
This gas may be effectively employed to put out a fire if
applied in the initial stages, but if the coal once becomes incandescent
the use of CO.^ as an extinguisher may be totally ineffective.

—
Carbon. In the solid state carbon exists as charcoal, coke, soot,
graphite, and the diamond, the latter being carbon in the hard and
purest cr}'stalline form.
Solid carbon may be obtained by heating coal without allowing
actual combustion to take place this expels the volatile gases, and
;

carbon in the form of coke is left as the residue. The average heat
value is 14500 B.T, units per pound.

Nitrogen. — This gas does not assist combustion, as it is a quite"

inert gas, and termed a "non-supporter" of combustion. It reduces
is
the activity of the oxx'gen, and thus moderates oxidation and com-
bustion. During combustion it passes off unchanged in condition, but
raised in temperature.

Hydrogen. — This gas the lightest substance known.

is It exists in
water as H.3O. It is also combined with Carbon, Nitrogen, and
Oxygen in coal, and other substances. All acids contain Hydrogen.
When Hydrogen burns in air or Oxygen, water is produced, the
water consisting of two volumes of Hydrogen and one volume of
Oxygen, or H.2O. The action takes place in the furnaces, and water
vapour or steam is evolved by the liberation of Hydrogen from the
coal, and the combination of the same with atmospheric Oxygen.

Combustion. — Allowing 24 lbs. of air per pound of coal

Then, •77x24 = 18-48 lbs. Nitrogen,

And, '23x24= 552 lbs. Oxygen.

24-00 lbs. Air.

From this it will be seen that for each pound of coal 18-48 lbs. of
Nitrogen require to be heated up from say 62 degrees to 650 degrees
(Funnel Temperature), or 588 degrees. This illustrates the unavoid-
able waste of heat due to the heating of the Nitrogen of tlie air.
28
 —

4i6 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

Coal Gases.— Moist or damp coal in the bunkers generates the

followintj gases by steady absorption of Oxygen

--
Light Carburetted Hydrogen^
(I.) I Marsh Gas l = CHi.
I Methane J

The gas CH^ it will be observed, has three different names)

(which,
is and inodorous. It burns with a yellow coloured
colourless, tasteless,
flame, and can be detected by the use of a safety Davy type lamp,
which burns with a "blue cap" at the top of the flame if this gas is
present.
(2.) CO gas, or Carbonic Oxide.

This gas is also colourless, tasteless, and inodorous. It is poisonous

and burns with a bluish coloured flame. The Davy test lamp has
the flame surrounded by a mantle of gauze, the cooling effect of which
is to reduce the temperature of the flame below the ignition point of

Marsh gas. In testing for the presence of explosive gases the lamp
requires to be turned down to a mere peep, and if Marsh gas is present
the blue cap will then show at the top. CO can only be detected by
a flame when 12 per cent, is present, whereas | per cent, is dangerous
to life. The only sure test is by means of a small, warm blooded
animal, such as a mouse or canary, which are now used in coal mines
when this gas is suspected.

General Notes.
Combustion is the chemical combination of the Carbon and
Hydrogen of the coal with the Oxygen gas of the air, producing heat.
Weight for weight with Carbon, Hydrogen gives out the most
heat, as i lb. of Hydrogen contains about 62,000 units of heat, and
1 lb. of Carbon about 14,500 units of heat, but in actual combustion

the amount of Hydrogen in coal is so small (about 5 per cent.) that

its heating power may be neglected altogether, and all the effective
heat assumed to come from the Carbon, which constitutes four-fifths
of the coal.
If twelve parts of Carbon (by weight) combine with thirty-two
parts of Oxygen (by weight), Carbonic Acid gas, CO.,, is obtained,
giving complete combustion.
If twelve parts of Carbon combine with less that thirty-two parts
of Oxygen, Carbonic Oxide gas, CO, is obtained, giving incomplete
ombustion, with a corresponding loss of heat.
The funnel gases consist chiefly of Carbonic Acid gas. Carbonic
Oxide gas. Oxygen and Nitrogen, or of CO^, CO, O, and Free N.
NOTE.— Under conditions of good combustion the funnel gases are made up
as follows :—
Nitrogen = 80 per cent. CO,, = 10 per cent.
(CO, Oxygen, and H.,0) = 10 per cent.
 —

Marine Engineering Chemistry Notes 417

If CO is present in waste or funnel gases, combustion of the fuel

is incomplete and a loss of heat is taking place.
Black smoke is chiefly composed of uncombined particles of
Carbon.
In combustion the Sulphur of the coal combines with Oxygen
and produces SO., (Sulphur Dioxide), or more correctly Sulphurous
Anhydride. This is a colourless gas, possessing a strong, pungent smell.
Black smokemay be caused by excess of air as well as by want of
air,as excess of air lowers the temperature of combustion and prevents
the formation of CO^. The surplus air absorbs heat in passing through
the furnaces.
If coalplaced in a closed chamber, technically known as a
is

retort, and subjected

to destructive distillation, gases are given off,
leaving behind carbon in the form of coke.

Therefore,

1. In complete combustion the Carbon of the coal combines

chemically with Oxygen of the air to produce CO2 gas.

2. In incomplete combustion part of the Carbon of the coal

combines chemicall}' w ith the Oxygen of the air to produce CO gas,
and part combines mechanically with the air to produce black smoke.

3. In combustion the Hydrogen of the coal combines with

Oxygen of the air to produce water vapour, H.,0.

4. In combustion the Nitrogen of the air remains chemically un-

combined, but passes up the funnel raised in temperature, thus carrying
offbeat and representing the principal loss occurring in combustion.

Burning of CO.
A
light bluish coloured flame noticed burning at the back of
the furnace indicates the presence of CO gas (Carbonic Oxide, or
Carbon Monoxide).
During combustion the Hydrogen in the coal, set free by the
heat, combines chemically with Oxygen of the air and produces
water vapour, the proportions being Hydrogen two volumes, and
Oxygen one volume, or H.^O (water).
Carbon particles which have not been supplied with sufficient
Oxygen become mixed mechanically with the water vapour and
produce black smoke, the intensity of colour depending on the
proportion of solid Carbon held in suspension.
If CO., gas combines with an additional amount of Carbon the
result is the formation of Carbonic Oxide (Carbon Monoxide),

Thus, C + CO0-2CO.
 ;

4.S "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

Heat in Carbon.
With perfect combustion each pound of Carbon converted into
CO2 gas (Carbon Dioxide) gives out about 14500 Heat Units.
With imperfect combustion each pound of Carbon converted into
CO gas (Carbon Monoxide) only gives out 4450 Heat Units: the
serious loss of heat resulting from incomplete combustion will thus
be obvious.

Scale, Density, and Corrosion.

The generation of steam being a continuous process the supply
of feed water must also be continuous, and this natural!)' results in
the concentration of the impurities introduced with the feed water
these impurities develop as scale, increase of densit)', corrosion, or by
suspended matter (oil).

Scale Deposit is due to the more or less combined effects of heat,

pressure, and concentration of impurities.

Corrosion is due chiefly to the introduction of gases and acids into

the boiler with the feed, but may also be caused by galvanic action.
Scale in forming may also indirectly produce corrosion, as, b}' the
effects of the heat when the scale matter concentrates and deposits,
acids (such as Hydrochloric) are set free which cause corrosion.

Composition of Fresh Water and Sea Water.

Fresh Water.

Name.
 Marine Engineering Chemistry Notes 419

Sea Water.

Name.
•
420 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches

Chemical Composition of Boiler Scale.

 —

Marine Engineering Chemistry Notes 421

traction, which finally produce " fatigue " of the metal. The latter
condition is particularly applicable to the "saddle" of the furnace
where the combustion chamber is riveted to the furnace flange, and
which in so many boilers gives trouble by cracking or by leakage.
Leakage, if not taken up at once, will produce corrosion, as the
decomposition of the water or steam passing the leak liberates
Oxygen, which combining chemically with the metal produces oxide
of iron. On the furnace sides above the fire-bar level the intense heat
sets free oxygen bubbles, which adhere to the plate and produce
corrosion by chemical action. Again, the tendency to unequal ex-
pansion in the upper and lower half of the furnace is apt to strain
the metal at this position and slightl}' fracture the surface skin, which
is thus placed in a condition most favourable to corrosion.

NOTE. — The upper half of the furnace is exposed to a temperature of about

2500",and the lower half to a temperature of about 1000°. This is due to the fact
that the upper half receives the heat of convection, whereas the lower half only
receives the heat of radiation.

To sum up, the following positions are most often affected b\'
corrosion, &c. :

1. On water sides of furnaces above line of fire-bars (see sketch).

2. Bottom of furnace near the back end, and bottom of combustion

chamber.
3. Cracks round corrugations of furnaces (expansion and con-
traction of metal).
4. Cracks near back ends of furnaces at combustion chamber
(more often in plain furnaces).
5. Corrosion at tube plates due to leaky tubes, or at combustion
chamber back and side plates due to leaky stays.
6. Corrosion at ends of furnaces due to straining set up b\'
expansion and contraction.
7. Corrosion at bottom of boiler and combustion chambers due
to deposits and to weak circulation at these parts.
8. External corrosion caused by damp (CO^ gas) from the bilges,
from wet ashes, and other similar causes. If manhole or sludge-hole
doors are not tight the leakage will in time produce corrosion, as
explained previously.
Furnace corrosion, cracks, combustion chamber and tube leakage
are all intensified in the case of forced draught owing to the higher
temperature of combustion obtained.

Causes of Corrosion.
1. Oxygen and CO, gas brought in with the air in the feed water
and set free by heat.
2. Chlorine gas set by heat at high pressures from the
free
Magnesium Chloride contained in Sea water feed.
3. Galvanic action due to dissimilar metals, such as brass and
 — —

422 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

steel, connected metallically in a solution of sea water or acid

&c.,
water, such as is found in boilers.
4. Fatty acids set free by heat from oil taken into the boilers
with the feed water.
Stearic and Oleic acids are contained in vegetable and animal
" Hydrocarbon
"
oils, but not in mineral oil, which is of so-called pure
composition and free from acid of any kind. Cylinder or valve oil
should always be of this class.
It should be noted, however, that any class of oil if deposited on
the furnace crowns may bring about collapse.

Prevention of Corrosion.
Taking the case of new boilers, corrosion can be hindered to a
great extent by working as follows :

1. By using some sea water feed and frequent surfacing, or by

the direct addition of lime, first obtain a light protective lime scale
of ^^2 J"ch thick on the heating surfaces.
2. Use fresh feed water at all times if possible, and avoid alto-
gether the use of sea water as feed. For this a large evaporator is
necessary.
3. Employ a feed heater wdiich, in addition to heating up the feed
water, extracts most of the air and other gases from the water gases,
which (in the case of Weir's heater) pass away to the condenser.
4. Employ a feed water filter which, fitted between the hot-well
and boiler check valves, traps most of the oil or grease which may be
present in the feed water when it leaves the condenser.
5. Fit inside of the boiler and in clean metallic contact with the
plates or stays, slabs of zinc to set up galvanic action between the
zinc and steel, which action results in the wasting away of the positive
element zinc and the proportionate protection of the boiler plates.
6. If necessary, use soda in moderation.

—
Hydrochloric Acid. This corrosive acid is formed as a result of
the decomposition at high temperature of certain chlorides present
in sea water and reactions between such substances as Magnesium
Sulphate and Sodium Chloride. Hydrochloric Acid giving off
Chlorine produces corrosion in the steam space of boilers as, ;

however, it is both volatile and soluble, it may produce pitting

below the water line as well as above it.

Scale Deposit and Plate Temperature. The overheating effects —

produced on the furnace metal by various thicknesses of lime scale
deposit are shown below :

A scale thickness of j-\- inch requires an expenditure of 15 percent, more fuel.

" " i j> )) ), 60 ,, ,,

" " 2 >> » „ 150 „ ,,

At a scale thickness of \ inch or less the plates may reach the

 —

Marine Engineerin<;' Chemistry Notes 423

criticaltemperature of over 600', and collapse of the furnaces take

place. This will easily be understood when it is stated that a
temperature of 700° produces a low red heat on the plate.
A scale thickness of ^V inch is quite sufficient to protect the plates
from corrosion.

—
Magnesium Chloride. This sea water chemical decomposes at a
temperature of 360 and the Chlorine set free combines with iron to
,

produce corrosion. During decomposition of Magnesium Chloride,

Magnesia is produced and deposits as a form of mud or slime.
A gallon of ordinary sea water contains about 220 grains of
Magnesium Chloride, and under conditions of heat and concentra-
tion this substance splits up into Hydrochloric Acid and Magnesia:
the acid mentioned combines with the iron of the boiler to form iron
salts, and therefore produces corrosion.

—
Corrosion of Tubes in Boilers. Ma)- be due to (i) fatty acids
obtained from the decomposition of animal or vegetable oiJs (2) ;

H}'drochloric Acid produced by the decomposition, at a high

temperature, of a magnesium and chlorine compound in the sea
water (3) galvanic action (4) the presence of Carbonic Acid and
; ;

air in the water.

—
Red and Black Iron Oxides. Red oxide of iron (FcoOg) is formed
when excessive air is entering the boilers with the feed water, and
Black Oxide of Iron (Fe„OJ when the air admission is not excessive.
Air should therefore be kept out of the boilers as much as possible,
as the amount of corrosion will then be reduced in proportion.

Test for Carbonic Acid. —

To test for the presence of CO.^ gas in
boiler water make up equal volumes of boiler water and lime water,
:

and if CO.^ is present, the mixture will turn cloudy or milky in

appearance.

—
Evaporator Scale. The scale in evaporators is chiefly Lime Car-
bonate, as the pressure and temperature carried are not high enough
to produce deposit of Lime Sulphate. The Lime Sulphate therefore
remains in solution in the water, and is blown out by way of the
blow-down cock.

Boiler Deposits. — The impurities in boiler water are deposited in the

following order :

1. Carbonate of Lime (at low pressures and temperatures).

2. Sulphate of Lime (at 290" temperature, 40 lbs. pressure).
3. Oxide of Iron.
4. Silica, Alumina, Magnesia H\'drate.
5. Common salt (at 35 oz. density deposit begins, and the water
is fully saturated at 60 oz. density).
 —

424 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches

Leaky Tubes.— If cold air is admitted to the tubes by opening the

smoke-box doors the tubes are apt to contract and leak at the ends.
Leaky tubes may therefore be caused by (i) unequal expansion, or
by (2) unequal contraction of the tubes and plates. Severe vibration,
due to blowing down, may also produce leaky tubes. It should also
be noted that leakage ultimately sets up corrosion on the plate round
the tube necks and on the tubes themselves.

Density and Scale. — The following points should be carefully noted :

1. Scale depositdue to heat, and is quite independent of evapora-

is

tion, as, even though no evaporation is going on in a boiler (under

banked fires), if sea water feed is admitted scale will be deposited
shortly afterwards,
2. Increase of density (over 5 oz. per gallon) is entirely due to

evaporation, as, if no evaporation takes place, the boiler density cannot

rise above that of sea water feed.
Therefore, the limit of density (saturation point) being 35 oz.,
should the boiler reach this density, and still more sea water feed
be pumped in, when the water so fed in evaporates, the salt contained
in it will be deposited.

NOTE.— It must be clearly understood that the salt forming the 35-oz. density
does not deposit, but only the salt contained in feed water put in after the 35-oz.
density has been reached.

General Notes on Scale and Salting.

Salting or saturation of the boiler water means that the density
has reached ^V, or 35 oz. per gallon. If at this density more sea water
feed is admitted the salt in it begins to deposit after the water
evaporates.
Scale consists chiefly of sulphate of lime and carbonate of Hme.
Scale is caused by the action of heat on sea water feed. The
heat concentrates the sulphate and carbonate of lime, and as a result
these substances deposit on the tubes, furnaces, &c. This occurs
when the air and CO^ gases are expelled by heat.
To sum up, scale is due to heat, and is quite independent of
evaporation, as although no evaporation takes place scale may yet
deposit. Increase of density above 5 oz. (sea density) is entirely
due to evaporation, and cannot take place unless evaporation
goes on.
All waters contain lime, so that even with fresh water feed scale
will form (chiefly carbonate of lime), but the hardest and most
troublesome scale is that deposited by sea water feed, as it is largely
composed of sulphate of lime.
Sulphate of lime scale forms from a pressure of 40 lbs. and a
temperature of 290°.
Scale increases with the pressure, because the temperature is
higher in proportion.
 —

Marine Engineering Chemistry Notes 425

The scale thickness depends upon the amount of sea water put
into the boiler as feed, and does not depend upon the density of the
boiler.
Surfacing a boiler (having no evaporator fitted) reduces the density
but increases the amount of scale, because every time the boiler is
surfaced extra feed water has to be pumped in, therefore more
sulphate of lime will deposit. The scale formed from fresh water
feed is composed chiefly of carbonate of lime.
'Yo form a scale on a new boiler, keep the density low by surfacing
and feed up with sea water. This will cause rapid deposit of sulphate
and carbonate of lime, and the formation of a protective scale on the
heating surfaces.
As oil in boilers causes pitting, and may also bring down the
furnaces by depositing on them, it is best kept out altogether, and
this is done by having a feed filter fitted between the feed pump
and the boiler check valve.
A feed heater is used for raising the temperature of the feed
water, and partly clearing it of air before entering the boiler.

—
Solids in Sea Water. The solid matter in sea water (forming 5. of
the weight) is chiefly made up (approximately) as follows :

Sodium Chloride (common salt) - - 80 per cent.

Magnesia Chloride - - - - 10 ,,

Magnesia Sulphate - - - -
6 ,,

Calcium Sulphate (gypsum) -

- -
4 „

In addition to the above, Calcium Carbonate exists in combination

with COo, forming Calcium Bicarbonate in solution. The heat drives
off the CO., and the Calcium Carbonate is left, which, depositing, forms
a scale.

—
Calcium Sulphate. This forms the hardest scale found in boilers,
and is deposited largely from sea water feed. It is similar to plaster
of Paris and marble (gypsum).

Calcium Carbonate. —
This composition gives a softer scale than
Calcium Sulphate unless combined with the latter, and is similar to
common chalk.
It deposited chiefly from
is fresh water feed when the CO^,
previously in combination with it, is set free by heat.

NOTE. — The scale found in evaporators is principally made up of Calcium

Carbonate.
A piece of Calcium Carbonate scale, when broken across, is coarser in the grain
than Calcium Sulphate scale.

—
Soda. The addition of an alkali such as soda into the boiler feed
water has the effect of tending to convert the Calcium Sulphate into
426 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

Calcium Carbonate, and thus make the scale less objectionable

and less insoluble. Soda being an alkali also tends to combine with
acids present in the water, and, forming chemical salts, destroys the
corrosive effects of the acids.
The addition of soda into a boiler often causes the density to rise
shortly afterwards, as the soda softens the hard scale, and, making it
soluble, the water becomes denser in proportion.

Lime. — When limeis used in boilers, the proportion to allow is about

1 lime per day per each looo I.H.P., dissolved in i gallon of

1 lbs. of
water, and forming what is known as " milk of lime."
This mixture is very useful in forming a scale on a new boiler, and
should be used when the boiler water shows of a red (rust) colour.

Rusting. — Iron immersed in pure water free from air will not rust,
but with present rusting takes place owing to the fact that
air
air contains a small percentage of carbonic acid, which in contact with
iron decomposes the water and sets free Hydrogen, which thus allows
the Oxygen to combine chemically with the iron and form oxide of
iron, Fe.^Oa (or Ferric Oxide).

Grooving. — By meant corrosion produced by mechanical

this is
causes, such as unequal expansion. An example can be found in the
case of vertical donkey boilers, at the bottom of the fire-box, where
the expansion at the top end being much more than at the bottom
(the latter being rigidly riveted to the shell), the resultant stresses set
up crack the skin of the metal circumferentially, and the skin thus
broken, allows of corrosion taking place to a serious extent.

Paraffin Oil. —
Paraffin oil is sometimes used in boilers with the
object of softening the scale, which is then found to be easily
removable. The heating surfaces are treated by being rubbed over
with the oil and allowed to stand for a few hours before filling up.

—
Carbonate of Soda. The moderate use of soda is to be recom-
mended, as the Soda has the effect of converting the Lime Sulphate
into Lime Carbonate.

—
Nitrate of Silver Test for Saltness. As boilers are now often
worked at an extremely low density (i oz. or 2 oz.), it becomes
necessary to employ a more sensitive method of testing for the
density than by the salinometer, and this can be carried out by a
Nitrate of Silver test. A supply of this chemical having been obtained
a few drops added to a glass of the boiler water will quickly discover
the presence of salt by the water instantly becoming cloudy. This
method is also the most suitable for testing the tightness of the
condenser, as the smallest leakage will be indicated.
 Marine Engineering Chemistry Notes 427
Caustic Soda. —Caustic soda added to boiler water has the effect of
converting the Hydrochloric Acid into common salt, thus destroying
the corrosive properties of the acid.
When pitting or corrosion is located in patches or small areas,
the plates affected should be scraped clean, and washed with soda
solution. Afinal coating of weak solution of Portland cement will
reduce the danger of the corrosion spreading.
Corrosion in the form of oxide of iron formation is apt to occur
in those positions of a boiler where the circulation is weak, such as
the lower parts of the furnaces and combustion chambers, and if
once started may extend to other parts higher up.

—
Heating Effect of Scale. A scale of tjV inch is sufficient to protect
the plates from corrosion, and any increase over this may lead to
serious overheating, especially in the case of forced draught boilers
carrying a high water gauge air pressure.

—
New Boilers. Messrs Babcock & W'ilcox recommend that 10 lbs.
of lime per each looo I.H.P. be put into the boiler when new, and
from 4 to 6 lbs. per day per 1000 I.H.P. for .six days afterwards the
;

object of this is to form a light protective scale on the heating

surfaces.
In the first case the lime should be dissolved in water, and poured
in through the manhole, and in the second case the mixture (made up
as milk of lime) should be put into the hot-well.

Test for Acid. —

Draw off some of the boiler water and put into it a
few drops Methyl-Orange (obtainable at the chemist). If the water
remains yellow then it indicates an alkaline condition, but if the
water turns into a pink colour it indicates the presence of acid.

Action of Lime. —
Lime added to the boiler water has the effect of
converting the Magnesium Chloride into Magnesia and Calcium
Chloride, the former being corrosive and the latter non-corrosive.

Hydrometer.

This instrument, which is simply a t)'pe of salinometer, is employed

in Naval practice, and is generall}- graded for use at a temperature of
80° instead of 200°. The divisions or degrees represent half ounces,
so that 20 indicates a density of 10 oz., 15, yh oz., and so on. The
hydrometer thus allows of finer density readings than those obtained
by the ordinary salinometer.
428 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

Oils.
Lubricating Oils.

For cylinder lubricatiori, mineral oil only should be used, as this

is composed of Hydrogen and Carbon and is free of acids.
class of oil
The flash point should not be less than 400° Fahr.

The Viscosity of an oil or cohesive nature of the fluid should be such

that the lubricant is not so thick as to produce friction, nor yet so thin
as to be squeezed out from between the surfaces in contact. Viscosity
ma}' be said to be the consistency of the oil, and should be high for
heavy bearings and low for lighter wearing parts. The viscosity of
all oils becomes reduced with increase of temperature.

Gumminess. —If an oil evaporates easil)' it will naturally become

gummy and lose proportionally its lubricating properties. A rough
test for gumminess can be made by painting over an earthenware dish
with the oil and placing it in a warm position, where it can be tested
by hand at intervals for stickiness.

Classes of Oil.
( I. Extracted from Shale, and Cannel coal.
Mineral Oils. < 2. Found in Russia and America in oil springs. Paraffin
( Petroleum, Kerosene, Benzine, Naphtha, &c.
C^^^^' Linseed, Rape, Castor, Olive, Cottonseed, &c, '

Vpp-ptflhlf*
vegeiaoie Oil*;
Ulis. i
j Manufactured from the seeds of the plants named.
Animal Oils. — Sperm (whale), Seal, Neatsfoot.

At moderate temperatures vegetable oils decompose into Oleic

acid, and animal oils into Stearic acid, both of which act corrosively
on the c}'Hnders, valve faces, and on the boilers if admitted with the
feed water.

Oil Emulsion. —
Although feed water filters collect most of the grease
or oil in the water often a certain amount passes the filter cloths in
the condition known as "emulsion," and the small atoms of oil
in this state combine easily with the Magnesia present in the boiler
water, resulting in the formation of a slimy deposit, which forms a
bad non-conductor of heat, and which ma)' bring about buckled
plates or collapsed furnaces.

"Saponification." —
If animal or vegetable oils enter the boilers with
the feed water, and soda is present, then the fatty acids of the oil
(set free by the heat) combine with the soda to form a soapy substance
which is a particularly bad conductor of heat, and which if deposited
on the furnace crowns is likely to bring about buckling or collapse
of the same. The combination of the acids and soda is called
"
*'
saponification
 ;

Marine Engineering Chemistry Notes 429

To Test Acidity of Oil.

A. Make up
a solution of Sodium Chloride with an equal weight of
water, take a measured quantity of the solution and an equal quantity
of the oil, which place together in a bottle. Shake up the bottle and
allow it to stand, after which, if acid is present, it will show by settling
to the bottom of the bottle. If no deposit takes place the oil is free
from acid.

B. Chemically prepared papers of a pale bluish tint and known

by the name of " litmus papers," can be obtained in little books at
a very small cost from any chemist, and these can be applied to test
the acidity of an oil. To make the test, boil some of the oil and
dip one of the litmus papers into it, and if, on withdrawing, the colour
has become a deeper shade only, the oil is clear of acid but if ;

the paper a pink or red colour, it denotes with

changes to
.certainty the presence of acid in the oil, which should therefore
be rejected for purposes of internal lubrication. The redder the
paper becomes, the greater is the quantit}' of acid present in the oil.
Boiler water can be tested for acid in the same way.
,

NOTE. — A clean copper wire if immersed in oil for a few hours will show^
discoloration if acid is present.

—
Viscosity Test for Oil. The viscosit)' of an oil is tested in the
following manner. The apparatus consists of a small cup-shaped
vessel fitted with an internal pan, in the bottom of which a small
round hole is truly bored, and a thermometer dips into the oil
the oil is then heated up to a fixed temperature, say 180^, and the
time taken for a measured quantity of oil to drip out through the
small hole in the bottom is noted. Oil of high viscosit}' will take
a longer period to escape than oil of low viscosity.

To Test for Animal or Vegetable Oils. —To test whether an oil

is of vegetable or animal nature add a small portion of chlorine to
the oil, and note the change of colour if to brown the oil is animal,
;

and if to white the oil is vegetable.

Alkali Test. — To test for alkalinity use red-coloured litmus paper,

which will change to blue if the water isstrongly alkaline.

Most of the
oil used for internal lubrication of the engines finds its
way to the boilers, (unless extracted by means of a filter), b)' being
brought with the steam into the condenser, and afterwards pumped
into the boilers by the feed pumps.

"Alkala" Boiler Composition.

Lambie's patent boiler composition, known as " Alkala," has
proved, after severe and exhaustive tests, to be most effective in
430 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

the prevention of scale deposit and corrosion; used in conjunction

with the usual zinc plates, boilers working under the highest pressures
are found to be in excellent condition after months of hard steaming,
the scale being of a light, easily removable nature, and the pitting or
corrosion checked to a remarkable degree. Alkala is a paint and
is applied by brush to the parts requiring protection, such as furnaces,
plates, stays, and tubes. The composition referred to is rapidly
becoming known as the most efficient boiler preservative in the
market.

Remedies for Pitting.

Zinc plates (see page 143) are used internally to check the wasting
of the platesj and are fitted so as to form with the boiler plates a
galvanic couple, of which the zinc is the positive element. The zinc
plates are connected metallically to the boiler by the following
methods :
—
(i) Studs screwed into the furnace sides (2) metal hangers
;

suspended from the stays. Sometimes zinc balls with a copper wire
passed through them and connected to the boiler are used instead.
These are called " Electrogens." Externally, feed heaters (such as
Weir's) assist in keeping out the air, and feed filters assist in keeping
out the grease or oil.

Galvanic Action.
If two dissimilar metals are placed in a bath of sulphuric acid,
both will in time show signs of corrosion but, if the two metals
;

are connected by a copper wire soldered to each, then only one of

them will corrode, as a galvanic couple is then formed, and the
corrosive effects take place on the most electro-positive metal only.
(See page 432.)
By connecting the two metals a weak electrical current is set
up between them, through the liquid and wire, resulting in the
wasting away of the one element which is electro-positive to the
other.
Examples of the foregoing are to be found in the boilers by the
zinc plates fixed inside, and on the tail end shaft at the end of
the brass liners, the brass and iron or steel of the shaft being
dissimilar metals and connected in a bath of sea water. Sea water,
as it contains salt, acts in a like manner to sulphuric acid, but in
a milder form.

NOTE. — The current flow is produced by the difference in electrical potential

obtained.

Rusting.
Rusting of a metal is an example of combustion at a low
temperature, and is due to the Oxygen of the air combining with
iron (or steel) to form Oxide of Iron.
 —

Marine Engineering Chemistry Notes 431

The chemical name for red iron rust is P^erric Oxide, or, by
symbols (Fe.^Og).
Rusting is in reality the burning of the metal, but at a low
temperature (the atmospheric temperature).
Rusting can only take place when Carbonic Acid gas (CO.,) is
present in quantity, as in a damp atmosphere.
Rusting cannot occur in a dry atmosphere.
A good example of rusting, or the formation of oxide of iron,
is to be seen at the water line on the wet uptake of vertical boilers.

The action that takes place is as follows : —

The intense heat on one
side of the plate sets free the Oxygen of the water adhering to the
plate on the other side, and the Oxygen being present with Carbonic
Acid gas combines with iron to form Oxide of Iron, or rust (Ferric
Oxide).
If a rivet or stay in the combustion chamber leaks, and the
leakage is not at once checked, the plate and stay will soon begin
to waste away, owing to the formation of Oxide of Iron.
Oxide of Iron formation also accounts for the wasting away of
boiler bottoms, just above the bilges, furnaces at the ashpits, and on
the tops of tanks.

Condenser Tube Corrosion,

In most cases the corrosion of condenser tubes is due to one of the
following causes :

(i.) Galvanic action produced between the condenser metal and

tubes in sea water, resulting in the loss of the zinc, of which the tubes
are partly composed. This produces small holes in the tubes at
various positions throughout the length, but usually near the ends,
and is known as "de-zincification."
(2.) Acids from animal or vegetable oils producing corrosion on
outer surface of the tubes by chemical action.
(3.) General thinning of the tube by wear, and caused by the long-
continued mechanical attrition action of the water inside the tubes.
In the great majority of cases the corrosion is caused by decom-
position of the zinc, as stated in No. i cause.

29
 —

SECTION VII.

MARINE ELECTRIC LIGHTING.

General Description.
The following elementary description of electric lighting is intended
by the author for marine engineers who have had no exp-erience with
dynamos, and who may have had no opportunity to study electricity
in other words, for beginners. For further information on the subject
the writer can recommend " Electrical Engineering," by Messrs
Slinger and Brooker.

—
Galvanic Cells or Batteries. An electric current may be produced
eitherby chemical or mechanical means. If chemically, by a galvanic
battery or cell and if mechanically, by a dynamo.
;

WIRE

ZINC

.e:4^. SULPHURIC
7/ ACID
Yy SOLUTION

No. I.— Simple Cell.

The sketch shows a simple cell, or galvanic couple, consisting of

two plates,one of Copper and one of Zinc, placed in a bath of
sulphuric acid, and connected together at the top by a wire. A
current flows from the Copper plate through the wire to the Zinc
plate, and back again from the Zinc through the liquid to the Copper.
The Copper is called the "positive pole" but the negative element,
 Marine Electric Lig-hting 433

and the Zinc the and the positive element. The dotted
nci,^ativc ikjIc
lines in the sketch show how the current may be led to an external
circuit so as to do work, such as, for example, to operate an electric
bell, instead of passing direct from one plate to the other, as shown
by the full lines.
It should be noted that the current flowing in the direction
described results in the dissolving of the zinc plate, and the formation
of sulphate of zinc.
NOTE. —The current flow is produced by the difference of electrical potential
obtained.

Daniell Cell. —
One form of this well-known t)-pe of galvanic cell is
shown the sketch, in which the outer vessel is of Copper and
in
constitutes the positive pole. The inner vessel is of porous construc-
tion to allow of the liquid to pass through gradually, and the negative
pole is formed by a rod of Zinc placed inside. Two liquids are em-

POROUS
VESSEL I./
4. SULPHURIC
ACID
(A SOLUTION
No. 2.—" Daniell " Cell.

—
ployed sulphate of copjDer solution in the outer vessel, and, as in
the simple cell, sulphuric acid in the inner vessel. The current flows
from the Copper to the Zinc as described previously in the case of
the simple cell.
The electro-motive force of the Daniell cell is fully one volt.
Dotted lines are shown in the sketch to illustrate the manner in
which the current may be applied to an external circuit, instead of
passing directly from one pole to the other.

Electro- Magnets. —
If a bar of iron is enclosed within a coiled wire,
and a current from either a galvanic battery or a dynamo passed
through the wire, the bar becomes magnetised for so long as the
current is passing.
434 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

IRON—,

WIRE

No. 3.— Electro-Magnet.

TO SWITCHBOARD

FROM
SWITCH BOARD

TERMINAL-

-^ V.

5ASe PLATE

No. 4.
— Dynamo.
 Marine Electric Lighting 435
The bar is then known as an electro-magnet. If the bar is bent
into a horse-shoe shape so as to form two legs, when a current is

passed through the wire both legs of the bar become magnetised,
and form a pair of electro-magnets. The space between the legs is
called the " magnetic field," and if an armature be made to revolve in
 ;

436 Verbal " Notes and Sketches

the magnetic field so as to cut the Hnes of force or magnetism passing

across, currents are generated in the coils or conductors of the
armature. The two legs constitute north and south poles.
The field magnets of a dynamo are of the type just described, the
poles receiving their magnetism from the dynamo itself, as the winding
of the magnets consists of wires led direct from the brushes, the wires
obtainingf their current direct from the armature.

A dynamo is a machine which, by the application of mechanical

power, generates electro-motive force. This electrical force or power
can be utilised either for lighting or for the running of motors, or for
both purposes combined.
—
The four principal parts of a dynamo are (i) Field magnets;
(2) armature ; (3) commutator (4) brushes.
;

Field Magnets. —
The field magnets consist (in a two-pole dynamo)
of two masses of cast steel connected at the top by a "yoke piece"

No. 6.—" Belliss " Engine direct coupled to G.E.C Witton

Generator used for lighting and power on board Steam-
ships, Shipyards, Dockyards, Factories, &c.

which gives to them the well-known horse-shoe shape. Each magnet

is wound with coils of insulated copper wire which are in connection

—
with the armature by one of three ways (i) In series (2) in shunt
;

or (3) compound, which is a combination or compound of the first two.

In series winding the zvhole of the current generated in the armature
passes from the brushes round the field magnets, and then to the
lamps and back again.
 Marine Electric Lighting 437

In shunt winding only part of the current passes round the field
magnets, as the shunt wire to the magnets is smaller and finer than
the series wire, and in this way offers more resistance to the current.
In compound winding the field magnets are wound with two sets
of wire, and the whole of the current generated in the armature passes
round them, but by two distinct and separate paths ; first by the
thick or series coils, and next by the thin or finer " shunt " coils. The
object of this method of winding may be described as follows :
—
As
lamps are switched on and more current is required, the extra current,
on its way to and from the lamps, passes through the series coils of
the magnets, and therefore strengthens the magnetic field in pro-
portion. Again, if a certain number of lamps are switched off, less
current passes through the series coils as less is now passing through
the main wires, but more current will pass through the shunt coils,
and thus tend to maintain the same strength as before in the magnetic
field, and keep the voltage constant.
It will thus be seen that a compound wound dynamo is, to a great
extent, self-regulating, and retains practically the same voltage, no
matter how many lamps are on or off. This is of great importance
in ship-lighting, and for this reason nearly all dynamos used for
marine purposes are of the compound wound type.
It should be noted that the exciting current for the magnets comes
from the armature itself, and though small at first, increases as more
current is developed, so that the one, in a sense, supplies the other in
proportion to the demand.

On examining a dynamo of the compound wound type, it will be

noticed that the wires from the brushes are connected to terminals or
studs fixed on an insulated plate which is placed on the side of the
field magnets, and from these terminals the main leads or wires to the
lamp circuits are branched off, and the series coils and shunt coils to
the magnets.
The fine shunt wire will generally be seen to connect across the
two magnets and to the main terminals, as shown in the sketch.

Four-Pole Dynamos are now being supplied for ship-lighting, and

evident that this type is rapidly coming to the
it is front and taking
the place of the older- fashioned two-pole machine. In some cases
six-pole machines are supplied.
The four-pole dynamo is supplied with four sets of brushes, each
alternate set being in connection, so that there are two sets of positive
and two sets of negative brushes in use. The other parts of the
machine are similar to those of the ordinary two-pole dynamo, but
the four-pole type is of more compact form, and can be made of high
magnetic strength. On examining a dynamo of this type, the thick
wires of the series and the fine wire of the shunt will be noticed
extending from one magnet to the other, and connecting them with
the brushes and lamp cables.
43^^ \'erbal " Notes and Sketches

Armature.— The two types of armature in general use for ship-

lighting dynamos are those known as the
" Ring" and Drum " type,
"

the latter being usually preferred and supplied asbeing the best suited
for the work. It will therefore be sufficient to describe this type of
armature in detail.
The " pattern of armature is formed of sheets of soft iron
Drum "
or steel discs insulated from each other and clamped together on a
sleeve keyed to the spindle or driving shaft. The sleeve is cast with
recesses and webs so that air may pass freely from end to end, and
by the ventilation so afforded prevent excessive rise of temperature
when the armature is revolving at a high speed. The iron or steel
discs are slotted longitudinally for the reception of the insulated
copper conductors or wires, and each slot is also carefully insulated

z:::^
COIL

COPPER DRUh ARMATURE

STRIP

COnnUTATOR

No. 7.
— Drum Armature, showing one Conductor Connected.

and the copper wire embedded in it. The complete armature consists
of a number of these conductors wound on the surface of the com-
pressed iron sheets or discs, and each conductor passes from the
commutator end back to the other end, and then forward again to
the commutator end, where the extremities of each conductor are
connected (usually soldered) to the copper strips or bars of the
commutator.
Each conductor has one end connected to one copper bar of the
commutator and the other end connected to the adjacent bar, so that
when all the conductors are fixed and bound in place they form an
enclosed ring right round the armature and commutator, and thus
allow of the passage of the currents generated from the one end to
the other, and so to and from the brushes and main wires.
Calling the commutator end of the armature the front, and the
other end the back, it should be noted that when the armature is
revolving, currents are passing from the front end to the back in 07ie
//<?/7^of the armature circle, and from back to front in the other half
of the armature circle. The currents passing from front to back are
negative, and those from back to front positive, and the corresponding
 Marine Electric Liehtino- 439
brushes are placed in contact with the commutator to transmit the
current flow in the directions indicated.
It will be seen then, that current is constantly passin^j from the
back end of the armature to the front and into the commutator strips,
and from there to the positive brushes also, that current is constantly
;

passing frc^m the negative brushes into the commutator and along the
armature from front to back. It therefore follows that if we were to
connect the brushes, positive and negative, the circuit would be com-
plete, but if we first extend the connection before joining the positive
and negative we will still have the circuit complete. This is done in
practice by joining cables to the brushes and carrying the wires or
cables to different parts of the ship, where they are connected at

No. 8.— Diagram showing Magnetic Field and " Lines of Force."

various points by the lamp wires through which the current must first
pass on its way back to the negative brushes of the d)'namo.
NOTE. — Field magnets are generally composed of hard steel, as when once
magnetised the magnetic influenceis retained for some time, and thus allows of the
'•building up" of current when the dynamo is first started, otherwise the machine
would refuse to generate.

The armature core is made up of soft or charcoal iron discs, as

this material allows of rapid magnetic saturation and of as rapid
demagnetisation, which is a necessary requirement in an armature.
The above diagram illustrates, in an imaginary wa\-, the field space
440 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches

of a two-pole dynamo, and shows how the lines of magnetic force are
supposed to extend from the N pole to the S pole, the space between
the poles being filled up with these invisible lines of force.
It can easily be imagined, then, that if the field space be filled up
with an armature composed of soft iron, the lines of force will meet
with less resistance in passing across from pole to pole.

No. 9.
— Diagram of Magnetic Field.

From A to B negative currents are increasing in intensity.

From B to C negative currents are decreasing in intensity.
From C to D positive currents are increasing in intensity.
From D to A positive currents are decreasing in intensity.

At positions A and B the armature conductors are cutting through

the greatest possible number of " lines of force," hence the intensity of
the current strength at these positions.
On the left-hand side the currents are passing from back to front,
and are positive, while on the right-hand side the currents are passing
from front to back, and are negative. A
and C are the zero positions
of current change from positive to negative, and from negative to
positive.
 Marine Electric Lighting 441

Sketch No. 10 shows the direction taken by the current in each half
of the armature circle. Notice that on the " positive " side the currents
are travelling in the armature conductors from back to front (calling
the commutator end the front), and so into the positive brush and on
to the lamp circuits while on the "negative" or "return" side, the
;

currents are passing from the negative brush back into the com-
mutator bars, and so into the armature conductors.

» » ^ ^ A-^^

a^

^ Y Y Y V Ik t 5~*

^Y^
h -C^

u
No. 10. — Plan of Armature and Field Magnets.

Sketch No. 1 1 is self-explanatory, and shows diagrammatically the

positive and negative current flow in an armature conductor at different
parts of the circle. The plus sign indicates positive connections, and
the minus sign the negative connections. Observe that at the top
" zero " line the current changes from positive to negative, and at the
bottom "zero" line the current changes from negative to positive.

NOTE. —A volt is the E. M.F. required to produce one ampere of current when
opposed by one ohm resistance.
 " Verbal " Notes and vSketches
44-

Diagram No. 12 shows one method of armature winding for a

two-pole dynamo. Observe that, when arranged in a circle, the
commutator bar No. i is adjacent to bar No. 10, and that the corre-
sponding conductor extends between the two, being soldered to each.

,^ r
CURRENT

No. II.— Diagram showing Flow of Current in Single Conductor

of Armature.

The arrow shows the run of the conductor referred to, and also shows
the direction of the current flow. Each armature conductor is
similarh' connected.

—
NOTE. In the above diagram the complete conductor connections for No. 6 bar
only are shown. From this it will be seen that two ends of two different conductors
are connected to each commutator bar.
Marine Electric Lighting 44.
 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches
444

Commutator. —
All dynamos are originally what is called alternating
— that is,the currents passing in the armature coils are always
passing alternately in opposite directions, from back to front and from
front to back ;but by means of a commutator these alternations of
current can be made to flow always in one direction, and the dynamo
is then known as of the " continuous current " type. F'or ordinary
lighting purposes this type is always employed, but for large power
stations (such as for electric tramways) the alternating type is used,
as being better suited for high tensions or voltages. As mentioned
before, currents are constantly passing from one end to the other in
one half of the armature circle, and in the reverse directions in the
other half, so that if the brushes are placed at the neutral points where
the direction of the currents is reversed, the flow will then be "com-
muted " or continuous in the one direction. From this it will be

No. 13. —Armature and Commutator Complete.

apparent that to make a dynamo of the continuous current or direct

type a commutator is necessary.
The commutator consists of hydraulic pressed solid copper bars
arranged in a circle on a sleeve keyed to the driving shaft at the end
of the armature, each bar being insulated from the one adjoining
by mica insulation. As before described, the ends of the copper
conductors of the armature are connected metallically to the commu-
tator bars, one end of two separate wires being so connected to one
copper bar. The current after passing from the armature into the
commutator is absorbed or collected by the positive brushes, and
after going through the lamp circuits is again delivered back to
the commutator and armature by the negative brushes. Observe
that a complete circuit must be described before any current can
possibly pass.

—
Brushes. The brushes are composed either of copper gauze or of
carbon blocks, and are held up against the commutator at an angle
by a holder fixed to the brush-rocker. The angle of brush adjustment
can be regulated by means of a pair of handles on the rocker, and
the brushes moved round the commutator circle more or less according
 Marine Electric Lio'htin
&' 445
to what may be required to prevent .sparking, &c. In some dynamos
the position of the brushes has to be altered according to the load on
the machine in order to get sparkless collection of the current, but in
modern machines fitted with carbon brushes this is not necessary.
Small springs of low tension are often fitted to the brush-holders
to keep the brushes pressed gently against the surface of the com-
mutator. If the brushes press too tightly, they are apt to cause
uneven wear of the commutator, and consequent sparking.
The positive brush (or set of brushes) takes the current from the
dynamo and gives it to the main wires, and the negative brush (or set
of brushes) returns the current back into the dynamo after it has
travelled round the lamp circuits.

Armature Shaft.— One end of the armature shaft is coupled direct to

the driving engine shaft, and the other, or commutator end, runs in a
bearing cast on the bed-plate of the machine. This bearing is
generally of the enclosed type, and supplied with revolving oil rings
and oil bath which allow of constant lubrication. As the dynamo
usually runs at from 250 to 500 revolutions per minute, it is of the
greatest importance to have regular and reliable lubrication of the
end bearing, as will easily be understood from the foregoing.

Action of Dynamo. — The principle of action of a dynamo may be

described as follows:— As the armature, containing the copper con-
ductors or coils, revolves between the two poles of the magnets, it
cuts through the lines of force or magnetism which pass across from
one pole to the other, and as a result, currents travelling from end to
end are induced in the armature coils. The space in which the
armature revolves is called the magnetic field, and this field is
strengthened or excited by the magnets themselves, which are wound
with insulated copper wire through which current is passing, so that,
as more or less current passes round the magnets, more or less strength
is obtained in the " field," and consequently in the armature coils. In
a " shunt " dynamo, as lamps are switched in and more current is
taken from the armature, the E.M.F. falls, hence to get the same
voltage at full load as at no load it becomes necessary either to
increase the speed or the " field " strength. The latter is more con-
venient, and is accomplished by the addition of series coils, thus
" compounding " the machine. If more current is now taken from the
armature more passes through the series coils, thus increasing the field
strength, hence the voltage remains the same. On the other hand,
when lamps are switched off, the E.M.F. of the dynamo would in-
crease but this is prevented by the decrease in the strength of the
;

field due to less current passing through the series coils, the amount
passing through the shunt coils remaining the same in both cases.
For ship-lighting "over compound" dynamos are used, which give,
say, 100 volts at no load, and 105 volts at full load, the speed being
446 Verbal "
Notes and Sketches

thesame iti both cases. From this will be seen the reason why a
compound wound type of dynamo is best suited for ship-lighting
where a constant voltage is required.

—
Switchboard. After the current is generated in the dynamo it
passes from the positive brushes and leads or cables to the switch-

-I"
TO DISTRIBUTION BOXES

FU5E

TO __
DYNAMO

No. 14. — Diagram of Switchboard.

board, and from there is led away by smaller branch wires to the
distribution boxes and the various lamp circuits in connection.
The switchboard contains the switches or "circuit-breakers," fuses
or cut-outs, volt meter and ampere meter.
After the current has travelled from the switchboard through
the lamp circuits, it returns to the switchboard by the "negative"
cables or wires, and is returned again to the d\-namo by the negative
brushes.
 No. 15 — G.E.C. Main Distribution Switchboard

No. 16— G E.C. Main Switchboard

30 447
448 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

—
Volt Meter. The volt meter is an instrument for measuring the
electrical "tension" or pressure. connected hetiveen the positive
It is

No. 17— G.E.C. Volt Meter.

No. 18. — "Stanley" Aperiodic Ammeter.

and negative wires, and therefore indicates the difference of

"potential" or pressure existing between them. A volt then, is the
unit of electrical pressure, or electro-motive force, as it is called.
 —

Marine Electric Lighting 449

Ampere Meter. — This instrument measures the amount or quantity
of current passing through the wires, and is generally connected
to the positive lead only.
If each lamp requires, say, i ampere of current, and 65 lamps are
switched on, the ampere meter would then indicate 65 amperes full)-,
allowing for the extra voltage required to overcome the resistance of
the wire.
From the foregoing it will be understood that if, say, 20 lamps
are switched on, and the volt meter is showing 70 volts, and the
ampere meter 22 amperes, if then 60 lamps are switched on, the

No. 20.— G.E.C. New Pattern

No. 19.— G.E.C. "Witton" Main Flat Type Switch. A very
Switch shown in "Off" neat switch for use on
Position. board ship.

ampere meter will now show a corresponding increase, but the volt
meter remain the same as before, as, although the amount of
will
current required is now more, the pressure of the current is still the
same.

NOTE. — It should be noted that this only holds good when lamps are run on the
"parallel system," as is common in ship-lighting.

—
Main Switches. Switches are employed to break the flow of the
current when opened, and to allow the current to flow when closed.
They are sometimes called "circuit-breakers." Switches may be of
the following types :

1. Single pole, single break.

2. Single pole, double break.
3. Double pole, single break.
4. Double pole, double break.
450 Verbal " Notes and Sketches

A single-pole switch breaks the current at one pole or wire

(positive or negative), and if single break at one place only, if double
break at two places.
A double-pole switch breaks the current at both poles or wires,
positive and negative, at once, and if single break the current
is broken at one place only, but if double break the current is broken
at two places on each wire. The requirements of a good switch are
(i) When "on" the contact is complete with ample surface;
(2) When
" off" the circuit is absolutely broken, without any
(3) A sharp or quick " break
" so that
possibility of a short circuit ;

sparking may be avoided.

Fuses or Cut-outs. —Acut-out or fuse may perhaps be described

as an automatic circuit-breaker. It consists, in most cases, of a strip

No. 22. — Fuse

No. 21— G.E.C. "Ironclad" No. 23. — Cut out in Case.

Cut-out.

of lead or tin, placed in line with the main wire, which is cut to allow
of the fuse being fitted in its place. The ends of the fuse are con-
nected to small terminals or screws.
Cut-outs are arranged so that should an excess of current (caused
by some defect or breakdown) attempt to pass, the strip of tin or lead
would melt and break the circuit automatically, thus preventing
further damage by burning out to the rest of the circuit beyond where
the cut-out is placed. Fuses are fitted on switchboards, distribution
boxes, and for general safety at various other places on the lamp
circuits.

Wiring. —
The main wires divide on the back of the switchboard, and
branch pairs of wires, positive and negative, of smaller size, are led
off to the "distribution boxes" situated at different parts of the ship.
 Marine Electric Lighting 451

Each pair of wires is connected to a couple of brass bars in the

distribution box, and from each bar a number of wires of still smaller
size are led away to supply the various lamp circuits in connection.
The incandescent lamps are placed bctzvecn each pair of wires,
positive and negative, so that every single pair of wires supply a
number of lamps, the current crossing from one wire (the positive)
through the lamps to the negative wire. This arrangement is what
is known as the " parallel system," the requirements of which are that

.z=r NEGATIVE WIRE

DYNAMO

No. 24.
— " Parallel " System of Lighting.

the voltage remains constant, but the number of amperes varies

according to the number of lamps switched into the circuit.
—
NOTE. When the quantity of current passing through a conductor is one
coulcombe per second the strength of the current is said to be one ampere. This
then is taken as the current strength.

Single Wire System.

In this system of wiring the positive current is carried by a single
cable or wire to the lamps, and the return from the lamps is effected
by means of the metal of the ship, or, as it is called by electricians,
the return is "earthed."
The sketch shows clearly how the lamp connections are made,
the return wire being metallically connected to a stud screwed into
452 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches
Marine Electric Lighting 453
 — —

454 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

some part of the metal of the steamer. Observe that the dynamo
negative cable is secured by a large stud to the bulkhead plate, the
positive wire only going to the switchboard.
The advantages claimed for this arrangement are

(i) Lower cost of installation.

(2) Less complication of wiring.

(3) Less trouble in locating faults in the circuit.

The disadvantages are

(i) Greater danger of short circuits between lead and return.

(2) System only possesses half the insulation of the twin wire
installation.

(3) Supposed cause of corrosion in condensers or other places

due to galvanic action.
(4) More danger of lights going out suddenly in case of vessel
grounding or in collision.
(5) Troubles experienced by rusting going on at the ship
*

return lamp connections, owing to damp due to -"sweating" of the

plates, &c.

It may be stated that the majority of new installations are of

the twin wire system, this being now considered the most reliable
method.
—
NOTE. Sea water acts very injuriously on the insulation of wires and cables,
unless they are protected by metal piping or are "armoured."

Three-Wire System (see also page 649). — In some steamers

two dynamos are run together on what is the three-wire
called
system. In this arrangement the positive wires of one dynamo are
connected to the negative wires of the other dynamo, and the central
or neutral wire acts as a common conductor for both.
The voltage is usually 220, but as this is divided between the two,
the working voltage for the circuits is only 1 10 volts.
The lamps are arranged so that the number of them is equally
divided between the two outside wires and the central one, to balance
each other and divide the current. If the same number of lamps are
run on each side, the middle wire will carry no current, but should
more lamps be switched in on one side than on the other, the
difference of current resulting w^ill then be carried by the central
wire.
It should be noted that as the central wire has only to carry the
excess or difference between the two outside wires, it can be made
of less section, and is therefore of smaller size than the others.
In the three- wire system the main switches and cut-outs are
necessarily of the " three-pole " type.
 Marine Electric Lisfhtino- 455
Distribution Boxes. —
The distribution boxes contain two brass bars,
positiveand negative (called "omnibus bars"), to which each wire.

TERMINAL

OMNIBUS
BAR

-DISTRIBUTION
BOX
FUSE.
TWO POLE
SWITCH TERMINAJ.S
FROM
DYNAMO

FROM
TO DYNAMO LAMP CIRCUITS LAMP CIRCUfTS
No. 27.— Distribution Box and Connections.

positive and negative, from the switchboard is connected by screws

or terminals. From the two bars fuses are led to connect to a

No. 28— Distribution Board in Cast-

iron Case for Motor Circuits.

number of smaller wires, each intended to light a certain section of

the steamer. These fuses are held in earthenware holders with
 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches
456

copper contact pieces, and as they can be withdrawn at will by hand,

may therefore be made to act as " circuit-breakers " if required.
Suppose the main supply wire from the switchboard to the distribu-
tion box to carry, say, 15 amperes of current, then if the box has
three smaller wires led away to as many lamp circuits, each circuit
wire will have about 5 amperes of current to carry. In certain cases
pairs of wires from one box are led to other smaller boxes, where still

'*^'
'
Copper
No. 29.— Distribution Box Fuse.

smaller wires, carrying less current in proportion, are connected up

to the lamp circuits.
Ahand switch is usually fitted to the wires at the distribution
box, so that all current can be shut off from the set of wires leading
from it (Sketch No. 27).

Lamp —
Switches. The variety of design in lamp switches is infinite,
and it be sufficient to describe one or two of those most in use.
will
All switches, be it noted, whether large or small, fulfil the same
object, that is, to break the current or circuit when "off" and to
connect the circuit when " on."

No. 30.— Tumler or " Link '

Switch.

The switch most commonly met with is undoubtedly that known

as the " tumler " or link type, and will be found in nearly all cabin and
state-room fittings. When the small round knob of the "tumler"
switch is pushed over, two small copper contact pieces are pressed
against the two corresponding wire terminals, and the current flows
across the bridge so formed to the lamp. A
small spring acts on the
lever and keeps the contact strips in position.
Sometimes a small cut-out is also fitted inside the switch box, and
 Marine Electric Lighting 457
fits in between two screw terminals on tlie main wire leading to the
switch. Should an excess of current come on the wire, the fuse would
burn out or melt before the excess of current reached the lamp in
connection with the switch.

Incandescent Lamps.
Incandescent carbon filament lamps are made of any candle-
power from 8 to 500. They are usually marked as so many candle-
power, as, for example, 16 c.p. or 32 c.p., &c.
The lamp consists of a brass neck piece or collar filled with
cement, into which are sealed two platinum wires. The wires connect

BAYONET
JOINT
PIN

PLATINUM
(
J , ! PLATINUM
wire
WIRE aT
CARBONIZED
THR[AO
VACUUM

No. 31.— Incandescent Lamp.

by contact pieces to the lamp wires on the outside, and to a

carbonised cotton thread or filament inside the glass globe The
carbonised cotton thread is made in the form of a single or double
loop, so that the lighting effect may be intensified. In some cases
double filaments are fitted with the same object. The glass globe
is exhausted of air during manufacture, and the carbonised thread being
thus in a vacuum, does not burn away when heated to a white heat.
It should be noted that should air get into the globe, the thread would
burn away in a few seconds, owing to the supply of oxygen allowing
combustion to take place. The current in passing through the
carbonised thread raises it to a white heat by the resistance offered
to the current flow, and the " incandescence " resulting constitutes the
light.
 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches
458

The " life " of an incandescent lamp varies a great deal. Some last
lOOO hours, others less than this, and others again for indefinite
periods.

NOTE. —The "filament "or "thread" referred to is carbonised by being heated

in a vessel with the carbon gas of coal, the effect of which is to cause minute
filled

particles of pure carbon to deposit on the thread until it is completely covered with a
fine skin of carbon.

NOTE — Platinum is the only metal suitable for connecting the filament, owing to
2.

the fact that it expands at the same rate as glass when heated, and thus keeps the
vacuum good.

Metallic filament lamps, however, are marked with number of

watts, in Osram lamps about i watt= i c.p.

No. 2!^. No. 33-

Osram metallic filament lamps are now rapidly becoming adopted

by the leading steamship lines. These lamps have hitherto been very
largely used for the lighting of buildings, offices, &c., but they were
not used for ship lighting when they were first brought out, owing to
the fact that they were rather fragile. They have now, however, been
considerably strengthened, and are eminently adapted for ship work.
The great advantage of using Osram metallic filament lamps is
that with an Osram lamp of 50/130 volts, it is possible to obtain
16 c.p. with a consumpt of 17 watts, compared with a 16 c.p,
carbon filament lamp which consumes 64 watts. This readily shows
the fact that there is a clear saving of 73 per cent, by using the
 Marine Electric Lighting 459

Osram lamps. This, of course, means that in man>' cases where

more light is required in a vessel, it can be obtained by taking out
the carbon filament lamps and installing Osram metallic filament
lamps of a greater candle-power without increasing the size of the
plant (which in all probability is fully loaded with carbon filament

No. 34— Bayonet Joint. No. 35.— Section through Lamp-

holder, showing Spring
Contact.

lamps), and which would have to be increased if more carbon

filament lamps were added.
Again, with the Osram metallic filament lamp, it is possible to
obtain double the candle-power of the carbon filament lamp and still
effect a saving of 50 per cent, in current.
There is no doubt whatever that in the near future metallic
filament lamps will be universally adopted for ship lighting, which

No. 36.— Wall Plug for use in Cabins, &c.,

for Fans, Cable Lamps, &c.

will mean that the installation can be put in at a considerably

decreased cost, as the plant would be considerably smaller and the
wiring throughout the vessel in proportion would be of a smaller size.
We illustrate a Robertson carbon filament and an Osram metallic
filament lamp.
—
Lampholder. The neck of the lamp connects to the lampholdcr by
a bayonet joint. Two small brass contacts in the holder press down
 Verbal " Notes and Sketches
460 '*

against the contact strips or plates of the lamp to which the platinum
wires from the thread are attached.
The lamp wires are connected to the spring contacts of the

Contact *-

No. 37.— G.E.C. Water-tight No. 38.— Lampholder Terminals

Wall Plug, for use with and Spring Contacts.
Handlamps, Portables, &c.

lampholder by small screw terminals carefully insulated from each

other. Sometimes a switch is supplied inside the lampholder.

No. 39.— G.E.C. "Angold" Arc Lamp, for

Lighting of Decks and Holds.

Arc Lamps. — If a single wire carrying a current be cut and two

carbon pencils (one to each end of the cut wire) inserted in the gap,
the current will pass across from one carbon to the other, provided
the space or "arc" between them is not too great In crossing over
 —

Marine Electric Lighting 461

the space, lightis given out by the particles of carbon which pass
from one carbon (the positive) to the other (the negative) becoming
heated to a white heat. This is, roughly, the principle of the well-
known arc lamp. It is important to note that before light can be
obtained the two carbon pencils must first touch, and then be drawn

POSITIVE ^ NEGATIVE.

REGULATING
SERIES AND
SHUNT COILS
FOR CONTROLING
ARC

RETURN

FIXED r

GUIDE B^'^^

No. 40.— Arc Lamp with Case and Globe removed.

away to the required distance from each other: this is termed

"striking the arc." The space between the carbons is usually from
g m. to I in., depending on the amount of current supplying the
lamp. The upper carbon is the positi\e one, from which the current
passes to the lower or negative one. The mechanism of an arc lamp
has to perform the following functions :
 —

" Verbal " Notes and Sketches

462

1. the current being switched on, to " strike the arc."

On
2. After the arc is struck, to maintain the carbons at the proper
distance apart.
3. If two or more lamps are
run in "series" (on the same wire),
to allow the current to pass to the other lamps if anything goes
wrong.

SHUNT COIL SERIES COIL

REGULATING GEAR

RESISTANCE

TOP CARBON

BOTTOM CARBON
L

No. 41.— G.EC. Type Arc Lamp.

The gear for regulating the arc varies a great deal in design,
different makers having different methods. The general principle,
however, is as follows :

Two
small bobbins wound with wire, one being of coarser (series)
wire than the other (shunt), are arranged so as to form electro-
magnets. When a current flows through the shunt wires, the
magnetism resulting attracts a piece of metal or lever placed in
 Marine Electric Lighting 463
connection with the small vvlieel and chain attached to the carbon-
holders. The chain and wheel act so that as one carbon is raised
the other is lowered, thus keeping the focus or arc always in the
same place.
When the current is flowing from the positive carbon down to
the negative one, and the space between them is properly adjusted,
the coarse or scries wire carries the current but if the space becomes
;

too great, then as the resistance to the current passing across is now
increased, less passes through the series wire and more through the
fine or shunt wire, and the magnetism resulting attracts the lever in
connection with the chain gear, which being set in motion, draws the
carbons together until the balance is restored. When the lamp is
first switched on, the current momentarily passes through the shunt
wires, and the effect of this is to draw quickly together the two
carbons, thus striking the arc. After the connection is made in this
way, most of the current then passes through the series coils and
the carbons, weakening the shunt in proportion, so that the arc
is correctly set. Nearly all patent arc lamps are worked on this
system, called the " differential," owing to the difference in the series
and shunt bobbins. Put briefly, then, when the carbon pencils are
at the proper "arc," most of the current passes through the series
coils ;but if the arc lengthens owing to the consumption of the
carbons, less current passes through the series coils and more through
the shunt coils, and the shunt coils attracting a magnet, set in motion
the clockwork gear which draws the carbons together again until the
proper arc is established.
An automatic cut-out and substitutional resistance is usually
provided in case the lamp fails to act.
The upper or positive carbon burns away about twice as fast as
the negative one, and becomes slightly hollowed at the lower end,
whereas the negative carbon assumes in time a pointed or conical
shape. The carbon pencils only last from six to ten hours, after
which they require to be renewed, unless in the case of enclosed arc
lamps, the carbons of which last for a much longer period.
Arc lamps are generally run at about 50 volts, and require from
8 to 10 amperes of current per lamp.

Projector. —
The Suez Canal Regulations require each steamer
passing through in the night time to be supplied with a strong
projector or searchlight. The projector consists of a cylindrical
casing hung on movable trunnions, and containing inside the
necessarry mirror, lenses, carbons, and adjusting gear.
The regulation of the arc is in most cases obtained by the hand-
feed arrangement, the carbon pencils being held in two brackets
screwed on to a right and left hand threaded spindle. By means of
small handwhcels the arc can be focussed and adjusted as required.
As in the case of other single arc lamps, a " resistance " is also
employed to reduce the voltage, and obtain a steady light. The
31
464 Verbal " Notes and Sketches

amount of current required for the projector is very high, as much as

from 100 to 150 amperes being sometimes necessary, although the
voltage may only be from 50 to 60.
The wire from the dynamo runs to a terminal box near the
position required for the projector, and from the box the wire is led
direct to the lamp. The positive terminal is marked with a + sign,
and the negative with a — sign.

No. 42— G.E.C. Projector.

A fuse and switch are often fitted in the terminal box for greater
safety.

Description of G.E.C. Projector.

The case and pedestal is made of light sheet steel with copper
protection guards and sight holes fitted with blue glass for examining
the arc. The side standards, trunnions, lamp box, and back frame
door, and frame in front working head, and all exposed parts are made
of gun metal highly finished, polished, and lacquered. The vertical
and horizontal movements are obtained by gearing worked by hand-
wheels, but arranged so that, if desired, the gear can be thrown out and
the projector left free to be moved by the handles fitted on the frame
at the back. The hand feed lamp is of special construction and fitted
 Marine Electric Lighting 46;

with vertical focusing gear. The feed motion is worked by bevel

wheels from the outside of the lamp box, the carbons being moved
together by a left and right hand screw. The horizontal focusing gear

No. 43— G. E.G. Type Projector.

is worked by a screw passing through the lamp box fitted with hand-
wheel at side and end of box. The projector can also be fitted with
automatic feeding gear if required. A resistance is placed in the
circuit to reduce the voltage to suit arc voltage, and this also ensures
steadier working.

No. 44.— Resistance Coil.

—
Resistance Coils. Single arc lamps are often fitted forward and aft,
and for these the current is led from the switchboard by separate wires
 Verbal " Notes and Sketches
466

to a " resistance coil," where the voltage is reduced to suit that

required by the lamp. After passing through the resistance coil the
current enters the carbons of the lamp at the reduced voltage.

FKOW DYNAMO
70 VOLTS ~
TO LAMP
55 VOLTS

\jC
—=" 3
RESISTANCE COILS

51NGLE ARC LAMP

No. 45-
—Arc Lamp and Resistance.

The resistance coil for single arc lamps consists of a metal box
or case containing coils of fine platinoid wire, arranged either in
vertical rows or wound on a cylinder. If two or more coils are fitted,
they are connected "in series," that is, the end of one coil is joined
to the end of the next, and so on. The current in passing through
the coils is lowered in voltage, as the resistance of the platinoid wire
is much more than that of copper wire.

NEGATIVE

No. 46. — Two Arc Lamps 'in Series."

As work is done by the wire resistance referred to, heating up

of the coils and box ensues, and to allow for this the case should
be made of fireproof material to prevent damage from overheating.
As before stated, arc lamps are usually run at about 50 volts, and this
being so, if the dynamo runs at 100 volts, as is sometimes the case,
then two arc lamps can be run " in series," that is, on the same wire,
 Marine Electric Lip^hting 467

each one receiving 50 volts. If the dynamo, however, only runs

at, say, 70 volts, then the arc lamps must be run singly, and a
resistance employed to dissi[)ate about 15 volts, so that the lamps
may each receive no more than 55 volts. This tends towards
steadiness in the light.

Testing for Faults. —

Testing can be done by means of a
"detector" formed of a magnetic needle and galvanic battery, or
by a small portable hand lamp with a length of wire connected
to each of its terminals. When using the hand lamp the ends of
the copper wires must be carefully stripped of insulation so that
the copper is bared.
The detector can be used in most cases when the dynamo is
stopped, but the lamp can only be used when the dynamo is running.

No. 47.— Detector.

The detector is supplied with a battery, so that a current will flow

through it and deflect the needle whenever the positive and negative
poles of the dynamo or wires to be tested are connected up to the
terminals of the detector.
In the case of the portable lamp, a current must first be sent
through the wires, &c., when the ends of the lamp wires are put in
contact with the positive and negative connections under test, before
the light will show in the lamp.

NOTE.— A *' short circuit " is a connection (usually metallic) between any positive
and negative part of the dynamo connections, or between any two of the wires. An
"earth " is a metallic connection between one of the poles of the dynamo or wires to
the metal of the ship's plates.

Break in Main Wires. —

To discover the position of a break in a
pair of wires, begin from the source of the current in question or
distribution box from which the wires branch off, and baring the two
wires at short distances, touch them both with the free ends of the
wires connected to the detector. If the needle deflects, a current is
passing at the point tested but ; if after repeating this a few times the
 " " Notes and Sketches
468 Verbal

needle does not deflect at a point further on, it indicates that a break
issituated somewhere between this point and the last place where the
needle deflected.

No. 48.— Broken Wire Test by Detector.

The wires will therefore require to be carefully examined between

the two places referred to for the location of the break.
The portable lamp will do equally well as the detector, only in

MAIN WIRE

MAIN WIR£
y -L

TEST
LAMP

No. 49.— Broken Wire Test by Lamp.

this case the dynamo must be run to obtain a light in the lamp when
the bared ends of the lamp wires are put in contact with the wires
under test. If at a certain point no light shows in the lamp, it
indicates a break in the current or circuit.

NOTE.— The switches of the circuit in question must be "on " when testing with
the detector.

Leak in Magnet
Coils. —
To test if leakage is occurring between the
magnet and magnet, connect one of the detector wires to the
coils
end of the coil to be tested, and after carefully cleaning and polishing
up a small part of the metal work of the magnet, put the end of the
other detector wire in close contact with it. If the needle deflects, it
 Marine Electric Lighting 469
indicates a leak between that particular coil and the core of the
magnet : if no deflection of the needle takes place, it proves the
insulation to be intact. Each coil will require to be tested in turn.

No. 50.—Test for Leakage between Coils and Magnet.

Leak between Armature Coils or Commutator and Armature

—
Drum. Take out the armature and support it on a pair of trestles,
place one detector wire on the armature shaft or drum (either will do)
 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches
470
—
Short Circuit in Brush-holders. Lift the brushes from the com-
mutator and disconnect them from the cables leading to the dynamo
terminals, then place one detector wire on one brush-holder, and the

No. 52.—Test for Short Circuit between Brush-holders.

other detector wire on the other brush-holder. If the needle deflects,

a current is passing indicating a short circuit. Each part of the brush
connections can be tested in the same manner.

No. 53.—Test for Broken Wire {Continuity Test).

 Marine Electric Lielitine 471

Test for Broken Wire. — Disconnect the wire to be tested so that

the ends are free, and place one detector wire to each end. If the
needle deflects, a current is passinc]^, and the wire is not broken ; but
if the detector needle remains stationary, it indicates that the wire in
question is broken, as the circuit is not complete.

Test for "Earth" Leakage. —With the main and lamp switches
" on," connect one detector wire to the positive and negative wire of
the dynamo in turn, and put the other detector wire in contact with
the floor plates or ship's skin as the case may be. If a deflection of
the needle occurs, it indicates that leakage to "earth " is taking place,
that is, at some part of the circuit one of the wires is in b^re contact
with the metal of the ship, and the current is returning to the d}'namo
by that path.
To locate the part of the circuit affected, switch off the main
switches one by one till the needle comes back to its zero position,

No. 54.— Test for "Earth" Leakage.

and the last switch opened will be that of the circuit affected. Now
connect one of the detector wires to one of the " bus " bars or terminals
of the distribution box of the circuit, and, as before, connect the other
detector wire to the ship's metal. If the positive and negative fuse
bridges in the box are now pulled out one by one, the needle will
only move back to zero when the fuse bridge of the " earthed " wire
is disconnected, and in this way the exact "earthed" wire can be
located.
Another method of carrying out this test, should a galvanometer
not be available, is to connect up a lamp, the lamp being of the same
voltage as the dynamo. In this case it is necessary to have the
dynamo running and to test both negative and positive sides of the
leads, as the lamp only lights up when there is a fault on the opposite
pole to that to which it is connected. For instance, should there be
a fault on the positive lead to a lamp, when the test lamp is con-
472 "Verbal' Notes and Sketches

nected to the negative wire it will light up, but if connected to the
positive it would remain black.

SHIP (EARTH}
No. 55.— Earth Lamp Test.

" Earth " Lamp Test. —

To test for an earth leakage arrange a pair
of lamps as shown in the sketch, one connected to the positive lead,

No. 56.— Short Circuit Test.

the other to the negativ^e lead, and both connected to the ship metal
by a cross wire.
 —

Marine Electric Lighting 473

With the dynamo running one of the lamps will burn brighter
than the other there is a leakage to earth, and the leak will be on
if
the opposite wire to that of the bright lamp. For example, if lamp
A burns brightest the leakage will be on the positive wire, but if
lamp B burns brightest then the fault is on the negative or return wire.

To Test for Short Circuit in Main Wires, —

Disconnect one of
the main wires from the dynamo terminal, and insert between the wire
and terminal the detector, as shown. Now switch off the lamps (not
the main switches), and run the dynamo. If a deflection of the needle
takes place it indicates a short circuit between the main wires, as with
the lamp switched off no current should then be passing.

To Test for Broken Armature Coil. — This can only be accurately

determined by the following method : — Disconnect both ends of each

END OF COIL

^=u

No. 57.—Test for Broken Armature Coil.

armature conductor from the commutator bars, and place one wire of
the detector to each end then if no deflection of the needle takes
;

place it indicates a broken wire a deflection proves the wire to

:

be continuous or unbroken. Each armature coil must be tested

separately.

To Test for Polarity of Dynamo. —

It is often very convenient to
know which is the positive and which the negative connections or
wires of a dynamo, and these can be located as follows :

Obtain a piece of "pole-finding" paper (procurable at any Electrical

Supply Stores), and after moistening the paper place it on a piece of
dry wood now lead a suitable length of wire from each dynamo
;

terminal, as shown in the sketch, and with the free ends of the wires
touch the wetted " pole-finding " paper. A
red coloured blot will then
 *'
Verbal " Notes and Sketches
474

TEST^
WIRES
 Marine Electric Lighting 475
ends of the wires arc not bent and in contact with each other, as this
will produce a short circuit.

Keep all small tools away from the dynamo, as the magnetic
attraction may draw them into the field space and result in serious
damage.

Brass or copper oil cans only should be used.

To armature balance, lift it out and place the shaft on two

test the
fine levelled knife edges if the armature is then gently rolled from
;

side to side it will come to rest with the heavy side down this side ;

should therefore be reduced in weight, or the other side increased

in weight.

Short circuits in the armature coils show either by burning of the

insulating material resulting in a strong smell, or merely by heating
up of certain coils when felt by hand immediately after stopping
the dynamo.

If a commutator develops an untrue surface or "flats," it should

be turned up with a diamond-nosed tool, as this type of tool prevents
the burring of the copper edges over the insulation.

Make sure that the binding terminals are screwed up and in

metallic contact.

If the dynamo has become demagnetised it will refuse to generate

current when the speed is up. To remedy this, either tap the field
magnets with a light hammer, or, if this fails, reverse the brushes, that
is, turn them round 180 degrees of the commutator circle (if a two-pole

machine), so that they change places with each other, and run the
machine for a short period with reversed current this tends to restore;

the magnetic conditions afterwards replace the brushes to their

:

original positions.

Excessive rise of temperature in fields or armature indicates a short

circuit between some of the wires.

A short circuit or earth leak may result in overloading the dynamo

and produce sparking at the brushes.

In place of the ordinary galvanometer or detector a small bell and

dry battery may be used for testing. When the circuit is completed
by the wires from the bell terminals the bell will ring.

Whenever possible slow down and stop the dynamo before switch-
ing off the lights, as this prolongs the life of the incandescent lamps.

Before starting up the dynamo be sure that the lubrication is

reliable and the oil cups filled up also that the armature shaft is clear.
;
 " Verbal " Notes &nd Sketches
476

The brushes should not be hfted from the commutator while the
dynamo is runnhig, as this produces destructive sparking.
Sand-paper only should be used to polish up the commutator
and it should be applied by means of a board on which the
surface,
sand-paper is pasted, the width of the board to be cut to the length
of the commutator bars.

Hold the sand-paper board against the commutator, and have the
armature shaft revolved by hand. This is best done with the
armature lifted out and laid on a pair of wood trestles.

At intervals feel by hand the temperature of the magnet coils.

It is important to see that the engine is not started to run in the

wrong direction, that is, against the brushes, as damage would result.

The brush position, when the machine is running without load, will
not be suitable when the load is on, and the brushes must then be
rocked forward to obtain a sparkless contact.
NOTE. — " Forward" means in the direction of rotation.

In polishing up the commutator in position, take care to lift up

the brushes clear of the commutator surface.

The voltage of the dynamo varies in proportion to the speed

of the machine.

If a fuse blows or burns out it should be replaced by one of the

same size, and not by a larger one as is sometimes done.

Copper gauze brushes should be kept well trimmed up and free

of ragged edges.

Violent sparking at the commutator may be caused by a broken

armature coil, or broken armature and commutator connection.
The" pilot " lamp serves as a guide to the voltage of the dynamo,
as, being connected direct to the dynamo terminals, it indicates
whether the machine is generating the required E.M.F. or not. If
therefore a fault appears on a section of the lighting circuit and the
pilot lamp of the dynamo is still burning brightly, it proves that the
fault is not in the machine, but must be in the wiring or lamps. If
the speed is too high this may show in the pilot lamp by possible
burning out, and if too low, by the lamp only glowing instead of being
at a white heat.

Engine-room " waste " should never be used on a dynamo, as the

loose fibres are apt to detach and lodge between the commutator bars
or armature coils, and ultimately bring about short circuits. linen A
cloth is much to be preferred.
 Marine Electric Liorhtinor 477

No. 59— Pilot Lamp.

Become acquainted w ith the usual temperatures of the machine at

different partswhen running, so that any abnormal rise of temperature
may be noticed at once, and the cause located.

When out of the bearings the armature should be laid on a

lifted
pair of wood mentioned elsewhere, or if laid on the floor
trestles as
should rest on sacking or some such soft material, as, being a delicate
piece of work, it easily becomes damaged.

By careful adjustment of the brush rocker the best position of the

brushes can be found, and this should give a practically sparkless
contact.

See that the brushes have no side-play in the holders.

The point or toe of copper gauze brushes should be cut to an angle

of about 4o\

Apply the nece.ssary lubrication to the commutator either by the

palm of the hand or by means of a piece of liuoi rag, and remember
that a very small amount of mineral oil is sufficient.

If the armature is mucli out of balance it will probably injure both

the commutator and the brushes.
 —

" Verbal " Notes and Sketches

478

The disadvantage of carbon brushes is a tendency to heat up if not

accurately adjusted, as, for example, by excessive compression on the

holder springs.

If the dynamo is situated in a part of the steamer where the tem-

perature is high (say iOO°), sparking will ensue at the brushes and
commutator, owing to the increased resistance due to heating.
If the dynamo placed near the condenser corrosion of the tubes
is

may result, due, it may

be supposed, to galvanic action. This has
occurred in several cases which have come under the writer's
observation.

When the brushes become ragged at the bearing edges, they can
be quickly repaired by cutting off the rough parts with a knife run
along a straight-edge, a cut also being taken off the corners at an
angle.

—
Jointing of Wires. In joint making the following materials are
required, all of which are obtainable at Electrical Supply Stores :

1. Solder sticks.
2. Resin.
3. Pure rubber strip or tape.
4. Rubber solution (Challerton's compound is one of the best).
5. Prepared tape.
6. Shellac varnish.
7. Emery cloth.
8. Fine copper wire (for binding).

The number of separate layers of rubber tape and solution depend

on the thickness of the insulation originally on the wire, the heavier
the insulation the greater the number of layers, and vice versa.

COPPER
RUBBER
SOLUTION
RUBBER
SOLUTION
OUTER COVERING
VARNISH

No. 60.— Section through Main Wire-

In lapping the rubber tape over the soldered part of the joint, only
carry it up to the ends of the rubber on the wires, and not beyond this
point.
Before applying the first lapping of rubber strip, file up all rough
edges of solder or of wire so that a smooth-jointed surface is
obtained.
 —

Marine Electric Lighting 479

In cutting the ends of wires previous to jointing, it is advisable to
take off each layer of insulation in steps, as shown in the sketches.
This allows of the covering of the jointed part fitting in better with
the original layers of insulation.
Before applying the insulation layers, the rubber ends should be
cut down to form a taper to the bare wire, as shown in the sketch.
The lapping of the rubber strip over this ensures closeness of joint.

RUBBER
TAPERED

No. 6i.— Tapering of Insulation.

To cause adhesion the solution must be applied between each

layer of rubber strip, and last of all a good coating of shellac varnish.
The following instructions as to jointing of wires are issued by
Messrs Scott & Mountain, Electrical Engineers, Newcastle-on-Tyne :

Main Cables.

—
Preparing Ends. Remove the two outside tapes for about 5 in.
from each of the ends intended to be jointed. Bare the conductor
of its covering of indiarubber and inside lapping of tape for about
1 1 in., and clean the wires with emery cloth.

—
Metal Joint. Solder together the wires composing the strand for
about I in., and scarf two ends with a fine file. Bring the two scarfed
ends together and solder them. If this is carefully done, the conductor
will be of uniform size. Over the joint bind spirally a fine copper
wire, and solder the whole together. Resin, and not acid, must always
be used for soldering.

BINDING I WIRE

No. 62.— Scarfed Joint.

—
Insulating Joint. Taper each end of insulation with a sharp jointer's
knife for li in. from the conductor to the outside of the indiarubber.
Cover the metal joint with one lap of i-in. broad indiarubber, coated
with cotton tape. Over the cotton tape lap spirally pure indiarubber
strip (i in. broad), stretching it at the same time, and building up the
joint, by a series of coverings in alternate directions, to the same size
as the indiarubber coating of the wire, or slightly larger, to allow for
the thickness of binding wire. A very small portion of indiarubber
32
480 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches

solution should be applied over each coat, and sufficient time allowed
for the spirit to evaporate before putting on another coat this will ;

cause the indiarubber strips to unite together.

BINDING I
WIRE

No. 63.—Joints for Heavy Wires.

Outer Protection. —
Two coverings of prepared tapes (i| in, broad)
are to be laid on in opposite directions, with strong shellac varnish
between them, and then, outside, another covering of waterproof tape,
and finally varnished over all.

Branch Wires.
—
Preparing Ends. Remove the braiding tape and indiarubber for
about 4 in. from each end intended to be jointed. Unlap the cotton
serving next the conductor for about i| in. (do not cut it off).

Metal Joint. —
Thoroughly clean the ends of the wire with fine emery
cloth, and scarf them with a fine file. Bring the two scarfed ends
together and solder them. If this is carefully done the conductor will
be of uniform size. Over the joint bind spirally a fine copper wire,
and solder the whole together. Resin, and not acid, must always
be used for soldering.

—
Insulating Joint. Cover the metal joint evenly and as thinly as
possible with the cotton which had been previously unwound from
the ends. Over the cotton covering lap spirally pure indiarubber
tape (h in. broad), stretching it at the same time, and building up the
joint by a series of coverings in alternate directions, to the same size
as the indiarubber covering of the wire, or slightly larger, to allow
for the thickness of binding wire. A
very small portion of indiarubber

0^=^2^^^^s^^^^=d7
No. 64.— Joint for Small Lamp Wires.

solution should be applied over each coat, and sufficient time allowed
for the spirit to evaporate before putting on another coat this will ;

cause the indiarubber to unite together.

Outer Protection. — Two coverings of felt tape (|- in. broad) are to be
laid on, in opposite directions, with strong shellac varnish between
them, and finally varnished over all.
 Marine Electric Lighting 481

" T" Joints.

—
Preparing Ends- Remove the two outside tapes for about 5 in. from
the main lead. Bare the conductor of its covering of indiarubber and

L^ T

No. 65— Small "T" Joint

No. 66.— "T" Joint

inside lapping of tape liin. Remove the braiding and tape for 6 in.
from the end of the wire intended to be jointed to the main lead.
The two rubber coverings and cotton serving are then to be unlapped
for 3 in. and the rubber cut off. Thoroughly clean the strand, and
also the solid wire with fine emery cloth.

—
Metal Joint Solder the wires composing the strand together, take
two or three turns of the solid wire round the main conductor, and
back round itself for three or more turns, and solder only at the top
of the T. Resin, and not acid, must always be used for soldering.
NOTE.— In joint making care must be taken to keep the hands, tools, and
materials clean and dry.

Electric Motors.
The construction of a motor is similar to that of a dynamo all —
the various parts, such as armature, magnets, commutator, brushes,
&c., corresponding to the latter but in the case of shunt motors
;

a difference exists in the wire connections, v/hich will be explained

later.
As will readily be understood, a motor receives current from a
482 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches

dynamo, and the action is reversed, that is, in place of mechanical

power generating electro-motive force, electro-motive force generates

mechanical power. Put simply, a motor is a dynamo reversed in

itsaction. Sketch No. Gy illustrates the principle of a dynamo with
motors in connection.
 Marine Electric Lighting 483

In numbers of motors in use at present, the various parts are so

fitted as tooccupy very little space and to allow of the working parts
of the motor being covered in or enclosed. This protects the delicate
parts of the motor such as commutator, brushes, &c., from dirt and
grit, and reduces the chances of breakdown occasioned by short
circuits formed possibly by the dirt and grit in question. In this
type of enclosed motor, four poles are often used instead of two,
as being more suitable, as the four-pole arrangement lends itself better
to the circular shape of the motor.
As stated before, in shunt motors an extra wire is fitted. The
wire referred to is employed in the starting and stopping of the motor,
and is connected between the field magnets and the supply wire
through a " starting resistance " or switch.
On switching on the current at the starter it first enters the field
magnet coils, and after freely exciting them, is then admitted
gradually to the brushes and armature coils. The object of this is to
prevent what may be called "racing" of the motor when the current
is first turned on, as by first passing the current into the magnet coils
the magnetic field is strengthened, and the tendency of the armature
to run off at a high speed is checked by the magnetism developed
opposing its too rapid rotation. This prevents mechanical shock, and
possible damage to the working parts ; it also checks undue variation

in the current passing through the wires and supplying other motors
or lamps in connection, and which might otherwise be affected.
In a series wound motor the whole of the current entering the
armature first passes through the field magnets, and gives the necessary
strength to the field.
In a shunt wound motor only part of the current passes through
the magnet coils by the fine shunt wires which are branched off from
the main or supply wire.
This being the case, it will be obvious that with a shunt motor the
starting resistance must first freely excite the field magnets before the
current enters the armature, otherwise by suddenly switching on the
current the machine may be seriously damaged. It is also important
that the current be only admitted to the armature by small degrees,
and this is arranged for by fitting a " starting resistance " between the
motor and supply wire.

Motor Starters. —A
"starting resistance" consists of a box con-
taining a number of platinoid wire coils connected together in series
and to insulated earthenware bases.
Each has a brass or copper contact piece, and the hand lever,
coil
which is connection at one end with the supply wire and to the
in
contact stops at the other, can be moved over the coils in succession,
so that at first all the coils are in series ; but as the handle moves
over each stop in rotation, one less coil is included in the circuit, and
the resistance decreased in proportion. When the handle passes the
last contact stop, all the resistances are cut out, and the full current
 *'
Verbal " Notes and Sketches
484

FROM ARMATURE AND FIELD

MOTOR
STARTER
ENCLOSED MOTOR
No. 68.— Motor Starter Connections ("Series Wound")

TWO POLE
"SWITCH

FROM ARMATURE

TtO FIELD
\lO ARMATURE .n AG NETS

TO FIELD
HAONETS

MOTOR
STARTER ENCLOSED MOTOR

No. 69.— Motor Starter Connections ("Shunt Wound").

 Marine Electric Lighting 4^5

is then passing direct from the supply wire to the armature. The
starting handle should be moved slowly over the contacts, and allowed

No. 70. — "Resistance" Regulator.

to press on each for a few seconds, as the speed of the motor gradually
increases.

In stopping a motor the same precautions must be used, that

is, the current must be switched off gradually by moving the
resistance handle from stop to stop with an mterval for each, so
that each coil is inserted in rotation until the lever is in the "off"
position.

The speed of the motor can also be regulated by the insertion of

more or less of the resistance coils into the supply circuit by means of
the handle and contact stops.

Some motor starters have small electro-magnets or bobbins

arranged so that the lever is held in the " on " position so long as the
proper amount of current is passing, but should anything happen to
destroy the balance by excess or loss of current, the lever automatically
flies over to the " off" position and cuts off the current altogether.

Small fan motors, as used for state-rooms, &c., are usually of the
serieswound type and larger fans, for ventilation or induced draught
;

purposes, of the shunt wound type.

486 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

No. 71.— Type ofG.E.C "Freezor" Cabin Fan for Table

or as Bracket Fan. These Fans are fitted with
Three-speed Regulators in Base.

G.E.C. "Witton" Motor Driving Capstan.

One of the latest electrically driven appliances is the capstan
A motor direct coupled gives complete and instantaneous control by

No. 72.— "Witton" Motor direct coupled to

Centrifugal Pump.
Marine Electric Lighting 487
 —

488 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

means of a starting switch placed in a convenient position, and

operated by foot only.

Pull, 4480 lbs. ; speed, 100 ft. per minute ;

motor, series wound.

Largely used on board steamships, shipbuilding yards, and

dockyards.

Circulating water for condensing, or washing down decks, and fire

purposes.

:i

No. 74.— Electric Punkah, G.EC. "Bandy."

For Saloons, Cabins, &c. Installed on board many of the large

liners on the Eastern Routes.

The only punkah giving the " flick " the

electrically operated —
punkahs as compared with other cooling devices.
distinctive feature of
The G.E.C. Bandy punkah effects a saving of 50 to 70 per cent, in
current, when compared with an ordinary ceiling fan. The con-
sumpt per one hour is approximately :

Of the 2 ft. 6 in. size -

27
„ 3 ft. 6 in. „ -

„ 4 ft. 6 in. „ -

An ordinary ceiling fan

 Marine Electric Lighting 489

No. 75.— Extension Box.

No. 76.— Luminous Electric Glow Radiators.

For Heating State Rooms, Music Rooms, &c.

This horizontal type of glow lamp Radiator is a great improve-

ment over the vertical type, specially for ships' use where vibration
and jarring occur. The lamps are made with the poles at opposite
ends, and one zig-zag filament runs through the lamp supported in
the middle. Each lamp is rated at 250 watts.
 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches
490

Advantages of Zig-Zig Type Radiators.

Lamps firmly held by clip at each end.
Opposite poles at opposite ends of lamp.
Increased contact surface.
Longer life of lamps.
The " Zig-Zag " filament increases radiation of heat.

Horizontal arrangement of lamps gives more pleasing effect.

No. 77.— Elevector.

"Archer" System of Heating by Convection,
for State Rooms, Dining Saloons, &c.

The Elevector is an air warmer. The cases are supplied in various

metals and finishes, and all types have interchangeable heaters or
elements of 500 watts each, i watt for each cubic foot of space to

be heated should be allowed for.

Electrical Notes.
By "Potential" is meant the difference of electrical tension
existing between the positive and negative leads.

A Volt is the measure of electrical pressure or E.M.F. (Electro-

Motive Force).
NOTE.— A Volt is the E.M.F. required to give one Ampere of current ag&inst
one Ohm resistance.
 Marine Electric Liorhtin^ 491

An Ampere is the measure of electrical current, and is taken as

the standard flow of clectricit}- in a wire per second.

An Ohm
is the measure of electrical resistance, and is about equal
to that of one mile of copper wire I in. in diameter.

Volts X Amperes = Watts.

746 watts are equal to i Electrical Horse- Power.

VoltsxAmperes^^
Therefore, ^ p^
746

E.H.P. compared to I.H.P.

It should be noted that the Electrical Horse-Power refers to ofie
second of time as the ampere flow is measured for that period, whereas
the I.H.P. of steam refers to one minute of time.
Therefore, 33000 -=-60=550 foot-pounds per second,
and, 746 watts = 550 foot-pounds.
So that, 746-^550= 1-35 watts per foot-pound.

As work and heat are equivalent, then it can be proved that to

produce the same heating effect (energy), 1-35 watts are equal to i
foot-pound.
E.H.P. per minute = 746x60 =44760 watts per min.

The size of a wire depends on the amount of current it has to

carry ; in other words, on the number of amperes.

The insulation of a wire depends more on the number of volts

carried by the wire.

The Board of Trade limit is 1000 amperes per square inch of

wire section.

Fuses or cut-outs are constructed to melt when the current

becomes double the working current.

Insulating materials are composed of indiarubber, tape, varnish,

vulcanisedfibre, glass, cotton, earthenware, &c.

Arc lamps are usually run at from 45 to 55 volts.

Arc lamps require from 8 to 12 amperes of current.

Projector arc lamps require from 80 to 150 amperes of current.

A 16 candle-power incandescent carbon filament lamp requires
about 60 watts.

A 16 candle-power incandescent lamp run at 75 volts requires -8

of an ampere, because 60 watts-^^75 volts = -8 of an ampere.

An " Osram " 16 candle-power incandescent metallic filament lamp

only requires about 20 watts, as the resistance of the filament is higher
and requires less current to produce the same heat.
492 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

1000 watts are equal to i kilowatt.

The positive wire or terminal is often marked thus +. and

painted red.

The negative wire or terminal is often marked thus — , and

painted black.

Fuses in earthenware cases are placed at different parts of the wire

circuits to act, if required, as automatic circuit-breakers.
Dynamos for ship-lighting usually develop from 65 volts to
100 volts.

" In series " means in continuation.

" In shunt " means branched off.

Continuous current dynamos are generally employed for lighting

purposes, and alternating current dynamos for power stations.

Transformers are used in power stations to reduce the current

from a high to a low voltage without serious loss.

100 amperes at 2CK)0 volts will give 400 amperes at 500 volts if a
transformer is used, because

Amperes. Volts.
100x2000
=400 amperes.
500
volts

NOTE. — This neglects loss of efficiency in transformer.

Accumulators are used for the storage of electricity, and consist

of a number of galvanic cells joined in series. The cells are charged
by the current from a dynamo, which decomposes the acid bath of
the cells and reverses the chemical conditions. After charging, the
electricity so stored up may be released and employed to act on an
external circuit if suitable wiring is arranged, as the chemical relation
of the plates causes a return to their original condition. Accumulators
are often employed on yachts, where a small number of lamps may be
required during the night, and in cases where the dynamo is not kept
running constantly.
The quantity of current flowing past a one ampere section of wire
in one second is called a " coulomb."

Electricity is one form of " energy " or " force."

Induction is the magnetic or electrical effect produced on surround-

ing bodies or substances by an electric current.
 Marine Electric Lighting 493
The principle of induction is employed in transformers, where a
current of high voltage in a set of fine wires is made to induce currents
of a lower voltage in a set of coarser wires.

One " megohm " is equal to 1,000,000 ohms.

All substances offer more or less resistance to the flow of an

electriccurrent those having least resistance are employed as
:

"conductors," and those having most resistance are employed as

" insulators."

Rules —
To find the Current strength in Amperes passing through an
electrical circuit.

Rule—
Volts = Amperes.
Ohms Resistance

Volts
and, ^ohms,
Amperes
or, Amperes x Ohms = Volts.

Example i. — The voltage is 100, and the resistance of a 16 candle-

power lamp 220 ohms. Find the required current in amperes.

Then, Amperes
^ = X°— = -°° = -45 Ampere
^
Ohms 220 ^^

Example 2. — Find the resistance in ohms if the voltage is 100

and the amperes 300.

Then, Ohms = -M*i- = ^°° = .33 Ohm.

Amperes 300

Example 3. —
The output in amperes is 250, and the resistance
•4 ohm. Find the required voltage.
Then, Volts - Amperes x Ohms = 250 x ^4 = 100 Volts.

Example 4. — Find the number of watts required for a lamp

taking -6 of an ampere at 100 volts.

Then, Watts = Volts \ Amperes = loo x -6 = 60 Watts.

 SECTION VIII.

PROPELLERS.
As the majority of marine engineers are unfamiliar with the
various definitions connected with the screw propeller, the author
has deemed it advisable to endeavour to give clear and, if possible
concise explanations of each, accompanied by suitable illustrations.

General. — The marine propeller, simply considered, is merely a

common screw working in a nut.

If a screwed bolt be turned one complete revolution in a corre-

sponding nut, the bolt will advance or travel along the nut a distance
equal to that between two adjacent threads, or, as it is usually
expressed, equal to one pitch, P (see sketch), so that if a bolt has,
sa}% eight threads to the inch, in one turn of the bolt or nut the
advance will be 1 inch.

No. I.— Common Screw.

P = Pitch.

The diameter of the propeller boss represents the bolt at the

bottom of the thread, and the propeller blades the actual threads, or,
more correctly, /)/eces of thread (see sketch).
 Propellers 495

No. 2.—Actual Propeller compared with Actual Screw.

A three-bladed propeller consists of three pieces of thread set oti

the boss, and a four-bladed propeller consists of four pieces of thread
set on the boss.
The water in which the propeller is immersed, and in which it
works, represents the nut, so that when the boft or propeller shaft
is revolved the screw or propeller advances in the nut, which, as
before stated, is represented by the water in which the propeller
works.
As, however, the water constitutes a yielding nut and gives way
a certain amount to the blades, the actual advance of the propeller
and ship is less than one pitch of the screw for one complete revolu-
tion of the shaft this difference of advance is known as the slip.
;

Thrust. — The effect of the propeller thrust is, generally speaking,

twofold — (i) to drive the water aft, (2) to drive the ship forward.
The reaction of driving the water aft results in the steamer being
driven or propelled forward.

Pitch.— As stated above, the pitch is the longitudinal advance of a

screw during one revolution, if working in a solid nut.
A screw or helix, if unrolled, forms with the pitch and circumference
a triangle, of which the thread represents the h\'pothenuse or diagonal.
If, therefore, a sheet of paper is taken, and a line A B drawn from

corner to corner, and the sheet rolled up into a cylinder, the ruled
line A B will represent the edge of a screw or thread, and the length
of the roll the pitch (Sketches Nos. 3 and 4).
35
496
 Propellers 497

unrolled helix, and each propeller blade is equal in width to a piece

y-

No. 5. — Right-hand Propeller Blade.

T, Piece of Thread, or Hypothenuse. P, Piece of Pitch. C, Piece of Circumference.

of the thread onl\-. The thread forms the diagonal or h\-pothenuse of

the pitch triangle, and therefore its longest side.

Increasing Pitch. —
Propellers are sometimes designed with a varying
pitch — of thethe
(ij pitch increasing radially, that is, the pitch at or near
the tip blades is more than the pitch near the boss or (2) the ;

pitch may increase axiallx', or from forward aft, that is, the pitch near
the after edge of the blade may be slightly more than the pitch near
the forward edge. In the sketch shown below the pitch at B is more
than the pitch at A.

THRUS
SURFACI
(FACE)

LEADING
EDGE

No. 6. — Thrust and Drag Surfaces.

 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches
498

True Screw. —When the blades have no variation in pitch, either

radially or axially, the blade surface is said to be that of a " true
screw." Some of the most efficient propellers of present day practice,
including those of turbine steamers, are of this type.

Pitch Ratio. —The propeller pitch, divided by the propeller diameter,

isequal to the " pitch ratio." The pitch ratio may vary from about
•9 in small propellers to 1-4 in large propellers, in steamers with
reciprocating engines.

—
Diameter of Propeller. The diameter of a propeller is the diameter
of the circle described by the tips of the blades.

Length of Propeller. —The length of a propeller is measured longi-

tudinally on the shaft, and is usually about equal to the length of
the boss.

Length of Blade. — The length of a blade is measured from the root

at the boss to the tip of the blade.

—
Moulding of Blades. In moulding the propeller blades a horizontal
arm is rotated round a vertical spindle, and at the same time moved
up or down the spindle, thus generating the screw surface or helix.
To guide the travel of the moving arm one or more curved vertical
guide templates are placed in position, and the moving arm travelling
over the upper edges of the templates shapes out the blade surface
for the required pitch, &c. The vertical templates referred to are
triangular in shape, and are cut to the correct pitch angle for various
points of radius on the blade.

PITCH
TEMPLATE

No. 7.— Method of producing the Screw Surface.

 —

Propellers 499
Slip. — Slip is apparent slip, (2) real or actual slip
of three kinds (i)
and (3) negative slip. The "log"
slip found by taking the difference
of the propeller speed and the ship speed is only apparent slip, the
real slip being (in nearly every case) in excess of this. The real slip
is found by adding together the apparent slip and the "wake speed"
(if known).

Wake —
Speed. Wake speed is the name given to the velocity of the
stream or column of water \wh\c\\ follows at the stern of a vessel.
The wake speed will be more with a bluff-lined steamer than one
with fine lines, as the more square shape of the stern tends to pull the
water along with the vessel, and thus give a higher wake speed.
From the foregoing it will perhaps be seen that the speed of the
vessel is less relatively to the wake speed than to still water. This,
therefore, has the effect of taking away, as it were, part of the
actual slip.
As before stated, to calculate the real slip the wake speed must be
added to the apparent slip.

—
Disc Area. By disc area is meant the area of the circle described
and enclosed by the tips of the propeller blades.

Developed Area. — By developed or expanded blade area is meant

the area of all the blades
full if flattened out and taken as approxi-
mate plane surfaces.

No. 8.— Expanded Blade Area.

Area Ratio. —
B)- area ratio is meant the relative total expanded
area of the blades compared with the " disc area." The area ratio
varies from -3 to -6 of the disc area.

—
Projected Area. This means the actual area of blades as projected
at right angles to the line of shafting, and constitutes the effective
thrusting area of the blades.
NOTE.— The blade area as seen when looking forward from behind the
propeller is the 'projected area."
 500 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

No. 9. — Projected, or Effective Thrusting Area of Blades.

Thrust Surface or Driving Face. —

The after surface of the blades
is the thrusting surface, which acts on the water to drive forward
the vessel.

Drag Surface or Back of Blade. —The forward (usually the rounded)

surface of the blades is known as the drag surface.

Leading Edge. — With the blade

in a horizontal position (see sketch),
the "leading edge" that edge lowest down, and which for a right-
is

hand propeller lies on the starboard side for a left-hand screw the
;

leading edge will be on the port side.

Following Edge. —With the blade in a horizontal position, the after

edge and that highest up is called the " following edge."

—
Cavitation. By cavitation is meant the failure of water supply or
"feed " to the propeller, due generally to excessive blade velocity in ;

other words, the blade speed exceeds the water flow speed to the
blades, therefore the effective thrust falls off in proportion, as cavities
form at the forward side of the blades. Cavitation is therefore caused
by the ineffectiveness of the atmospheric pressure to press up the
water at the back of the blades (forward side) fast enough to allow
of effective thrust this usually occurs at high revolution speeds and
;

high blade pressures per square inch.

The phenomenon of cavitation has been very exhaustively investi-
gated in a series of elaborate experiments carried out by the Hon.
 —

Propellers 5^^

C. A. Parsons, in connection with trials of turbine-engine propellers

(see " The Marine Steam Turbine," by J. W. Sothern).
It should be noted that slip is an absolute necessity for the effective
effort of a screw propeller, and if a propeller shows a very low slip
percentage it indicates that the propeller fitted is evident!)' unsuitable
for the steamer in question, as it is not delivering an effective thrust
on the water. In most cases the slip should average from 5 to
1 5 per cent., and in some cases even more.

Apparent Negative Slip. —

If without strong current speed a pro-
peller shows negative slip, it may be taken for granted that (as in the
case of low positive slip) the propeller is not suited for the work it has
to do, and indicates the necessity for another propeller of different
design being substituted, probably one of greater pitch and diameter.
Negative slip is most likely to show in steamers having very bluff
stern lines, and therefore giving a resultant high wake speed.

NOTE. —Apparent negative slip may occur with a strong current going with the
steamer.

It is generally admitted now by authorities on the propeller that

negative slip can only be apparent, and an example may be given
as follows :

—
Example. Pitch 15 feet, Revolutions 62, ship's speed 14 Knots,
speed o{following cm-rent 4 Knots, find slip.
x x 60
Then, Engine
^ Knots = ^8 62 ^ ^ ^ j^^^^^
6080
and, 14 - II = 3 Knots apparent negative sUp.
But, Actual Propeller advance through water = 14-4 = 10 Knots.
Therefore, Real Slip = 11- 10=1 Knot.

So that instead of an apparent negative slip of 3 Knots we have

a positive and real slip of i Knot.

No. 10.— Blade "Set Back."

 :

" "
502 Verbal Notes and Sketches

Set Back. —Sometimes the blades of a propeller are set with an

inclination aft instead of being arranged at right angles to the shaft
this is known as " set back " or " skew."

—
Racing. Racing is produced by the blades or parts of the blades
rising out of the water when the stern lifts in pitching. The effect of
this is to carry down into the water a quantity of air, and as the
resulting mixture of air and water is less .solid or dense than water
alone, the blades less resistance, and the engines "race" in
meet with
consequence. It be noted that the whole propeller does not
will
require to come out of the water to produce racing, as part only of a
blade coming above the surface may be sufficient to produce it. Less
racing will occur when small propellers are fitted low down, as in the
case of turbine steamers.

Cone.--In well-finished propellers the nut aft of the boss is covered

with a thin metal cover, conical in shape, which continues aft the
round of the boss, and prevents interruption of the " flow " or " run " of
the water past the blades.

CONE

No. II. — Nut and Cone.

Propeller Design.
The majority of the following rules for propeller design are taken
from Seaton's " Manual of Marine Engineering," also Seaton and
Rounthwaite's " Pocket-Book of Marine Engineering Rules and Tables,"
and the author would take this opportunity of recommending a copy
of either of these standard works to all readers anxious to investigate
more fully into the various problems of marine engineering design.
The following descriptions are therefore intended to be applied in
conjunction with the above-named books, a copy of which, as before
stated, should be obtained for reference.

NOTE.— It must be clearly understood that no absolutely correct hard and fast
rules suitable for the successful designing of propellers can be laid down on paper,
as in actual drawing-office practice comparative records of previous performances,
tables of "slip" factors, "area factors," Admiralty coefficients, results of tank
 — —

Propellers 503
experiments, and other data, are largely employed in arriving at the best pattern
of propeller suitable for a steamer of given type, dimensions, and speed. A vast
amount of investigation is yet open to experimenters in propeller efficiency and
design, as at present, in a number of cases, the most suitable propeller is often
only found after repeated trials of other propellers of different pitch, diameter, and
area. In support of this the writer remembers once seeing nineteen propellers
which had all been tried successively on a torpedo destroyer before the one giving
the best results was discovered.

I. To Design and Draw a Propeller for the following:

/I.H.P. - - 600.
Knots - - 10.
Revolutions - 76.
Given -

Tail shaft - - 11 inches diameter.

Type of steamer Cargo boat.
Propeller to l)e of the four-bladed, cast-iron, solid type.

NOTE.— It should be stated that it is not usual in drawing-office practice to

show as many views of the blades, &c., as here drawn in the examples
different
given, but as this description is specially written for the use of marine engineers
with little or no experience of geometrical projection drawing, it has been considered
advisable, for the sake of clearness, to show each separate stage of the construction,
hence the necessity for repeating some of the views which might otherwise, as will
easily be seen, have been combined in one.

To find Propeller Pitch. — Allow 10 per cent, for apparent slip, and
proceed as follows :

Rule. —
Knots X 60 8 X 1 00
-pt h
Rev. X 60 X effective per cent.

10x6080x100 ^
Therefore, ^^^^ p.^^j^
76 X 60 X 90
NOTE.— 6080 feet= 1 knot.
60 min. = I hour.
100 - 10 = 90 per cent, effective advance

To find Propeller Diameter.

Rule. —
Kx
Constant
V /pj^lftTev.
V 100
y
/
= Diameter.

Therefore, K i8 x
^ 7iS~>^6 V"^
V lOO
"'4^ ^^^*' °'' ^^^ "^ ^^^^ Diameter.

NOTE.— K = Constant i8 in present case (see Seaton and Rounthwaite's

" Pocket Book" for table of Constants).
6oo = I.H.P.
15 = pitch.
76 = revolutions.
 — — — — —

" Verbal " Notes and Sketches

504

To find Total Expanded Blade Area. — The total expanded blade

area is found as follows :

Rule.—
C X / ii^- P- = total Surface.
Sj rev.

Therefore, Constant 16 x /"°°=44.9, or say 45 square feet.

V 76
NOTE. — C = Constant 16 in present case (see Seaton and Rounthwaite's " Pocket-
Book" for table of Constants).
600- 1. H. P.
76 = revolutions.

To find Diameter and Length of Boss. —

For a cast-iron propeller
with blades and boss solid, the diameter and length of the boss are
found as follows :

Rule. — Constant 27 x shaft diameter = boss diameter and boss

length, therefore 2-7x11 =29-7 inches, or say 30 inches diameter and
length of boss.
NOTE. — II inches = tail shaft diameter.
The boss diameter varies from \ to \ of propeller diameter.
The curve of boss radius is taken w^ith a radius equal to boss
diameter x -8, therefore 30 inches x -8 = 24 inches radius for curve.

To find Blade Thickness. —The blade thickness, if continued to

the shaft centre line or axis, is found as follows :

Rule, —
y^"^y ^^
J K ^Yt
Number
1VT
of blades x boss
~. X
length
Constant 4 + "5 = Thickness.

Therefore, / ^-. x4 + -5 = 6-S inches thickness at shaft axis.

\/ 4 X 30 mches
NOTE. — II inches = shaft diameter.
4 ,, = number of blades.
30 ,, = breadth of blade at boss (roughly).

The blade thickness near the tip is found as follows :

Rule. —
Constant -04 x propeller diameter in feet + -4 = thickness.
Therefore, •04X ii-5 + -4 = -86 inch, or say | inch thick near tip.
NOTE.— ii-5 = propeller diameter in feet.

To find Boss Thickness. — The boss thickness at position of the

blades is found as follows :

Rule. —
Constant -65 x blade thickness at shaft axis - thickness.
Therefore, •65x6-5 = 4-22 inches, or say 4^ inches thirk.

NOTE.— 6-5 inches = blade thickness at shaft axis.

T331 5«Aw}.; 3CAJ8
- '^^
LA - ^- ^-

J-

-^.
f-
 SOLID BLADED CAST IRON PROPELLER
SCALE i" PER FOOT

PITCH 15-0
DIAMETER ll'-6"
EXPANDED BLADE AREA 45 SQUARE FEET
PITCH RATIO = /5 -h//-S = /-J
AREA RATIO = ^5 -h //S^ X -7654 =43

6 SLADE PROJEC

•
Verbal " Nole> and Sktlches. {Ts /arr fagr ip^.
 —— —

Propellers 505

To find Taper in Boss. —

Allow the taper of shaft hole in boss to
be not less than \ inch per foot of length.
Therefore, 25 feet x 75 inch = 1875 inches taper,
and II inches - 1-875 inches = 9-i25 inches diameter at small end, or say 9 inches.
NOTE.— 30 inches = 2-5 feet = length of boss.

To find Dimensions of Key. —

The width and thickness of the key
which secures the boss to the shaft are found as follows :

Shaft diameter ^.g^^-^^^^

j^^^LE.— ^^ ^^^

Therefore, ?^ + -6=2-4 inches, or say 2i inches in width.

6
Rule. —
Width of key X '5 = thickness of key.
Therefore, 2-5 x -5 = 1-2 inches, or say i| inches in thickness.

To find Dimensions of Nut. —

The diameter and thickness of the
nut at back of boss are found as follows :

Rule. —
Shaft diameter at screw x 1-5 = diameter of nut, therefore 8-5xi-5 = i2j in. diam.
Shaft diameter at screw x 75 = thickness of nut, therefore 8-5x-75 = 6i in. thick.
NOTE. — 8-5 inches = shaft diameter at screw.

To find Single Blade Expanded Area. — As there are four blades,

the area of one blade is found as follows :

Total blade area -f 4 = one blade area.

Therefore, 454-4=11-25 square feet surface for one blade.
NOTE. — 45 square feet = total blade area.

To find Blade Length. —

Half of the boss diameter subtracted from
half of the propeller diameter will give the blade length :

Therefore, 11-5-^2 = 5-75 feet, and 2-5 -=-2 = 1-25 ;

then 575- 1-25 = 4'5 feet length of blade.

NOTE. — 1 1-5 feet = propeller diameter.
2-5 ,, =boss diameter.

To find Width of Blade Area Rectangle. The single blade area —

divided by the blade length will give the mean width of the blade area
rectangle.
Therefore, 11-25-^4-5 = 2-5 feet width.
NOTE. — 11-25 square feet = single blade area.
4-5 feet = blade length.

Shape of Blade. —
The standard shape of blade takes the form of an
ellipse,but in practice various modifications of this are adopted, with
more or less satisfactory results. Experience proves that difference in
blade contour affects the efficiency but slightly, provided that the area
of blade is kept constant.
 —

" Verbal " Notes and Sketches

5o6

Set Back. — Allow a " set back " of blade equal to about i inch per
foot of propeller diameter, or say 12 inches in all, at tip.

Radial Pitch Angles and Thickness Templates. In a working —

drawing the pitch angles and thickness templates at various radial
distances on the blade require to be shown for the fitting up of the
shop moulding templates, and as the length of blade from centre of
boss to tip is equal to the radius of the circumference circle, the
corresponding reduced pitch distance will be equal to the full pitch
divided b}- 2x3-1416; hence,
15^ 2 X 3- 1416 = 2-38 feet, or 2 feet 4i inches.

NOTE. — This distance of 2 feet 4^ inches requires to be measured horizontally

from the boss centre, and all lines from radial points on the blade drawn to it.

Summary of Results,
The principal dimensions as found by the foregoing rules are then
as follows

„
:

Propeller pitch
diameter -
...
- -
-

-
-

Expanded blade area

Single blade area - - - -

Boss diameter
„
„
length
taper
Breadth of key
-----
Thickness of key -
-
.

-
.

-
.

-
.

Nut diameter - . . -

„ thickness . . . -

Pitch angle distance

Length of blade area rectangle
Width of "
„ „
Set back of blade - - - -

Blade thickness at shaft axis - -

„ „
_
near tip - - - - . |.
,,

Boss thickness - - - - - 4^ „

To Draw the Propeller (Sketch No. 12).

The following method, it should be noted, is not mathematically

correct (particularly in the case of the " projected area " view), but is
quite near enough for practical purposes as required in a working
drawing. For the shop moulding of a propeller the projected area
view is not required.

I. Blade Area Rectangle. Set — off the horizontal shaft centre line
and the vertical centre line of the boss, then from the centre of boss,
with a 15-inch radius, describe the circle of the boss diameter, 30 inches;
also measure up from the shaft centre line half of the propeller
 Propellers 507

diameter, or 5 feet 9 inches. Next measure on each side of the boss

centre line half of the blade rectangle width, i foot 3 inches, and
complete the rectangle as shown. Now proceed to sketch in by hand
the approximate shape of the blade, taking care that the actual
surface of blade when drawn in is at least equal to the original
rectangular area. A good plan is to dixide off the blade area
rectangle into a number of divisions, horizontally and vertically,
counting up the total number, and after the blade is shaped out as
desired, arrange that the actual area of blade contains the same
number of division*:.

2. —
Blade and Boss Thickness. Set off the length of the boss,
30 inches, and the diameter of the boss, also 30 inches, then complete
the boss outside curve with a 24-inch radius. Next draw in the taper
of the hole in the boss 1 1 inches to 9 inches. Then set off aft at the
propeller tip the "set back" of 12 inches, and draw a line for the face
of the blade through the boss curve at the vertical centre line, and
from where this inclined line cuts the shaft centre line measure forward
the thickness of blade at shaft axis (6| inches). At the blade tip also
measure forward the thickness at that position, that is | inch, and
draw a line parallel to the face of blade line. To complete the blade
section, draw another line from the thickness at shaft axis (6| inches)
to the tip of propeller, then run the two thickness lines into each other
by a suitable curve as shown in the drawing, and join the blade at the
root to the boss at the forward side by a large fillet of, sa)-, 6 inches
radius. The hollow cast part of the boss is shown as 14 inches in
length, as this leaves sufficient strength of metal fore and aft.

3. Pitch Angles and Thickness Templates. —

Begin this view
by again drawing in the complete boss and blade as in view i, and
set off any convenient number of di\isions from the beginning of the
blade radius at root. The first is at 18 inches from the centre, and
the others, Nos. 2, 3, 4, 5, are at equal distances of 12 inches. Draw
horizontal lines, and where these lines cut through view 2, the thick-
ness of blade at each division will be found. Transfer the various
thicknesses to view 3, and complete the thickness sections by drawing
in radial curves for the back of the blade or forward surface. Observe
that near the root the after edges are slightly rounded away to allow
a free flow of water past the blade. Next measure to the right the
pitch angle distance of 2 feet 4^ inches, and from each radial point
draw lines to it as shown this gives the required pitch angles at the
;

differentradial positions marked.

4. Boss, Key, and Nut. —

This view will be easily drawn, as the
dimensions are simply taken from the " Summary of Results," and
measured off. Observe that the screw for the nut is left-handed for
a right-hand propeller, to keep the propeller hard up when the shaft
is revolving.
 Verbal " Notes and Sketches
5oS *'

5. —
Nut. The nut shown has four small projections 3 inches wide, to
allow of the nut being screwed on or off.

6. Blade Projection. — As usual, set off the propeller radius of 5 feet

9 inches, and the various divisions, i, 2, 3, 4, 5, from view 3, and draw

long horizontal lines. Now complete the external view of the boss
and the blade angle centre line at the set back of 12 inches from tip.
At each of the divisions marked, Nos. i, 2, 3, 4, 5, drop down vertical
lines from each intersection of the blade angle line with the horizontal
division lines, and where these vertical lines cut the shaft centre, set
off the corresponding blade angle at that position, w^hich requires to
be transferred from view 3, so that at position i on shaft centre the
angle is that marked i on view 3 at position 2 the angle is that
;

marked 2 on view 3, and so on for each of the five radial points, which
gives the projected lines of the horizontal blade as seen looking from
the starboard side. On each of these angle lines set off the half width
of blade, measured from view 3, and, taking No. 2 as an example, note
that the width across B in view 3 is the same as B in view 6. Repeat
this blade width measurement at each of the radial positions i, 2, 3,
4, 5, and then through the points so found draw in, first by hand and
afterwards with a " French Curve," the blade contour.

NOTE. — " French curves " are wooden shapes used in drawing- when the contour
required does not readily allow of the use of radial curves, and are very convenient
for use in propeller design. " French curves are obtainable st shops where drawing
"'

instruments are sold, and the purchase of one or two is recommended.

7. Blade Projection. —
In this view transfer the previous view of the
boss and blade complete, and run up lines from the various blade
widths at the radial points i, 2, 3, 4, 5, and observe where the vertical
lines so drawn cut the corresponding radial horizontal lines mark ;

these points with a dot or a small cross, and if this is done for each
of the var)-ing widths of blade, the curve can then be drawn in by
hand, and afterwards (as before) completed more carefully with the
" French curves." Notice that the width of blade at B (No. 5 radial
line) in the vertical view of the blade is run up from the horizontal
view of the blade also marked B, and each width is similarly treated.

8. Projected Blade Area. —

This view is fairly simple in construction
and requires very little explanation. Set off the various circles of the
tip of blade, radial points of blade and boss, then project over, by
lines from view the various widths of the blade at the same radial
7,
points I, 2, 3, 4, 5, and where these lines cut the radial curves of
view 8, mark small dots or small crosses if these points be then
;

connected by hand curves, the approximate shape and width of the

blade, looking from aft forward, will be shown. After completing
the horizontal blade, merely transfer the widths, &c., to the vertical
blade and complete it also. As before mentioned, in speaking of
 — —

Propellers 509

other views, the blade contour can be better finished by the use of
" French curves." Observe that width B on radial line 5 of view 7
corresponds to width B on radial curve 5 of view 8.

II. To Design and Draw a Propeller for the following:—

I.H.P. - - 2350 (twin screw).

Knots - - 12-5.
p. / Revolutions - 100. -

'^^^^^ - 1 1-5 inches diameter.

) Tail shaft -

Type of steamer - Passenger cargo boat.

Propeller to be of the four-bladed, cast-iron, solid type.

To find Propeller Pitch. — Allow 10 per cent, for apparent slip, and
proceed as follows :

Rule. —
Knots X 6080 X 100 Pitch
Rev. X 60 X effective per cent.

Therefore, . J ^^Sji 6080x^0^ f^^t Pi^^h.

100 X 60 X 90

NOTE. -6080 feet = I knot.

= I hour.
60 min.
100-10 — 90 per cent, effective advance.

To find Propeller Diameter.

Rule. —
Constant K x ^\/ /
_:^lu"'
pitch X fey. ^ '^ Diameter.
rev. X"
-

100

Therefore, K ip x a/ T^Yi^ " ^^ ^^^^ Diameter.

V 100 /

NOTE.— K = Constant 19 in present case (see Seaton and Rounthwaite"s

" Pocket Book' for table of Constants).

2350 ^2= 1175 = LH. P. for one engine.

14 = pitch.
100 = revolutions.

NOTE.— Being a twin screw steamer each engine will require to develop one-
half of the total LH.P.

To find Total Expanded Blade Area. — The fotirl expanded blade

area is found as follows :

Rule. —
CX /rw
/ ii^^ ^ total Surface.
\/ re'v

1175 ^24-4, or say

Therefore, Constant 16 x
\/ 100
54', square feet.
 — — — —

5IO "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

NOTE. -C = Constant i6 in present case (see Seaton and Rounthwaite's

" Pocket- Book" for table of Constants).
ii7S=I.H.P.
100 = revolutions.

To find Blade Thickness. The blade thickness, — if continued to the

snaft centre Hne or axis, is found as follows :

Rule. —
Shaftdiam^er^^
V/ Number
^, x Constant 4 + .5 == thickness.
of blades x boss length

Therefore,
\/
/
4 X 31
^^'5
mches
— xa 1-5 = 7-5 inches thickness at shaft axis.

NOTE.— II-5 inches — shaft diameter.

4 ,, = number of blades.
31 ,, = breadth of blade at boss (roughly).

The blade thickness near the tip is found as follows :

Rule. — Constant -04 x propeller diameter in feet + -4 = thickness,

therefore -04 X 12 + -4 = -88 inch, or say ^ inch thick near tip.

NOTE.— 12 = propeller diameter in feet.

To find Diameter and Length of Boss. For a cast-iron propeller —

with blades and boss solid, the diameter and length of the boss is
found as follows :

Rule. — Constant 27 x shaft diameter = boss diameter and boss

length, therefore 27 x 1 1-5 = 3105 inches, or say 31 inches diameter
and length of boss.

NOTE.— ii-s inches == tail shaft diameter.

The boss diameter varies from ^ to i of propeller diameter.
The curve of boss radius is taken with a radius equal to boss diameter x -8,
therefore 31 inches x -8 = 24 inches radius for curve.

To find Boss Thickness.— The boss thickness at position of the

blades is found as follows :

Rule. — Constant -65 x blade thickness at shaft axis = thickness

therefore -65 x 7-5 =4-875 inches, or say 4I inches thick.
NOTE.— 7-5 inches = blade thickness at shaft axis.

To find T aper in Boss.— Allow the taper of shaft hole in boss to be

not less than \ inch per foot of length.
Therefore, 2-6 feet x 75 inch= 1-95 inches taper,
and 1 1-5 inches- 1-95 inches = 9-55 inches diameter at small end,
or say 95 inches.
NOTE.— 31 inches ^2-6 feet = length of boss.
 /L^.:

X
^ T^— =r
^f

run &,nn,zzm V y'i^^. nu nu/, Hitftj

/i
I BLADE AREA RECTANGLE ? BLADE & BOSS THICKNESS 3 PITCH ANGLES & THICKNESS TEMPLATES 4. B05S,KEY. * NUT

5. BLADE PROJECTION 6. PROJECTED BLADE AREA

SOLID BLADED CAST IRON PROPELLER.
SCALE ilNCH PER FOOT
PITCH 14-0" DIAMETER 12-0*
EXPANDED BLADE AREA 54 5 SQUARE FEET.
PITCH RATIO H7. AREA RATIO -46.

No. 13.
 — —
—

Propellers 511

To —
find Dimensions of Key. -The width and thickness of the key
which secures the boss to the shaft are found as follows :

Rule. —
Shaftdiameter ^ .g ^ ^-^^^
^^ ^^^
6

Therefore, -> +'6=2-5 inches, or say2i inches in breadth.

Rule. — Width of key x -5= thickness of key, therefore 2-5 x -5 =

1-25 inches, or say i\ inches in thickness.

To find Dimensions of Nut. —

The diameter and thickness of the
nut at back of boss are found as follows :—

—
Rule. Shaft diameter at screw X i-5=diameter of nut, therefore
9-25 X 1-5 = 3I inches diameter.
1

Shaft diameter at screw x -75 = thickness of nut, therefore 925 x

.75 =6j^ inches thick.

NOTE. —9-25 inches = shaft diameter at screw.

To find Single Blade Expanded Area. — As there are four blades

the area of one blade is found as follows :

Total blade area^4 = one blade area, therefore 54-5-^4

= 13-625 square feet surface for one blade.

NOTE.— 54-5 square feet = total blade area.

To find Blade Length. —

Half of the boss diameter subtracted from
half of the propeller diameter will give the blade length :

Then 12-^2 = 6 feet, and 2-6-^2= 1-3; therefore 6— i-3 = 47 feet

length of blade, say 4 feet 8^ inches.
NOTE. — 12 feet = propeller diameter.
2-6 feet — boss diameter.

To find Width of Blade Area Rectangle. —

The single blade area
divided by the blade length will give the mean width of the blade
area rectangle.
Therefore, 13-625 -^4-7 = 2-89 feet wadth, or say 2 feet ii inches.
NOTE. — 13-625 square feet -single blade area.
4-7 feet = blade length.

Set Back. —
Allow a " set back " of blade equal to about i inch per
foot of propeller diameter, or say 12 inches in all, at tip.

Radial Pitch Angles and Thickness Templates. In a working —

drawing the pitch angles and thickness templates at various radial
34
 —

512 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

distances on the blade require to be shown for the fitting up of the

shop moulding templates, and as the length of blade from centre of
boss to tip is equal to the radius of the circumference circle, the
corresponding reduced pitch distance will be equal to the full pitch
divided by 2x3-1416; hence, 14-^2x3-1416 = 2 feet 2f inches.
NOTE.— This distance of 2 feet 2 J inches requires to be measured horizontally
from the boss centre, and all lines from radial points on the blade drawn to it.

Summary of Results.
The principal dimensions as found by the foregoing rules are as

-----
follows :

. . . -
Propeller pitch . -

-----
diameter
Expanded blade area
Single blade area
- -

Boss diameter
„
„
length-
taper ------
.

-----
.
.

-
-

.
.

.
.

Breadth of key

-----
-----
Thickness of key
Nut diameter
„ thickness
. . . - .

...
Pitch angle distance . - . -

Width of
-----
Length of blade area rectangle
„
Set back of blade
,,

Blade thickness at shaft axis

near tip - - -
„ „ - -
i „
Boss thickness - - - - - -
4^ „

To Draw the Propeller (Sketch No. 13). —The various views and pro-
jections are found in the same manner as those in the previous, design,
as will be seen by reference to the drawing, and as the descriptions
apply equally in both cases no difficulty should be experienced by the
beginner in setting off the views required for a shop working drawing.
NOTE.— The projected area view in this case is correctly set off, and it will
be noted that vertical lines are set off at each radial position of the horizontal
blade and the corresponding blade width projected over to each line. An arc
is then taken from the centre line and half width radius to the radial arcs, and
the points so found are then connected by hand as before.

III. To Design and Draw a Propeller for the following :—

 —

Propellers 513

To find Propeller Pitch. — Allow 10 per cent, for apparent slip, and
proceed as follows :

Rule. —
Knots x6o8ox 100 _ p:i~v.
Rev. X 60 X effective per cent.

Therefore,
n x6oto>ooo^^6 feet Pitch.
77 X 00 X 90

NOTE— 6080 = I knot.

feet
60 min.= I hour.
100-10^90 per cent, effective.

To find Propeller Diameter.

Rule. —
Constant Kx ^ .

V
pjtch x rev,
100
y " P'^'"^^^'"-
/

yI200 or say 14-5 feet Diameter.

^^^„. 3 =14-4 feet,

\ 100 y

NOTE.— K = Constant 18 in present case (see Seaton and Rounthwaite's

" Pocket- Book" for table of Constants).
i200 = LH.P.
16 = pitch.
77 = revolutions.

To find Total Expanded Blade Area.

Rule.—^

Constant Cx /UL^ = blade area (total).

\/ rev.

Therefore, Constant 16 x
V/ =63 square feet area.
77

NOTE.— C = Constant 16 in present case (see Seaton and Rounthwaite's " Pocket-
Book "'
for table of Constants).
1200 = LH. P.
77 = revolutions.

To find Diameter of Boss.

Rule. —
•9 X VPropeller diameter in feet = boss diameter.
Therefore, -g x 's/i4-S = 3-4 feet, or sa}- 40 inches diameter.

NOTE.— Propeller diameter = 14-5 feet

514 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

To find Length of Boss.

Rule. — 26 x tail shaft diameter = boss length.
Therefore, 2-6 x 13 = 33-8 inches, or say 34 inches in length.

NOTE.— 13 inches = tail shaft diameter.

To find Diameter of Blade Flange.

Rule. — 22 x tail shaft diameter = flange diameter.
Therefore, 22 x 13 inches = 28 inches diameter.

NOTE.— 13 inches = tail shaft diameter.

To find Taper in Boss.

Allow the taper of shaft hole to be not less than | inch per foot of
length.
Therefore, 2-833 feet x -75 inch = 2-124 inches taper,
and 13 inches — 2-124= 10-876, or say lof inches diameter at small end.
NOTE. — 34 inches = 2-833 feet = length of boss.

To find Thickness of Blade at Boss.

Rule. —
^LRRx3300o ^thrust lbs., and
Pitch X rev. x No. of blades

y Thrust lbs. X
a
—
blade length from flancre X
^\
:j-.
flange diameter x 320
^ -8
+
, ^
"25
. , . .,. ,
-blade thickness.

Therefore, ^o^^SOOo^g g ^^ ^^^

16 X 77 X 4

8036x77 inchesx^8^.
y 28 inches x 320
68 inches, or say 73
'
inches thick.

NOTE.— i6 = pitch.
77 inches = blade length from flange.
320 = constant for cast iron.

To find Thickness of Blade near Tip.

Rule. — 04 x propeller diameter /«/^^/+ -4 = thickness.
Therefore, -04 x 14-5 -4 = -98 inch, or say i inch thick.
+
NOTE.— 14-5= Propeller diameter in feet.

To find Diameter of Flange Studs.

Rule. —
I.H.P.x 33000 it. i.iu J
= thrust lbs., and
P-.
No. offui
X rev. x ,T J
.
Pitch blades

Thrust lbs. x blade length from flange x -8

V 7854 X No. of st^idi^ stud radTus^iTSo"

.• r j
^^^^^n^^^r of studs,
,
i.
 Propellers 515

Therefore, ,
1^ x 33000 ^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^
'
16 X 77 X 4

8o36j< 77jnchesxJ
V/ 7854
^ ^^^.j^^^ ^^^ ^i inches diameter of stud.
X 7 X 10 inches x 1700

NOTE.— 16 = pitch.
77 = revolutions.
4 = No. of blades.
10 inches = radius (allowed) of studs.
77 ,, = blade length from flange.
1 700 = constant for steel studs.

7 = No. of studs allowed.

To find Dimensions of Nut.

Rule. — Tail shaft diameter rt/ screzu x 1-5 = diameter of nut.
Therefore, 10-5 X i'5 = I575 inches, or 16 inches diameter.

Rule. —Tail shaft diameter at screw x -75 = thickness of nut.

Therefore, 10-5 x 75 =7-875 inches, or say 8 inches thick.

NOTE. — The shaft diameter at screw may be taken as 10^ inches.

To find Dimensions of Key.

Rule. —
Tail shaft diameter^.^^^^^t^
^^ ^^^
6

Therefore, 13 "^c ^^ + .5=2-76 inches, or say 2| inches in width.

o

Rule. — Width of key x -5 = thickness of key.

Therefore, 2-75 inches x -5 = if inches thick.
NOTE. — 13 inches = tail shaft diameter.

Blade Area Rectangle. — Total blade area = 63 square feet.

Therefore, 63 -=-4= 15-75 square feet for one blade,

and 1 = 27 feet in width, or say 33 inches.
5*75 -r 5-83

NOTE.— Propeller radius -boss radius^blade length.

Therefore, 7 feet 3 inches - i foot 8 inches - 5 feet 7 inches, length of blade.

S feet 7 inches = 5-583 feet.

Radial Pitch Angles and Thickness Templates. In a working —

drawing the pitch angles and thickness templates at various radial
points of the blade require to be shown for the fitting up of the shop
moulding templates, and as the length of blade from centre of boss to
tipis equal to the radius of the circumference circle, the corresponding

reduced pitch distance will be equal to the full pitch divided by

2X 3-1416.
 —

5i6 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

Therefore, 16-^(2 x 3-1416) = 2-54 feet, or say 2 feet 6i- inches pitch
angle distance.
NOTE.— This distance of 2 feet 6^ inches requires to be measured horizontally
from the boss centre, and all lines from radial points on the blade drawn to it.

Summary of Results.

The principal dimensions, as found by the foregoing rules, are

then as follows :

. -
Propeller pitch . . -

„ diameter
Expanded blade area
Single blade area - - - -

Width of area rectangle

Boss diameter
Boss length
.

....
Length of blade area rectangle

Blade length from flange

.

-
. .

Diameter of steel studs - -

Flange thickness - ^ - .

Blade thickness at boss

„ „ near tip -

Flange diameter - - - .

Pitch angle distance

Width of key
Thickness of key
Diameter of nut -
-

.... . . .

Thickness of nut - - - .

Boss taper - . . .

To Draw the Propeller (Sketch No. 14).— The following method, it

should be noted, is not mathematically correct (particularly in the case
of the projected area view), but is quite near enough for practical pur-
poses as required in a working drawing. For the shop moulding of a
propeller the projected area view is not required.

I. Blade Area Rectangle.— Set off the horizontal shaft centre line

and the vertical centre line of the boss, and from the boss centre
measure off on each side half the boss length, i foot 5 inches, and
vertically half the boss diameter, i foot 8 inches, and half propeller
diameter, 7 feet 3 inches, then complete the boss by drawing in the
curves at a radius of 20 inches. Next, measure on each side of
the boss centre line half of the blade rectangle width, i foot 4^ inches,
and complete the rectangle as shown. Proceed next to sketch in
by hand the approximate shape of blade, taking care that the actual
area of blade when drawn in is at least equal to the original rectangular
area. A good plan is to divide off the blade area rectangle into a
number of divisions horizontally and vertically, counting up the total
 6 SLSDE PROJECTION 8 PROJECTED eiAOC AREA
(ACTUA

LOOSE BLADED CAST IRON PROPELLER

SCALE i" PEB FOOT
PITCH le'-o' DIAMETER /4'-s" -

EXPANDED BLADE AREA 6i SqUARE FEET

PITCH RM\0 = /S-h/4-5 = /-/ AREA RATIO = 53 ^/<? •5"' X-7tf5-# = Jtf

No. 14.

Vcilial " Nolcs and Skclches..

 7

Propellers 5 1

number, and, after the blade is shaped out as desired, arrange that the
actual area of blade contains the same number of divisions.

2. Blade and Boss Thickness. — Draw in the taper of the hole in the
boss 13 inches to loj inches, and the outside shape of the boss
similar to view i, then set up the vertical boss centre line and measure
the blade thickness at tip i inch aft of the centre line, then draw in
the face line of the blade. Next set off the distance between the
blade flanges 20 inches, the diameter of flange 28 inches, and the
flange thickness 3A inches, completing the cored-out part of the boss
and stud hole as shown. Measure forward of the blade line the
thickness of the blade at boss, 7f inches, and draw up a line to the
tip of blade now run into each other by a suitable curve the boss
;

centre line (which here coincides with the blade thickness) and the
proper thickness line. Complete the blade by drawing in large fillets
where it joins the boss.
NOTE. — The boss is shown recessed out 3 inches by 16 inches on the after side
to allow of the nut fitting in when screwed up.

3. Pitch Angles and Thickness Templates. —

Begin this view by
again drawing in the boss and blade as in view i, and set off any
convenient number of divisions, i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, from the beginning of
the blade radius at root the first is at 24 inches from the centre, and
;

the others at equal distances of 12 inches. At these points draw

horizontal lines, and where these lines cut through view 2, the thick-
ness of blade at each radial point will be determined. Transfer the
various thicknesses to view 3, and complete the thickness sections by
drawing in the radial curves for the back of the blade or fonvard
surface.
Observe that near the root the after edges are slightly rounded
away to allow a free flow of water past the blade.
Next measure to the right the pitch angle distance of 2 feet
6\ inches, and from each of the radial points draw lines to it as shown ;

this gives the required pitch angles at the different radial positions
marked.

4. —
Flange. Set off the flange diameter 28 inches, and the stud circle
diameter 20 inches, then draw a line through the centre at the angle
of the blade section nearest the boss, and mark off the stud centres
equally on either side of this line. The pitch of studs is allowed to
be 6 inches, and the studs are 2-i inches diameter, as found by
calculation.

5. —
Nut and Key. Draw in the taper 13 inches to lO^ inches, and
complete the feather 2\ inches in width next set off the nut 16 inches
;

diameter by 8 inches thick, and indicate the screw by lines .shown

slightly inclined. The pins by which the feather is held in place are
shown by small dark circles.
 ,

5i8 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

6. Blade Projection. —
As in views i and 3, draw in the boss and set
oifTthe propeller radius 7 feet 3 inches also measure up the radial
;

points 1,2,3,4, 5, and 6, at which positions draw horizontal lines ;

next measure from the boss centre to the left the pitch angle distance
of 2 feet 6h inches, and erect a vertical line. Then from each radial
point on this line draw lines through the boss centre, giving the blade
angles at each respective radial position similar to view 3.
Proceed now to transfer the blade width at each radial position, i
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, in view 3 to the
corresponding angle lines of view 6 and, ;

as shown by B, if this is done for each distance out, and the points so
found connected by hand, the shape of the blade will be as shown.
To complete the view, run in the flange circle 28 inches diameter, and
join the blade to it by fillets.
Observe that width B corresponds to No. 2 line of view 3, and
this is measured off on No. 2 angle line of view 6, as shown by A A.
The same has to be repeated for the remaining widths at lines 3, 4

5, and 6.

NOTE. —The foregoing is not mathematically correct, but as this view is not
required for workshop practice, absolute accuracy is not essential.

7. —
Blade Projection. In this view repeat the previous outline in
view 6 of the boss, flange, and blade complete, together with the
pitch angle lines at the radial positions i, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. Now
project upward lines from each blade width, cutting the horizontal
radial lines i, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, and mark with a small dot or cross the
points of intersection. Notice, for example, that width B in the
horizontal view of the blade is run up, and, where the lines cut radial
line 2, the width is found for the vertical view of the blade at that
position. If this is repeated for each respective width at the various
radial positions, and a curve drawn connecting the points so found by
hand, the vertical view of the blade will appear as shown. The curve
can afterwards be finished more carefully by the help of " French
curves."

8. Projected Blade Area. — This view is fairly simple in construction,

and requires explanation. Draw in the circles described by the
little
propeller blade tips, and the radial positions i, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, also
the circles of the boss and shaft hole. Then project by lines over
from view 7 the various widths of blade at the radial position i, 2, 3,
4, 5 on the horizontal view of the blade, and where these lines intersect
the radial curves of view 8 mark small dots or crosses. Complete the
blade by drawing in by hand through the points so obtained, and,
as in previous cases, finish the blade more carefully by the use of
French curves.
Notice that the width marked B in the horizontal view of the
blade (view 7) is measured on radial point 2, and this is projected
across to the radial curve 2 in view 8, and marked in as the width
there also the same has to be done for each radial width.
; After
 No. i6.

Diameter of propellers, 17 feet f inch Pit;

blade surface, 59 2 square feet Ratio

;

I2i inches diameter Length, 35 inch(

;

"Verbal " Notes anri Sketches.

 J

\---if*h- —

No. i6.— Details of Four-Bladed Propeller, Complete.

Twin Screw SS. " Kronpriiizessia Cecilie."

Diameter of propellers, 17 feet J inch Pitch. 20 feet 4! inches

; Developed (expanded) blade surface, 8523 square feet ; Projected
;

blade surface, 59 2 square feet Ratio -as i

; 26 : Diameter of boss. 3 feet ii inches ; Hole in boss, 15I inches diameter to
;

12} inches diameter; Lcn^h, 35 inches; Propeller shaft, 1$,",, inches diameter.

"Verbal" Notes arrl Slteicht^s.

 Propellers 519

completing the horizontal view, merely transfer the widths to the

vertical blade and complete it also. Observe the large fillets joining
the blade to the flange.

NOTE.— As previously mentioned, this view is really not required for shop
practice.

—
Propeller Pitch with Shaft Inclined. To measure the pitch vof the
propeller when the shaft is at an angle, as usually found in turbine
steamers, proceed as follows : —
With one of the blades horizontal,
place a flat board up against the back of at least two of the blades,
as shown, then fix a large set-square against the surface of the board

No. 15.— Pitch with Shaft Inclined.

parallel to the shaft, and touching the blade at the required radius ;

the piece of pitch and piece of circumference can then be measured

as indicated by the letters P and C. Complete the working out
of the full pitch, as described for an ordinary propeller on page 322.

To Fit on a New Propeller Blade. —

If, in a loo.se bladed propeller,

a blade is knocked off at sea, the spare blade can be placed at the
correct pitch angle b>' the following method : —
With the steamer in
dry dock turn the engines until one of the remaining blades is in
an upright or vertical position. Then with a straight-edge placed
520 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

against the stern post, and at a convenient radius, R, mark the blade
at the leading edge A shift the straight-edge to the other side of the
;

blade, and mark the following edge B. Now turn the shaft round
until the surface of the boss to receive the spare blade is in position,
and when the new blade is placed on the boss turn round the flange
until the leading and following edges coincide with the marks on the

No. 17.— Fitting on a New Blade.

straight-edge, which in the meantime must be held or fixed up

against the stern post at the same radius R. The new blade will
then have the correct pitch angle, and the studs may be screwed up.
NOTE.— The foregoing method is necessary when the stud holes in the flange
are cut oval to allow of pitch variation.

To find the Pitch when the Propeller is in the position shown

(on the surface table or shop floor).— Fit up two set-squares and
 r

1..-.L..

--T^-

/
 TURBINE TYPE PROPELLER
SCALE i" PER FOOT
PITCH 5-0"
DIAMETER 5-7"
• EXPANDED BLADE AREA.. JI-8 SQUARE FEET
PITCH RATIO --89
AREA RATIO -48

No. 19.

Verbal '"
Notes and Sketches.

G
*
 —

Propell ers 521

a horizontal piece of wood as shown, at a suitable radius R (say-

about two-thirds out from boss to give average pitch) then the piece ;

No. 18.— Pitch with Propeller Horizontal.

of pitch P will be obtained by the vertical measurement, and the piece

of circumference C by the horizontal or floor measurement.

And R X 2 X 3-1416 = full circumference at radius R.

To find corresponding pitch

As C : full circumference : : P : full pitch.

NOTE.— If the blades have a varying pitch, repeat the above at two or three
radial positions, and take the mean of the two or three pitches so found as the
average pitch.

—
Motor Launch Propellers. In oil motor launches the two-bladed
propellers usually fitted are often of the reversible kind, that is, the
blades are so arranged that their angles can be changed as desired, to
"stop" or "astern" or "ahead." In the "stop" position the blades
lie and for "ahead " the
at right angles to the centre line of the ship,
blades are moved round with the leading edge forward, while for
" astern " the blades are turned round with the leading edge aft. These
changes in blade position are obtained by means of a rod passing
through the hollow tail-end shaft, the rod being operated by a suitable
handle. It will thus be seen that the engines always run in the
same direction.

Blade Interference.— By this is meant the effect produced by one

blade on another blade acting on the water in such a manner as to
break up the surface, and thus cut out or rob the next blade of its
 o
d
2

0^
vO
in
uj 7

< O
QC
H
< I*.

o: ili

X
o
z
2 ^ o^
UJ
CO cn
O <
ID UJ
Or:

LU <Xu
2 ° I-
O
DD
•.•-.'••'"-'I >.«^ffi« 31jq fl'^tfCj-k
 Pitch of Propeller.

To measure the pitch of a propeller lying on the floor as shown, proceed . folio

1. Mark off the face of the boss into twelve 4. Shift long straightedge through om
the
equal divisions, division of the boss marks (or ^), as shown at
2. Take a long straightedge, and place it in position c, and again measure down to the blade
line wirti two oppositely placed divisions, as at surface.
position B. 5. Subtract the two measurements in inches,
3. Take another straightedge (or plumb line) and the difference is the mean pitch infect.
and measure the distance down from tlie lon^-
straightedge to the blade surface at a radius k,
taken at, say, | out from the boss centre.

In the sketch shown the first measurement is 4 in. and the second measurement 18 in.

Therefore. 18 inches -4 inches -14 feet pitch.

It will easily be seen that the difference of the measurements is equal to -j^ of the pitch only.

Therefore, 14 inches x 12 inches=i68 inches pitch, and — inches=i4 feet

The bove the line and the 12 below the line cancel out in all cases, thus leaving the difference
in inches tly equal to the pitch in feet.

NOTE.— The above method 1 also be apphed with the propeller in the usual position on the shaft.

[To fan past 522.

" Verbal "' Notes and Sketches

 Propellers 523
effective thrust. For this reason an improvement is sometimes effected
by a four-bladed propeller for one of three blades, and, it
chanjj^in_L,r

may be noted, that this change has been made in the case of the
turbine steamer " Victorian."
Blade interference has not, as yet, been fully investigated by
experiment, and is therefore at present largely a matter of speculation.

Twin Screws. — In twin-screw steamers it has been observed that in

most cases the starboard engine runs at a higher revolution speed than
the port engine, and this may be due to some effect of blade inter-
ference reducing the efficiency of one of the propellers.

—
Effect on Steering". The steering is found to be improved if in
twin-screw steamers the propellers revolve outwards from each other,
instead of inwards, that is, the port engine propeller to be a left-hand
screw, and the starboard engine a right-hand screw. The propellers
also develop a more effective thrust, as the blades work in unbroken
water.

Surface of Blade. —
It has recently been proved beyond doubt that
a polished blade surface increases the efficiency of the propeller.
This is fully recognised in turbine propulsion, as nearl}' all propellers
fitted to turbine steamers have highly polished surfaces.
In a case which came under the writer's notice, an increase of one
knot was obtained, for the same power and consumption, b\- changing
a cast-iron propeller for one of polished bronze.
—
NOTE. If the propeller pitch is increased by, say, i or 2 feet, the mean
pressure of the indicator diagrams will be more if the engine develops the same
power with reduced revolutions, and the ship runs at the same speed.

Bronze Propeller Blades and Corrosion.

With bronze propeller blades the chemical conditions are much
like those ofan electric battery, the steel stern posts and hull forming
one electrode, the bronze propeller blades the other, and the salt
water the solution of the battery. As the propeller is the positive
terminal and the ship the negative terminal, the current flows
from the ship to the propeller, causing pitting of the steel hull.
In order to overcome this galvanic action, zinc plates are fitted, in
single-screw ships to the after face of the stern posts, and in twin-
screw ships fitted round the after propeller bracket. This arrange-
ment does not prevent galvanic action, but such action takes place
between the propeller blades and the zinc plates instead of between
the propeller blades and the steel plates of the steamer.

—
Improved Propeller. A case which came under the writer's notice
gave the following data, and clearly indicates the fact that propeller
design, in many cases, is more or less a matter of " trial and error,"
 — —

524 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

as notice the great improvement effected by the increase of blade

area and of pitch, and the alteration in blade m.aterial, shown as
follows :

With Original Propeller.

Diameter, i8 feet 6 inches.

Pitch, 1 8 feet 6 inches.
Expanded blade area, 98 square feet.
Revolutions, 72 to 75.
Cast steel blades.
Consumption, 52 to 55 tons per day.
Speed, about 11-5 to 11-75 knots.
Slip per cent, 15 to 30 per cent.
I.H.P., about 3300.

With New Propeller.

Diameter, 18 feet 6 inches.

Pitch, 20 feet.
Expanded blade area, 104 square feet.
Revolutions, 64 to 66.
Bronze blades (polished).
Consumption, about 40 to 45 tons per day.
Speed, 12 knots.
Slip per cent., 5 to 10 per cent.
I.H.P., about 2800.

From the foregoing it is evident that the original propeller was

not absorbing the full power of the engines, and the alteration made
in increased pitch and surface utilised more effectively in propulsive
effort the I.H.P. developed. Notice that the consumption, and there-
fore the I.H.P., developed is less in the second case, and the speed
rather more.
The above rather striking results were therefore obtained by
(i.) Increasing the pitch, with slight pitch variation.
(2.) Increasing the expanded blade area.
(3.) Changing the material of the blades from steel to that of
polished bronze, which allows of thinner blades. The
polishing of the blade surface and thinning down of the
thickness both contribute to increased propeller efficiency.

It is, of course, difficult to accurately estimate how much each of

the foregoing alterations contributed individually to the resulting
general improvement in propulsive efficiency.

Propulsive Efficiency.
Of the total I.H.P. developed by the engines only about 50 per
cent, or thereabout is applied in the effective advance of the steamer
 —— —

Propellers 525

when the various losses are eh'miiiated —

that is, the actual hull
resistance in lbs. at any given speed, multiplied by the advance of
the hull per minute and divided by the constant 33,000 foot-pounds,
will give the effective horse-power, or, as usually expressed, the E.H.P.
Therefore, E.H.P. -^ I.H.P. = Propulsive efficiency. This efficienc}' can
only be accurately determined by model tank experiments of re-
sistance, after which the data so obtained is converted into terms of
the actual hull by a series of calculations known as the "law of
comparison," and devised by the late Dr Froude. The tank experi-
ments with the reduced scale hull models obtain progressive " tow
rope " resistances which are the actual resistances at various speeds of
the model hull (the propeller being omitted). These are made up
as follows :

Resistance. — i. Skin frictional resistance of the hull surface. 2.

Wave making resistance of the hull body. 3. Eddy making resistance
of the hull bod)'.
The foregoing constitute what ma}- perhaps be termed the true
resistances, and to overcome these the effective horse - power is
required.

Power Losses. — The losses of engine power are made up as

follows :

1. Friction (initial and load).

2. Propeller inefficiency.
3. Hull inefficiency.

The frictional losses are those occasioned b}' the working parts and
the power absorbed by the thrust block. The propeller losses are
due to excessive slip, blades friction, and other causes, and the hull
efficiency is a result which may either be under or above unit}',
according to the difference between what is called " augmentation of
resistance," due to the propeller blades at the stern, and " wake speed
gain." Generall}', however, the " wake speed gain " balances the
augment of resistance to within a very few per cent., although an
allowance of about 95 per cent, is often taken as the " hull
efficiency."
The " wake speed " is produced by the water closing in on the
stern as the hull advances, and this body of water acquires a forward
motion or speed varying in degree with the lines of the hull bod}'.

Utilisation of Power. —
The total I.H.P. developed by the engines is
therefore used up somewhat as follows, although it must be understood
that the values given var}' in different cases and under different
conditions in the same case :

Taking the total I.H.P. as 100 per cent.

526 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

Reciprocating Engines.
Indicated horse-power -
- - - 100 per cent.
-
Engine friction loss - - -
10 ,,

- -
Horse-power at propeller - -
90 ,, -

Propeller efficiency, 62 per cent.

Then, 90 x 62 = 55-8 „
-
Horse-power by propeller - - - 55-8 „
Hull efficiency, 95 per cent.
Then, 55-8 x -95 = 53 n
- -
Effective horse-power - -
53 >.

Therefore, propulsive efficiency = -53_, or -53.

100

Turbine Engines.
Shaft horse-power - - - - - 100 per cent.
Propeller efficiency, 60 per cent.
Then, 100x60 = 60 ,,

Horse-power by propeller - - - - 60 ,,

Hull efficiency, 95 per cent.

Then, 60 X 95 = 57 „
Effective horse-power - - - -
57 n

Therefore, propulsive efficiency = " , or -57.

The following explanations of propeller slip are taken from a

paper on " Screw Propellers," read by T. Sidney Cockrill, Esq.
M.l.Mech.E., before the Liverpool Engineering Society in April 1907
and are well worthy the attention of students.

" Slip. —The slip is the difference between the speed of advance of
the propeller (supposing it to be working in an unyielding substance)
and the actual speed of the ship. In other words, it is equal to the
pitch multiplied by the revolutions, less the distance traversed by the
ship. If the water did not yield to the propeller and flow sternward,
the speed of the ship would be the same as the speed of the propeller,
and there would be no such thing as slip but water, being a fluid, is
;

driven astern by the action of the propeller as the ship moves ahead.
The rate at which the water is driven astern relatively to the
surrounding water is usually said to be equal to the slip but this is ;

only true provided the pitch multiplied by the revolutions is equal to

the speed of the race relatively to the ship, or, in other words, provided
the propeller itself does not slip in the race. As far as the author can
see, we have no means of ascertaining the truth of this.
" The above, however, only relates to apparent slip, for it does not
take account of the fact that the propeller is not working in still
water, but in water in motion in a forward direction owing to the
influence of the ship in passing through it and, as it is the propeller
;

that is und<?r consideration, the speed of the propeller and not the
 ——

Propellers 527

speed of ship throu<^h the water should be the basis in calculating

the slip.
"For example, if the pitch were 15 feet, the revolutions 81 per
minute, and the speed of ship 1 1 knots :

-ru
Then, o J of
Speed r „ ,=
propeller —^-^ —
P X R X 60 = 15
^ X 81
, ^ —=
X 60 ,^ U^^t^
12 knots.

Speed of ship - - - =11 ,,

Apparent slip of propeller - — 1 knot.

But supposing the wake to have a speed of two knots,

Then, Speed
^ of propeller, as before = ^—^— = 12 knots.
6080
Advance of propeller through the water
in which it works — V - w = ii - 2 - =0 ,,

'
Real slip ' of propeller - - = 3 knots.

" It issometimes found that a propeller seems to have negative

slip, that is to say that the speed of the ship is (apparently) greater
than the speed of the propeller which drives it. This negative slip is
only found when the speed of the ship is taken instead of the speed
of the propeller through the water it is the apparent slip, not the
;

real slip of the propeller.

" The phenomenon of negative slip is the cause of a vast amount

of ingenious, if not always scientific, hypotheses to account for its

existence. Everyone agrees that negative real slip is a physical
impossibility. In the author's humble opinion negative apparent
slip is also a physical impossibility, and, therefore, there is no need to
account for a thing which does not exist. This is on the under-

standing that '

apparent slip '
PX
means —r —R — V while real slip
' '
means
Px —
R
—^ — {V~zo); these are the usual definitions of the terms, and

they are given here to prevent misunderstanding arising from the

mere meaning of words. The explanation is simple enough, for, in
order to calculate the slip, the pitch P must first be known it is one ;

of the factors in the calculation, and, in the author's opinion, no one

knows what the true effective pitch of a propeller is. What is usually
taken as the pitch of a propeller is the pitch of the after face of the
blade, or, rather, the mean of the various pitches found at different
parts of the after faces of the blades. This is certainly not the
effective pitch of the propeller with respect to its action on the water,
one reason at least for this being that it takes no account of the
curved back of the blade, and it is certain that this increases the true
effective pitch, although no one knows exactly, or even approximate!}',
what value is to be assigned to it. There are also other reasons for
35
^28 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

supposing that we do not know what the effective pitch of a

propeller is.

"The cause of negative slip often given is that the propeller is

working in the wake of the ship, and, therefore, working in water

which has a forward motion.
" For example of this reasoning we may take the previous example,

supposing the speed of the ship to be 13 knots, and the speed of the
wake 4 knots.
Then, Speed of propeller, as before 12
Speed of ship - - - -

Apparent slip of propeller

And Speed of propeller, as before

Advance of propeller through the waters 13-4 = 9

* Real slip ' of propeller - -

3 knots."
 —

SECTION IX.

REFRIGERATION.
The Ammonia Compression System.
Anhydrous ammonia has found great favour as a refrigerating
medium on account of its high latent heat of vaporisation and the
comparatively low pressure at which it can be liquefied. The idea
involved in an ammonia refrigerating plant may be explained as
follows : the same, however, holds good for machines using carbonic
acid, sulphurous acid, ether, &c. :
— Anhydrous ammonia, i.e., ammonia
free from water or moisture, is naturally a gas. Under pressure
all
and cooling by water it may easily be condensed to liquid form. It
is almost colourless, and in appearance just like water, and weighs

at ordinary temperatures about 37 lbs. per cubic foot. In this form

it may be purchased in steel cylinders or drums containing from
50 to 100 lbs. in weight. If the pressure be relieved from the
liquid ammonia it will quickly revaporise, producing as it does so
intense cold.
An ammonia refrigerating machine consists of the following
principal parts :

{a?j A
vaporiser, evaporator, or refrigerator a vessel in w hich —
the ammonia is allowed to vaporise, producing a low temperature
and surrounded either by the air or brine to be cooled.
{b?) A
gas pump or ammonia compressor which draws the
ammonia gas from the refrigerator and compresses it into the
condenser.
(r.) The ammonia condenser in which the gas discharged ncm

the compressor is condensed to liquid form read}' for vaporisation

.n the refrigerator. The diagram (No. i) will further explain this
paragraph.
It should here be explained that the ammonia in vaporising under
low pressure in the refrigerator, changing its form from liquid to gas,
must absorb into itself the latent heat of vaporisation. This is taken
—
from the brine surrounding the coils or in the case of direct expansion,
—
from the air itself and in condensing to liquid form again this heat
is given up to the condensing water. The pressure necessary to
 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches
530

condensation is automatically regulated by the temperature of the.

condensing water, and will vary from lOO to 200 lbs. pressure per
square inch. The pressure in the refrigerator is controlled by the

i
I

I
o
iz;

C5

regulating valve, which is adjusted according to the temperature

required, and varying from 70 lbs. absolute per square inch for a
vaporising temperature of 40' Fahr. to 20 lbs. absolute per square inch
 AlMOMM q
ti J oeo>

r f
r~

-I!
.-3

..^if'^'

•v- ..•"'

TSL,

-^.
 No. I A- —Compression Systems of Refrigeration.
(Aminonia uid CO..)

CO, System. Average Pressures and Temperatures.

Carbonic anhydride (t;0~), naturally a gas. and obtained from the following The following represent average marine refrigerating practic
temperature of 70* and brine outlet of 4* F.
1, Natural springs. By- the combined effects of compression and cooling, ammor
3. Combustion of carbon. COj gas can be reduced to the liquid condition.
y Action of sulphuric acid on calcium carbonate.
4. Fermentilion of wort in brewing processes.
The gas collected from these sources is firsi purified and dried, then com-
pressed in stages, next cooled to ihc liquid slate, and finally forced into steel
bottles for supply purposes. As the COj is under pressure in the bottles, it
remains in the liquid condili'm until the pressure is reduced.
When charging up ihc machine it evaporates back into gas by expansion,

LAlent heal value per lb lat average evaporator pressures) == 13$ BT U

off 1

CO.,

Ammonia iNH,i System.

Ammonia, nn alk.-ilt, und naturally 3 ga^, is obtained by the healing of
vil^immoniac and quicklime mixtures, or by the forced decomposition of
animal iiubslances.
The gas is collected and treated similarly to CO, gas as regards com-
preffiion, cooling, and storing m steel bottles.

Ammonia changtrs red litmus |»ipcr blue, and being alkaline in nature
destroys copper, brass, and' leather.
Ammonia is soluble in wuler, one part of the latter absorbing about
800 parts of ammonia.
erage e = 580 BTL
er«ture = 2s6' F.
re up.)

lighter than air.

 Refrigeration 531

for a vaporisinc^ temperature of minus 15" Fahr., or higher or lower

as required.
Passing on now to a description of typical plants. The one described
below is manufactured by the Liverpool Refrigeration Company
Limited, Liverpool, and is largely used in the North Atlantic chilled
beef trade. It is also equally applicable to the carriage of frozen
goods, mutton, &c. As a rule, plants are fitted in duplicate. The
diagram (No. 2) shows the essential parts and arrangement of this plant.
We may here mention that, with few exceptions, the cold chambers on
shipboard are entirely chilled by means of wrought-iron jjifiing
arranged on the ceilings, sides and ends, and through which the brine
cooled in the refrigerator is circulated. The plant before us is one of
this type.

Description of Plant.
The ammonia compressor (No. 2) arranged in single, and in the
duplex form, is steam driven, and is of the horizontal double-
direct
acting type. For convenience and for saving of space, the box bed
on which the engine and compressors are mounted, contains the
ammonia condenser, which consists of a series of coils of wrought-iron
tubing in which the ammonia is condensed, the water circulating
round the outside of the tubes. After passing the condenser, the
liquefied ammonia collects in the reservoir AR from whence it passes
through the regulating valve RV into the refrigerator, which is of
the vertical type, and contains several circular concentric coils of pipe
placed in a steel shell with covers top and bottom. The ammonia
vaporises inside the coils, the brine circulating round the outside.
After passing through the refrigerator, the ammonia is drawn back to
the pump as shown, to be compressed and discharged at the higher
pressure into the ammonia condenser for recondensation. The reader
will please note that the ammonia circuit is complete, and there is
no loss whatever of ammonia, which goes through the cycle of
vaporisation, of compression, and condensation time after time
indefinitely. The condensing water is supplied either by a separate
pump, or from one of the ship's donke)'s, is drawn from the sea,
pumped through the condenser, and overboard. The cold brine is
drawn from the refrigerator by the brine pump, which is preferably
one of the " Worthington " duplex or similar type, and is discharged
to the distributing headers from whence, in several independent
circuits, it passes through the pipes in the cold chambers, returning
again to the return headers. Both distributing and return headers
are fitted with controlling valves so that each brine circuit may be
regulated as desired each circuit controlling a separate portion
;

of the cold chamber. The temperatures may thus be regulated by

allowing more or less brine to pass through any particular section
of piping. The thermometers index the return temperature and are
useful adjuncts in the regulating of the brine. After passing through
 — —

532 *' Verbal" Notes and Sketches

the return header it goes backr to the refrigerator for recooHng, after-
wards to go through the same cycle again and again continuousl}^
Pressure gauges are fitted recording the ammonia pressures both on
condenser and refrigerator— high and low pressure— side, and also
the brine pressure. A
small brine tank is fitted for mixing brine,
and is connected as shown, so that fresh brine may be introduced
into the system to make up any loss from leakage, &c.
The following extracts from the Liverpool Refrigefation Com-
pan)''s Book of Instructions may be of use :

—
Pressures. All ammonia pressures are absolute. The pressure on
the ammonia condenser gauge will vary with the temperature and
quantity of water passing through the condenser, and should generally
vary from 120 to 180 lbs. per square inch. The warmer the con-
densing water, the higher the pressure. The pressure on the
refrigerator gauge may be regulated as desired b}' means of the
regulating valve RV
(see diagram), which should be adjusted to
the brine temperature the higher the temperature, the higher
;

the pressure.

—
Evaporator Pressures. The following table gives the approximate
evaporator pressures and temperatures which should be kept to
secure the best effects :

For brine temperatures of zero Fahr. - - -

24 lbs.
5° - -
» - 28
10° „
- - - 32
15° M - - -
36
V „ 20° - -
40
„
-
>» » ^5° » - -
45
" "
" )> 35 ))
"
55
» ). 50° »
- -
70

The
refrigerator pressure should, while approximating to these
be such that the discharge pipe from the ammonia compres-
figures,
sion pump should not be warmer than can be easily borne by the
hand, say roughly at a temperature not higher than 20^ Fahr. if 1 ;

warmer than this, open the regulating valve slightl)' if colder, close ;

same slightly. The discharge pipe of the compression pump should

never be allowed to get cold or ver}' hot, but should alwa}'s be kept
as stated above.

Compressor Gland. — Sufficient oil should alwa}'s be kept in

this for the lubrication of the cylinder, and to keep the gland
ammonia tight. The packing in the gland should alwa}'s be very
carefull}^ fittedslack and badly fitted, the oil will leak past the
; if
packing into the compressor in considerable quantities, which is
undesirable. The least possible quantity of oil to keep the rods
Kf:-.V\S*K
 .

mAGRAM OF MABIJVB 7TPB MACHIN£ S/fFW/MG COJVM£Cr/OJiS.

The Liverpool ^^efpjceration 6° L'^".

O.C D/scAarge CoeA on Compressor.

. L_C. Ammonia Lifuic/ CoeA

S.C. Soe//on Coc/r o/> Compressor. O.C OiV CooA for Drauiinf o/POi/

O. T. Oir/ Trip on Sucrion Branei. ^y. Ammonia Pefu/e/inf l^a/ye

AC A ir Coc* on Compressor />/seAfrfe CC C^dr^ing CoeJt

S.G Ammonia Sue// on or ffefrifjrsfor Gaufe SG Brine leisure Geufe

O.6 Ammon/a
. Oisefiarge or Condenser Oau^e 6 fi S/an</ Pe/ie/ pe
fii

•
Verbal " Noves and Sketches.
 Refrigeration 533
lubricatefl and the (rland tight should be used sufficient will al\va)'s
;

get through into the compressor to keep this in thorough order.

Oil Extraction. — The oil extraction cock OC

(diagram No. 2)
is placed on the ammonia reservoir ; any
passing through the
oil
machine will collect here. Attach a short piece of pipe with the
end carried to a bucket, open the cock very gently the cock has ;

an internal pipe leading to the bottom of the reservoir, and the oil
will be driven off b)' wa}' of this pipe through the cock and into the
bucket. When the machine is new and probably more oil is used,
this oil should be withdrawn from the reservoir once ev'er}^ few days,
but afterwards the intervals ma\- be greatly lengthened. Do not
open the cock carelessl}\

To Charge the Machine with Ammonia. The ammonia drum —

should have the end remote from the cock slightly raised it should ;

be connected to the charging cock CC. After this is done, close the
regulating valve RV and start the compressor, water, and brine
pumps. When the pressure in the refrigerator is reduced, the charging
cock first, and afterwards the cock on the ammonia drum, may be
opened a little, and some of the ammonia from the drum allowed to
flow into the refrigerator to be pumped through into the condenser.
W'hen it is thought that sufficient has been put in, first the cock on
the drum, and afterwards the charging cock, should be closed, and
then if necessary the drum can be disconnected and weighed, the
difference in weight before and after charging being the amount of
ammonia put into the machine.

To Overhaul the Compressor. — Before

overhauling the com-
pressor, shut the suction cock SC. Run
the machine a few turns
to exhaust the ammonia in the pump, then stop and close discharge
cock DC. The pump being now free from ammonia, may be opened
and examined. After examination is complete, and before letting
back the ammonia, take out the small screwed plug in the discharge
valve cover, and run the machine a few turns to discharge the air
from the compressor then when no more is discharged, screw in
;

plug and open the suction and discharge cocks.

To Make Brine. — The Calcium Chloride should be broken up

into small pieces and put into the brine tank. The brine should be
circulated through the brine tank by means of the pipes and valves
provided. First close the suction cock on the refrigerator the ;

water can be added as required into the brine tank. The small air
cock on the refrigerator top should be opened ver)' frequentl)' or
left open altogether.

—
Density of Brine. The densit}- of the brine should be measured by
Twaddle's h)'drometer, and should be kept at from 40 to 48'' to that
534 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

scale, the latter ficjiire beinc^ for lower brine temperatures, the former
for brine temperatures above 15°.

Circulation of Brine. — Each section of brine pipe should after every

voyage be circulated by the others being shut off. This circula-
itself,

tion should take place through the brine tank, the refrigerator being
sliut off for the time being. The brine pump must be worked very
slowly, and the brine pressure gauge watched during this operation
An}' air collected in the pipes will be got rid of by this means.

—
Regulation of Chamber Temperatures. The temperature of the
chamber must be regulated exactly as desired by closing or opening
the gland cocks on the return tees. The engineer should make him-
self acquainted with the particular section of piping, and therefore of
the chamber governed b)' each cock. The inlet cocks should be left
fully open, the regulation being effected b)' the returns. The pressure
on the brine gauge should not exceed 10 lbs. per square inch.

Air in System. —The presence of air or other gas than ammonia in

the gas circuit, reduces the efficiency of the machine, and this may be
detected b}' the machine working irregularly and by ha\-ing a con-
denser pressure higher than that due to the temperature of condensing
water. To purge of air; pump all ammonia into condenser and
reservoir, stop machine, keep circulating pump going, and after stand-
ing, say, half-an-hour, remove gauge from cock on top of condenser
tee and couple up small pipe provided for the purpose, the remote
end of the pipe being put in a bucket of water, gentl}' open cock and
let it blow until the water begins to crackle and rise in temperature.
This shows that ammonia is passing and that the air has been got
rid of If necessary, repeat the process after running the machine a
few hours.

Generally. —
Always take care before starting the machine that both
brine and water pumps are started and working properl}' and all
necessary cocks in ammonia circuit are open. Keep a careful e)'e on
the pressure gauges never let the compressor work too hot or too
;

cold, remembering that by the regulating valve you may regulate this
exactly as you wish. It is better for the cargo when thoroughly
chilled down to run the machine continuousl)- at a slow speed rather
than running full speed for a short time and stopping the remainder.

Haslam Type.
We illustrate on next page a marine type machine work-
ing on the Haslam ammonia compression system as made by the
Haslam Foundry and Engineering Company Limited, of Derby.
This machine has compound compressors to give greater economy
when working in hot climates. These are driven by a compound
steam-engine placed in front of the compressors. The lower part
 Refn'oferation 535

of the bed is a substantial wrouc^ht-iron tank, which contains the

—
ammonia condensers coils of galvanised vvrought-iron pipes, the
ends of which are fitted with cocks so that any coil can be isolated
 "
53^ Verbal Notes and Sketches

u
O
 — —

Refrig^eration
537
ammonia is evaporated ;
the cooled and dried air is then distributed
throui^hout the meat chambers through wooden ducts or trunks.
Haslam's machinery, working on the brine pipe system, is at the
present time bringing chilled beef from the River Plate, a voyage
lasting thirty days, with a variation of temperature of within half a
degree on each side of a fixed point, the cargo being invariably landed
in perfect condition.
Haslam's double-acting ammonia compressor, of which we show a
section, is fitted with suction and delivery valves in the end covers,
which are made concave to give room for the valves the piston is
;

turned an accurate fit for the covers so that the clearance is reduced
to a minimum, being in fact considerabU' less than if the valves were
placed in the c}'linder body, as is sometimes done. The special form
of gland with two separate packings allows of either packing being
adjusted independently of the other. The annular space between the
packings is kept full of oil, and there is also a lubricator on the outer
gland.
The method of working these machines is generally as has been
before described.

The Carbonic Anhydride System.

The general principle of this system is similar to that of the
ammonia compression machine, in regard to the c\xle through which
the refrigerating agent passes. This is made clear b)- the diagram
given below, which consists of the following parts :

1. The compressor (the only moving part), in which the gas draw n

from the evaporator is compressed.

2. The condenser, consisting of coils, in which the compressed
warm gas is cooled and liquefied b)' the action of cooling water.
3. The evaporator, consisting of coils, in which the liquid carbonic
anh}'dride evaporates, producing an}' degree of temperature that ma\-
be required, down to 80' below freezing point.
We are indebted to Messrs J. & E. Hall Limited, Dartford, for
the following description of their refrigerating machinery :

The difference between the Hall carbonic anhj'dride machine and

the ammonia machines lies chief!)- in the employment of another
refrigerating agent. Carbonic acid is gas which liquefies under a
pressure of about 50 atmospheres under temperate conditions and
about 75 atmospheres in the tropics, and the parts of the machine
are constructed of sufficient strength to stand these pressures, and
moreover are tested to 3-4 times the working pressure, as will be
mentioned below. The efficiency of the refrigerating agent is found
in these machines to be ver)' high, and the reduction of cooling effect
due to higher temperatures of condensing water is found to be, in
practice, about the same as that which occurs with other t\pes of
refrigerating machines.
538 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

The charge of carbonic anhydride originally put into the machine

isused over and over again, going progressively through the processes
of compression, condensation, and evaporation, passing through a
closed cycle. Thus a small quantity only is required to be added from
time to time to replace any small losses, and for this purpose carbonic
acid is sent in steel cylinders to any part of the world. The cost of

Ink'
^«-

No. 5.— Diagram of Messrs J. &

E. Hall's Carbonic
Refrigerating Machine.

the material is only a few pence per pound. The quantity required
for a complete charge is very small, the cost of a charge for a 24-ton
ice plant being only about £y.

—
Properties of CO.,. Carbonic anhydride is a non-poisonous gas, and
a constituent of atmospheric air. To give an idea of the freedom
from danger of J. & E. Hall's patent refrigerating machines, it may
be stated that the entire contents of the maciiine might be allowed
to escape into an ordinary engine-room without any disastrous results
or, in most cases, even inconvenience.
Though it is not contended that an atmosphere containing only
carbonic acid will support life, on the other hand, it has been found
by careful experiments made by well-known scientists, that men can
breathe fairly comfortably in air containing as much as 15 per cent,
of carbonic acid, in which atmosphere one of the investigators remained
for three quarters of an hour. Now the entire charge in the machines
usually fitted on board ship by Messrs
J. & E. Hall Limited is such
that the atmosphere would not contain so large a proportion of
 1 —

Refrieeration 539
carbonic acid even if the whole charge escaped instantaneously from
the machine into the main engine-rooin.
The details of the machines are as follows :

Description of Hall Plant

Compressor. —-The compressors for the large machines are bored
out of solid steel forgings, partly to secure strength, but principally on

Condenscf Brine rcfurn

Co/ Jhzrnjometer

Paf^nf Safety Volve

Condenser Gua^z
in here >..
/
Evaporator
VGuage
Cylinder^
Compressor.^ ^(jTc;
Separator ^

PQ^e^f hollow
Oil Gland
"^
I—fifV^" Regulator

Conmdmq^
Rod
-Evaporator
Pbt cakhmcj Xoil
Oil from
Gland

-Insulation
round
fuaporatof

Water
Circulahna Pump "" Condenser Cas/no

No. 6. — Section of Hall Vertical Marine Type Machine.

account of greater certainty of soundness of the matenal, and to

provide a perfect bore in which may work the cup leathers with which
the pistons are provided.
Compressors of smaller machines are cast in a special bronze,
which secures the two essentials of soundness and hardness. The
suction and delivery valves are identical for facilities of interchange.

Gland. —
The gland is made gas-tight by mean:; of two cupped
leathers on the compressor rod. A
special lubricating oil is forced
into the space between these leathers at a pressure superior to the
 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches
540

greatest pressure in the compressor, so that whatever leakage takes

place at the gland is a leakage of the oil either into the compressor
or out into the atmosphere, and not a leakage of gas. What little
leakage of the oil takes place into the compressor is advantageous,
inasmuch as it in the first place lubricates the compressor, and in the
second place it fills up all clearances, thereby increasing the efficiency
of the compressor.
In order to replace the special oil which leaks out of the pressure
lubricator, there is a small hand hydraulic pump, a few strokes of
which are required to be made every two or three hours, as may be
indicated by the position of the pressure lubricator piston rod. This
form of gland is now in constant use on nearly 2000 machines
supplied by J, & E. Hall Limited.

—
Separator. Any oil which passes into the compressor, beyond what
is necessary to fill the clearance spaces, is discharged with the gas
through the delivery valves. In order to prevent this passing into
the condenser coils, all the gas is delivered into a patent separator.
The oil drains to the bottom of this vessel, whence it is drawn off
from time to time meanwhile the compressed gas passes off by an
;

opening at the top on its way to the condenser.

It may here be remarked that the oil has no affinity for carbonic
anhydride, hence it undergoes no change in the machine, and there
is, therefore, no fear of the coils becoming clogged by any small
amount of oil which might be carried over in spite of the separator.

—
Condenser. This consists of coils of copper tube, which are placed
in a tank and surrounded by water, similar to the condenser of a
steam-engine, with, however, the gas inside the tubes and the cooling
water outside. These coils are welded together into such length as
to avoid altogether any joints inside the tank, where they would be
inaccessible. The welding of these pipes is all done at J. & E. Hall's
works by the electrical method, which gives very good and reliable
results.
In connection with the condenser, one very important advs.ntage
of carbonic acid machines is apparent, for as carbonic acid has no
chemical action on copper, in the numerous cases where sea water
only is available for condensing purposes, that metal is used in the
construction of the coils.

Evaporator. — This also consists of nests of wrought-iron hydraulic

pipes electrically welded up into long lengths, inside of which the
carbonic anhydride evaporates. The heat required for evaporation
is usually obtained either from brine surrounding the pipes, as in
cases where brine is used as the cooling medium, or else from air
surrounding the pipes, as in cases where air is required to be cooled
direct.
Between the condenser and evaporator there is a regulating valve
 VERTICAL MARINE TYPE CO^ MACHINE.
By Messrs J. & E. Hai.l, Limited.

Verbal " Notes and Sketches. [ To face /<7. Y 540.

 Refrigeration 541

for adjusting the quantity of the liquid carbonic anhydride passing

from the condenser.

J. & E. Hall's Patent Safety Valve. —

In order to enable the
compressor to be opened up for examination of valves and piston
without loss of carbonic anhydride, it is necessary to fit a stop-valve
on the suction and delivery sides, so as to confine the carbonic
anhydride to the condenser and evaporator. It is, of course, possible
for a careless attendant to start the machine again without opening
the delivery valve, and in such case an excessive pressure would be
created in the delivery pipe, from which there would be no outlet.
To provide against this danger a patented safety device is adopted,
consisting of an ordinary spring safety valve, at the base of which is
a thin copper disc, which is designed to burst at a pressure consider-
ably below that to which the machines are tested. This disc is made
perfectly gas-tight, an object which could not be attained by the
spring safety valve alone, and the latter only comes into play when
the disc is ruptured. Great care is necessarily exercised in making
the discs to provide against variation in strength, due to any variation
either in the thickness or hardness of the copper sheets out of which
the discs are made.

Joints. —With regard to the joints to withstand the pressures, those

which are not subject to a high temperature can be made absolutely
tight with any suitable material, such as leather, but for the hot joints,
special rings are supplied which withstand the heat and still have
the necessary elasticity to ensure the joint being perfectly tight when
either hot or cold. The absolute tightness of all joints is effectually
tested by brushing them over with soap and water, the slightest leak
being thereby detected.

—
Testing Parts. Very careful tests are carried out in J. & E. Hall's
works to ensure perfect soundness of all parts subject to the gas
pressure. The working pressure varies from about 750 lbs, per
square inch in temperate climates, with water at 50' Fahr., to about
1 1 25 lbs, with water at 84"^ to 9o\ as is usual in the tropics.
Owing to the very small diameter of all parts, even in large machines,
there is no difficulty in securing a very ample margin of strength.
All parts of machines subject to the pressure of the carbonic
anhydride are, in the first place, tested for strength by hydraulic
pressure to 3000 lbs. per square inch, and they are then again tested
while immersed in warm water by air to 1350 lbs, per square inch,
whereby the slightest porosity which might exist in any of the
materials is at once detected bv air bubbles ascendinsT throuorh the
water,

* Extract from Paper read before the British Association by Mr E. Ilesketh,

M.Inst.C.E., M.I.iMech.E., Managing Director of J. & E. Hall Limited. 14th
September 1895.
^42
" Verbal " Notes and Sketches

Refrigeration. — Asa refrigerating agent, liquefied carbonic acid is

second to none. atmosplieric pressure it evaporates from the
Under
liquid state at the particularly low temperature of 120° f"ahr.
below zero, or 152° below the freezing point of water. In J. & E.
Hall's refrigerating machine, however, it is caused to evaporate at
only a few degrees below the temperature of the material which it
is desired to cool, the principle of the machine being exactly the

same as that of machines using anhydrous ammonia on the com-

pression system — viz., as water boils at 212° Fahr. under atmospheric

pressure, and about 250° Fahr. at 15 lbs. pressure, fire being usually
the source of heat, so liquid carbonic acid boils or vaporises at
30° Fahr. at 35 atmospheres' pressure, and thus permits cold water
or colder brine to be the source from which the necessary heat to
boil it is absorbed, exactly in the same manner as the heat of the
fire is absorbed in boiling water.
The compressor draws the gas or vapour from the evaporator and
compresses it to the liquefying pressure, which is controlled within
certain limits by the temperature of the cooling water. The heat
due to compression is absorbed by the cooling water in the condenser,
the gas circulating within the condenser coils and becoming liquefied
by the time it reaches the lower extremity of these coils.
We are able, by regulating the pressure in the evaporator, to cause
the liquid to boil throughout the coils of the evaporator, which act
in the same manner as the heating surface in a steam boiler, and
the temperature or boiling point of the liquid carbonic acid adjusts
itself to that of the source of heat which is causing it to boil, whether
it be water at 70" to be reduced to 40 or brine to be maintained
,

at + 10' Fahr. or — 10° Fahr.

The surfaces of the evaporator coils are so proportioned that all
the liquid which enters at the lower end of the coil is evaporated
by the time it reaches the top end, and thus the maximum efficiency
is obtained. The compressor then draws in only gas, and compresses
it up again to the pressure necessary to liquefy it, and delivers it

warm to the condensing coils to continue the cycle of operation.*

The vertical marine type machine, illustrated on the preceding
pages, consists of a single vertical steam cylinder, with the compressor
arranged alongside of it, both secured to a casting containing the
condenser coils, which are made of copper, and behind this casting
is another secured to it containing the evaporator coils, the whole

making a very compact and accessible design.

These small machines are perfectly simple, work quite noiselessly,
and can easily be worked by a person of ordinary intelligence from
the printed instructions supplied with each machine. They need very
little attention, and the wear and tear and consequent need of repairs
is almost nil. No increase in the staff of engineers is necessitated, as

* ?:xtract from Paper read before the Institute of Brewing, by Mr Alex. Marcet,
A.M.Inst.C.E., Managing Director, J. & E. Hall Limited. May 1894.
< Q

O £
U ::

""-
W
Oh ::

J w
H .

"->
^
O ^
s: ^
5 2
 Refrigeration ^42
they can be placed in any available corner of the engine-room, where
they come under the e)e of the engineer on watch.
The complete charge of carbonic anhydride in the machine is so
small that it may be allowed to escape into the engine-room without
the slightest inconvenience. A patent safety valve is fitted so that no

No. 7.— Patent Safety Valve, Hall Machine.

mistake or neglect on the part of the attendant can cause an}'thing

likean accident.

Instructions for Charging and Working.

Before Charging.
Pressure Lubricator. —
Fill receptacle above hand pump with
Vacuum Dartford Refrigerating Oil, and pump this into the pressure
lubricator by means of hand pump till piston is at inner end of stroke.

Compressor. — In a vertical machine put piston at bottom end of

stroke, take off cover and about one-fourth fill compressor with
Vacuum Dartford Refrigerating Oil. Replace cover. In a horizontal
machine, take out one of the delivery valves and put piston at the
other end of the compressor. Then about one-fourth fill compressor with
Vacuum Dartford Refrigerating Oil. Replace the valve. Pull machine
round twice, then run machine for a quarter of an hour, all screw-down
valves being open. After this commence charging.

Charging. — The CO2 is supplied in steel flasks of various sizes

containing from 22 to 40 lbs. each, as stamped on flask.
lbs. About
* lbs. constitutes a charge.
Suspend the flask, valve upwards, on the spring balance, and
connect by copper pipe provided to small screw-down valve at end of
evaporator coil. Note the weight. Open valve on flask and on
* Varies according to size of machine.
36
 —

544 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

machine. See that the connecting joints, which are made with leather
washers, are tight. After the CO^ has passed into the system, note
weight again, and the difference is the weight of COg passed into the
machine.
When flasks taken out (not before) they may be
have had lo lbs.

warmed by pouring on hot water to assist in driving out further gas.

While this proceeds the lower end of flask will remain cold so long as
liquid CO., remains, but when the whole flask has become heated, no
more liquid CO., remains, and valve should be closed while flask
is still warm. To get the utmost out of the flask before closing its
valve the evaporator should be pumped down to say 1 5 atmospheres
(on outer circle of gauge) by running the compressor for a few
minutes with closed regulator.
When first charging, blow the air out of the system by breaking
the joint between the regulator and pipe leading to it from condenser,
the regulator being closed, and all other valves open, and blow some
CO., to waste according to size of machine, thus :

Up to No. 9 Machine - - - - 2 lbs.

" " "
>> )) '3 )5 " "
5
,) „ 16 „ - - - - 10 „
» » 20 „ - - - - 20 „

As the pressure, while charging, rises, carefully examine all

joints. The slightest leaks become visible when painted with soap
and water lather.

—
Gauges. The COg gauges on condenser and evaporator show
on outer circle the pressure in atmospheres, and on inner circle the
corresponding temperature of CO.,. (When logging, the inner circle
only should be recorded, figures in red on the gauge being entered
in log with a minus sign thus :

-15"
denoting 15° below zero.)

Working Conditions. — Having fully charged, start the machine,

and adjust the regulator {i.e., inlet valve of evaporator coil) so that
the evaporator gauge indicates on inner circle 10° to 15" Fahr.
(6° to 9" Cent.) below the temperature of the brine leaving the
evaporator. If the machine be sufficiently charged, the condenser
gauge will indicate usually some 15" Fahr. (8° Cent.)* above the
temperature of the water entering the condenser.

(Note. —
This varies with the quantity of water passing condenser, and is
correct ifthe water outlet is 10° fahr. higher than the inlet. If the rise in
temperature of water is only 5° Fahr. the gauge should stand about 12° above
water inlet. If the rise in temperature of water
is 20" Fahr., the gauge should
stand about 20" above water inlet.)
 —

Refrigeration 545
An excessive charge is indicated by the gauge standing higher,
and a very excessive charge by a considerable fluctuation of the
pointer.
Under ordinary working conditions, the compressor should be
cold or partly covered with snow, and the delivery pipe from it
should be rather warmer than the hand can comfortably bear. If
the delivery pipe is not hot enough, slightl)' close the regulator, when
the temperature will quickly rise. If compressor becomes warm, it
points to regulator being insufficiently open.
If unable to obtain the indications given above on condenser
gauge, then the s}'stem is short of gas.* As a further test of this
close the regulator if sufficient gas is present, the evaporator gauge
:

should hardly fall for some fifteen or more revolutions of machine. If

the gauge falls immediately, without any pause, it indicates shortness
of CO.,.
If in doubt as to sufficiency of charge add more some extra gas in
;

the system, up to one-fourth of a charge, will be far more beneficial than

a slight undercharge. If machine is short of gas, the refrigerat-
ing work done will be but a fraction of its proper duty.
A rise of several degrees of temperature of inlet cooling water
will necessitate the addition of CO.^ in order to keep machine fully
charged, and similarl}' a fall in temperature may cause indications
of overcharge.

Brine. — The density should be regulated by the addition of

calcium chloride till the densimeter supplied floats at central mark,
which is 40° on Twaddell's Densimeter, or till one gallon weighs
about 1 2 lbs., that is, a specific gravity of about 1-25. The brine
J-

should be made in a separate vessel, and lumps of calcium should

not be thrown into the evaporator tank for fear of choking the pipes.
It is important that sea water should not be used. Common
salt (sodium chloride) may be used instead of calcium chloride, but
to prevent corrosion, for every 100 lbs. of salt used i lb. of caustic
soda is to be added.
In machines fitted with open evaporators there should be sufficient
brine in the s}'stem to ensure the evaporator coils being entirely
covered by about 6 inches when machine is running. In machines
fitted with closed evaporators the cock on air pipe must be kept
slightly open to prevent air collecting in evaporator.

—
Compressor Piston and Rod. The machine is fitted with a double
or single acting compressor. Whenever replacing piston observe the
following instructions :

—
* (Note. In above instructions as to working conditions it is assumed that
the valves and piston leathers are in good order. If doubt exists as to this,
proceed as explained under heading " Test.")
546 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches
—
For Double- Acting Compressor. As the clearances between the
and the ends of compressor are very small they must be maintained
piston ,

equal at both ends.

Always bar round before starting after replacing piston.
The piston is packed with hydraulic leathers which will require
examination and renewal occasionally. The compressor rod must
be kept in a highly polished state and free from any marks, and if
machine is lying idle, the rod should be removed and kept well
greased in a dry place.
It is very necessary that the nut securing the piston leathers
should be well screwed up and locked when new leathers are put
;

in, it is advisable, a icw hours after starting, to tighten the nut up

again. (See instructions under " To Examine COMPRESSOR.")

—
Compressor Valves. The suction and delivery valves will require
occasional examination and cleaning. A
set of spare ones should be
kept ready for use.
* The valve seats are separate from the compressor and make double
joints : see that both copper rings are equally crushed by the valve casing.

Leakage at the outside joi?tt will indicate itself outside, but at the inner
Joint will not be perceptible except in reducing the work done by the
machine.

Test. — To test the working of the compressor, close the regulator,

when evaporator gauge should be pumped down from say 25 atmo-
spheres to 5 atmospheres in about 200 revolutions. If slower, either
the valves or the piston leathers are faulty, or the regulator may be
leaking.

Compressor Gland. —Thisis packed with two hydraulic leathers

and compressible between which a pressure of Vacuum Dart-
rings,
ford Refrigerating Oil is maintained by the patent automatic pressure
lubricator provided. The gland should be screwed up hard enough
to compress the rings, and will require tightening up occasionally, but
this should not be done while running. The pressure lubricator
will require pumping back when its piston has moved 4 inches, but
this should not occur at least under three hours if the gland leathers
and compressor rod are in good order. The pressure lubricator
valves must be full open, otherwise, though not easily observable,
the gland cannot be gas-tight. The oil which leaks from the gland
should be caught, and after filtering and separating any water from
it, used over again.

—
Separator. Any oil passing into the compressor will be caught in
the separator and must be drawn off every second time of pumping

* For steel block compressors only.

 Refrigeration 547
up pressure lubricator, or oftener if much oil is passing in, by
slackening drain plug, and after filtering it may be used over
again.

—
COg. This must be pure and free from water and air. If the
gas cannot be obtained dry, a CO., dryer should be fitted to the
machine.
As a precaution against moisture each flask should be suspended
valve down for some twenty-four hours before using, and then by
very slightly opening valve any water present will escape.

—
Gland Oil. As an improper oil may cause trouble, it is strongly
recommended that only Vacuum Dartford Refrigerating Oil should
be used. This is obtainable from the Vacuum Oil Co., York House,
Norfolk Street, London, W.C., and its branches.

Strainer. —
On suction side of compressor is a strainer, which should,
with a new machine, be taken out and cleaned after the second day's
working, and afterwards occasionally if required.

—
Stopping and Starting. When stopped for some days, the screw-
down valves on suction and delivery of compressor should be closed,
but no other valves. For shorter stoppages, no valves need be
closed. The gauges will then equalise, standing at temperature
of brine in evaporator. Before starting, care should be taken that
any valves closed are reopened, but should this be neglected a safety
valve is provided to relieve the pressure. If machine is run at
constant speed the regulator should require very little alteration after
being once adjusted.

Speed. — The machine should run* revolutions per minute.

—
Leakages. It is very necessary that all pipe joints and glands of
valve spindles should be carefully examined with soap lather and
kept tight. For the first few days especially they should be examined
daily and all bolts and gland nuts screwed hard up. The most
minute leak must instantly be stopped.

To Examine Compressor. — Close the suction and delivery screw-

down valves, also the valve between pressure lubricator and gland,
and slack off a joint to let the gas escape. Make
sure all pressure
is gone before opening up.

* According to size and type of machine.

 — —

548 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

Stores and Spares. — It is recommended that a supply of the

following be kept on hand :

Flasks of CO2.
Vacuum Dartford Refrigerating Oil.
Calcium Chloride.
Compressor Piston Leathers.
Compressor Gland Leathers.
Pressure Lubricator Leathers (two sizes).
Compressible Rings for Gland.
Set of Delivery Valves.
Set of Suction Valves.
Set of Bronze Joint Rings for Compressor.
Compressor Piston Rod, highly polished.
Safety Valve Discs.

Possible Causes of Trouble.

1. Owing to leakage, or to a rise in temperature of condensing

water, the machine may become insufficiently charged. Remedy :

Add more gas until COg gauges show indications under heading
" Working Conditions."
2. Gland leathersmay be worn out. This will be indicated by
pressure lubricator piston working out to its full stroke in one hour
or less. Remedy —
Renew gland leathers, carefully examining piston
:

rod for roughness if necessary use spare rod, and repolish rod
;

taken out.
NOTE. —This may also rarely be caused by a defective piston leather in the
pressure lubricator itself.

3. Piston leathers may be slack at nut or worn out. This will be

indicated by compressor failing to pump out evaporator as indicated
under heading " Test." Remedy —
Tighten piston nut, or, if
:

necessary, change piston leathers.

NOTE. — The same indications may be caused by the valves being worn or
stuck up, in which case they must be examined, cleaned, and, if necessary,
repaired.

4. Irregular action of evaporator gauge and also the delivery pipe

from compressor changing from hot to cold frequently without apparent
reason, indicates that there is some foreign liquid present in the system,
probably oil from pressure lubricator which has not been drained from
separator. Remedy —
Slack joint between liquid pipe and condenser
:

outlet coil box, and allow foreign matter to escape. Also open the
valve on evaporator coil used for charging machine and blow out any
oil, &c., present. Also drain separator frequently till trouble ceases,
and then drain it according to the instructions.
As an alternative remedy when brine is not at a low temperature,
run the machine with regulator full open for ten minutes, then close
 Refrio'eration
v> 549
regulator to working position, and, as soon as compressor delivery is
warm, drain separator,

5. Evaporator gauge may register a much lower temperature than

stated under " Working Conditions" in spite of further opening of
regulator. This may be due either to the evaporator casing being
partly empty or to the formation of ice on the outside of the coils
owing to the brine density being insufficient.
6. Gauges sometimes give false indications —
To test this, both
gauges should indicate alike when the machine is stopped, regulator
remaining open. They should then both indicate the temperature of
the brine surrounding the evaporator coils.

7. Condensing water pump may be out of order, or the supply of

water may be insufficient. This will be indicated by unusually high
condenser pressure, and high temperature of overflow water. Remedy:
— Examine water pump or increase water supply.
8. Do not run machine faster than these instructions state. If not
effecting usual refrigerating work, ascertain fault and apply remedy.

9. Hand pump on pressure lubricator may refuse to work.

—
Remedy: Examine and clean the valves of hand pump and small
strainer covering suction. In case CO.2 has got in between the gland
leathers, slack joint of guard round pressure lubricator piston rod,
allowing gas to escape,

10. When cooling chambers, loss of efficiency is sometimes due to

the chamber doors (i) being open too often, or (2) being left open,
or (3) shrinking and becoming a bad fit. The cold air will then flow
out and necessitate machine running many more hours than necessary.
Doors can be tested for tightness by closing them on slips of paper
which will then be nipped if door fits tightly.

Log. —
It is advisable to keep a log, recording especially speed,
indication of gauges, temperature of condensing water, in and out,
and brine, in and out Compare present log with past logs, and if
any falling off is indicated, ascertain the cause and apply remedy.
As a guide, a form of log is appended.

—
Assistance. J. & E. Hall Ltd. gladly give advice to users of their
machines, but letters explaining any difficulty experienced should
always be accompanied by a log of actual working in the form
appended.

Important. —
WJienever consulting makers as to any point in ivorking
of machine, send them a log giving the follozving particulars so far as
they apply and always give number cast on machine.
^
550 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

Time.
 COo SYSTEM ON SHIPBOARD.
By Messrs The Haslam Foundry and Engineering Co., Limited, Derby.

" Verbal " Notes and Sketches. [ To Jace page 550.

 Refrigeration 551

carrying a mixed cargo, such as frozen meat in the holds and fruit
in the 'tween decks, or a general cargo, such as butter, eggs, cheese,
poultry, fish, &c. The holds are fitted with brine pipes, under the

.r: ni

u E
nl o

2
-ho

<U CIS

00 JS

W^^*fi

deck and on the sides, for maintaining a low temperature. The

'tween decks are fitted with collapsible air trunks, through which
the cold dry air is circulated at a suitable temperature for preserving
 " " Notes and Sketches
552 Verbal

fruit. The air is drawn through the suction trunl<s by means of

a steam-driven fan it is then passed through the air cooler, consisting
;

of nests of pipes through which the cold brine is circulated. The air
is thus cooled to any desired temperature, all moisture being deposited
on the pipes in the form of snow. The trunks are so designed that
the foul air can be discharged into the atmosphere and fresh air
supplied as required. The 'tween decks can also be fitted with brine
pipes. When they are not in use the collapsible air trunks are hinged
up out of the way. The two small chambers which are intended for
holding passengers' provisions are fitted with brine pipes, the larger
one being maintained at a temperature of 20" Fahr. for meat, and
the other at a temperature of 35° Fahr. for vegetables. small iceA
tank for producing about 3 to 4 cwt. of ice for table use and water
and wine coolers is supplied when required.
The CO2 refrigerating machine can either be fitted in the tunnel
(when a twin-screw ship), in a corner of the main engine-room, or on
one of the upper decks, thus taking up little or no valuable space.

Liverpool Refrigeration Co. Ltd. CO. Machines.

The machine generally consists of a steam cylinder and gas

compressor, arranged side by side, and coupled to a double throw
crank-shaft which runs in three bearings. The shaft has a heavy
fly-wheel at one end with safety barring lever.
The steam cylinder is fitted with a piston valve. Crossheads are
of the open type, and all bearings are adjustable.
The compressor embodies a number of patented improvements.
It consists of an outer steel casing enclosing an easily withdrawable
liner of special metal, forming the bore of the cylinder. At either
end are heads of forged steel which carry the valves, and back and
front covers.
The usual leather cups for packing the piston and glands are
entirely absent, and there is no forced lubrication.
The piston is a metallic packed piston of considerable length, and
having a number of special cast-iron packing rings held in carriers
of hard bronze, the whole being kept in place by a special split collar,
so arranged that it is impossible for the piston head to come slack
so long as the piston is within the cylinder there are no screws or
;

pins whatever.
The compressor valves work vertically, and are of very large area
and small lift.

_
The gland consists of an inner and outer stuffing box, the former
being packed with a special form of metallic packing. This stuffing
box and gland does most of the work, and, in addition, a couple of
woodite washer rings are fitted to the outer gland to stop any small
leakage past the inner packing.
The whole is arranged for long continuous runs, and avoids
 Refrigeration 553

altogether the difficulties experienced with leather cups. In the

box-bed underneath the machine are arranged both the condenser
and evaporator coils. The bed is divided into two portions by a

No. 9.
— Method of Charging Machine with CO^ Gas.

watertight bulkhead, the condenser coils being placed in one portion,

and a cast or wrought iron cartridge or case heavily lagged, and
containing the evaporator coils, is placed in the other portion. The
evaporator casing is hermetically sealed inside the box-bed so that
554 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

there can be no condensation of moisture, and the lagging is always

kept perfectly dry and highly efficient. The coils, however, can be
readily withdrawn by removing the covers and without disturbing the
insulated cartridge case.
There are no internal joints whatever, and the headers, regulating
and control valves are all easily accessible, and are neatly and handily
arranged.
All connections subject to CO., pressure are of steel.
The brine and water pumps are independent of the machine, and
in one form consist of a duplex, double-ended pump having the brine
cylinders at one end, the water cylinders at the other end, and the
steam cylinders in the middle.

—
Charging Refrigerator with Gas. The balance overhead indicates
the amount entering the evaporator by showing a difference of weight,
and as the flask becomes emptied of its contents, slightly heating it
with warm water will quicken evaporation and thus produce complete
(or nearly so) evacuation.

NOTE.— The steel flask contains liquid COo (or Ammonia) under pressure, but
when the pressure is decreased as described, evaporation instantly commences, and
the COj then passes off as a gas.

When the connection is opened between the flask and the

evaporator, evaporation begins owing to decrease of pressure, and
COo gas passes from the flask into the machine.

—
Latent Heat of NH^ and CO.,. At atmospheric pressure the boiling
point of Ammonia (NH3) is --^y-S" Fahr., and of Carbonic Acid (CO^)
— 125° Fahr. Notice that both of these are below zero.
The Latent Heat of Evaporation of Ammonia (NH3), at a pressure
of 30 lbs. and temperature of 0° Fahr., is 555 units of heat. The
Latent Heat of Evaporation of COg, at a pressure of 310 lbs. and
temperature of 0° Fahr., is 124 units of heat. This means that I lb.
of Ammonia, in evaporating in the evaporator coils, absorbs 555 units
of heat from the surrounding brine, which is therefore lowered in
temperature correspondingly and that I lb. of CO.,, in evaporating
;

in the^ evaporator coils, absorbs 124 units of heat "from the brine,
which is therefore lowered in temperature correspondingly.

NOTE.— Water absorbs Ammonia in the proportion of 600 volumes of Ammonia

gas to I volume of water. From this it means of getting
will be evident that the best
rid of Ammonia gas, should a serious escape occur in the engine-room, would be to
play a jet of steam into the Ammonia fumes.

NOTE.— COo, being a non-supporter of combustion, can be employed to put out

fire in a steamer's hold, if allowed to escape into it.
 o

8-5
2

^ <

2 ri

:2 J

C X

'

Verbal ""
Notes and Sketches. [To tOiC page 554-
 Refrigeration 555

COo and NH„ Pressures and Temperatures, &c.

Chemical.
556 '•Verbal" Notes and Sketches

such as an engine and crank-shaft, and the suction pipe, being connected
to the cold chamber, draws in the warmest air from the top of the

No. 10.—Vertical Type Haslam Dry Air Machine.

room. This air is compressed to 50 lbs. pressure, thus increasing its

temperature to about 280°, and it is then delivered into the air cooler,
consisting of a number of tubes surrounded by water, which is circu-
l^-;-^

flOTA

li iiiMM.i I I r

W CTUU-V- r »,,

>>
It ^

II.
 Srlr

H^

Colo Chamber
OR Refrigerator

Press
50 Lbs,
Cooling Water Inlet
No. II. — Diagram of Compressed Air System.
 VERTICAL ELKCTRICALLY-DRIVKX CARBONIC ANHYDRIDE
REFRIGERATING MACHINE. ADMIRALTY TYPE.

Verbal "'
Notes and Sketches. [To face fa^e 556-
 Refrigeration 557

lated by a separate pump. Here the air is cooled down to a few

degrees above the circulating water temperature and delivered to the

No. 12.— Vertical Type Haslam Dry Air Machine.

airexpander, where it is allowed to expand behind the piston, doing

mechanical work by assisting to drive the air compressor. The
expanding air thus gives up heat in the form of work, and is thereby
558 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

reduced in temperature to about —90° Fahr. The air is then dehvered

into the cold chamber at one side near the top, and, circulating
through the room to the return trunk, is drawn again to the com-
pressor, the cycle thus being complete.
In most cases patent drying pipes are fitted in connection with the
above apparatus, their function being to dry the compressed air before
it is expanded. This is done by passing it through tubes round
which is circulated the returning air from the cold rooms. By this
method the compressed air is cooled, and any moisture is deposited in
the " dryer " and discharged through cocks or valves at the bottom.
Sir A. Scale Haslam has developed the compressed air machine
from its experimental stage, and machines built by his firm were the
first to carry successfully large cargoes of frozen meat from the colonies.
We now give illustrations and descriptions of machines as built by
the Haslam Foundry and Engineering Company Ltd., of Derby.
The machine here illustrated is of the vertical type, and is capable
of circulating 8ocxd cubic feet of air per hour. It is driven by a com-
pound steam-engine, the steam cylinders being arranged tandem ;

the steam supply is controlled by a piston valve in each cylinder,

actuated by a single eccentric. The compressor, arranged alongside
the steam cylinders, is double acting and water jacketed, and has
hollow covers of brass in which are the suction and delivery valves of
phosphor bronze. The air expander, placed alongside the compressor,
is also double acting and has main and cut-off valves, the latter being
adjustable. The ports of this cylinder are made as short and direct
as possible to avoid choking with snow, which in small machines not
fitted with drying pipes would otherwise give trouble.
Across the back of the machine is arranged the air cooler, similar
in construction to an ordinary steam surface condenser, in which the
compressed air on its way to the expansion cylinder is cooled by the
sea water surrounding the tubes, A water-circulating pump is fixed
to bed and driven from crank-shaft.
The next illustration shows Haslam's duplex compressed air
refrigerator, capable of circulating 180,000 cubic feet of air per hour
at 90' below zero (Fahr.). It is specially arranged to work in the
'tween decks of a ship, and is duplicated so that either side of the
machine, consisting of one steam cylinder, one compressor, and one
expansion cylinder, can be worked separately in case of accident
to the other side, thus giving greater security to the cargo. The
machine is fitted with steam surface condenser, air, circulating, and
feed pumps, contained within the soleplate, the pumps being driven
by a rocking shaft worked from either crosshead pin. When worked
as one machine the steam cylinders work compound.
The drying pipes are separate nests of tubes, and are not shown
in the illustration.
The plate illustration opposite shows the usual arrangement of the
refrigerating machine, drying pipes, and air trunks as fitted on board a
steamer, and is a good type of a large cargo installation. The holds
^
 Refrigeration
559

G
u
Q

O.
Q 5
o
a U
byo
a

&a
B
w
•a
c

ex,
3 4)

CO

o --'

37
56o "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

and upper and lower 'tween decks are insulated. The air trunks ar6
made collapsible when not in use, and are arranged on both sides of the
ship so that a perfect circulation is obtained, and by an arrangement
of doors the direction of the air current may be reversed at will. The
'tween decks may be used for carrying cheese or other produce not
requiring so low a temperature as the meat, and are then cooled by
the air returning from the holds to the machine. The vertical trunks
on each side of bulkhead connect to the longitudinal trunks at sides
of ship the connection is made separately on each side of bulkheads
;

to obviate the necessity of cutting the bulkhead and fitting watertight

doors. Two duplex machines are fitted side by side, and on the
upper deck, so as to be directly above their work.

Haslam Dry Air Machines.

Pressures and Temperatures.
Gauge Pressure-
in lbs.

Air entering Compressor

„ leaving „
,, entering Cooler
„ leaving „ - - .

,, entering Dryers
„ leaving „ . - -

5, entering Expander -

,, leaving „ -
_^

Cut-off in Expander, | stroke.

Sea water, 64" Fahr.

Air leaving chamber at 20" is raised to 32" to 36° on entering

compressor usually, but if the return pipe in engine-room is not
sufficiently lagged, the temperature rises, as shown in the above
log, to 40' or 45'.

—
Compressor and Expander Cylinder Diagrams. Observe that the
pressure entering the compressor is rather less than that of the
atmosphere, as the initial pressure line is just below the atmospheric

TEMR 280°
 Refrioferation 561

line also that the pressure rises to 50 lbs. (gauge) and the tempera-
;

ture to 280 Fahr.

The air at 50 lbs. pressure and 280^ temperature is discharged into
the cooler, where most of the heat (work) is carried off by the circu-
lating water passing through the cooler overboard, so that the air,
still at 50 lbs. pressure, is now reduced to a temperature of 6"]" Fahr.

TEMP 36°

AT.yNE
-90"
No. 15. — Diagram from Expander.

This necessary loss of heat in the cooler accounts for the difference
in area in the compressor and expander diagrams, and means that
work at least equal to the loss must be given out by the steam
cylinders of the machine.
In the expander diagram, which is of less area than the com-
pressor diagram, notice that the compressed air enters the expansion
cylinder at a pressure of 49 lbs. and a temperature of only 36' Fahr., so
that when the air is cut off at three-eighths stroke it expands and falls
in pressure to about i or 2 lbs. above the atmosphere but the fall in
;

temperature is very much more in proportion, as work is being done

by the air in assisting to drive the expander piston. Briefly, b)' the
combined effects of low initial temperature, expansion, and work
done, the exhaust temperature is reduced to —90'' Fahr. or to — 100^
Fahr,
—
NOTE. If the air merely expanded without doing work the pressure would
drop, but the temperature would remain constant as, however, work is done on
;

the expander piston by the air, heat is lost and the temperature lowered. One
B.T.U. disappears for every 778 foot-pounds of work done.

General Notes on Refrigeration.

Pressures and Temperatures.
For a sea temperature of about 70° the following are the average
pressures and temperatures required for the three systems of refrigera-
tion obtaining in ordinary marine practice —
cold air, ammonia,
and CO.,:—
56: Verbal " Notes and Sketches

Medium Employed. Absolute Pressure. Temperature Fahr.

Cold Air - - • 1 7 lbs. (Expander exhaust) -90 .

65 „ (Compressor) 280°.

Ammonia (NH^) 25 ,, (Evaporator) - 6° (Brine - 4°).

170 ,, (Compressor) 85° (Sea 70^).
^
Carbonic Anhydride (COo 280 ,, (Evaporator) - 6" (Brine - 4°).
1050 ,, (Compressor) 85° (Sea 70°).

NOTE.— In the Ammonia and CO., systems with brine circulation the brine
temperature would be somewhere about - 4' Fahr. for the pressure and temperature
of the gas as given in the Table. Notice that the brine temperature is above that
of the Ammonia or CO.2 in the evaporator coils, and that the sea water tempera-
ture is below that of the Ammonia or COo in the condenser coils (from 12' to
18''

difference in each).

Temperature Difference. —
For the cooling effect required, it is
necessary that a difference of temperature should exist between the
gas in the condenser coils and the circulating sea water, the latter
being the lower temperature of the two, so that the excess heat picked
up by the refrigerant from the brine in the evaporator may be trans-
ferred to the circulating water and so carried over the side.
It will thus be obvious that if the sea water rises to a temperature
of, say, 80'' Fahr., then the temperature of the Ammonia or CO^ must
be in excess of this by 8^ or 10'' to allow of heat transfer, and to obtain
this difference of temperature the pressure of the gas must be increased
in due proportion.
For a gas temperature of 90" the ammonia pressure would require
to be 180 lbs., and the CO2 pressure 1 140 lbs., and if the sea tempera-
ture rose to 85" and the gas temperature is to be, say, 93°, the ammonia
pressure would require to be 200 lbs., and the CO., pressure 1180 lbs.
per square inch so that the higher the sea temperature the higher
;

the pressure required in the compressor to still maintain the necessary

temperature difference.
Ammonia (NH3) evaporates at a temperature of —37° when the
pressure is 14-7 lbs. (atmospheric) and has a latent heat of evaporation
of555B.T.U.

Leaky Compressor Piston and Valves. i. Leaky suction valves —

show by a rise on the evaporator gauge.
2. Leaky delivery valves show by a rise on the evaporator gauge,
and a variation in pressure on the condenser gauge.
3. Leaky compressor pistons show by a rise on the evaporator
gauge and a fall on the condenser gauge.

To Test if Brine is Corrosive. — Immerse a piece of bright iron in

 — —

Refrigeration 563
the brine for a period of, say, two clays, and the iron will remain
unchanged if the brine is non-corrosive.

—
Air Extraction (Ammonia System). In extracting air from the
system by means of the air cock on top of condenser coils, for safety
it is adv^isable to connect up a flexible length of tubing from the

cock, the other end of the tube being immersed in a bucket of water.
When the air has all passed out any ammonia which follows will
be absorbed by the water, and the smell of which will indicate when
to shut off the cock. Previous to repacking the gland or piston the
ammonia contained in the compressor can be got rid of by the same
method, first closing the hand suction and delivery valves.

Overhauling- Compressor (Ammonia System). —

In opening up
the compressor or any other working part of an ammonia machine
the gas should first be got rid of by thorough ventilation, otherwise
a light brought near may produce an explosion.

Brine Temperature Difference. —

The difference in temperature
between the outgoing and return brine should be from 3" to 5" Fahr.

CO., evaporates at a temperature of — 120" at an atmospheric pressure

of 14-7 lbs., and has a latent heat of evaporation of 130 B.T.U.

Cold Air System. — For good efficiency the following points require
attention :

1. Tightness of pistons, valves, of compressor and expander, also

Cooler and Dryer tubes.

2. When starting up machine after standing idle for some time,
all relief cocks should be kept open, and the machine run for some
time before drawing the air direct from the cold chambers.
3. The following temperatures should be regularly taken :

A. Air temperature before entering compressor.

B. ,, ,, after leaving compressor.
C. ,, ,, before entering expander.
D. ,, ,, after leaving expander.
E. Cooling water temperature.

4. Drains on Cooler and Dr}-er to be opened at regular intervals.

—
Joint Testing. To test for gas leakage at joints or connection soap
lather is employed, and bubbles form if leakage exists.

—
Brine Temperature. The brine temperature kept is about 8' or 10°
lower than the temperature of the cold chamber, so that if, say, fruit
is to be maintained at a temperature of 16 Fahr., then the brine
temperature should be 8 Fahr.
 SECTION X

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES.

General.
The gas engine is now rapidly coming to the front in marine
practice, and (on the Continent particularly) is being effectively
developed for use at high powers. The chief difficulty, so far, is that
of reversing, but this has been overcome to some extent by the
use of compressed air, which, forced into the cylinder, changes the
direction of piston travel and thus reverses the engine. The four-
stroke engine is still more in evidence than the two- stroke type, but
the latter system has been much improved and perfected of recent
years. Some foreign makers build gas engines of the double-acting
type, but the reliability and efficiency of this s}^stem has yet to
be proved.

Advantages.
1. Boilers deleted.
2. Smaller bunker space (petrol or petroleum tank) required.
3. Instant starting (with petrol).
4. Ease of manipulation.
5. Cleanliness.
6. Economy.
7. Reduced staff.

Disadvantages.
I. Ignition and other troubles.
3. Danger from petrol and petroleum vapour.
6. Difficulty of reversing^
7. Complication of machinery with engines of large power.
8. Deposits of carbon in cylinder heads.
9. Difficulty of revolution speed control.

Producer Gas.
In land installations, gas obtained by the "Producer" system is
used, and this has also been experimented with in marine practice.
It is the opinion of many eminent engineers that this is the best method
of running internal combustion engines. In the producer sj-stem the
564
 Internal Combustion Engines 565

gas instead of being obtained from oil, is produced direct from coal
by heating, the appliance being known as a "producer." This, of
course, necessitates the carrying of coal and the use of furnaces, &c.,
whereas in the case of oil, the oil only is carried in the tanks, and is

No. I.— Dowson Suction Gas Producer.

1, Coal hopper. 8, Water inlet to boiler.

2, Incandescent coal. 9, Boiler (low pressure).

3, Coke scrubber. 10, Ashpit.
4, Water supply to scrubber. 11, Hand fan for starting- up.
5, " Water seal." 12, Funnel shut-off valve.
6, Gas outlet to engine. 13, Water overflow pit.

7, Funnel,
 — :

566 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

supplied direct to the cylinders, after heating by means of a heating

lamp to produce vaporisation.

Producer System.
The gas is obtained b}' passing a jet of low pressure steam and air
through a mass of incandescent fuel. The orincipal parts of the
appliance are :

1. Producer.
2. Cooler and scrubber.
3. Small steam generator.
4. Hand-driven fan for starting up fire.

—
Producer. This is a vertical cylinder chamber with a coal feed
hopper at the top, into which the coal (usually Anthracite) is tipped
at the bottom is a fire-box with the ordinar\' fire-bars and
furnace door.

—
Cooler and Scrubber. The scrubber is filled up with water (" water
seal ") for a short distance from the bottom, and the gas entering
from the producer enters below the water level, thus forcing the gas
through the liquid for cleaning purposes the upper part of this
;

chamber contains lump coke, and has a water drip from the top the ;

gas passing up and through the coke is purified or scrubbed of the

tarry substances which ^^•ould otherwise cause trouble in the engine
by depositing in the valves, c}dinders, &c.

—
Steam Generator. This is a smaller boiler fitted on the producer to
obtain steam for admission to the incandescent fuel, so that the gas
may be produced b)- the chemical action resulting.

Action. — The general action of the producer is as follows After :

—
lighting the firesand using the hand fan to create a draught, when the
heat is sufficiently strong, the funnel outlet valve is closed and the
coal gases pass into the water of the cooler, thence to the scrubber,
and from there by suction to the oil engine cylinders, to be com-
pressed and fired in the usual way. The steam generated in the small
boiler together with air passes down a pipe and enters the producer
among the fuel in doing so the steam (H.3O) is decomposed by the
;

heat of the coal, and H)-drogen and Oxygen are set free. These gases
combine with the carbon of the coal to give CO
or Carbonic Oxide,
and this, together with the H3'drogen, passes to the top of the producer
chamber, then to the cooler and scrubber as previously described.
Therefore, producer gas is obtained by passing air and steam
through the heated fuel, and the chemical reactions which take place
are as follows :
—
2C + 0. = 2CO.
C + H,o'^CO + H,.
In other words. Oxygen of the air combines chemically with Carbon
 — —

Internal Combustion Engines 567

of the fuel to produceCO (Carbonic Oxide), and the water (steam) is

decomposed and forms more CO, also free Hydrogen. CH^ (Marsh
Gas) and CO., are also formed during the heating process, so that we
have as a result
Combustible gases = CO, H.>, CH^.
Incombustible ,, =CO.j, N.j.

The average chemical composition

CO (Carbon Monoxide)
H (Hydrogen) -
.... -
of producer gas

- ,,
is

15
as follows
about 30 per cent.
"
:

CH^ (Marsh Gas) - - - ,, i „

C0.> (Carbonic Acid) - - - - „ 6 ,,

N (Nitrogen) - - - - - - ,, 48 ,,

Efficiency. —The efficiency of producer j^lant is about 80 per cent.

Consumption. — The coal consumption per I.H.P. per hour varies

from about -9 lb. coal at low powers to about i| lbs. coal at high
powers.

Heat Value. —
The heat value of producer gas varies from 140 to
180 B.T.U. per cubic foot of ga.s.

—
Test Burner. A testing burner is fitted on the pipe leading from
the producer to the cooler, and this when lighted indicates the quality
of the gas which, if satisfactor\', is allowed to enter the cooler, but
which, if not satisfactor}-, is allowed to pass up the waste gas funnel.
NOTE. --It should be observed that when the engine is running, the regular
suction of the cylinders acts like a draught to keep the producer working, so that
the supply is equal to the demand, and this being so, the hand fan is stopped as
soon as the engine is started running.

It should also be noted that the producer is worked at a pressure

slightl)'under that of the atmosphere, owing to the suctional action
of the engine in drawing off the gas generated. This also explains
how the atmospheric air pressure enters the producer.
After the gas passes from the producer to the engine it*is mixed
with the required amount of air in the carburetter or vaporiser to
form a more highl}' explosive mixture for rapid combustion (explosion)
in the cylinders.

—
Explosion Systems. The oil motor is an explosive engine, the
cylinder head constituting the explosion or combustion chamber,
and to allow of this the clearance space is equal to about 30 per cent.
of the cylinder volume. When the explosion is produced b\' a spark,
or, as in the case of paraffin motors, by a hot tube or lamp, the engine
is then really of the " e.xplosive " tj-pe but if, as in some cases, the
;

explosion is produced by the gases being compressed sufficient!)- to

ignite spontaneous!)- b)' the heat left in the cylinder head, t!ie motor
568 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

is then of theinternal combustion " type, although the term internal

"

combustion generally applied in both cases.

is

In the typical modern motor boat using petrol, the energy is

stored in the petrol ; this is transformed into gas and mixed with
air in the carburetter, while the energy is liberated as heat in the
engine cylinder, and then directly transformed into mechanical work
by the piston, and into propulsive work by the propeller.
The oil or explosive engine is of course a heat engine, and as
such develops concentrated energy at the moment of ignition of
the gases, whereas with steam the energy is distributed more over
a longer period. The gas entering the cylinder represents potential
energy, which on ignition changes almost instantly into kinetic or
active energy, the fly-wheel receiving and storing up some of this
power or energy, which is afterwards employed in completing the
three other powerless strokes. In one of these, the compression
stroke, a large proportion of the power previously developed is
absorbed or used up in compressing the gases to the necessary
pressure required for effective ignition and explosion. This work,
then, is done by the piston on the gas, and may be called negativ^e
work.
As heat and work are equivalent, the intense heat obtained by
the explosion of the charge produces work, each unit of heat being
equal to, or giving out, 778 foot-pounds of work.

Paraffin and Petroleum. —

The paraffin or petroleum motor is
certainly the most convenient in many ways, as being usually ignited
by a heating lamp less trouble is experienced than with electrical
connections, magneto, &c., all of which require careful attention and
regular overhaul.
Paraffin can always be obtained, and is fairly cheap it is also safe,
;

as vaporisation docs not readily take place, hence the necessity for
the heating lamp previously referred to. This at the same time,
however, constitutes a disadvantage, as time is required to heat up
the vaporiser before the engine can be started. After once starting,
however, the heating lamp is usually turned off, as the carburetter is
then kept hot by the exhaust gases. The flash point of paraffin,
which is known as a " heavy " oil, is about 84^ Fahr.

Petrol or Gasoline.— Petrol is the spirit obtained from the crude

petroleum, and is chiefly composed of carbon and hydrogen, about
85 per cent, carbon and 14 per cent, hydrogen. The flash point is
low, about 35° Fahr., so that evaporation takes place very easily under
atmospheric pressure, which is an advantage in the matter of instant
starting, but which at the same time constitutes a danger, as if
leakage of petrol takes place explosion readily occurs when the
vapour formed becomes mixed with atmospheric air. The heat units
in I lb. of oil fuel are usually about 20,000 units, or roughly about
one-half more than that in \ lb. of ordinary coal, so that for the
 —

Internal Combustion Enoines 569

same power about two-thirds the amount of petrol or paraffin is

sufficient. Asthe fuel is in liquid form it also occupies less bunker
space, and, as before stated, for the same weight contains half as
much again power or energy, which still further reduces the fuel space
required for a given distance to be run.

—
Two-Cycle. In small single-cylinder motor sets up to about 7 Brake
Horse-Power, and two-c}-linder 10 B.H.P., the two-cycle s}'stem is
usually adopted, and is carried out as follows :

The crank case is air-tight, and is fitted with a small port, which
is opened and closed by the piston as it travels up and down.
Through the opening or port referred to, the charge of oil vapour and
air is drawn in from the carburetter on the up-stroke, and compressed
on the down-stroke, until released by the piston uncovering a con-
nection between the crank case and the top of the cylinder the :

charge then rushes into the cylinder, and at the same time drives
out the exhaust or burnt gases through the exhaust port which
has just opened when the piston comes up to the top the spark
:

occurs and ignites the compressed mixture of oil vapour and air,
and explosion follows, driving the piston down, and, as before stated,
when near the bottom the exhaust port is uncovered, and shortl)'
afterwards the connection between the crank case and c}-linder.
Observe that the exhaust port is opened just previous to the inrush
of the fresh charge, which being at a slight pressure assists in forcing
out the burnt gases left from the previous stroke.
The two-cycle motor, it will be noticed, gives one impulse or
power stroke to each revolution. A disadvantage exists in the
confusion of the intake gases with those of the exhaust, which to
a certain extent reduces the effective energy developed, and which
increases with the number of revolutions per minute. This type of
motor, however, requires no valves or cams of any kind, as ports
only are required to admit and exhaust the gas and air. If two
C)-linders are employed, the cranks are placed opposite to give good
balance and an even turning moment on the shaft. Both two-c)xle
—
and four-cycle motors are single acting that is, the power stroke
only occurs on one side (top) of the piston.

Four or "Otto" Cycle. —

The action of a "four-cycle" oil motor
isas follows: —
(i) On the down-stroke of the piston the air and oil
vapour are drawn into the c}'linder through the inlet valves and ;

(2) on the following up-stroke the gas is compressed then (3) fired
;

by an electric spark, or a hot tube, set to act when the piston is near
or at the top centre the explosion which follows drives the piston
;

down, and. on the next up-stroke (4) the burnt gases are expelled
through the exhaust valves, and out into the atmosphere by way
of the " silencer." The inlet valves are sometimes worked by the
piston suction and springs, and sometimes mechanically b\' a cam
fixed on a special shaft. The exhaust valves are opened by cams
 " " Notes and Sketches
570 Verbal

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.-I .5
Internal Combustion Engines 571

t/5 1- U 1) .
I" ij > j= c;

5^!" JS
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d
2
57^ " Verbal " Notes and Sketches

on the shaft referred to, and arc kept shut by strong springs as
shown in the sketches.

Steam-Engine and Oil Motor compared.

Steam-Engine. —
Coal stored in bunkers and containing heat energy
is supplied to the furnaces, and, combustion more or less complete
being effected, the heat obtained is transmitted through the furnace
metal, and evaporation of the water in the boiler results. The
imperfect steam gas thus produced passes along the steam pipe and
enters the cylinder, where the heat energy is employed to drive the
pistons up and down, and so produce rotation of the shaft. After
doing work in the various cylinders, the steam finally exhausts to the
condenser, where condensation takes place, and the water thus ob-
tained is put back into the boilers as feed. During the process of
condensation most of the heat in the steam is absorbed by the
circulating water, and is thus lost overboard.

Oil Motor. —
In the oil motor the boilers are deleted and the fuel
contained in the oil tank or bunker is supplied direct to the cylinder
head, which also forms the combustion chamber. Combustion is
effected by a spark, and
the energy thus developed is applied direct
to the piston, and
on the down-stroke only. The waste gases
acts
produced by the rapid combustion are then exhausted out to the
atmosphere, and the whole of the heat contained is thus rejected.
Notice that a condenser cannot be fitted, so that no return of heat
is possible.
Again, it will be seen that to obtain the same impulse effect on
the crank-shaft four cylinders are required if the motor is of the
" four-cycle " type, and two cylinders if of the " two-cycle " type,
to
be equal in effect to one double-acting steam cylinder. The chief
difference then exists in the fact that with steam as the motive power
ordinary combustion takes place in the furnaces of the boilers, whereas
with oil rapid combustion takes place direct in the cylinders, and the
heat energy developed during explosion does the work of turning the
shaft and propelling the boat.
In the steam-engine steam gas generated in the boilers is admitted
to the H.P. cylinder, and is cut off at say one-third stroke. This gas
expands, and after doing work in the H.P. is admitted to the larger
M.P. cylinder, where more work is done and further expansion takes
place the gas then expands into the still larger L.P. cylinder, where
;

the last stage of work and expansion is completed, the gas then
passing into the condenser where condensation is effected. The
steam gas charge, be it noted, is only supplied to the H.P. cylinder,
and by exjDanding about twenty-two times or so altogether in the
other two larger cylinders, most of the effective energy is extracted
and useful work done.
The oil-gas engine, on the other hand, is a single-acting, and, of
 Internal Combustion Kn^lnes 5)73

Course, non-condensing engine, each cylinder requiring its own inde-

pendent charge of gas, and, as before stated, combustion is effected in
the cyHnder head. The cyHnders are therefore all of equal diameter,
and the gas only expands in one cylinder. No condfcnser is possible,
so that after driving the piston down the expanded gases at a high
temperature are exhausted direct into the atmosphere through the
"silencer." The back pressure is therefore somewhere about 18 lbs.
per square inch absolute, whereas in the steam-engine the back
pressure is usually only about 2h lbs. absolute, owing to the condenser
vacuum.

Number of Cylinders, &c. —

Any number of cylinders may be
employed in an oil motor, but for small launches two or four is the
usual number. The number of cylinders, in fact, depends on the
power required, and as many as six, eight, twelve, and eighteen
cylinders are occasionally fitted, according to the H.P. to be developed
by the motor.
The cylinders are of cast iron, and are occasionally fitted with
liners, which allow better for the expansion of the upper end of the
cylinder due to the intense heat of explosion. One or two casCs
have come under the writer's notice of cylinder heads cracking, due to
the unequal expansion of the upper and lower portions.

Pistons.— The pistons, of cast iron, are kept tight by means of four or
six light Ramsbottom which are cut as usual.
cast-iron rings,
The pistons are of the trunk type, being very deep in section, and
open at the bottom to the crank case, which is often arranged to form
an oil bath, thus supplying lubrication to the working parts by the
" splash " system.

—
Revolutions. Developing full power, the revolutions vary in oil
motors from 700 to looo per minute, and therefore, tieglecting miss-
fires and premature explosions, the average number of power strokes
in a "four-cycle"' motor will be equal to one-half of the revolutions.

—
Water- Jacket. Steam cylinders are sometimes fitted with steam-
jackets to keep up the temperature, whereas in oil motor c)'linders
cooling water-jackets are required to extract the intense heat pro-
duced by explosion, and thus keep down the temperature. The water-
jacket is a very important detail, and is indispensable. The tempera-
ture of the waste gases may be anything from looo'' to 1500" Fahr.,
which fact in itself indicates the great waste of energy which goes on,
and which is evidently unavoidable. Sometimes the valve pockets
are also water-jacketed, and occasionally the exhaust gases are
arranged to pass round the carburetter to raise the temperature and
allow of quick vaporisation of the oil inside.
274 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

—
Pressures and Temperatures. The pressure of compression just
previous to explosion varies from 50 lbs. to 70 lbs. or 80 lbs. per
square inch, and the pressure of explosion from 150 lbs. to 300 lbs.
per square inch.
The temperature of the gases at explosion is estimated as being
somewhere about 1 500' Fahr. and upwards.

Carburetter. — The carburetter is a small chamber employed to

vaporise the petrol and at the same time mix with it the proper
proportion of air. The openings are arranged to give from five to
ten parts of air to one of petrol vapour, but of course this varies
greatly with running conditions. Throttle valves are also fitted on
the carburetter to regulate both the amount of air supplied and the
amount of vapour admitted. A float and needle valve regulates the
oil supply to the mixing chamber of the carburetter.
A single carburetter is sufficient for any number of cylinders, as
by suitable pipe connections the vapour can flow into each as
required.

Valves. —
The valves are usually of the cam and poppet type, and are
opened and shut by means of a "half-time" shaft. This shaft is
connected up by gear wheels with the engine shaft so as to only give
one revolution for every two revolutions of the engine. It will be
noticed that the valves employed are similar to those of the historic
Smeaton and Watt engine, and were in use before the slide valve was
introduced. Recently, however, the " sleeve " type of valve has come
into more general use.

—
"Sleeve" Valve. The "sleeve" valve consists of two cylindrical
casings fitted round the cylinder with ports cut in each the outer
;

sleeve is actuated by a link from the connecting rod, and when the
ports coincide the gas is admitted to, or exhausted from, the cylinder.
This type of valve is particularly silent in running, and gives very
little wear.

Fly- Wheel. —A fairly heavy fly-wheel is fitted to motors of both the

two-cycle and four-cycle types, the latter requiring the heavier wheel.
The fly-wheel makes for steady running balance, and also stores up
energy, which is released when the power strokes become irregular or
intermittent. The wheel is also convenient for use in starting up by
hand.

Firing or Sparking Plug.— This appliance is screwed into the

cylinder head, and, when possible, is placed direct in the path of
the incoming charge of vapour. One wire from the contact maker,
induction coil, and battery (or from \:he magneto contact brush of
this system) passes through the centre, and
forms a point from which
 Internal Combustion Engines 575

the spark passes to the other point, which makes metalHc contact
with the body of the plug, and so to the cyhndcr, engine frame,
and battery, &c. The current, therefore, is "earthed," and after
sparking returns to the battery, &c., or magneto, by means of the
engine metal (Single Wire System).

Half Compression. — This is fitted in the larger engines for con-

venience and consists of a lip on exhaust cam extending
in starting,
half its width. The whole cam is capable of sliding on its axis when
the half-compression lever is moved. Thereby, in one extreme
position the lip lifts the exhaust valve during the compression stroke
and releases the compressed air, making it much easier to pull the
engine over the centre in the other extreme position it clears the
;

valve tappet rod, and the exhaust valve is only opened on the exhaust
stroke.

" —
Cranking." A petrol motor is started by having the engine dis-
connected from the propeller, and the handle connected to the shaft
or fly-wheel turned smartly round, with the half-compression valve
open to reduce the opposing back pressure. After a few revolutions
the spark acting at the right time catches up the running, and the
motor runs up to the ordinary revolution speed. The spark gear is
also " retarded," that is, set to fire when the piston has just passed
over the centre. The half-compression valves are, of course, shut
down once the motor takes up the speed, and the spark " advanced "
or set so as to fire just before the piston reaches the top centre.
In starting, care has to be taken in "cranking up" not to set the
motor running in the wrong direction, as this is very easily done, and
in some cases may be, to put it mildly, awkward. In one motor boat
in which the writer had an experimental run, the engine unfortunately
went off in the reverse direction, and as a counterbalance, rather than
stop (the motor being of the paraffin type and slow to heat up), the
angles of the propeller blades were simply reversed to suit the direc-
tion of rotation of the engine, and the run completed under these
conditions, which were certainly not the best.
During another run the motor stopped dead owing to wrong
adjustment of the oil or choking up of the supply pipe, and as before,
being a paraffin motor, the boat had to be allowed to drift about or the
oars emplo)'ed for about ten minutes, until the pressure heating lamp
was set away and the carburetter heated up sufficiently to allow of
the motor starting again. This little experience indicates very clearly
one of the drawbacks to paraffin, as, being what is known as a
"heavy" oil, it requires some considerable heating up before vaporisa-
tion takes place. At the same time, it should be stated that quite
recently a patent paraffin carburetter has been devised which is said
to "start from cold." Given a reliable ignition gear, the petrol motor
of the four-c\xle t)'pe is certainly the sweetest-running motor of any;
this, at least, is the writer's experience after many trials of other
3S
2^6 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

types. At the same time, it is only right to state that paraffin-type

motor launches give every possible satisfaction, being steady and cool
in running, also easily and quietly stopped and
reversed.

Ignition. In petrol motors the greatest difficulty is experienced

in obtaining a reliable ignition gear, and the most frequent cause of
stopi)age is undoubtedly that due to defective ignition. The best
method of firing is at present a matter of much discussion and
difference of opinion.
Some makers prefer the battery and "jump spark" system, others
the magneto or " make-and-break " method of producing the firing
spark.
The "jump spark" system offers the greatest complication of parts
with correspondingly increased risks of breakdown it also necessitates ;

the charging of chemical batteries, and some knowledge of electrical

" system, has fewer
science, while the magneto, on the " low tension
working parts, and being a mechanical device, driven by the shaft,
presents less danger of breakdown.

Jump —
Spark. In this ignition system the sparking points are both
fixed,and a current of high intensity being produced in the circuit, a
spark is generated between the two points referred to, and is therefore
called a "jump spark."
The ignition gear is made up of four separate and independent
parts.

1. Chemical cells or battery.

2. Induction coil or " intensifier."

3. Contact maker.
4. Firing plug.

All of the foregoing parts are, of course, liable to derangement and

breakdown, as they are affected seriously by damp and sea water.

Make-and-Break. — In make-and-break " system a small lever

the "

rests against a pin and at the required time is drawn away from the
pin, thus leaving a small gap of about yV inch. The current endeavours
to follow up the moving lever, and as before, a spark results. In both
systems, then, the explosion is produced by means of an electric spark
arranged to flash out at the correct instant, so that in the case of a
four-cycle motor running at 800 R.P.M., about 400 sparks are pro-
duced per minute in each cylinder head. This means, then, a
constant shower of sparks require to be produced when the motor is
running.

Magneto and Spark Plug Ignition.

This system of firing is the best, being, as a rule, more reliable than
the " make-and-break " or coil and battery, and lasting longer without
 No. 4.^Simms Magneto (four-cylinder type).

2, Slip Ringf. 13, Segment. 25, Collector Brush and Spring.

6, Distributer. 15, Milled Nut. 26, Distributer Brush and Springy.
7, Collector Carbon Holder. 17, Ball Bearing. 27, Central Connection.
8, Distributer Carbon Holder. 18, Dust Cap. 30, Contact Breaker Lerer.
ID, Half-Speed Wheel and Spindle, 21, Long Contact Breaker Sci 31, Contact Piece.
(I, Timing Lever. 22,
: Terminal.

NOTE.— The dimensions on the diagrj jtpresscd in millimetres, 25 of which axe about equal to i inch, therefor*
50 millimetres =2 inches (approx.).

[ To face t^ge 577-

'Verbal " Nules and Sketches.

J
 Internal Combustion Engines 577

requiring attention or repair. The magneto wiring is connected

direct to the sparking plug, and the spark passes across the platinum
points of the latter as in the coil and battery system. While the
engine is running the magneto is generating the current for the spark,
and, of course, when the engine is stopped the current ceases to flow,
no loss of current taking place. The magneto is usually driven by
gear wheels off the main shaft, and the current is taken from the
small carbon brushes of the commutator by the positive wire direct
to the plug, the return or negative being made by means of the engine
metal back to the magneto, on the "single wire" system. The
magneto spark is much stronger than that of the coil and battery
system, and produces a much more powerful explosion of gas in
the cylinder, giving greater power.

The Simms Magneto (Four-Cylinder Type).

General Description.
The armature carries two windings, viz., the low-tension winding
(formed of a comparatively small number of turns of thick wire)
and the high-tension winding (composed of a very large number of
turns of a very fine wire). This arrangement entirely dispenses with
the necessity for the ordinary high-tension coil, such as is used in
connection with accumulators, owing to the fact that both the high
and low tension windings form an integral part of the magneto itself
The low-tension circuit is interrupted by the contact breaker twice
per revolution, thus giving two sparks per revolution, and the high-
tension current is led from the carbon holders or the distributer to
ordinary high-tension sparking plugs on the engine b}' means of the
usual insulated cable.
The diagram shows the connections of the "four-cylinder" type.
One end of the low-tension armature winding is connected to the
armature core, and thus to the frame of the magneto, and the other
end is led through the hollow spindle of the armature to the contact
breaker, the fixed portion of which, 31, is insulated, and carries a
platinum pointed screw, and the bell crank lever, which carries a
second platinum pointed screw, is connected to the frame of the
magneto. Both the bell crank lever 30 and the contact piece 31,
together with the contact breaker disc, revolve solid with the armature,
and as the fibre heel of the bell crank lever comes into contact with
the segments 13 the two platinum points are caused to break, owing
to the bell crank lever rocking about its pivot. This sudden inter-
ruption of the piimary or low-tension circuit induces a current of very
high potential in the secondary or high-tension circuit, and gives a
flaming spark of great heat at the points of each of the sparking plugs
in turn. On the timing lever 1 1 is a milled nut and terminal for
making connection to the insulated terminal of a single pole switch.
One terminal of the switch should be connected to the frame of the
car. Connected to the terminal is a spring 12, which makes contact
578 '•Verbal" Notes and Sketches

with screw 21. It will thus be seen that for one position of the

switch the terminal (which represents one end of the primary winding,
the other being permanently connected to the frame of the magneto)
is joined to the frame of
is still insulated, but in the other position
the car, thus earthing both ends of the primary armature winding,
and causing the magneto to become inoperative, and consequently
stopping the engine.
The winding of the armature has one end connected
hio-h-tension
with the primary, or low-tension winding, and through this winding
to earth, the other end of the secondary, or high-tension winding,
being connected to the slip ring 2, from which the current is collected
by the carbon brush 25. In the "four-cylinder" type, as shown, the

No. 5.

current leaves the carbon holder and passes along the central con-
nection 27 to the distributer. Asafety spark gap is formed between
the hollow spindle surrounding it, the central rod passing through a
glass disc 40. The central connection is held in contact with the
central disc of the distributer by a spring. Connection is made
between the central disc and the distributer segments by a carbon
brush, which rotates with, and is insulated from, the half-speed wheel.
The safety gap is made sufficiently long to prevent the spark
passing here in preference to jumping the plug gap inside a high
compression cylinder.
To ensure satisfactory working, care must be taken that clean
contact is made between the slip ring 2 and the carbon brush, and
also between the distributer carbon 26 and the central contact piece
and segments in the distributer.
 —

Internal Combustion Engines 579

—
Setting the Magneto. The four segments of the distributer 6 are
connected to the four terminals on the front of the distributer. The
terminals are numbered i, 2, 3, 4, in the order in which they fire.
The distributer carbon holder runs in the opposite direction to that
of the armature.
When viewed from the distributer end, the distributer carbon
holder rotates clockwise in a right-hand machine, and anti-clockwise
in a left-hand machine.
1. Set the piston of No. i cylinder of the motor exactly at the

top of the firing stroke.

2. Fully retard timing lever, which is done by moving the lever
as far as possible in the same direction as the armature rotates.
3. Rotate the armature in its proper direction until the distributer
carbon rests on No i. segment, and continue rotating slowly until
the distance A
(see diagram on page 578) measures 7 millimetres, then
tighten all up.
4. Connect the magneto to the motor when both are in the above-
described positions, taking care there is no movement. It will be
found that the motor can be started more easily if the timing lever
is advanced as far as possible (usually about two-thirds) without
causing back-firing.

Motor Troubles. —Overfeeding with oil or petrol is a common

source of trouble, as this produces a mixture too heavy for the
digestion of the motor, resulting in miss-fires, premature explosions,
and slowing down or actual stoppage of the engine. The majority
of the owners of private motor launches have the fixed idea that if
the machine is not running satisfactorily it needs more fuel, with the
result above mentioned. It should also be noted that when the
charge is too hea\y some of the oil or petrol is not vaporised at
all, and remains in the cylinder to perhaps form sooty deposits which,

remaining red-hot, may afterwards produce premature explosions,

or may form a carbon bridge across the points of the sparking plug
and thus do awa}- with the spark altogether. The same remark holds
good if oil from the crank-case or " splash " lubrication system is
carried up into the cylinder head, as similar troubles may result.

—
Loss of Power in Engine. Should there be a loss of power in the
engine, the following points should be examined for the cause :

Leakage at either the exhaust or inlet valve, sparking plug, or

piston rings.
Weak accumulators.
Dirty sparking plugs (or contact breakers with low tension).
Im[)erfect contact at the contact breaker, caused b}' weak spring
at contact hammer, or imperfect connection of high-tension wire to
plug screw, due to screw being slack.
Carbonised oil on the fibre disc and contact pieces.
 — —

^So "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

Fusino- or burning of the platinum on the trembler of the

induction coil.
The formula very commonly quoted with reference to the economy
"
of internal combustion motors using gasoline is, one pint per horse-
power hour." This is better than two-cycle engmes can be depended
on to give, and small four-cycle engines will not give any such
figures except with care and under the best conditions. One pint per
horse-power hour means good conditions with the four-cycle engine of
moderate large size. Economy with an internal combustion engine
depends chiefly on the following conditions :

(i.) Correct proportion of air to petrol vapour.

(2.) Correct degree of compression.
(3.) Prompt ignition and complete combustion.

The first is combustion, or union with oxygen, and as the

step
gas not burn, it must therefore first be mixed with a suitable
itself will
amount of oxygen. This is accomplished most cheaply and con-
veniently by using air, but even then such gases, when mixed with a
suitable amount of air, will not burn readily at ordinary pressures,
and it is not until they are compressed to a high degree that com-
bustion once started will act with sufficient vigour and rapidity to
produce the action desired.

—
Leaky Pistons. It is of the utmost importance that the piston is
kept absolutely gas-tight, as should leakage occur, as will easily be
seen, the motor will not develop the full power. With a leaky piston,
compression will be less on the up-stroke, and the resultant explosion
on the down-stroke weakened in due proportion.

Colour of Exhaust Gases. —

The colour of the exhaust gases leaving
the silencer affords a fair indication of the completeness of combustion
in the cylinders, as if the colour is strong it indicates incomplete
combustion. The more colourless, therefore, the waste gases appear,
the more complete is the combustion, and only a very faint tinge of
grey colour should be visible if the motor is working satisfactorily.
If any of the lubricating oil passes into the cylinder it becomes burnt
and gives out a disagreeable smell, and also colours the waste gases ;

a similar result may be produced by overfeeding with petrol or paraffin,

as incomplete combustion of the gas may take place in the cylinder head.

Composition of Exhaust Gases. — The following analysis of the

exhaust gases of an oil engine, using Russian Petroleum, is of
interest :

/ COo = 92 per cent.

Composition of Exhaust Gases < -'P ^ 55 »

IN, &c. = 84
 "

Internal Combustion Engines 581

Reversing. — Reversing is usually effected by one of two methods.

(i.) Reversible propeller, the blades of which can be rotated to
any angle by means of suitable gear contained in the hollow boss,
and actuated by a lever and rod, the rod passing through the hollow
tail shaft. This method is very much in favour at present, although
it is not the best as regards propeller efficiency.

(2.) By a reversing clutch, which is commonly arranged to give a

direct drive from engine shaft to propeller when in the " ahead
position, but which, by means of a gear box, reverses the propeller
shaft rotation when in the " astern " position, the gear box in that
case also revolving. It should be noted that in this case the propeller
speed for astern is only about half that for ahead. When in the

No. 6.— Gaines' Reversible Type Propeller.

intermediate position, both engine and propeller shafts are dis-

connected, and the engine thus running free, and with the load off,
requires a governor to check the speed. There are many t\-pes of
patent reversing gear now in the market, all claiming, of course,
certain advantages over the others.
In cases where the engine is connected to the propeller shaft
through a reversing clutch, and where in consequence the engine may
be running without load, the throttle, in the best designs, is placed
under the control of an automatic governor of the centrifugal type,
thus placing the speed under limitation with any and all conditions.

Crank Arrangements. —
It should be noted that to obtain the same
'

power, other conditions being the same, a foitr-cylznder " four-c>'cle

motor would be necessary to give the same power per revolution as
that of a single double-acting steam-engine C}'linder.
NOTE.— When four cylinders are employed in the four-cycle system, the cranks
are generally arranged as follows, to produce two impulses per revolution —:

No. I cylinder, crank on top explosion taking place.

No. 2 cylinder, crank on bottom compression taking place.
No. 3 cylinder, crank on top admission taking place.
No. 4 cylinder, crank on bottom exhaust taking place.
 —

582 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

Starting-, —
&C. Before starting a paraffin or petroleum motor, the
lamp burner is set away to heat up the oil vapour, and the oil supply
seen to be free to flow to the carburetter from the tank. The exhaust
valves are also eased back, and the engine turned round by hand to
force out any gas left behind in the cylinders. After the vaporiser
is sufficiently heated up, the supply cock to carburetter is opened and
the engine turned quickly by hand to start. If starting prove difficult,
it might be caused b)' insufficient heating up of the vaporiser or by

dirty or defective sparking gear. The oil suppl}' should also be

examined in case the petrol is not flowing into the carburetter.
Piston speed is varied by means of the governor, which regulates the
petrol supply and sometimes the time of ignition. The fewer the
number of ignitions per minute, the slower the piston speed, and vice
versa, the speed of the vessel varying in proportion. A
petrol motor
can be started at once by merely "cranking" and adjusting the spark,
as the petrol spirit vaporises instantl}- on passing the spra}' nozzle of
the carburetter.

Speed Regulation. —The speed of the engine is varied by one of the

following methods :

(i.) Advancing or retarding the period of sparking, as advancing

the spark increases the speed, and retarding the spark decreases the
speed.
Shutting down the petrol supply to the carburetter.
(2.)
Throttling the amount of the charge passing into the c}'linder.
(3.)
(4.) Increasing the"* proportion of air to oil vapour, and thus
weakening the charge.
(5.) Easing the compression, and thus reducing the force of the
explosion.

Sometimes a combination of two of the above systems is employed,

and the governor is often arranged to both reduce the petrol supply
and retard the spark simultaneously.

Internal Combustion Engine

 Internal Combustion Engines 583

Internal Combustion Engine Troubles— conh'nued.

Symptom.
 —

^84 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

Internal Combustion Engine Troubles continued.

Symptom.
 Internal Combustion Enirines 585

Carburetter. — The carburetter needle valve should be ground in

regularly, as if not the mixture will become too rich, and in some
cases the carburetter may become flooded, resulting in loss of power
and probable stoppage of the engines.
I
Tests.

—
Spark Plugs. Screw out the plug to be tested, and lay it on the
cylinder top with the wire connected up now turn engine round by
;

hand with switch on, and if there is no fault a spark will show across
the points.

NOTE.— With the spark retarded the spark should show just as the piston
is passing the top centre, but if the spark appears when the piston is at half
stroke or thereabout, it indicates that the plugs have not been put into the right
cylinders, or that the timing of the spark is wrong. This fault shows when
starting up by back firing out of the air inlet.

Valves. —
To test the timing of the valves, open compression cock on
cylinder top, and fit in a straight copper wire, now move engine by
hand and see if the inlet valve lifts just as the piston comes to the
top, and if the exhaust valve lifts just before the piston comes to
the bottom (every second stroke for a four-c}'cle motor) ; if not, alter
the washers on ends of valve lifting rods to either increase or
decrease the clearance as required. The exhaust valves should be set
to close down just before the piston commences the down (inlet)
stroke.

Battery. — For battery testing a small pocket voltmeter is required,

and when connected up with the positive and negative terminals of
the cell, the voltage indicated should not be less than 4-2. The cells
should be recharged ever)- four or six weeks.

Diagrams from Oil Motors.

Diagrams Nos. 7 and 8 show clearl}- what goes on above and below
the piston in this type of motor, as on the down-stroke simultaneous
expansion of gas after explosion above the piston and compression of
the next charge below the piston is taking place, and on the up-stroke
simultaneous admission of oil vapour below the piston and compression
of the previous charge above the piston. Observe that line i in A
and line i in B are described at the same time, also line 2 in and A
line 2 in B at the same time. As the bottom card represents work
done on the air and oil vapour by the piston, the actual work done is
equal to the difference in area of the two diagrams, A
and B, and the
mean effective pressure is found by making this allowance.
 ;

586 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches

Diagram No. 9, taken with a light spring, shows clearly the

four operations which constitute the "Otto" cycle, so named from Dr
Otto, who first apphed this principle to gas engines, (i.) The lowest
line shows the admission of air and oil vapour at a pressure rather

TOP
CENTRE

A.L.

No. 7.
— Diagram from Cylinder of Two-Cycle Motor.

below that of the atmosphere, the indicator pencil travelling from left
to right. (2.) The line rising and going from right to left shows the
compression of the gas on the up-stroke, the pressure increasing
to about 80 lbs. per square inch or so. (3.) At, or just before, the top

TOP A.L
CENTRE
<
— t RELEASE

No. 8.— Diagram from Crank-Case of Two-Cycle Motor.

centre, the charge of air and oil vapour is fired and explosion follows,
as shown by the sudden rise of pressure to about 240 lbs. or more
the effect of the explosion is to drive the piston down, the pressure
(4.) On the
falling at the same time by expansion and loss of heat.
next up-stroke the exhaust valves open and the burnt gases are
expelled at a pressure ju.st above that of the atmosphere, which is
seen j^y the sloping line crossing that of the compression curve. After
this the C3'cle begins again and repeats itself. The arrows show the
direction of indicator pencil travel.
 —

Internal Combustion Engines 5^7

The small numbers shown in the sketch indicate the successive

stroke in the same rotation as follows :

TOP
CENTRE

No. p.— Diagram from Cylinder of Four-Cycle Motor.

I, Admission. 2, Compression. 3, Explosion and Expansion. 4, Exhaust

(i.) Down-stroke, air and

vapour admission to c\'linder.
oil

(2.) Up-stroke, air and vapour compression in cylinder.

oil

(3.) Down-stroke, air and oil vapour explosion in c}'linder.

(4.) Up-stroke, burnt gases (CO^ and X) expelled from cylinder.

No. 10.— Typical Four-Cycle Diagram.

No. 3 stroke is the only working stroke of the four, and is known
as the "impulse" stroke, so that there is only one /xrwer stroke in
ever}' four strokes, or in two revolutions. So that 800 revolutions per
minute require 400 sparks in each cylinder of the motor.
 —

588 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

Diagram No. lo shows the average pressures obtained in

ordinary petrol motors, and the dotted hnes show the effect of retard-
ing the spark or ignition, which, it should be noted, has the effect of
slowing down the engine.
The loop shown in both the foregoing diagrams, and caused by
the crossing of the admission and compression lines, represents
negative work, and must be deducted from the diagram area to
obtain the effective work done, and to measure the mean effective
pressure in calculating the I.H.P.

No. II.— Heavy Spring Diagram.

NOTE. —The scale of the diagram being small, the difference between the
admission line, atmospheric line, and esshaust line is imperceptible, as the three
lines merge more or less into one.

Mean Pressure. — As an oil engine is single acting, the mean

effective pressure is calculated from a single diagram, the method
adopted being similar to that for a steam-engine. The card is divided
into, say, ten divisions, or nine whole divisions and two half divisions,
and the pressures measured by the scale of the diagram on each line.
The ten pressures are then added together, and the result divided by
ten gives the mean effective pressure.

Indicated Horse-Power.— The I.H.P. is found by the following

formula, viz. :

AxS'xNxP _j pj p
33000
Where A = piston area in square inches.
S' = stroke in feet. •

N = number of explosion strokes per minute.

P = mean effective pressure (from card).
33000 = foot-pounds per minute per I.H.P.

Brake Horse-Power.— In high-speed engines the I.H.P. as found by

calculation cannot always be relied upon ; it is therefore more satis-
factory to state the B.H.P., or actual power transmitted to the
propeller. The friction brake required to obtain this consists of a
double rope passed once round the fly-wheel, one end being secured to
 —

Internal Combustion Knsfines 589

a balance hung overhead, and the other end supporting the

sprinj:^
requiredamount of weights to balance the spring, when the engine is
running the average number of revolutions.

fLY WHEEL

No. 12. — Friction Brake.

S, Spring Balance. W, Weights. R, Rope Radius in feet.

NOTE. —The shaft is revolving from left to right.

The B.H.P. is found as follows :

(W - S) X R X 2 X 3-1416 X Revolutions
= B.H.P.
33000

NOTE. — The difference in pounds of the weights and spring is the actual pull.

W— Pounds weight on rope.

S = Pounds shown by spring balance.
R = Radius of rope from shaft centre.
2 = Twice radius for diameter.

Types of Motors, &c.

The following descriptions of modern marine motors and motor
details are reprinted " The Motor Boat," to the
from various issues of
proprietors of which journal the author's thanks are due for permis-
sion to reproduce both text and illustrations.

The Wolseley Carburetter.

This carburetter
is of the float feed automatic type, fitted with an
auxiliary hand-controlled extra air inlet; the float chamber and float
(A) are of the usual construction, and serve the customar)- purpose of
590 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

maintaining' a constant level of the petrol, which is supplied through

the pipe (B) in the spraying nozzle (C). Surrounding this nozzle is
a choke tube (D), supported by arms (E) fixed to a disc, the section
of which may be seen in the illustration, the whole being capable of
a vertical movement against the action of the helical spring (F). The
passage of the air when the engine is running is clearly shown by the
arrows, entering through the pipe (I), which leads from the neighbour-
hood of the exhaust system in order that warm air may be obtained ;

it passes up through the choke tube, and drawing the petrol from the

nozzle (C) in the form of a spray forms the explosive mixture which

"^'-EXTFCR flIR INLET

No. 13.—Wolseley Petrol Carburetter.

issues from the top of the tube and reaches the motor through the
throttle (H) and the induction pipe. When the speed, and thus the
suction of the engine, increases, the disc attached to E is raised from
its seating, lifting with it the choke tube to the position shown by
the dotted lines, and air is allowed to travel through the ports
normally covered by it to the chamber (G) without passing over the
spraying thus automatically adjusting the proportion of vapour
jet,
and air which
is supplied to the motor. The pressure of the spring
(F) tending to keep the disc on its seating may readily be varied by
altering the position of the .screw cap v^hich may be seen in the
 Internal Combustion Engines 591

illustration, thus enabling very accurate adjustment to be made

J IS
an extra air inlet which may be moved by hand when desired.
This carburetter has proved itself to be thoroughly satisfactory in
use, the moving parts are very accessible, and, as has been mentioned
above, accurate adjustment can be made without dismantling any
part of the apparatus.

Thornycroft Type Carburetter.

It will be seen upon reference to the figure that the carbuietter
consists of a float chamber and a vaporising chamber located in very
close proximity to one another. When the float (A) sinks, the needle
valve (B) is lifted by the balance levers (C), and petrol is allowed to
enter the chamber through the inlet (D). The top of the spindle (B)
is protected by a cap (E), which may be removed and the valve (B)

No. 14.— Thornycroft Carburetter.

lifted when itdesired to flood the carburetter.

is Leaving the float
chamber by the port (F), the petrol gains access to the spray nozzle
(G) through the ducts (H and J). K
is an adjustable spindle,
enabling the spray at L to be regulated by the movement of the
screw (M), a lock nut (N) maintaining the correct position of this
screw when the adjustment has been made. Should the duct (J)
become obstructed it may be readily cleared upon removing the
screw (O), whilst the duct (H) is continued to the top of the float
chamber for the same purpose. The vaporising chamber is warmed
by a hot-water jacket (P), which is connected with the engine-cooling
system. This carburetter is of the hand-controlled t)'pe, no auto-
matic air valve of any kind being relied upon. The main air supply
39
 " " Notes and Sketches
592 Verbal

is drawn in through the pipe (Q), which has its intake in proximity
to the exhaust piping in order that warm air may be obtained, and,
passing over the jet (L), forms the explosive mixture which is carried
to the engine through the induction pipe (R). The throttle valve (S)
is of the ordinary disc type, pivoted in the induction pipe at T. The
auxiliary air supply is controlled by a revolving collar (U), having
four holes bored in it, which may be made to coincide with four holes
— three of which may be seen at W, bored in the pipe thus, byQ ;

moving the collar, the amount of air drawn in through the ports (W)
may be regulated.
The chief feature of this carburetter is its simplicity, whilst its
substantial construction should enable it to withstand a considerable
amount of roueh usage.

The Tylor 30 H.P. Motor.

(Fitted to Lifeboat.)

The engine has four c}'linders (5-inch bore by 5|^-inch stroke,

separately cast) and develops its rated power at 900 revolutions per

No. 15.—The Tylor 30 H.P. Four-Cylinder Motor Engine:

Exhaust Side View.

minute. The valve pockets are on opposite sides of the cylinders,

the inlet being to starboard and exhaust to port, and the pockets
being cast in one piece with the c)'linders. A
very neat arrangement
has been adopted for holding down the valve caps a dog, held by ;
 Internal Combustion Engines 593
two nuts,on the " swing-gate " principle, has a central set-screw (see
which keeps the cap in position, so that by slacking the
illustration),
set-screw the gate can be swung clear of the dog. The tappet guides
are extra long and screw direct into the crank-case with key-way
guides to prevent the tappets turning. It may be mentioned that a
spring is provided inside the guide to keep the tappet roller always
in contact with its cam. The length of the tappet can be adjusted by
a screw and lock nut. The cam-shafts are stepped, so that the cams
can be threaded on in order, the bearing brasses being threaded in a
similar way and secured in webs in the crank-case casting by small
set-screws ; in addition, the inlet cam-shaft carries the magneto trip
gear, of which more anon. All gear wheels are enclosed in a separate
cover at the forward end of the crank-case. The crank-case, which is
of cast iron, is divided into two portions, the lower part, however,
merely forming an oil tray all the main bearings (one between each
;

pair of cylinders) are carried by the upper portion of the case, the
bottom caps being held by nuts and studs, which are fitted with an
ingenious double locking arrangement. A sectional plan of the crank-
case shows the cam-shaft construction referred to above and also the
general arrangement of the crank-shaft, from which it will be seen
that the two middle cranks are set at 360", the order of firing of the
c}'linders being i, 3, 4, 2. This system is the one generally adopted,
and, being symmetrical on each side of the centre transverse section
of the motor, gives much better balance than would be obtained where
all cranks are set at 180° in rotation. The bottom part of the crank-
case calls for no remark, save that webs to keep the oil evenly dis-
tributed are provided between each pair of cylinders, as for lifeboat
work the engine will have to be installed at a very considerable angle.
Further reference to the sectional plan will show that all crank-shaft
and crank-pin bearings are exceptionally large, a remark which applies
equally to the small end bearings. In connection with the latter, it
should be noted that the gudgeon pin set-screws have capstan heads
and are locked in position by a steel wire passing through both. The
explosive mixture is supplied by an improved Cremorne carburetter,
this type being unaffected by the pitching of the boat. Ignition is
normally by low-tension magneto, the drive being taken from the
inlet cam-shaft and thence to the magneto. The action of the tapper
inside the cylinder is self-evident, as also is the method by which it
is worked by the vertical tappet rod. This latter is actuated by a
small cam on the inlet cam-shaft, but the tappet roller is not rigidly
attached to the tappet rod. The roller is carried by the horizontal
arm, and the bottom of the vertical tappet slides in a groove in the
end of the horizontkl rod. Referring again to the figure, if the cam-
shaft is rotated clockwise and the horizontal rod is pulled to the left,
the ignition is advanced by bringing the roller earlier into contact
with the cam, and, conversely, if the horizontal rod is pushed to the
right ignition is retarded.
As a stand-by, and in case of any difficult)- in starting, high-
 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches
594
 Internal Combustion F.nglnes 595
tension magneto with single coil and high-tension distributer is fitted.
The is mounted on the starboard bearer arm at the forward
distributer
end of the engine, and is driven by bevel gearing. It co*\sists simply
of a four-point low-tension wipe contact with a high-tension jump
spark contact to each cylinder, all rotating parts being enclosed in
an ebonite case with a watertight glass top, through which it can be
seen if the high-tension circuit is in order.
A centrifugal shaft governor acting on the throttle is mounted
inside the spar wheel of the two-to-one gear of the inlet cam-shaft
(see sectional plan) and is completely enclosed. The levers connecting
it to the throttle may be clearly seen in the illustration of the inlet
596 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

The conditions existing aboard a lifeboat at sea render it necessary

for the engine to be enclosed in a watertight case, which implies that
it must be able to run for long periods
without attention. Efficient
lubricating arrangements are, therefore, essential. A forced drip feed
is maintained to each main bearing, this also serving to keep up the

supply in the crank-case, whence all other bearings are fed by splash.
The forced lubrication is maintained by pressure from the exhaust,
as also isthe petrol feed.
One of the special features of the engine is the control gear. For

No. i8.— Clutch Gear, looking forward.

the throttle and spark control are interconnected and

simplicity,
worked simultaneously by one lever. The only other control gear
that will be fitted in the lifeboat is a reversing wheel, mounted abaft
the motor on a vertical column and actuating the reverse gear through
worm and wheel gear. Three turns of this control wheel bring the
ahead clutch out of gear ;two free turns are then allowed, after which
five turns put in the reverse, which is of the epicyclic type. A tell-
tale just beneath the handle is arranged to show the setting of the
gear at any time. The general arrangement of this gear will be
readily understood from the sectional elevation shown herewith.
 Internal Combustion Engines 597

At
the top left-hand corner of each drawing will be noticed a
which can be rotated through almost a complete revolution
shaft,
by means of the worm gear referred to above. This shaft carries
two cams, one of which (the left-hand one) takes the ahead cone
clutch in and out the right-hand cam puts in the reverse. The way
;

in which these functions are carried out will be better understood after
the reverse gear itself has been described.
The external portion of the ahead cone clutch is bolted to the
engine crank-shaft, and the internal portion of this clutch is connected,
through a universal joint, direct to the tail shaft. A spring, shown
in No. 19, keeps the clutch in engagement, and gives a direct drive

No. 19.— Section of Epicyclic Clutch.

ahead. To take out the clutch, the control wheel is given three turns,
whereby the lay shaft just mentioned is turned through about
180", the left-hand cam being thus brought into engagement
v/ith a vertical rod, which it forces downwards (Sketch No. 19). The
bottom of this rod depresses the horizontal arm of a lever, the other
arm of which is vertical and provided with a roller engaging in a
flanged collar on the sliding sleeve of the clutch. It will be readily
understood from this that depressing the lever as described pulls the
clutch out of gear against the tension of the spring.
The sun-and-planet gear for going astern is carried inside the
internal portion of the cone clutch. A central pinion is driven by
598 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches

the square portion of the euijine shaft, and this in turn drives two
planetary pinions, shown only in No. 18. These in turn drive the
planetary pinions shown in section in No. 19. These latter pinions,
it will be seen, are bolted direct to other planetary pinions, which in

turn drive the central pinion on the tail shaft, and this, as a little
consideration of the above will show, gives a reverse drive.
For these gears to come into operation it is necessary that the
gear-case should be prevented from rotating (for going ahead all the
gear wheels and their case are revolving as a solid mass), and this is
effected by an internal expanding brake, shown in section at the back
of the gear-case. The brake consists of a ring cut across a diameter,
the two halves being kept together and out of contact with the gear-
case by two springs. For going astern, these two halves are forced
apart by cams and pressed hard against the inner face of the back of
the gear-case, the latter being thus held by friction. The method by
which the cams are brought into operation is as follows :
—The lay
shaft, which, as already mentioned, is turned by the control gear, is
rotated still further by giving two more turns to the control wheel,
the clutch being still disconnected. Five more turns of the wheel
bring the right-hand cam on the control shaft into operation whereby
a vertical rod is depressed, the bottom end of the rod actuating one
arm of a lever. The other arm of this lever operates the cam inside
the brake ring and so brings the gear-case to rest.
From the above it will be seen that the gear is practically " fool
proof," since the wheel and worm control prevents the clutches being
let in too suddenly, and, moreover, the arrangement of both control
cams on the same shaft makes it impossible to put in the reversing
clutch before the ahead clutch is properly out. One other point in
connection with this gear deserves notice. No. 18 shows in section a
sleeve split diametrically this sleeve is really part of a cardan shaft
;

connecting the gear to the tail shaft By taking this sleeve in half it
can be taken clear away from the engine, leaving sufficient space for
the body of the clutch to be drawn aft and removed, if necessary, for
repairs —
an exceedingly neat arrangement, which greatly simplifies an
operation that, in many boats, would take several hours to perform.
All this gear is enclosed in the engine-case, the pillar carrying the
control wheel being the only part of the mechanism that is brought
outside.
On and just under the control wheel is the combined
this pillar
throttleand spark lever working in a horizontal plane, so that the
boat could, if necessary, be controlled by one hand only. Forward
of the control gear the engine cover is raised to accommodate the
motor itself, the roof being brought flush with the wheel, the latter
being thus protected from ropes, lashing, spars, or any other gear that
might be thrown on board while going alongside a ship in distress.
For a similar reason the starting handle is made detachable when ;

required it is pushed over a short spigot projecting through the

engine casing.
 Internal Combustion Engines 599

The Stirling 24 H.P. Four-Cylinder Motor.

The general arrangement of the motor presents no unusual

features, the cyHnders being separately cast, but each in one with its
combustion head and valve pockets, the latter being arranged
symmetrically on each side of the cylinder, inlets to port and exhausts
to starboard, all, of course, mechanically operated. The cylinders are
4j-inch bore by 5|-inch stroke, the engine developing its rated power
at 800 revolutions per minute, a speed thoroughly suitable for boats
of the type in which the motor would be installed. All valve pockets
are square, with ample water space, and each valve cap is held in
place by three studs, whereby an absolutely tight joint is obtained
without any of the risk of setting up hard always attendant upon the
use of screwed-in caps. Nickel steel is employed for the valves, and
these, together with all valve springs, tappets, and tappet guides, are
interchangeable the tappets are of the roller type and very massive,
;

and by means of a spring are always kept in contact with the cams.
Each cam-shaft is carried in three bearings, the end ones bolted to
the crank-case and the middle one carried by a web across the crank-
case, which also serves to carry the main bearing. The bush of the
centre cam-shaft bearing is made of a larger diameter than the
overall height of the cams, and is held in place by a set-screw, so
that the whole shaft can easily be withdrawn from the case by simply
slacking off this set-screw and taking away one end bearing.
The crank-case is of cast iron, the bottom half taking the three
main bearings, the upper portion serving merely to support the
cylinders and provide bearing caps, since the bearer arms are part of
the lower half and are bolted permanently to the engine bearers so ;

that the engine can be entirely dismantled without throwing it out

of line. The upper part is a square box casting with extremely
large inspection doors on each side, and is, like the bottom half, of
cast iron, but is provided with aluminium covers over the gear wheels.
There are no departures from ordinary practice in the other parts
of the engine, except in the securing of the gudgeon pin, which is
effected by a piston ring covering the lower half of the pin only (the
pin is hollow), and leaving the upper part of the hole exposed for a
reason that will be apparent when the lubrication system is dealt with.
All accessories of the engine are extremely neat and well arranged, and
among them the carburetter first calls for notice. It is of the float-
feed spray variety and is very simple and accessible. In the end of
the fuel feed pipe is a readily detachable gauze strainer, which can be
cleaned at a moment's notice. There is a single petrol jet, air enter-
ing through an annular space round it, and carburation is thoroughly
completed by a perforated inverted cone placed just over the jet the ;

extra air inlet is over the base of this cone, and air enters the mixing
chamber through the perforations, so forming a homogeneous mixture
before the throttle is passed. This latter is well shown in the plan,
and is controlled either by hand or by the action of the governor.
6oo "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

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c

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a
o

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(n

a
(d

ci
o
-M
u
0}

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M
6
 Internal Combustion Engines 6oi

Hot circulating water is passed through the carburetter jacket. It

will be noticed that there is a row of small holes round the circum-
ference of the throttle chamber ; these holes are just open to the
induction pipe when the throttle is completely closed, and thus admit
pure air to the cylinders to assist in cooling.
The governor is contained inside the spur wheel of the inlet cam-
shaft and consists of two spring-controlled balls, which fly out by
centrifugal force as the speed rises and so actuate the throttle through
intermediate bell cranks and distance rods.
On the end of the other cam-shaft is the low-tension wipe contact
communicating with four separate trembler coils, and also under
control of the governor, besides the ordinary hand advance and retard.
By this means abuse of the advance spark lever by unskilful driving
is rendered impossible, since, so soon as the engine slows up, the

ignition is always automatically retarded, though, on the other hand,

it can be retarded to any extent by hand, whatever the engine speed,

which can do no harm, but cannot be advanced too much.

Water circulation is maintained by a rotary pump mounted on
one of the cam-shafts, the water passing first to a special form of
silencer very much on the principle of a water-tube boiler and then
to the jackets, whereby the very common fault of marine engines of
keeping the cylinders too cold is avoided the water outlet is from
;

the top of the cylinders, but the pipes are kept as low as possible to
avoid any needless top hamper. Large jacket covers are provided
on the tops of the jackets and also on each side, making cleaning a
very simple matter. A similar type of pump, intended as a bilge
pump, is mounted on a swivel table for driving off the propeller shaft
when required, but able to be readily swung out of engagement when
not in use.
The lubrication system is very complete. A lubricating box is
situated right forward at the highest point of the engine and supplies
oil through separate pipes to each main bearing and each piston and
small end bearing, only the big ends being dependent on splash. The
arrangement of the bottom piston ring has already been described,
and this ring acts as an oil scoop on the up-stroke, taking oil from the
piston walls and allowing it to drain into the hollow gudgeon pin,
whence it reaches the small end bearing. The lubricating box is
sight fed from a c\'lindrical oil tank, with glass ends, through which
the amount of oil available can be instantly seen.
The reverse gear is of the differential type, and encased in a hollow
cast-iron drum. The whole rotates as one when going ahead by
means of a wedge and internal expanding brake when the lever is
in the forward position. For the reverse, the action of throwing the
lever back releases the internal brake and applies an external band
brake, which, gripping the cast-iron drum, allows the differential to
act, and consequently rotates the propeller shaft in the opposite
direction to that of the engine. A neutral or free clutch position is
obtained by putting the lever in the middle switch both brakes are
;
 '

6o2 Verbal " Notes and Sketches

t-4

O
V
CO
u
<u
>

ho
C

o
u
in

^*—
 Internal Combustion Engines 60 J

then free, and the propeller shaft being stationary, by reason of its
resistance, the reversing gear rotates at half the speed of the engine.
This gear is mounted on the same frame as the engine, together
with the control levers, which are arranged very simply and as much
like an ordinary steam-engine as possible.

18 H.P. Brooke Motor.

The 45 H.P. four-cylinder engine has all cylinders separately cast,
and in one piece with their combustion heads, the bore being 5i inches
and the stroke 6 inches, with a normal running speed of 900 revolu-
tions per minute. Water-jacketing of the valve pockets has been
very well carried out, as may be seen from the cross section, and they
are provided with extra large screw-in valve caps to simplify the
operation of removing the valve stem guides should this be necessary.
Except that the ends of the valve springs are hooked through the
valve stems instead of the more complicated collar and cotter arrange-
ment, there are no special points in the valve and tappet gear, the
tappets being of the ordinary roller type.
Both cam-shafts are carried by ordinary end bearings bolted to
the ends of the crank-case, and by split intermediate bearings sup-
ported by the cross-webs and held in position by set-screws. For
lightness the crank-shaft is hollow, as also are the crank-pins, one
end of the shaft carrying the pinion of the two-to-one gear, the pinion
and both spur wheels being of phosphor-bronze, as the firm find that
quieter running is possible than with steel, while the bad wearing
qualities of fibre wheels are avoided. On the other end of the crank-
shaft is the combined fly-wheel and clutch, which is of a special type,
very ingeniously arranged, so that the thrust due to the clutch is
entirely self-contained.
The entering member of the clutch is free to slide on the squared
end of the tail shaft, and is normally kept in engagement by a spiral
spring bearing at its after end on a collar of the tail shaft. The
extreme forward end of the tail shaft is enlarged to form a flange (or
there may be a disc bolted to the end face of the shaft), and this
flange is inside a flanged ring bolted to the after face of the engine
fly-wheel. Between these two flanges is a row of ball bearings, and
from the illustration it will be evident that these balls take the whole
thrust due to the clutch spring, which is tending to pull the tail shaft
aft, and also tending, with an equal force, to push the entering member
of the clutch forward. This thrust is transmitted to the other clutch
member, and then falls on the ball bearing between the two flanges
already described, so that the two stresses exactly neutralise each
other.
Returning to the crank-shaft. There is a main bearing between
each pair of cylinders, and these bearings, together with the big end
and cam-shaft bearings, are white metal lined, it being considered
that a really badly-heated bearing causes less damage by running out
6o4 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches
 Internal Combustion Engines 605

the metal and starting a knock that makes it instantly necessary to

stop the engine, than would be done by the constant scoring that is
liable to occur with phosphor bronze, which will continue to run until
it seizes up. With a view to reducing vibration as far as possible, the
pistons are made very light, with thin strengthening webs they each
;

have only two grooves for piston rings, but there are two rings in each
groove, the idea being, of course, that gas getting through the slot in
one ring does not have an annular space (caused by the comparatively
loose fit of the piston in the cylinder) by which to reach the slot in
6o6 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

forward end of the crank-case from a sight-feed lubricator. There

is no separate feed to the pistons, as Messrs Brooke & Co. consider
that this system leads to sooting-up of the cylinder and a dirty
exhaust the piston truck, however, gets a good dose of oil at the
;

bottom of the stroke, since it projects a little below the cylinder, and
there is a point on the bottom of the internal web of the pistons
which catches oil and allows it to drip in a little pocket on the top
of the connecting rod to feed the gudgeon-pin bearing.
Little need be said about the Brooke carburetter, as it was recently
described in this journal, but it may be repeated that the throttle
governor attached to the carburetter is one of the special features

No. 24.-18 H.P. Brooke Engine.

with which the Brooke engine is fitted. As regards ignition, there

is a tendency to abandon the low-tension magneto, which was at
one time much favoured by this firm, in favour of the latest Simms
high-tension pattern, which gives an extremely hot spark of very
high frequency, and is not therefore nearly so much affected by wet
as the ordinary high-tension electric circuit. Another point in favour
of this magneto is that starting is as easy as with coil and battery, so
low is the speed at which a spark is obtained.
The Meissner reversible propeller is supplied with a considerable
number of Brooke engines, but to those who prefer reversing gear a
very neat type has been evolved from the Adrian works. It is of the
sliding gear type, giving a direct drive ahead through a dog clutch
 internal Combustion Eno^ines 607

no wheels being in motion except those which are out of mesh. On

the reverse the drive is, of course, through two countershafts. The
gear is very compact and efficient, in addition to which it can be

No. 25.— Brooke Reverse Gear.

got very close to the bottom of the boat, is perfectl\- silent goint
ahead, and far quieter astern than is usually the case.

Hesse and Savory Reverse Gear.

The Hesse and Savory combined clutch and reverse gear is a
very neatly-designed piece of mechanism, an elevation and sectional
half-plan of which appear herewith. A dish-shaped member is bolted
to the after face of the engine fly-wheel, the inner face of the flange
of the dish forming the female portion of a cone clutch, of which the
male member is keyed direct to the tail shaft, giving a direct drive
ahead when engaged, the thrust of the propeller sufficing to keep
40
Oo8 "Verbal" Notes and Sketcnes

the clutch in engagement. The reversing gear is of the ordinary

differential type, but differs from the usual practice in that the bevcl
wheels and case do not revolve bodily when the boat is going ahead.
The large bevel wheels are free to revolve on the tail shaft, the forward
one being mounted on the back of the female member of a clutch,
which, for going astern, engages with the outer face of the flange of
the member attached to the fly-wheel. The after bevel wheel has

Elevation.

Sectional Half-Plan.

No. 26.— Hesse and Savory Reverse Gear.

one member of a dog clutch on its back face, the other member of the
clutch being keyed to the tail shaft. For going astern the bevel
wheels are brought bodily aft, so that this dog clutch is let in at the
same time as the last-mentioned cone clutch engages. The drive
from the cone clutch to the dog clutch is, of course, transmitted by
the bevel pinions, which are carried by the case of the gear; this
ca.se, as already mentioned, being mounted on the engine bearers,
 ;

Internal Combustion Engines 609

cannot revolve. This gear, the makers claim, is strong and efficient
it certainly has few parts to get out of order, and possesses the
additional merit of cheapness. It will be noticed that the complete
control is effected by one lever, the only function of which is to bring
the clutches in and out of engagement, and which requires little or no
skill to manipulate ; indeed, the gear possesses all the handiness of
a reversible propeller without any of its disadvantages. A remarkable
feature is the entire absence of springs of any kind.

Fairbanks' Reverse Gear.

This reversing gear is of the ordinary differential type, the ahead

drive being direct through a cone clutch, which carries the bevel
wheels round as a solid body, while for going astern, the reversing

o o
No. 27.— Fairbanks' Reverse Gear

leveris simply pulled aft, taking the ahead clutch out of gear and

engaging another cone clutch on the gear-case with a stationary

member, thus holding the star pinions of the gear in a fixed position
and giving a drive astern.

OIL FUEL.
This method of firinghas recently come very much to the front,
particularly in naval practice, and a brief description of the system
will not be out of place. The chief drawbacks to the use of oil fuel at
present are those of suppl\' and of cost oil supply ports being few in
;
6io "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

number, although time this matter will be remedied. The cost is

in
also but this will also be adjusted to meet the
a 'consideration,
requirements of the demand. It may safely be stated that as fuel,
oil has a great future before it in marine
practice.

Advantages of Oil Fuel over Coal.

1. Less bunker space required (about 36
cubic feet against 44 cubic
feet per ton).
2. Greater heat per pound (20,000 B.T.U. for oil agamst 14,500
B.T.U. for coal).
3. Cleanliness both in working and bunkering.
4. Reduced stoke-hole staff.
5. Greater control of
fires.

6. More complete combustion obtained.

Disadvantages.
1. Difficulty of obtaining oil supplies,
2. Cost.
3. Danger from inflammable vapour caused by leakage into
bilges, &c.
4. Danger of oil leaking into steam side of heater and finally
entering boilers.

Oil and Coal Compared.

-.. , Heat units

Puel. 1
,

1
per pound.
J
 —

Internal Combustion Engines 6ii

7. Facility of controlling proportions of the air and fuel, thus

ensuring good combustion. There is no opening or shutting of
furnace doors of varying thicknesses as is the case with coal.
8. Elimination of cinders and of smoke, except at full power.

9. The reduction of fire room, there being no space required to

permit working of the fires.
10. As there is still a much better distribution of coal among the
seaports of the world than oil, this is said to be one of the principal
disadvantages of oil.

Composition of Oil. — The average composition, &c., of the oils used

as fuel are as follows :

Class.
 6l2 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

cone is boxed in by division plates so that the air supply is localised

to the corresponding burner.

No. 28.—" Kermode " Type Oil Burner.

The Admiralty type burner is similar in principle to the above, but is of much
improved design, giving higher efficiency.

A, Oil feed to burner. E, Cap nut.

B, Nozzle. F, Graduated wheel.
C, Regulating spindle. G, Pointer.
D, Burner body. H, Grooves in nozzle end.

Shale Oil.— With Scotch shale oil a heating temperature of about

125 Fahr. generally sufficient.
is
Specific gravity of CO
= -96.
 No. 29.— Oil Fuel System.
1, Fuel pumps. 5, Cold filter or strainer. 9, Oil fuel to burner. 13, Air doors,
2, Suction from supply tanks. 6, Heater. 10, Oil burner. 14, Steam to heater.
3, Air vessel. 7, Hot filter or strainer. 11, Air-tight box. Drain from heater to feed tank.
15,
4, Discharge from pump to cold filter, S» Distribution chest or header. 12, Air cone 26, Thennometer for oil temperature

The above is the system in use in the Navy.

\_To ja^e po£e t\l
"Verbal" Notes and Sketches.
 Internal Combustion Engines 6i o

Working —
The oil fuel is pumped from the supply tanks
Oil Fuel.
by the pumps, and forced through a cold filter, then through a
oil
steam heater where the temperature is raised, next through a second
or hot filter, and from there to the distribution header on the boiler
front, from which valves and pipes connect to the several burners fitted.
In Yarrow type boilers from eight to eleven burners are supplied,
but of course all of these may not be required except when steaming
under full power conditions. The pressure of the oil is about
loo lbs., and the temperature 200 with "shale" or "Texas" oil as
,

fuel.

—
Control. The regulation of the fires is controlled by the needle
valve of the burner, which can be altered to increase or decrease the
angle of discharge, and therefore the output or consumption ;one
small wheel on the burner constituting the entire control gear. The
combustion of the oil is therefore regulated by the oil needle valve
and the air supply doors.
The oil fuel is pulverised by being forced, under pressure, through
the restricted opening of the burner end, which, by means of the
grooves, imparts a rotary motion to the jet, the latter being dis-
tributed in a cone-like spray or cloud of pulverised oil particles.
In the Navy the closed stoke-hole forced draught system is
employed, which means a constant and steady air pressure on the
oil fuel. ,

—
Starting Up. In starting up the fires, a hand pressure pump is
employed, which forces a small quantity of oil through a (J -shaped
and flexible tube which is placed inside the air cone and, having
;

previously set fire to a quantity of oily waste, the heat so produced

raises the temperature of the oil flowing through the U tube on its
way to the starting burner. After the starting burner has been the
means of raising sufficient steam to set away the oil pumps, the
starting device described is withdrawn, and the other burners are
set away. About three hours is allowed to get up steam in water
tube boilers.

Leakage —
Test. Before the fires are started a leakage test of the oil
system generally made by raising a pressure of 50 lbs. or more with
is
the hand pump, and examining for leaks at the tanks, pipes, joints,
bilges, &c.

—
Colour of Gases. The colour of the gases in the combustion
chamber space indicates the efficiency of the combustion taking place
inside, and the pressure and temperature of the oil, in addition to the
output required, is regulated accordingly. A very small tail of smoke
at the funnel top indicates thatcombustion is practically complete.
The colour of the gases can be observed by means of sighting holes
in the boiler casings.
6i4 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

—
Flash Point and Firing Point. It should be noticed that the
spray of atomised oil at a flash point of 200° is below the " firing
point," but on striking the cone ring, the temperature of which
exceeds the flash point, ignition instantaneously takes place.

Firing" Point. —
The firing point of oil is above the flash point, and
means that the oil itself (instead of the vapour) ignites.

—
Flash Point. By this is meant the temperature at which the
vapour formed from heated oil flashes into flame when brought in
contact with a light. The flash point varies from. 70° in light petrol
spirit to about 240" in heavy burning oils. The Board of Trade
require a flash point of not less than 185" Fahr,

Sand. — As a safeguard against boxes of sand are placed ready

fire,

for use in the stoke-holes, as the sand thrown on oil flame quickly
extinguishes the same.

Black Smoke. — This is caused by the temperature or pressure of

the oil fuel being too low for complete combustion.

White Smoke. — This may be caused by excessive air suppl}' or by

faulty oil feed through the burner.

—
Ventilation Pipes. To allow for the escape of oil vapour " swan-
neck " pipes should be led from the top of the oil tanks to the deck, the
ends of the pipes being open, but covered with gauze wire to reduce
risk of explosion by a naked light. When the tanks are empty,
however, the vapour formed by slow evaporation is much heavier
than the atmosphere, and will therefore occupy the lowest positions in
the tanks, and the gases thus formed are best removed by means of
exhausting fans.

Air Vessel. —To maintain a steady oil pressure in the sprayers an

air vessel is fitted on the discharge side of the oil supply pump.

—
Settling Tanks. Sometimes these tanks are fitted with a steam
coil to heat up the oil, the effect of which is to separate more quickly
the water the heating up causing a greater difference in the respective
;

densities of the two liquids. The heating is done by exhaust steam

of low pressure and temperature, so that there will be no danger of
the oil vaporising. A gauge glass is fitted on the tanks, and the
water shown can be drained off by suitable drain pipes.
A temperature of 180° is required to produce separation of the
water from the oil in the settling tanks.

Air Cone.— The air cone (Sketch No. 29) is fitted with small air
openings round the shell, these being formed by three-sided cyts, the
 No 30— Sulzer Marine Diesel Engine, 200 I. HP.
(Speed IO-6 knots.
Revolutions per minute
300.
^.m iVUU \
^ I.H.P.
i.n.r.
174.
Fuel per I.H.P. per h
hour
I •40 of a pound.
y Cost of fuel per mile 15 pence.

LTo /(ut fage 615.

'Verbal " Notes and .Sketches.
 Internal Combustion Engines 615

fourth side being bent outwards to form the air opening. This
arrangement gives a centrifugal motion to the entering air and to the
oil spray, which effect chiefly accounts for the efficiency of this
system.

—
Evaporation of Oil. i lb. of oil fuel evaporates about 15 lbs. of
water into steam (from and at a temperature of 212°).

Water in Oil.— In burning oil fuel, water shows by the oil forming a
brown coloured foam near the burner nozzle. Sputtering also occurs
at the burner, and if the water present is excessive, the burner flame
may go out altogether.

White Vapour. — In burning oil fuel white vapour at the funnel top
indicates that the oil vapour is passing off unconsumed owing to
excessive air supply, which lowers the temperature of combustion,
with the result stated.

Diesel Oil Engine.

Regarding the development and application of the Reversing
Internal Combustion Engine on a large scale, it is the opinion of
most experts that a great future exists for this type of engine, and
it would appear that this future is by no means far distant, since all

the more important yards are preparing to supply Diesel Marine

Engines, and, in many instances, the construction has already
been begun.
It was apparent, however, that not being direct reversing, its
application to large steamers was impossible, inasmuch as the
systems employed for reversing the screw by means of revolving
blades or reversing the propeller shaft by special gear, could never
offer the same amount of safety in a large ship, and for this reason
underwriters considered it a greater risk than the steam marine
engine. These difficulties were overcome, however, in the year 1906
by the invention and introduction by Messrs Sulzer Brothers of
VVinterthur and Ludwigshafen-on-the-Rhine of the direct reversing
engine which transformed the Diesel engine into an actual marine
engine suitable for the very largest vessels in which the shafts remain
coupled direct to the engine, as is invariably necessary in large boats.
After an experience extending over three years with marine engines
of the above mentioned firm, which had been supplied for a number
of boats still in service, and in view of the fact that substantial
improvements have been introduced into the details of construction,
the advantages possessed by this engine are now easy to prove.
Compared with a boat driven by steam, a saving of about one-third
in the length of engine-room is effected, while the weight of the entire
plant is about one-fourth that of a steam-engine plant of equal power,
so that considerably more cargo can be carried with a corresponding
 —

6i6- "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

increase in freight receipts. A

further increase in freights is obt€.ined
by the reduced weight of liquid fuel as compared with coal. This
amounts to 20-25 per cent, less than would be required for the
coal of a steam-engine of similar power. There is a further saving
in working expenses, as no stoker is required, no repairs to boiler
are ever necessary and fewer hands are required to attend to the
machinery.
In the Diesel engine all physical processes for converting the
fuel into energy take place inside the working cylinder. Combustion
of the liquid fuel, which is introduced by means of compressed air,
takes place automatically in the hot air obtained by compression in
the working cylinder. The combustion is gradual, there is no increase
of pressure and, consequently, no explosions. The motor is started
by means of compressed air, which is stored at a pressure of about
800 lbs., and the supply is sufficient for twenty starts without
replenishing. Compressed air is admitted to the cylinders by simply
turning a wheel, a further turn puts the starting valve out of gear, and
operates the fuel valve, and the engine then begins to work upon the
introduction of the fuel. In the same way the engine is brought to a
standstill, restarted, and reversed. These engines require much less
attention than a steam-engine, the supply of liquid fuel to the
cylinders is automatic, and, therefore, one engineer is sufficient to
look after the engine. One great advantage in favour of the Diesel
motor as a marine engine and deserving of special mention is the fact
that it is always ready for use, and being on the two-stroke pgnciple,
only the starting and fuel valves on each cylinder require reversing.

The following descriptions of the action of the Diesel type

marine engine are taken from a paper by J. T. Milton, Esq. (Vice-
President), read before the Institution of Naval Architects, 6th
April 191 1 :

" It may be well to state here what

is claimed for the Diesel
engine in the way of consumption.
In an ordinary steam-engine
the power is generally reckoned as indicated horse-power. This is
the work performed by the steam on the piston, and is the gross
power obtained. It has to overcome the friction of the mechanism,
work the slide-valves and the pumps, and only about 85 per cent, in
round numbers is transmitted to the shaft.
" In the Diesel engine the indicated horse-power has similarly to
overcome the friction of the mechanism, it has to work the fuel-pump,
the mechanism for actuating the valves, and to supply the com-
pressed air necessary for injecting the fuel. In the two-stroke cycle
also it has to work the scavenging pump. These take up more of
the gross power than do the accessories in a steam-engine, and hence
a less proportion of the gross, or indicated power, is transmitted to
the shaft than in a steam-engine. For this reason the power of a
Diesel engine is more usually expressed as its brake horse-power—
that is, the power usefully exerted outside itself.
 —'

Internal Combustion Engines 617

" It is usually claimed that the oil consumption per brake horse-

power per hour is 04 lb. when the engine is working at full power,
and when working at somewhat lower powers the rate of consumption
is not much increased.
" If one assumes that in a modern steam-engine the consumption
of coal is 1-25 lbs. per indicated horse-power per hour this corresponds
to about 1-47 lbs. per brake horse-power, so that the weight of fuel to
be carried for the same voyage in a vessel fitted with Diesel engines
would be only 28 per cent, of that of the coal necessary with ordinary
steam-engines.
"We will now turn to the engine itself. Its principle of working
is generally known. It is made in three forms for marine purposes
viz., as a four-stroke cycle single-acting engine, a two-stroke cycle
single-acting engine, and a two-stroke cycle double-acting engine.
An essential feature of these engines is that they require, besides
their own cylinders and pistons, an auxiliary air-compressor capable
of producing a pressure of about 700 lbs. per square inch.
"In the four-stroke cycle-engine the cylinder-cover contains a
fuel-valve, a compressed-air admission-valve, one or more ordinary
air-admission valves, and one or more exhaust-valves. All these
— —
valves are actuated that is, opened by means of cams fixed to a
cam-shaft, and are kept closed by powerful springs when the cams
are out of action. The cam-shaft is driven by a two-to-one gear
that is, it makes only one revolution for two revolutions of the engine
crank-shaft. Broadly speaking, the cams are so arranged that the
air-admission valves are open during one whole down-stroke, and the
exhaust-valves during one whole up-stroke, but actually a little lead
'

is necessary. The cams for the fuel-valve and the compressed-air

valve are so arranged that only one of these can be in operation at
a time, so that when either is in use the other is entirely inoperative.
In ordinary running, the fuel-valve is opened at the proper time when
the piston is at the top of its travel, and is closed again when about
one-tenth of the downward stroke has been made. The compressed-
air valve is only used for starting purposes, and it is kept open for
— —
a longer period say, for half or even more of the stroke its range
of opening being made to depend upon the number of cylinders used,
so that when these valves are in gear there is no position of the
engine in which there is not at least one of them open.
" In starting the engines these valves are put into gear, and the
fuel-valves are consequently put out of action. When the engine has
made one or more complete cycles, the compressed-air valves are put
out of gear, the fuel-valves commence their work, and the engine then
continues its motion, working under fuel conditions.
'
' As the air-
admission valve-gear is in full operation during the starting opera-
tions, the full compression would have to be overcome in each cylinder
in turn, if it were not for a special arrangement made to relieve part
of the pressure in order to facilitate starting. This is put out of
action when the fuel admission is put into gear.
 — —

6t8 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

" Commencing with a piston at the top of the cylinder, the four-
stroke cycle is as follows :

" First Down-Stroke. —

The ordinary air-admission valve is opened
during the whole stroke, and the cylinder becomes filled with atmo-
spheric air at the ordinary atmospheric pressure.
" Second Stroke. —
The air-valve is closed, and the piston returns
to the top of the cylinder, compressing the air which has been drawn
in during the previous stroke. The clearance is so proportioned that
in ordinary working at full speed the pressure becomes about 500 lbs.
per square inch, and the temperature is, at the same time, very much
raised. The compression is not quite adiabatic, as the cold cylinder
walls must abstract a little of the heat from the air. If it were truly
adiabatic the temperature of the air would be raised from, say, 60"
Fahr. to 1000° Fahr.
" During this stroke a quantity of fuel has been pumped by the

fuel-pump into an annular space round the fuel-valve. When the

piston is at the top of the stroke,, the fuel-valve is raised, and, at the
same time, cold air from the air-compressor reservoir at a pressure of
700 lbs. per square inch blows the fuel into the cylinder, which con-
tains hot air, at a pressure of 500 lbs. per square inch. The construc-
tion of the fuel-valve is such that the oil is pulverised or atomised
that is, it is divided up into a spray of very fine particles. These,
upon coming into the very hot air in the cylinder, ignite, and the heat
produced by the combustion increases the volume or the pressure of
the air. When the adjustment of the valve is correct, the admission
of the fuel and the combustion proceed at such a rate that they are
almost completed during the time taken for the piston to travel one-
tenth of its stroke, and during this period the pressure of 500 lbs. per
square inch is maintained.
" TJiird Stroke. —
The third stroke of the cycle commences with
the combustion of the fuel as mentioned above, after which, during
the remainder of the stroke, the hot gases in the cylinder expand
until the end of the stroke is reached.
" Fourth Stroke. —
The return of the piston constitutes the fourth
stroke, and during this time the exhaust-valves are open, and the
burnt gases are expelled from the cylinder. After this the cycle
commences afresh.
"
In the two-stroke cycle single-acting engine, the cylinder covers
are similarly fitted with fuel valves and compressed-air valves for
starting purposes, but the ordinary air-inlet valves and exhaust valves
are replaced by scavenge air-valves. All these valves are actuated by
cams the cam-shaft, however, in these engines rotates at the same
;

speed as the main engine shaft.

" The pistons are made somewhat deeper than the total length of
stroke. At the lower end of the part of the cylinder barrel uncovered
by the movement of the piston, there are numerous ports leading into
the exhaust passage. These ports have a vertical dimension of about
one-seventh of the stroke.
 f^Qrcle.
Intake. C

i
(em.q

' Verbal " Notes an<

 WORKING DIAGRAMS OF SINGLE-ACTING DIESEL ENGINES.
FOUR-STKOHE CYCLE. TWO-STROKE CYCLE.
Z'^fyde. S'^Q.'df. 4'^Qfcle. I^CycU. 2r^Qf!Jbe.
JntaJoe. CompressioTv. Wcrkin<i Stroke. Exhaust.

ihdicator diagrams of sihgle-actinb

diesel engines.
{taken from original diagrams.)

SO-

' Verbal " Notes and Sketches..

 —

Internal Combustion Engines 619

" The two-stroke cycle is as follows
:

" —
First Stroke. When the piston is at the bottom of the stroke
the cylinder is full of pure air at atmospheric pressure, which air has
just been admitted through the scavenge-valve. During the up-stroke
the air is compressed up to 500 lbs. pressure per square inch, precisely
as in the compression stroke of the four-stroke cycle engine.
" Second Stroke.— The second stroke commences at the top centre
by the admission of fuel sprayed in by compressed air precisely as in
the previously described engine, and the stroke proceeds in exactly
the same way until the piston has travelled about six-sevenths of the
stroke. At this point it commences to uncover the exhaust ports
through the cylinder sides. So much of the hot gases escape through
these ports as to reduce the pressure in the cylinder to about tl"iat of
the atmosphere. The scavenge-valves are then opened, and fresh air
under pressure is admitted into the cylinder, blowing out the re-
mainder of the burnt gases into the exhaust passages. With these
gases some of the scavenge air also passes into the exhaust. By the
time the piston has reached the bottom of its stroke the scavenge-
valves are closed, but the cylinder is left full of clean air ready for the
compression stroke to commence.
"There are different arrangements made by different makers for
supplying the scavenge air. In some designs each main cylinder has
its own air-compressing arrangement and receiver. In other designs
sometimes one, and sometimes two, air-pumps are provided, sometimes
worked by cranks from the crank-shaft, and in some cases by levers
similar to the method of working air-pumps in ordinary marine
steam-engines.
"There are also different methods of applying the scavenge-air,
one allowing it to enter through special valves in the cylinder cover,
another by admitting it at one side of the bottom of the cylinder
through ports uncovered by the piston in the same way as the exhaust
ports are uncovered. In this latter case the scavenge ports are on one
side and the exhaust ports on the other.
"The volume of the scavenge air-pumps is considerably greater
than that of the cylinders, the proportion being in general not less
than 1-8. This is necessary to ensure that all the burnt gases will be
swept out of the cylinder. As the full quantity of air dealt with by
the pump must pass from the reservoir into the cylinders every revolu-
tion, the pressure to which the air in the reservoir attains depends
upon the scavenge-valve openings. When these are large a less
pressure is required to force the air through them than when they are
small. Hence the larger the openings of these valves the less load
there is thrown on the scavenge air-pump.
" In some designs the scavenge air-pressure is as much as 7 lbs. to

8 lbs. per square inch, in others it is as low as 3 lbs. to 4 lbs. above

the atmosphere.
"In the preceding engines the pistons are of the trunk form. In
the double-acting two-stroke cycle engine they are necessarily made
 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches
620

of box form, and are fitted with piston-rods, which, as they pass
through the burning gases at the lower side of piston, have to be
specially cooled. The pistons also, in general, have to be cooled by
either oil or water circulation.
" Water is the best cooling medium, as its specific heat is about

three or four times that of oil, but some prefer oil, as any leakage from
the water circulation washes off the lubrication of any of the rubbing
parts which it touches.
" The admission, fuel, &c., valves, are designed for both the top

and bottom of the cylinder. The exhaust ports are in the middle of
the length of the cylinders, and the pistons, as in the single-acting
engines, uncover the ports at nearly the end of the stroke.
" In small engines of the single-acting type the pistons are not

water or oil cooled, as it is found they may be kept at a sufficiently

low temperature by their contact with the cylinder sides, which are
water-cooled, A heated piston is not so objectionable as it is in an
ordinary gas or oil engine with timed ignition, because, in the Diesel
engine, pre-ignition cannot occur. The main objections are that, with
a large piston, overheating of the crown may be the cause of structural
weakness, and that the expansion of the metal by its high temperature
renders it necessary to make the piston crown initially smaller than
the cylinder bore. This has to be arranged in all engines, and the
exact amount of allowance is one of those points in which experience
is the only guide. It may be said here that this is a matter of extreme
importance in those engines in which there are no piston-rods. This
will be again referred to further on.
" Experiments are being made in the case of an engine with a large

diameter of cylinder, to ascertain whether it is practicable to run it

without special piston cooling.
" In all the types of engines highly-compressed air is needed for

starting purposes, and also for the fuel injection. This has to be
supplied by an air-compressing plant worked by the main engine.
The compression is sometimes performed in two stages, although a
three-stage arrangement is generally used. The compressed air is
cooled at each stage. The volume of the compressor is such as to
provide a small surplus each revolution over that required for the fuel
admission in continuous working. This surplus is stored in a reservoir
constructed usually as a battery of seamless steel bottles. These are
tested by hydraulic pressure to 120 atmospheres. A safety valve is
provided loaded to 60 atmospheres. The compression of the air is
attended by the deposition of moisture from it, so that means of drain-
ing the steel bottles should be provided.
" Naturally there are
advantages and disadvantages with each
type of engine, and a judicious consideration of these should determine
which is the more suitable type to use in any particular case. The
two-stroke double-acting engine m ill be higher than a single-acting
one with the same diameters of cylinders and stroke, but the power
will be obtained with a less number of cylinders. On the other hand,
 Internal Combustion Engines 621

there is considerably more complexity in the vahe arrangements, and

a probabilit)' of difficulty with piston-rod stuffing-boxes, to say nothing
of the trouble of cooling the pistons and rods by water or oil circula
tion. There is also likely to be considerable difficulty, owing to wan^
of access for overhauling. It should be stated that no experience has
been had, as )'et, M'ith large engines of this type.
" Comparing single-acting engines of the two-stroke and four

stroke types, the former require only half the num.ber of cylinders

No. 31.— Air Inlet Valve and Exhaust Valve.

(Fuel Valve in Centre.)

which are requisite in the latter, either to produce the same power or
the same degree of uniformity of turning moment. The four-stroke
therefore means a longer engine, and necessarily a heavier one also.
The valve-gear of the two-stroke engine, being actuated b)- a shaft with
the same rotational speed as the crank-shaft, is simpler than that in a
four-stroke engine, and the reversing arrangements are much less
complicated. The two-stroke, however, requires the addition of the
scavenge arrangements which are absent from the four-stroke, and
622 Verbal" Notes and Sketches

the necessity for supplying the energy for working these makes the
mechanical efficiency less. On the question of efficiency, however, it
may be urged that the four-stroke engine has to overcome the friction
of the piston, &c., for what may be called two idle strokes out of every
four, and this must, to some extent, counterbalance the energy neces-
sary to work the scavenging pumps. In the four-stroke engine all the
hot used gases have to escape past the exhaust-valves, which thus may

No. 32.— Exhaust Valve, Lever, and Cam.

become abnormally heated. On the other hand, in the two-stroke

engine they have to pass the bars between the exhaust-ports, and it is
thought by some that although these parts of the cylinder are water-
jacketed, they must become over-heated and lose their accuracy of
surface, and it must be remembered that all the piston-rings have to
pass these bars every stroke. Extended experience will be required
to settle all these points. It may be mentioned that an engine is
 Internal Combustion Engines 62

being made on the four-stroke system in which the major pf)rtion of

the exhaust passes out of the cylinder throu<Th ports precisely
as in the case of the two-stroke engine, leaving onl)' a part of the
burnt gases to be pushed out of the c)linder through the ordinary
exhaust-valves.

Starting Handle

No. 33.— Fuel Inlet Valve, Lever, and Cam.

Fuel —
Valve. The oil from the fuel pump enters through the
pipe A, the amount being regulated by the pump governor to suit
the engine load. The oil flows down the cylindrical space B, and
enters the receiver C through the small opening Dnear the bottom,
and just abo\e the spray nozzle. The sprayer consists of four metal
rings F, each containing over twenty small holes, which are arranged
41
624 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

in " staggeredform, the holes being about yV inch diameter.

"

Below the is a conical shaped

rings fitting supplied with narrow
channels (about j\ inch deep), which form a series of nozzles through
which the oil travels after passing the holes in the rings. The oil
then enters the cylinder head by the expanding shaped opening
below the needle vah^e. The annular space C is in direct com-
munication with the air-blast pressure, so that whenever the needle

mw////A

No. 34.— Fuel Inlet Valve and Pulveriser.

valve lifts, the air pressure forces the oil accumulated in the space
C
into the cylinder in the form of a spray. Ignition by the hot air
follows, and the resultant expansion of the gases generate force
down the piston, and constitute the working or power stroke of
the cycle.

Fuel Inlet Valve and Cam.— As will be seen from the illustration,
when the nose of the cam comes in contact with the valve lever
 Internal Combustion Engfines
o 625
the latter is forced outwards, and the valve is opened against the
pressure of a spring which normally keeps the valve tight in its seat.
The starting handle when horizontal causes the starting valve lever
to come in contact with the nose of its cam as the cam shaft
rotates, while the fuel-valve lever is held clear of its cam at the same
time. With the starting handle in the vertical position the starting
valve lever is clear of its cam while the fuel-valve lever then comes
into operation. The actual opening allowed the fuel valve is very
small, as the limited opening area increases the spraying action of
the oil injection. The air admission valve, exhaust valve, and starting
valve all open downwards or into the cylinder, but the fuel \alve
opens upwards or out of the cylinder, as shown by the various
sketches.

No. 35— Air Inlet Valve, Lever, and Cam.

In the four-cycle type the c)-linder cover contains four valves,

thus :—
1. Air Inlet Valve.

2. Fuel Valve.

3. Exhaust Valve.
4. Starting Valve (air blast).

In the two-cycle type "scavenge valves," one or two in number,

take the place of the air inlet valve and act similarly, with
the
difference that the air is in this case under pressure when
admitted
to the cylinder, and is intended to " scavenge " the
c)-linder of the
exhaust gases before compression of the pure air.
 APPENDIX.
Marine Steam Turbines.
Principle of Turbine. — The steam turbine is a machine designed
to convert the kinetic energy of steam into direct rotary motion.
—
The two principal types of turbine are (i) Impulse Turbines, those
arranged with expanding nozzles in which the high velocity of discharge
impinges against a series of small buckets secured on the circumference
of a large wheel keyed to the driving shaft, the De-Laval turbine being
an example of this type and those (2) Impulse-reaction Turbines, in
;

which the steam passes through a number of rings of fixed blades and
of moving blades, expanding as it travels, an example of which is
found in the Parsons turbine
Work by impulse is produced by high velocities, and as the work
is done at the expense of the internal heat, water is formed which

thus diminishes the heat left.

The Parsons turbine is generally called a reaction turbine, although
the correct term should be " impulse-reaction " turbine, as the steam
actually does act first by impulse from the guide to the moving blades
and afterwards works by reaction from the moving to the guide blades

De-Laval Turbine. — In the specially shaped diverging nozzle of

the De-Laval turbine shown in the sketch, the steam expands down

ARRANGEMENT OF NOZZLE AND SHU'iTING-OFF VALy^,

No. I. — De-Laval Turbine.
626
 Appendix 627

to the required exhaust pressure, and the resultant kinetic energy

acquired is applied direct to the small buckets or vanes, the steam
being in consequence at a very high velocity. To obtain the best
efficiency the circumferential velocity of the turbine blades should be
equal to about
half the velocity of the steam, and this, of course,
demands a very high revolution speed. In the De-La\al turbine the
speed is often as high as 20,000 revolutions per minute this can, ;

however, be reduced by suitable gearing to about 2,000 revolutions

No. 2.—View of De- Laval Turbine in Action.

per minute, but as even this is too high for the shafting of marine
engines, the non-adaptability of this turbine for marine purposes will
be obvious. The steam is admitted to the nozzles (usually four or six
in number) and controlled by regulating hand valves.
It is worthy of notice that in this type of turbine the turbine wheel
is rotated by steam at the expanded or lowest pressure, as the actual
expansion takes place in the nozzle (and not within the vanes or
buckets), which is specially designed for that purpose.
The De-Laval type of turbine is much in use for the driving of
628 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

dynauios, and many steamers are supplied with this turbine for the
hghting set of the steamer.*

—
Parsons Turbine.- In this, the latest and most successful develop-
ment of marine engineering, steam is admitted direct from the boilers
to blades on the shaft drum, thus doing away with the necessity for
piston valves or slide valv-es, cylinders, pistons, piston rods, crossheads,
connecting rods, cranks, eccentrics, eccentric rods, and links, &c.
The power to rotate the shaft is therefore applied direct, which in
itself constitutes one of the conditions of an ideal engine. The inventor,
the Hon, C. A. Parsons, M.A., F.R.S., gives the following brief descrip-
tion of the turbine :
—
" The Parsons turbine consists of a cylindrical case with numerous

rings of inwardly projecting blades. Within this cylinder, which is of

variable internal diameter, is a shaft or spindle, and on this spindle are
mounted blades, projecting outwardly, by means of which the shaft is
rotated. The former are called fixed or guide blades, and the latter
revolving or moving blades. The diameter of the spindle is less than
the internal diameter of the cylinder, and thus an annular space is left
between the two. This space is occupied by the blades, and it is through
these the steam flows. The steam enters the cylinder by means of an
annular port at the forward end it meets a ring of fixed guide blades
;

which deflect it so that it strikes the adjoining ring of moving blades

at such an angle that it exerts on them a rotary impulse. When the
steam leaves these blades it has naturally been deflected. The second
ring of fixed blades is therefore interposed, and these direct the steam
on to the second ring of rotating blades. The same thing occurs with
succeeding rings of guide and moving blades until the steam escapes
at the exhaust passage."
Steam from the boiler is admitted by suitable hand valves to the
forward end of the casing surrounding the blades, and after passing
through a ring of guide blades fixed to the casing, strikes the first ring
of shaft or rotor blades it next passes through the second ring of fixed
;

blades, then the second ring of rotor blades, and so on, passing alter-
nately ring after ring of guide and rotor blades, and so rotating the
shaft, until it finally exhausts at the other end of the turbine casing at
a reduced pressure.

Parallel Flow. — Parsons' marine turbine is known as that of the

impulse and reaction " parallel flow " type, as the steam enters the guide
vanes in lines parallel more or less to the shaft axis, and in this way
passes from end to end of the turbine, reacting, expanding, and falling
in pressure as it travels.

Action of Steam. — As will be seen from the foregoing, the steam

movement to the shaft, and after
striking the blades imparts a turning
reacting and passing through the series of rings of vanes of the H.P.

* For further information on this subject see author's " Marine Steam Turbine."
 u v..

-^

^
Ci ».»
?i -".-^ Srf r«rl=«r:lr'2 Sr
7)

'^f\^^-

I -^ mm „
1

o
 Appcndi.N 629

No. 3.— Path traced out by Steam in Parsons Turbine.

6xo
'J "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

turbine exhausts simultaneously into the two L.P. turbines, one on

either side, and expanding through the longer casing and shaft blades
of these turbines, finally exhausts, at a low absolute pressure of from
1 1 to 2 lbs., into the condensers, one for each L.l\ turbine.

Flow of Steam through Blades.^-The diagram on page 629 shows

graphically the path followed out by the steam as it passes through
each successive ring of fixed or moving blades. Observe that the
steam, after passing through the first ring of guide blades, strikes the
first ring of rotor or moving blades and by the action set up assists
in rotating the shaft; by the time the steam has changed its direction
the rotor has moved round a certain distance (from i to 2), and the
reaction of the steam, due to its somewhat sudden change of direction,
still further assists in rotating the shaft. The steam then leaves the
rotor blades and enters the next ring of guide blades, where, after
again being deflected in its path, it enters the next ring of moving
blades, where the action and reaction process is again repeated ;

leaving the second ring of moving blades at position 4 the steam

enters the third ring of guide blades at a point 5 still farther round the
circumference, and so on for each of the following rings.
It should be noted that the steam leaving the moving blades is
deflected by the blade curvature, and strikes the casing blades,
which, if free to revolve, would be acted on by the steam and moved
round similarly to the rotor blades, but in the opposite direction ;

instead of this taking place, however, the casing blades being fixed
resist the impact, and the resulting reaction throws back the steam,
the velocity of which is thus increased. The pressure is therefore
utilised in augmenting the steam speed, hence the statement that
" in the guide blades the steam does work on itself to increase its

own velocity." The steam thus describes a somewhat zigzag path

in passing along the rotor, its direction being not unlike that of a
screw thread. Work is done at each ring of blades and "heat given
up, expansion of the steam taking place in due proportion, so that
the velocity of flow increases, and to allow for this the lengths and
spacings of the blades must be increased to maintain the same ratio
between the blade velocity and the steam velocity, upon which the
turbine efficiency depends.
The diagram shows the imaginary path described by a small
portion of steam, and the dotted blades show the circumferential
advance of the rotor blades at each ring, which produces the thread-
like path traced out by the steam.

Turbine Arrangements.- —In steamers of normal size for either

channel or deep-sea service, the standard arrangement consists of five
turbines, three for ahead and two for reverse running three shafts are
;

fitted with one propeller on each, the reverse turbines being placed
within the L.P. turbine casings aft. In exceptionally large steamers,
such as the " Lusitania " and " Mauretania," four lines of shafting are
arranged, with two ahead H.P, turbines and two ahead L.P. turbines,
NS

PIPE CONNECTIONS,
ird L.P. turbine (21) H.P. bye-pass steam to 3rd expansion.
(22) Oil inlet to bearings.
turbine elands. (23) Oil drain from bearings.
U'' up- (24) Water inlet to bearings.
onnection tocon- Water outlet from bearings.
(25)
ith L.P. turbines
(26) Circulating water to condenser.
^,1 is now omitted.
(27) Circulating water discharge overboard.
;xpansion of L.P.
(28) " Wet " air pump suction from condensers.
Iiection is now " Dry " air pump suction from condensers.
if L.P. turbines, (29)
kurbines. (30) L.P. turbine casing drains to " wet " air
pumps.
ak off" to con-
jing L.P. turbines (3O H.P. turbine casing drain to L.P. turbine.
\ is now omitted. (32) Screwdown valve or cock.
(33) Aftermain bearing.
expansion. (34) Forward main bearing and thrust.

[ To face page 63c.

 Appendix

(i) Standard arrangement,

one H.P. and two L.P.
turbines, three shafts, one
propeller to each.

(2) Large passenger

steamer arrangement,
two H.P., two L.P., and
two independent reverse
turbines, four shafts, one
propeller to each.

(3) Torpedo craft arrange-

ment, one cruising, one
LP., one H.P., and one
L.P. turbine, three shafts,
one propeller to each.

(4) Battleship or cruiser

arrangement, two cruis-
ingahead,two H.P. ahead,
two L.P. ahead turbines,
also two H.P. reverse, and
two L.P. reverse turbines,
four shafts, one propeller
to each.
 —

632 ''Verbal" Notes and Sketches

also two independent reverse turbines on the inner shafts. This

arrangement, with the further addition of other two reverse turbines
and two cruising turbines, is carried out in the case of large battle-
ships and cruisers ; sometimes the cruising turbines are compound,
one H.F, and one M.P., but generally both are of the same size, and
receive direct steam from the boilers simultaneously. It should be
noted that the Admiralty have decided to discard cruising turbines
altogether in future, as in most cases the consumption at the low
powers developed by these turbines does not justify their existence,
in addition to the loss of power produced by the turbine blade
resistance when running ahead or astern with the main turbines.
Cruisers of the " Inflexible"-" Indomitable" type have ten turbines
fitted, four ahead turbines — —
two H.P. and two L.P. and four reverse
—
two H.P. and two L.P. also two cruising turbines fitted, one on
each H.P, turbine shaft, and intended for low cruising speeds and
powers.
In torpedo craft the three-shaft arrangement is often carried out,
but the turbines are arranged in triple series, one H.P, (centre), one M.P.
(wing), and one L.P. (wing). Sometimes cruising turbines are fitted in
addition to these in the case of large high-speed destroyers. The fore-
going are the arrangements of turbines in present practice, but other
arrangements have been proposed by the Parsons Company.
As regards the new combination arrangement of reciprocating
engines and turbine, the steamers at present under construction are
fitted with two wing triple or quadruple engines, both exhausting at
a pressure below the atmosphere into the turbine on the centre shaft.
An alternative design consists of one centre reciprocating engine
exhausting into two wing turbines.

Steam Flow through Turbines. — In the standard turbine arrange-

— —
ment of five turbines three ahead and two reverse the steam, after
expanding through the H.P. turbine, exhausts to both I. P. turbines
"
simultaneously, and then to the two condensers. In the " Lusitania
design, the steam expands through each H.P. turbine, then through
each L.P. to the condensers of each respective side.
In the " Inflexible"-" Indomitable " class turbine arrangement,
at full ahead power, the steam expands through each H.P,, then each
L.P,, and then to the condensers of each side. At reduced ahead
power, the steam first expands through each cruising turbine, then
through each H.P. and L.P. turbine of each side, finally exhausting
to the condensers. In running astern the steam first expands through
the H.P. reverse turbine, then the L.P. reverse turbine, and finally
exhausts to the condenser.
In the destroyer triple arrangement at full power, the steam first
expands through H.P. turbine, then M.P. turbine, and L.P. turbine
to the condenser, and at reduced power or cruising speed, the steam
first expands through the cruising turbine, H.P. turbine, M.P. turbine,
and L.P. turbine to the condenser.
 MARINE WORK

'

won"

/l

/
 THE OETEftMINATION OF THE PRINCIPAL DIMENSIONS OF THE STEAM TUflQiNE

f»i#»»#»»»^ ^\i
>

^J
 No. 5. ^L.P. Ahead and Reverse Turbines.
Messrs A. i:
J. Inglis Lid. I The H.P. Turbine shown in background. Khedive's Yacht "Mahroussa.'

" Vutbal • Nolcs mid Skctclie

 Appendix

Increase of Steam Volume. — To allfjw of the steam incrcasinj^

in V')lLime, as fall of pressure takes place, the various sets
of blades
increase in length from the forward to the after end, the clearance
spaces between the blades also increasing- in proportion, which
necessitates packing pieces of a larger size being employed. The
blades also vary in shape or curvature, being flatter in section aft

COPPER WIRE BRASS WIRE

PACKING
PIECES

COPPER WIRE

PLAN
No. 6 — Elevation and Plan of Rotor Blades in Position,
showing how secured (full size).

than forward Each set of blades for each expansion requires its
own allowance for expansion of metals by heat, so that the working
clearance between the blades and casings or drums increases slightly
throughout the turbine from forward aft. One of the practical diffi-
culties met with in turbine construction at present is the correct
adjustment for this expansion, as slight mishaps have occurred in
634 Verbal" Notes and Sketches

one or two instances ovvin^^ to fouling of the parts when heated up,
the clearance allowance being insufficient.
Strictly, each successive ring of blades should be either of a wider
pitch or greater height than the preceding one, as the steam is con-
tinuously falling in pressure and expanding in volume.

—
Dummies. The dummies are placed at the steam admission end of
each turbine, and two kinds of dummies, known respectively as radial
and facialj are employed: the facial dummy is usually fitted in the ahead
turbine, and the radial dummy in the astern turbine. The principle of
the dummy is to prevent the steam from escaping through the interior
of the rotor to the exhaust end of the casing instead of doing its
legitimate work in passing through the blades of the turbine. Another
reason is that if no dummies were fitted, the full initial pressure would
be on the glands instead of exhaust or terminal pressure. A facial

No. 8. —Ahead H.P. Dummy Facial Rings.

(With average dimensions.)

dummy consists oftwo parts called the casing dummy and the rotor
dummy. The casing dummy is a cast-iron cylinder, which is in two
halves, bolted together at the horizontal joint. This cylinder is bored
out and grooved, the grooves being usually i in. wide and yV in. deep,
and into these grooves are driven brass strips. The brass strips
are bent to the radius of the cylinder, and a serration made
in them, so that the serration is just flush when the strip is driven
into groove. After the blades are in place, the metal of the cylinder
is caulked into the serration, thus binding the strips. The strips are
cut in lengths of about 6 in.
 No. 7.— Turbine Thrust Block.
Lower Half for Ahead Thrust ; Upper Half for Astern Thrust.
'

(1) Ahead thrust. (5) Oil inlet.

(2) Astern thrust. (6) Counter gear worm.
(3) Taper key for adjustment of lower half. (7) Inspection door.
(4) Taper key for adjustment of upper half. (8) White metal of mean bearing.
(9) "Reliefs" for wear down.

\_To face page 634

" Verbal ''

Notes and Sketches.
 rit-

VA

"Qzzz ///////,y^

Msi}\ laqqU ; JeinriT besriA lo^ llsH »woJ

(2)
.rmow ifi5^
.loofa no

•vob -ifi9W lol '

elsibS

ifl:)i9}<8 bnfi »loid

 Appendix 635

"BLADING LIST."
The following example of a " blading list " from actual practice will
afford the student a fair idea as to the blade heights, &c., generally
fitted :—
Type— Fast Channel Steamer.
Speed, 22 knots.
Equivalent I.H.P., 8.500 (approximate).

Turbine Data.
H.r. Turbine. (Drum, 2 ft. 6 in. Diam.)

Expansion.
 — —

636 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches

the casing in one row a 9-in. piece is put in, and in the succeeding
row a 4i-in. piece is put in, so that the joints in each row are not in
line. The strips are left "-012" clear of each other at the ends so as
to allow for expansion. After the blades are all in place and
caulked, the dummy is put into lathe, and the blades turned up.
The blades have a face bearing of "-015 " so as to ensure that if the
rotor dummy should touch, the friction caused thereby would
be reduced to a minimum. The rotor dummy is of steel, and
usually cylindrical, and is sometimes made in two halves. The
dummy is rigidly bolted to the rotor, and turned up in place. A
series of grooves corresponding to the brass strips in the casing
dummy are turned out, having a fillet in both sides of groove, the
grooves being fV '"• deep. The brass strips in the casing dummy
project into the groove in the rotor dummy ^ in. When the rotors
are set to position in the casing, the factor which determines this
position is the dummy clearance, this varying according to the size
of turbines. For average sizes the clearance is usually as follows :

•025 to -040 in the high-pressure turbine,

and -025 to -060 in the low-pressure turbine.

The working clearance allowed between the tips of the rotor

blades and casing, also between the casing blades and rotor, are given
in the following" table taken from an actual case :

BLADE TIP CLEARANCES.

Taken -when cold.

H.P. Turbine.

Rotor Drum, 48 in. Diameter.

Expan-
 3 5
"a
.2
!-
rt
V
- ^

O :=

> £ —
O ? y

vj O u C

S e;
>
-13
3 __

O =
u
a? ^ '^

U «5

Z 2S
 Appendix ^2>1

Starboard L.P. Turbine.

Rotor Drum, 68 in. Diameter.
638 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches
 3MIOM.

= os. 3e

\^
 No. II.— Plan of Combined Reciprocating and Turbine Arrangement.

With Theoretical Horse Powers.

(1) Change valve, giving steam either to turbine or condenser direct.

(41 E.ihaust from reciprocating engine to turbine or to condenser.
(2) Reciprocating engine thrust block. Branch to turbine.
(5)
(3) Turbine thrust block.
(6) Branch to condejiser.

'Verbal" Notes and Sketches.

 —

Appendix 639

Combined Reciprocating Engines and Turbines.— The most recent

practice in mercantile steamers is the combination of reciprocating
engines and turbines for vessels of moderate or low speeds. Several
steamers of this class are at present under construction, and the
arrangement consists of two wing triple or quadruple expansion
engines exhausting into a central low-pressure ahead turbine, driving
a third shaft and propeller, the revolution speed of the centre turbine
shaft being much higher than that of the wing shafts. An alternative
design is that of two wing low-pressure turbines and one centre re-
ciprocating engine.
The engines are arranged to be run as follows :

(i) Boiler steam to both H.P. cylinders, and exhaust from these
to turbine, the exhaust from the turbine being divided and led into
two separate condensers.
(2) Boiler steam to both H.P. cylinders, and exhaust from these
to condensers direct, the turbine being then cut off. This is required
when running astern as the turbine is for ahead running only, and
may be used for ahead running with two propellers only.
(3) Boiler steam to either H.P, cylinder, and exhaust from L.P.
to centre turbine, then into one condenser only.
These combinations are obtained by the use of " change valves "
fittedon the L.P. exhaust pipes, and by large butterfly valves fitted
in the turbine exhaust branches. The change valves admit the
reciprocating exhaust steam of either side to the turbine, or to the
condenser as required, and the large valves in the turbine exhaust
pipe shut off the condenser on either side as may become necessary
should one reciprocating engine require to be disconnected through
breakdown.
Benefits of the System. —As, broadly speaking, the economy of the
reciprocating engine depends chiefly on high-pressure steam, and the
turbine on low-pressure steam, the judicious combination of the two
ought to result in higher efficiency results.
The turbine is therefore most effective in dealing with steam of a
pressure which cannot be utilised with benefit in a triple or quadruple
expansion engine, owing more particularly to the huge volumes
involved, and requiring increase of weight, space, and frictional losses.
The L.P. exhaust pressure to the centre turbine is usually 7 or
13 lbs. absolute. This will produce a difference in the usual L.P.
cylinder diagram cards, bringing up the exhaust line to a position
much nearer the atmospheric line than usual.
The loss of work energy so represented by the reduced indicator
card area in the L.P. engine will be more than balanced by the in-
crease of power developed in the turbine.
The economical result of the combination arrangement is, to all
appearance, beyond question, and may in time, with suitable improve-
ments which experience suggests, prove adaptable for the usual tramp
steamer speed of from 8 to 10 or 11 knots.
An innovation has been made in the case of the turbine glands,
42
 — —

640 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

which, instead of the frictionless steam packing hitherto adopted, have

in one case been changed for the usual marine type of piston-rod gland,
consisting of rack and pinion screwing-up gear with soft packing inside,
this type of gland being fitted at both ends of the turbine.

Description of the Propelling Machinery of the Q.SS.

" Reina Victoria-Eugenia."

Constructed by Messrs Swan, Hunter, & V/igham Richardson Ltd.,

Newcastle-on-Tyne.

"The propelling machinery consists of two complete units of

reciprocating engines and turbines, driving four screws in all.
" The reciprocating engines are of the well-known four-crank triple-

expansion type, balanced on the Yarrow-Schlick-T weedy prmciple,

with cylinders 29 in., 43 in., 45 in., and 47 in. in diameter, and a stroke
of 42 in. The low-pressure cylinders at each end of the engines are
designed to develop less power than the other two cylinders, so that
a very uniform turning moment is obtained, in addition to good
balancing.
" Each engine exhausts into a steam turbine through special

mancEuvring-valves mounted at the back of each low-pressure

cylinder, and operated by levers on the reversing-shaft. These valves
are so arranged that the exhaust steam is passed direct to the con-
denser when the reversing-gear is in the astern position. Thus all
manceuvring is done by the reciprocating engines on the inboard
shafts. Provision is made, by means of screw and hand-wheel,
whereby the turbines can be cut out entirely by passing the steam
directly into the condenser under all conditions.
" The turbine installation comprises two low-pressure Parsons
turbines driving the wing-shafts, and designed for working ahead
only. Steam enters each turbine at the forward end through two
iSi-in. diameter pipes i.e., one from each low-pressure cylinder
with a suitable strainer in each branch, the admission pressure being
about 10 lbs. per square in. absolute, with a maximum steam con-
sumption of 135,000 lbs. per hour. The exhaust branch, having a
cross-sectional area of 30 sq. ft., is designed for a condenser pressure
of I lb. absolute. The rotor drum is parallel, 68 in. in diameter, and
carries thirty rows of blades. The dummy at the forward or steam
end is fitted with labyrinth-packing strips of the radial type ten —
strips in the rotor and ten in the casing. The diameter of the dummy
is such that the total axial steam thrust on the rotor substantially
balances the propeller thrust. The rotor shaft glands are of Parsons
combined labyrinth and ring type, each being fitted at the inner end
with ten rows of moving, and ten rows of fixed, rings, and with four
Ramsbottom rings at the outer end. The glands are so designed as
to be easily overhauled without lifting the turbine-cover. The rotor
journals at each end are 12 in. in diameter, working in white-metal
bearings, each 23 in. long.
J, A rotor adjusting-block is fitted at the
 '

18 Cl Overall

SET N°IZ (lS.S.REINAVICTORm-EUCENI/\. SET Nrl2

PORT ENGINE a HOURS STEAM TRIAL STARBOARD ENGINE.
Revs.pe-r Mirt. jl't-l FEB. iai3. Jj^sperUutHS-S

ToUUl^f^Mm ' WfOTotai/.fLP

Total JJfJ^ Both Engine 74SO

No. 12— Parson's Exhaust Turbine for the QSS. " Reina Victoria Eugenia
(and Set of Diagram Cards).
 Appendix 641

forward end for the purpose of adjustini,^ the axial position of the
rot(jr, and contains ten rini^s, which bear upon the faces of correspond-
in^^ collars on the rotor shaft. Lubricating oil is supplied under
pressure to the bearings and adjusting-blocks b\- a duplex oil-pump.
The oil draining from the bearings, &c., is collected in a tank and
cooled before being discharged again to the bearings. One of the
turbines is illustrated on opposite page.
"The condensers are of the 'Uniflux' type, and have each a
cooling surface of 5100 sq. ft., designed for a vacuum of 28 in. with
an average sea temperature of 75". The ig-'m. circulating-pumps
supplied by Messrs H. Watson & Co. have proved capable of dis-
charging 8500 gallons per minute against 23-ft head.
"The air-pumps are of Weir's latest 'Dual' type, of 13 in. by
24 in. by 17 in. each. There are further installed two pairs of Weir's
feed-pumps, with cylinders 13I in. by 10 in. by 24 in., two 35-ton
evaporators, two 90-in. Howden fans, three 60-kw. dynamos, a
12-ton distiller, a ballast donkey, two general service donkeys, various
smaller pumps, a refrigerating plant, and a Clayton fire-extinguish-
ing machine, which has already been illustrated and described in
Engi}iccring. The exhaust steam from all au.xiliaries is utilised
for heating up the feed-water, a Neptune surface-heater being in-
'
'

stalled for this purpose.

"There are seven single-ended boilers of 16 ft. 3 in. outside
diameter and 1 1 ft. 6 in. in length, working on Howden's system of
forced draught. Each boiler has three large furnaces, yielding a total
grate surface of 480 sq. ft. the total heating surface is 20,965 sq. ft.,
:

and the working pressure 180 lbs. per sq. in.

"On trial the ship half laden was required to steam 17-5 knots for
eight consecutive hours, and when fully laden at a speed of 16 knots
for twenty-four consecutive hours. The actual results obtained are
given in the table on \^. 642, and show that on the eight hours' trial
a speed of 181 2 knots was obtained in adverse weather, while on the
twenty-four hours' trial the speed obtained was i6-iO knots. In good
weather conditions and in deep sea, it is certain that higher speeds
would have been secured, and we are informed that off Cadiz, in a
deep sea and fine weather, the speed obtained has been greatly in
excess of that realised at the trials carried out off Newcastle.
" The steam consumption was measured by means of standard
nozzles regularly employed by the builders for this purpose the ;

figures given in the table include make-up feed (about 1-5 per cent.).
Progressive runs over the measured mile at St Mary's, on the North-
East Coast, were made during each trial in order to determine the
speeds obtained on the respective trials. The maximum speed
recorded on a double run was i8-6 knots in shallow water (about
75 ft. deep), as, owing to the foggy weather, the mile-posts could only
be seen a small distance from the shore.
"A set of indicator-cards taken during the eight hours' trial is
shown, and the results are of special interest in view of the high pro-
642 Verbal " Notes and Sketches

pulsive efficiency indicatedby the low consumption of power. It

should be mentioned inconnection herewith that the experiments
made by the builders some years a<jo with a self-propelled mo el
have induced them to choose the four-screw arrangement in preference
to the three screws, generally applied with the combined system."

Results of Trials of " Reina Victoria-Eugenia."

Trial
 —i

^
M / /

I I

I I

I I

i^
—

K-f.-ii
 20.2^' Over Gland, MouUbS

PtAN OfMTOR SHEWING LEFT HAND BLAOINC. W. ;;V Over Expansions

I Reproduced by permission from •

Engfineering." Feb. 27, 1914.

White Star Liner " Britannic."

(By Messrs Harland & Wolff Ltd.)

RECIPROCATING ENGINE DATA -

The two wing reciprocating engines

with two L.P. cylinders placed 01
Schlick Tweedy system.
Diameter of cylinders 97 1
97 1

Stroke
Type of valves fitted Piston valves in all cylinders.
Type of valve gear Stephenson link motion-
wood and Carlisle rings on all cylinder pistons.
Type of piston rings fitted ept H.P., and on all piston valves. The H,P
of the Ramsbottom type.
Diameter of HP and IP. piston rods
 Appendix 643

—
Arrang"ement. In the single propeller shaft arrangement one side
H.P. ahead turbine and one side L.P. ahead turbine are connected by
two small gear wheels to two large gear wheels secured to the centre
driving shaft. The turbines run at about 1200 revolutions per minute
and the propeller shaft at 60 revolutions per minute, the gear-down
ratio thus being as 20 : i, because 1200-^60 = 20. In the two
propeller shaft arrangement the above s\'stem is usually duplicated,
two H.P. and two L.P. turbines being fitted and connected up
similarly. The turbines and gear wheels are joined up by flexible
t)'pe couplings. The gear wheels are enclosed in a casing, and an
oil service under pressure is sprayed in jets on to the contact surfaces
of the wheels. Thrust blocks are fitted near the forward end of the
propeller shaft, to take up the thrust, and the turbines are balanced
by steam pressure acting on differential type dummy pistons. The
helical-toothed gear wheels are very accurately cut out of hard steel
by a machine specially designed for the purpose. The astern turbines
are arranged as in ordinary turbine practice, being inside the ahead
turbine casing, and fitted with separate steam connections, &c.
It may be pointed out that the geared down arrangement can be
adapted for either low or high ship speeds, but is not so necessary
at high speeds as it is at low speeds. The gearing down allows of
speeds of 10 or 12 knots with reasonable economy, whereas at these
speeds and direct turbine drives the economy would fall off for the
reasons mentioned previously.
The 'Vespasian " was built in 1887 by Messrs Short Brothers, of
Sunderland. —
Her dimensions are: Length on load water line,
275 ft.; breadth, moulded, 38 ft. 9 in.; depth, moulded, 21 ft. 2 in.;
mean loaded draught, 19 ft. 8 in., and displacement, 4350 tons. The
—
boilers —
two in number are 13 ft. diameter by 10 ft. 6 in. long, with
a total heating surface of 3430 sq. ft., and grate area of 98 sq. ft.,
working under a pressure of 150 lbs. with natural draught. The
propeller is of cast iron, and has four blades, having a diameter of
14 ft., pitch 16-35 ft., and expanded area of 70 sq. ft.

Description of Geared Turbines, SS. "Vepasian."

The propelling machinery consists of two turbines in " series,"
viz., one high-pressure and one low-pressure, the high-pressure
turbine being placed on the starboard side of the vessel and the low-
pressure on the port side. At the after end of each of the turbines
a driving pinion is connected, with a flexible coupling between the
pinion shaft and the turbine, the pinion on each side of the vessel
being geared into a wheel, which is coupled to the propeller shaft.
A reversing turbine is incorporated in the exhaust casing of the
low-pressure turbine. The air, circulating, feed, and bilge jiumps
are of the usual design for tramp steamers, and are driven b)' means
of a crank nnd connecting rod coupled to the forward end of gear-
wheel shaft. The turbine and pinion shaft bearings are under forced
lubrication, similar to ordinary turbine practice. The teeth of the
 —

644 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

pinions and of the gear wheel are lubricated by means of a " spray"
pipe extending the full width of the face of the wheel. Independent
oil pumps are fitted for supplying oil to the bearings and gear wheel,
with a view to the possibility of experimenting with different
lubricants for the gear wheel, the oiling system for the bearings being
separate from that of the gear wheel.
The high-pressure turbine is 3 ft, maximum diameter by 13 ft.
over all length, and the low-pressure 3 ft. 10 in. by 12 ft. 6 in.
length. The turbines are similar in design to a land turbine, being
balanced for steam thrust only, the propeller thrust being taken up
by the ordinary thrust- block of the horse-shoe t}'pe which is fitted aft
of the gear wheel.
The cooling surface of the condenser is 1165 sq. ft.
The gear wheel is of cast iron, with two forged steel rims shrunk
on. The diameter of the wheel is 8 ft. 3 J in. pitch circle, having
— —
398 teeth double helical with a circular pitch of -7854 in. The
total width of face of wheel is 24 in. inclination of teeth 20° to
;

the axis.
The pinion shafts are of chrome nickel steel, 5 in. diameter
pitch circle, with 20 teeth -7854 circular pitch. The ratio of gear is
19-9 to I.

On first four voj'ages careful measurements of water con-

the
sumption were taken. The following table gives the data and results
obtained on these voyages :

Geared Turbines of SS. "Vespasian."

Results of First Four Voyages.

Date - - - -
^
No. 13. -Geared Turbines, S.S. "Vespasian."
Plan or Engine Room and Stoke Hole.
No. 14. — Gear Wheels of "Vespasian's" Turbines.
(Cover removed.*

ir<, y^a fia^r-: ^iS-

 Appendix 645

which the astern turbines are incorporated, in the wings. The con-
ditions of tiie service demand ample astern power, and, in order to
provide for these requirements, this has been arranged to be not less
than 60 per cent, of the maximum ahead power.
The high-pressure rotors are solid steel forgings, and bladed on
two diameters, 14 in. and 23 in. Three expansions of eleven rows
each are fitted on the smaller of these, and three expansions of
four rows each on the larger. The mean diameter of the blading
ranges from i ft. 3yjr in. on the high-pressure end to 2 ft. 2| in.
at the other, in each turbine. As it is not possible to utilise the
propeller thrust to balance the steam thrust, owing to the presence of
the gear-box and its fittings, the whole of the steam thrust in this
type of turbine is designed to be taken on the dummies. As the rotor
is solid, equalising pipes are led from the end of the third expansion

to the forward side of the after dummy, and from the exhaust end to
the forward side of the forward dummy, thus keeping the rotor in a
practically floating condition axially. A small thrust bearing, as is
usual, is fitted at the forward end of each turbine to take the pressure
due to any variation in the speed. The arrangement is clearly shown
in the illustration.
The low-pressure turbines have six expansions of reaction blading
for going ahead, each having three rows of blades. The diameter of
the drum is 3 ft. i in., and the mean diameter of the blading ranges
from 3 ft. 2iTii in. to 3 ft. 7] in. The astern turbines have each three
rows of impulse blading, followed by four expansions having four rows
each of reaction blading. The mean diameter of the impulse-wheel is
3 ft. 4 in., and in the case of the reaction blading the mean diameter
ranges from 2 ft. i-fV in. to 2 ft. 4^ in. on a drum 2 ft. in diameter.
The low-pressure rotors are of the more usual hollow type, and there-
fore do not need the equalising pipes as fitted in the case of the high-
pressure rotors.
Each high-pressure turbine is designed to run at 2210 revolutions
per minute, and each low-pressure at 1617 revolutions per minute;
each is connected up with its pinion shaft through a flexible coupling
to correct any small want of perfect alignment. The gearing is of the
usual type, in two parts, with oppositely cut helices to neutralise end
thrust, and the pinion-shaft bearings are arranged in this case to be
of floating type with the object of equalising the pressures between
the working teeth, and preventing objectionable noise. The pinion
shafts, on which the teeth are cut from the solid, are of special
nickel steel, and the wheels into which they gear are of forged
steel. All these forgings were made at the Sheffield works of the
builders, and the gearing was cut by the Parsons Company. The
high-pressure pinions have thirty teeth, the low-pressure pinions forty-
one, and the wheels 221, the arrangement thus providing for the
essential hunting teeth. The ratios between turbines and propellers
—
being high-pressure 13-58 to i and low-pressure 5-39 to i. 7 he
circular pitch of the teeth is 0S15 in., and the spiral angle 44° 2^'.
646 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

Each pinion -shaft is supported by three bearings of an aggregate

length of 3 ft. oh in. by $h in. in diameter, thewidth between the
teeth at each side of the centre bearing being 15^ in. The usual
thrust block for taking the thrust from the propeller is fitted im-
mediately aft of the gear-box, as may be seen from the engravings.
The whole of the gear is enclosed in an oil-tight casing, and lubrica-
tion arranged for by sprays designed to maintain a film of oil con-
tinually between the working surfaces of the teeth. Messrs B. R.
Vickers & Sons' patent frictionless stern-glands are fitted to the
propeller shafts to ensure that nothing in the way of preventable loss
may take place here.
The condensers are of the Weir "Uniflux" type, having steel
shells and cast-iron doors, and are guaranteed to maintain a vacuum
of 28| in. with inlet water at 60' Fahr, Two of Messrs Weir's dual
air-pumps are fitted, 24 in. in diameter by 15 in. stroke, and the same
makers have supplied the main feed and forced-lubrication pumps.
The circulating water for the condensers is supplied by two of Messrs
Allen's i8-in, "Conqueror" centrifugal pumps, and they have also
supplied the two 6-ft. diameter forced draught fans, and the dynamo
and electric-light engine. The vessel is fitted with two bilge and
ballast pumps, a water service fresh-water pump, and a sanitary pump.
An exhaust feed-water heater is fitted for utilising the exhaust from
the auxiliary engines.
There are three boilers —
two double-ended and one single-ended,
with a total collective heating surface of 14,385 sq. ft., and total
grate area of 383 sq. ft. The working pressure is 170 lbs., with a
closed stokehold system of forced draught. The removal of the ashes
from the stokehold is effected by two "Sentinel" ash-hoists, which
are fitted in the usual manner in the ventilators. A vertical auxiliary
boiler, by Messrs Cochran, of Annan, is installed to run the electric
light engine, &c., when the vessel is in port.
Very careful consideration has been given to the choice of speeds
for turbines and propellers, and it is confidently expected that the
arrangement will prove to be a highly efficient combination, showing
considerable economy in working compared with direct-driven types
working in similar vessels.
 ^ch of CyV:.

Orry."

[ To face fias^e 646.

 IS UOreratl. Lay (A or OfV:.-

Eqaahjdng Pipe

13 10^4 Overall Lejujih, rf Ortimter

No. 15.— Geared Turbines for the Isle of Man Twin-screw Steamer " King Orry."
Constructed by Messrs Cammell. Laird & Co.. Limited, Shipbuilders. Birkenhead.
\Tq ftKf i>a''eb\(i.
 Appendix 647

The Weir "Dual" Air Pump.

The duty of an air pump is to take from the condenser a mixture
of water, and vapour
air, and to obtain economical working, this
;

should be done at the highest possible temperature. If a single

pump is used to handle this mixture, the hotwell temperature for a
given vacuum is dependent on the amount of air leakage and the air
l^ump capacity. Consequently, with a single air pump the tempera-
ture of the mixture must be a considerable degree colder than the
theoretical temperature due to the vacuum.
B)' the use of separate pumps handling the air and water, the dry
pump having a cold injection non-returnable to the feed, the above
conditions are changed, and higher thermal efficiency is rendered
possible.
This method enables the wet (or water) pump to handle water at
approximately the steam temperature, while at the same time the dr)-
pump will deal with the air and vapour at the volume and temperature
conditions imposed by the temperature of the injection water.
With the " Dual " pump the above advantages are obtained,
together with increased efficiency of the dr}' pump, due to its
contents being densified or decreased in volume through cooling by
the injection water, which circulates continuously, never leaves the
system, and is never subjected to atmospheric pressure with con-
sequent aeration. The dr)' air pump further works only at less than
half the pressure range, as it discharges below the head valves of the
wet pump. The apparatus, moreover, is compact, self-contained, and
of good mechanical design.

Description. — No. i shows diagrammatic form the arrange-

in a
ment of Surface Condenser, " air pump, and injection water
Dual "
cooler. In all cases the pump A or wet pump is situated below the
steam cylinder, as this pump is the only one which works under any
considerable load the dry pump B is driven by the beam and links
;

in the usual manner. One connection C is made to the condenser,

but a branch pii^e is led to the dry pump, the connection being made
in such a manner that the water will all pass by C
to the wet pump.
Both pumps are generall}' of the three-valve marine type, but in
certain cases the dry pump may be of the suction valveless type.
The first and most important difference from an ordinary twin
pump consists in the dry pump discharging through the return pipe
E, through a spring-loaded valve F, into the wet pump at a point
below its head valves. The next point concerns the suppl)' of water
to the dr\' pump for water scaling, clearance filling, cooling, and
vapour condensing. When starting the pump the filling valve G
must be opened for a minute or so to enable the vacuum to draw in
648 " Ve^rhal " Notes and Sketches

a supply from the hotwell of the wet pump. The valve is then
closed, and the water passes from the hotwell of the dry pump by the
pipe H to the annular cooler, and after being cooled passes into the
suction of the dry pump, then, passing through the pump, it becomes
heated and again passes to the cooler, and so on in a continuous

closed circuit, any excess passing over the pipe E to the wet pump.
The spring-loaded valve F is adjusted to maintain about 20 in.
vacuum in the dry pump hotwell when the condenser is working at
28 in, vacuum, and this 8 in. difference of pressure is sufficient to
cause the water to overcome the cooler friction and pass into the
THE WEIR "DUAL" AIR PUMP.

[ To face page 648.

 Appendix 649

and at the same time never allow any direct

suction, air connection
between the dry suction and discharge.

Operation of Three- Wire System.

The generators of this system consist of an ordinary direct current
machine with two or more slip rings on the armature shaft extending
as shown in the sketch. These slip rings are connected to the arma-
ture winding in such a manner as to give single phase in the case of
two slip rings, three phase in the case of three slip rings, and two
phase in the case of four slip rings.

BalancoColls -%
CoUector
JOL

Comma tatoT*

Armature

No. 3.— Three-Wire System.

(With Single Dynamo.)

The rings are also connected through the brushes to one

slip
or more auto-transformers or balance coils, the middle or neutral
point of the balance coils constituting the mid point of the direct
current circuit.
The sketch shows diagrammatically a two-pole direct current
armature. The direct brushes are shown as bearing on the com-
mutator, and the four slip rings are connected to points on the
armature diametrically opposite. An alternating voltage appears at
 —

650 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches

the slip rings, having a frequency equal to the number of poles

multiplied by the speed. Thus a four- pole generator running at
3000 revolutions per minute would have 12,000 alternations per
minute = 100 periods per second.
The balance coil is simply an alternating current transformer with
a single winding, and a tap from the middle point, and since it is
connected to an alternating current circuit, an alternating magnetising
current will flow through its windings but as this magnetising
;

current is ordinarily very small, it may be neglected when considering

the flow of the direct current from the neutral wire to the armature
windings.
Thus, under ordinary conditions, the onl}' current in the coil which
need be considered is direct current.
The object of the balance coil is to give a point midway between
the direct current brushes to which the neutral wire of the system
may be connected, and to afford a path by which the current flowing
in the neutral wire may pass through the armature to one of the
main brushes.
It will be seen from the diagram that this system is very valuable
where it becomes necessary to have electric lighting on a low voltage,
and heavy driving power from the outers or high voltage.
An out of balance load up to 15 per cent, may safel}' be carried
between one outer wire and the neutral wire.

Knocking in Engines.
Knocking ma}^ be caused as follows :

1. Want of clearance in cylinder, top or bottom ; if on bottom,

due perhaps to wear down.
2. Slack guide shoes.
3. High compression forcing slide valve off face at end of
stroke.
4. Loose piston rod nut.
5. Loose crosshead nut.
6. Worn top end brass or bottom end brass.
7. Water in cylinder due to priming.
8. —
Want of compression (remedy shut in link).
9. Junk ring pins slackening back, or working out altogether.
10. Worn valve gear brasses, &c.

Diagram cards, if taken off at the time, would indicate causes i, 3,

7, and 8 ; for the others endeavour to locate position of knock, whether
internal or external.
If the knocking is due to priming, this will further show by
slowing down of the engines as the steam suppl}- is reduced by the
water passing over with it from the boilers.
 Appendix 651

—
Engine Data. The following data referring to the machinery of a
modern twin screw meat-carrying steamer may be studied with
advantage by the student, as a good idea of the relative proportions
of the various working parts can be obtained by reference to the
data supplied.

Twin Screw Steamer,

652 " Verbal " Notes and Sketches

Stop Valves.
Boiler Stop Valve, 5^ /;/. Diameter.

Inches Open.
 %.

<i-

^ i
^'1
No I —Steel Vertical Type Donkey Boiler Pressure. 80 lbs (gaugei per square inch

[
7'« fair fV '•il-
 J — —

Appendix 653

Vertical Donkey Boiler

Data. —
Pressure =80 lbs. (gauge).
Diameter = 5 feet.

Height- II feet.

Mean diameter of fire box== (^^-^ J

=4-25 feet.

Height of fire box = 5 feet 9 inches.

Fire grate area = 4'5'-x •7854=15-9 square feet.

Rule. —
Area of uptake = Grate areax Jg^.

Diameter of uptake = ^ ^ ^ = 1-29

V/—7854x12
Then, , feet, say 15 inches.

Vertical shell seams double riveted, circumferential shell seams

and all internal parts, single riveted.
Allow a factor of safety of 6, and a joint strength of about 70 per
cent, for the vertical seams and about 54 per cent, for the circum-
ferential seams.

Shell—
28 X 2240 X T inch X 2 Joints Diameter in inches x Factor x Pressure.
So that, 28 < 2240 X T" X 2 X -70 = 60" X 6 x 80.

6oj^6^8o
Therefore, T inch=-
28 X 2240 X 2 X -70
^ ^^^^^ ^ -^^^j^

Rivet diameter=i-2\'T = i-2x n'-37S = -734 inch, say j inch,

NOTE. — As the plate thickness is low, it will be advisable to allow rivets of,
say, } il
inch diameter.

Vertical Shell Seams (Double riveting).

Rivet pitch=i?^2i^^^?*-^^^m£t£5
100 - Joint

Then, „ ,,
=.i^'2iiLJ[?5 = 2-7 inches, say 2| inches.
100-70
NOTE.— ig inch = -8125.

Rule.—
Distance between rivet rows = >Ai ^P + 4^ )
>^ ( P+j^ ).

10

NOTE.—p = rivet pitch, d^ rivet diameter.

Then, ^_
Distance between rows =
T^., . ,
—
\ (II X 2-75
!
+4
12_5
10
—
X -8125) A (2-75
si i^5^
+4 X -8125)
i

41 inches, say i^ inches.

-i-5>
Distance between edge of plate and centre of rivets 1-5 x c/= 1-5 x -8125
= 1-21
21 inches,
inc say i^ inches

Width of lap-14 + ii + ii inches --4 inches.

 —— — 3 —

654 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

Circumferential Shell Seams (Single riveting).

Rivet diameter same as before = J ;j --8125.

Rivet pitch — ^°^^ '"

'-5^ 1-7 inches, say ij inches.
100-54
Width of lap (3 rivet diameters) = ^J + J§ + ic inch = 2i'5 inches.

Fire Box (Welded).—

Rule. —
90000 xT-= (Height in feet + 1) x Diameter in inches x Pressure.

^. - ^_ /(Height in feet + 1) x Diam. in inches x Pressure

'
~\/ ~90000

„
T
T- //(S*75
^j3_l2 —
+ i)xSi inch
'.
X 80 „„
= .55 inch,
.
say ,
•
•
u
inch.

Allow, say, six sta}-s round uptake, each with a working stress of
9000 lbs. per square inch.

Then, Area of surface to be supported = (54-- 30-) x •7854 = 1583-3 square inches.

NOTE.-— As the fillets of the shell and

to stay the top end of the
fire box act
boiler, the unstayed area may
be taken to be equal to the difference between a
54-inch circle and a 30-inch circle, which will sufficiently allow for the strengthen-
ing effect of the uptake ring.

Diameter of stays- /, ^ j^^ — 1-7 inches, say

J i?i inches diameter.
V 6x7854x9000 ' '

Fire Box Riveting.

Plate -^^ inch thick. Rivets i inch diameter.
Jomt strength = 53 per cent.
pj^^j^^ioo^^^jnch^2.i2 inches,
say 2i inches.
100-53
Seam strength =— ^~- x 100 = 53 per cent, of solid plate (nearly).

23 ^ 1 00 __
^ = 54 -
^ ^ -•

Rivet strength '

plate (nearly).
cent, of solid f
2- 125 X. 5625x28 ^^ ^ ^
J

As the smaller result = joint, then 53 per cent, is the joint strength.
This riveting also holds good for the crown plate of the shell, the
cross water-tube flanges, and the solid ring joining the uptake and
the crown plate.

To Verify Joint Strength,

Vertical Shell Seams. —
Rule. —
^^^^^
Seam section strength = p-gg*"^^^-^ x 100.

= ^^y^t ar ea x No. in a pitch x 23 x l oo

Rivet
Pitch X Thickness X 28
NOTE. — Shear strength of steel rivets = 23 tons per square inch.
Tensile ,, ,f plates = 28 ,, ., „
 .4-^

No. 2.— Sectional Plan showing Fire Bars an<

Verbal ''
Notes and Sketches. a^e 654.
No. 2— Sectional Plan showing Fire Bars and Bearer Ring. No. 3.— Plan of Boiler.
 Appendix 655

No. 4. —Circumferential Shell Riveting.

Plates I inch thick.

41 DIA,

No. 5.— Longitudinal (Vertical) Shell Riveting.

Plates i: inch thick.

43
 —

656 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

Then,
^^^
Seam strength= ^'^^ ~ '
x 100=70-4 per cent, of solid plate.

x 7854 ^ 2 x
and, Rivet strength ^ 'l^JS- jiigo^g^.g ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^ ^^jj^ pj^^^^
2'75 X '375 X 20 y
Circumferential Shell Seams.

Seam strength = ^1^2^^^-—^ x loo = 56 per cent, of solid plate.

'^"5' x -7854 x i x 23 x ^oo

^ =
Rivet strength ^60-5 per cent, of solid plate.
1.875 X. 375x28

Stresses on Shell Seams.

Vertical (longitudinal) Seams. —

Rule. —
Diameter in inches x Pressure = T" x 2 x Stress per square inch.

~, re.
Therefore, Stress square mchu = Diameter"
=y-, — x Pressure
.

X o _g.QQ
,, „ ,,
_ iY)s. square inch.
.375x2

Circumferential Seams. —
Rule. —
Diameter x Diameter x -7854 x Pressure = D" x 3-1416 x T" x Stress per sq. in.

or. Diameter" X Pressure = T" X 4 X Stress per square inch.

B"xD"x.y854 _D"
NOTE.- &"
 — ———

DESIGN DRAWINGS AND CALCULATIONS.

The following Set of Drawings and Design Calculations include, among others,
those given at the Board of Trade Examinations to First-Class Engineer Candi-
dates, and for practice these should be drawn out to the scales marked on each.
Note.— The calculations shcnvn for the various proportions of parts repre-
sent average practice, but it should be noted that these vary to some extent
in the designs of different engine builders.

Sheets i and 2 show proportions of Nuts, Bolts, and Screws.

Boilers—
1. Single-Ended Combustion Chamber.
2. Double-Ended Combustion Chamber.
3. Furnace and Fire Bars.
4. Water Gauge Column.
5. Vertical Donkey Boiler.
6. Fire Bars and Bearers for Vertical Boiler.
Valves—
7. Dead Weight Safety Valve.
8. Spring-Loaded Safety Valve.
9. Boiler Stop Valve.
10. Engine Room Stop Valve.
11. Feed Check Valve.
12. Bilge Suction Valve Chest..
I2A. Bilge Injection Valve.
13. Side Discharge Valve.
14. Cylinder Relief Valve.
15. Slide Valve and Spindle.
16. Inside Steam Piston Valve.
17. Double Ported Slide Valve.
Pumps
18. Air Pump.
19. Feed Pump Complete.
19A. Feed Relief Air Vessel and Pump Valves.
Pistons, etc
20. H.P. piston and Rod.
21. L.P. Piston and Rod.
22. L.P. Cylinder Cover.
23. Donkey Pump Cylinder and Valve.
Eccentric, etc.
24. Eccentric and Rod Complete.
25. Quadrant Bars, etc.
26. Reversing Bell Crank.
Shafting, etc.
27. Crank Shafting.
28. Thrust Shaft and Shoe.
29. Thrust Block.
30. Stern Tube and Shaft.
^ 31. Propeller Boss.
(Various—
Bottom Blow-Off Cock.
32.
33. Three- Way Change Cock.
f 34. Main Bearing.
V 34A. Tunnel Bearing Block.
£ 35. Steam Pipe Expansion Joint.
^k 36. Pump Levers.
^^B 37. Connecting Rod.
^H 38. Pump Crosshead and Links.
 -<

\
III I MII H

uy^

-^

ii^ ill a-sA- i]:^ m- <|r*'i.;*fi;i*

K ni' li tu- "^

tu- 3 JO
•- - ft walL. if HI*

3 m-
i ISj? «|- VI :il!s2 lU- r~3^ 111-

po;f pctft; (ot V poif :s lU- ()ivfu»r«;t'

m
 pi'fcK X 3

Bolt and Nut Complete.

Notice thai the radius of curvature is taken as equal to the depth of the
nut (equal to d) this is not strictly correct, but is quite near enough for
:
Bolt and Lock Nuts.
practical purposes. Observe the positions of radius for the nut curvature in
the side view, which is about two-thirds distant from the top edge.
The hexagon sides of the nut shown in the plan may be drawn in by applying the 60 degree
In the plan the construction circle (equal in diameter to the distance over
square langentially to the circle over flats.
angles) is divided up into six by the circle radius distance in the compasses.

This circle = 1-5 X **.'+ i i"

Nuts, Bolts, and Screws. The nuts are chamfered off to an angle of 45°-

diameter,
(Whitworth Standard.) EXAMPLE.— Calculate the required dim«nsioos of nut and bolt head for a bolt 2 in.

Let d = diameter of bolt. with 4i threads per inch,

Width across angles of out

Width across flats of out
i-75Xrf+«
Then, Diameter LDglei = 1-75 X a 4- -125 >« = 3-fa5 « = 3fi

Depth of nut Diameter -

flats = 1-5 xa+iaS In =3"5 in=3i
Diameter of round bolt head Depth of nut =:rf
Depth of round bolt head Depth of lock nut (if fitted) = 7 X
Diameter of point of bolt = diameter at bottom of thread
Diameter of bolt head = 1-5 X
Depth of point of bolt = pitch of thread x 3. Depth of bolt head = -75 X
Depth of top lock nut
Depth of bottom lock nul Diameter at bottom of thread
Diameter of washer
Thickness of washer
Pitch of thread = 1-7-45
"Verh.!" Not«an<i Skeichcs.
 I

Angle of thr<

Depth
Pitch

Diameter at 1

awing Nuts.

I 14"^
 Whitworth Screws.
(Angular Threads )

Angle of thread = 55 degrees.

Depth ,. = Pitch of thread X 64.

Pitch =1 in, H- threads per inch.

/ i-a8 \
Diameter at bottom of thread = Bolt diameter — (
"
Thr^riB p,r inch J"

Bolt Screws.

Djameler of
Boll 01 Stud.
&3} ftp
i:^
,^^

.
-IZiK

ftp

-*-
•
^,, l! .:n.
t4^ ^
III.
I

teiM.wi^:^
^f 2-74 e
f

Ue wel
 .0
,s9duT 9>Joa-

;ta<rtT t a'SduT nornrnO

-9-

"--#

r§
ax=/°^

I oVI lo 9«cr

"Verbar'Nob
 No- 2— Double-Ended Combustion Chamber of 8-Furnace Boiler.
(Draw to a scale of i in. = i ft.)

{Presiure, 300 /£&)

NoTB.— The calculatioas are similar to thoae of No. i.

" Niiles
and Sketclics.
3. % Stuoa

^ &ou-rg

C.ori6o5TioN dMAtvi6,eff F'o<i^ "SC-Soiuef^

A6H fiT Oooi
PATTt«^i
 )

No. 4— Water Gauge Column.

(Scale. 3 in. = i ft

(Draw to a scale of 6 in. = i ft)

'Verbal "
Notes and Sketches.
 ^ "~r
r-
-^.-
r-, ^

f
-1 r.
-

^ '^ _t_
:$
-^
lt^^-1 1_

X»— k 4: ,.t^

i^R-f
^^i

fV^ -^-

i '

TT
1
I \;

-r- 1 15^

:'/l-
 }

'^L

:i2 oi
 No. 5. —Vertical Type Donkey Boiler.
(Draw to a scale of i in. = i ft)

-. , ., . „ {Pressure. 8a /is)

I
Details of Riveting.
Circumfereotia] shell seams (single riveted): Rivets, H in. diameter: Pitch, ij in.

Longitudinal shell seams (double riveted): Rivets. >i in. diameter; Pitch in.
2i
Internal riveting (single): Rivets,
U in. ; Pitch, if in.

NOTR— For, say, a pressure of 100 Iba. and boiler diameter of 6 ft. in., it would be
advisable to give the firebox a thickness of
J in., and the boUer shell 4 in., and to i
the height by. say, i ft.
 l»yA /'

/..I).
 No. 6 —Donkey Boiler Fire Bars.
(Draw to a scale of lA in. = I ft.)

'Votbal" Nolcs and Sketches.

0A
 I
t

bant o{ ..

i«IX OU 0-- i:ii

'1
 No. 7— Dead Weight Safety Valve
[Scale, i( In. = ft.) i

(Draw to a scale of 3 m. = I ft.)

Oata — Boiler grate surface consists of 2 furnaces, each

5 ft. by 3 ft.

Then. Total grate surfBce = 2XSX3.33 = 33.3. say 34 gq ft

Rule. 375 -^ Absolute pressure = Valve area in sq in. per sq ft grate.
Therefore, 37-S-M30+i5l=S33 sq. in..
Total valve area = 34X.833= 28-3 sq. in.

'^'^ Diameter of valve = / *J = 6 in. diameter

V -7854
"''• Load on valve = 6x.7854X 30= 848-2 lbs.
Assuming that weight of valve and spindle amount to, say, 20 lbs ,

'^*"' Actual load required = 8482 20 828-2.— =

^eiua. Fix on diameter of weights aj. say. 16 io.
Then, Depth of werghts = .5^ J^.^ = .5-8, say ,5) in-

AUowmg 7 separate weights.

^*'*"' *^^ -- =2-2«;

(5 in. = 2i m
=2* in. thickness of each weight

1 pair of valves fitted, each e only requires to be half the

single valve.

Diameter of each valve

N.iles and Skelchej.

 ; ifncp «v^

3;' (f.j juii; o^ """"

' y..'i
J!!.
r';M I- fpf.

YI|OM' Esl' 3ooo ipa- bci ad- id- . S JO ar.f ci'

1,1,- .. r\,n ,(.,.-. ri_.t.-

V"';"

tiooo = <

K''l*^ luoc V- - posrq 0. <-,(&, 01 cot]

LOf»| &9lAe »16'J

MO g -b^^t 01 gbuus: j[-03qt

 Washer

No. 8. -Pair of Spring-Loaded Safety Valves.

\Sc3lf. i^ In =: I II. \

(Draw to a scale of 3 in - i ftt

!i per sq. ft. of grate at 20 lbs. c<

!i4X3X5-5X3-5X^=l8-53 sq, in.

=
V/ 2x7854
of each valve . -^- - , say 3i i

Rule, Xd'= Load on valve x Mean diameter of coil.

Where, = Constant for square steel.

11000

d = Side of coil in inches.

Then. iioooXd" = 3-5^X78S4Xi6oX3 in.

And. rf ^3/3^78 54x1^X3 ^ .75 in.

Notice ihat the a/fif rooi requires to be extracted after division.

Diameter of boiler branch bore = s'3-5-X2 = 4-9 in., say 5 in. diameter.

Flange Studs.
Allow, say. 3000 lbs. per sq. in- stress on studs, and assume pressure to act out
as far as the pitch centre Une of the studs also take pitch circle diameter oa 10 in.
;

or 10} in. and fix on number of studs as 6.

= / 3000X
Then, Diameter of stud5
V l°*5:^^i^
.
7854
=.0,
*'
sav
'
i in, diameter.

Noi K. -Only oae valve of the pair is drawn out.

 "0
+

qruiijsi&i

fclGSSniG IQO |p3

 .'IT-C.

JtTGDj}:

m
-^-\r

K
 I'gcUgTn..

No. 10— Engine-Room Stop Valve.

Scale. 2 = in. i ft

(Draw to a scale of 3 in. = 1 ft)

MoTC— The calculations are similar to those of the boiler stop valve, No. 9.
 /«P»I., V.'

linrLfcq v
(jiTcjruc?e

J |«l&6l &V}AG 9||OM '

n<j qFffuifs

I? ^.

< bLG38aL>

jJGCfC A'JAt'

i h
-l^'-h,^.-^;S^
 No. II —Feed Check Valve.
(Scale, 3 in. =; i ft)

Data. — Pressure, Valve. 3 io diameter.

Allow diameter of chest, inside, to be not less than li t i diameter of valve.

Then, 3 io x 1-5 = 45 in ; say 5 in. diameter.

Diameter of 3pindle=diaraeter of valve -~ 3 — 3 in

Allow a tensile of 3000 sq. in. on studs,

i am

Then, Diameter of studs

V*
Diameter of studs = ^ ^^ ^^ -57 in,

To allow of a good safety margin fix on, say. i i diameter studs.

Allow width of flange for studs = stud diameter >
Then, 625 y 3= 1-875 "> . say 2 in. on each side.

Then, Diameter of coverts in. 4-2 in. +3 in. =9 in.

Allow full lift clearance of valve equal to t diame

3 in. -> 4 = 75 in. lift clearance.
The thickness of the chest is taken 1 or a larger valve allow if
in.

always be in excess of the chest

NoTR, Tht wearing parts i

 \

—*
\i~^>^-W

\ol

xoa

^'erlial " Noi

o
 I«-- 10-

.-i- \ itfH

W;. MOJ«« ""'I

h"\\ nil ticsi.

ilod8

yf
- b;i?:=-
c
=^

\ ID >

""^?ff
 InjecHor, c\^it

No. 12a.— Bilge Injection Valve.

(Draw to a scale of 4 in. = i ft.)

No special calculabons are required for this drawing as the stresses 00 the working parts
=
Full Uft clearance of valve diameter ^ =
4 6 in, -1-4=14 Jd.

' Verbal " Notes and Skelches.

 :L^N^

3f6« vvq 8|^C('

 ^ C.5.K Bol ts
V

No- 13— Side Discharge Valve.

{Scale, ih in. = i ft.)

(Draw to a scale of 2 in. = i ft )

As the pressure on this type of valve is low, it is sufficient if the various parts are of light
construction as shown above. The inside diameter»of the chest is equal to about 13 times
the diameter of the valve.

Width of flange = stud diameter X 3 = -75 X 3 =

Then, Diameter of cover = 2-25 in. + 16 in. + 2-25 = wjj in. i

Allow full lift equal to ^ diameter of valve, or 3 in.

The studs in the flange on ship's side are screwed through the plate, countersunk, and
rivetted over on the outside, with clearing holes in the chest flange inside.

'
irbal Notes and Sketches

r
 qf9m«(Si
IJ'-"
»

.LP«^"

XP<^a M ' '1 qitrawf. 1 «» »9}At:

3^iu
1.'.
 h^M

No. 14— Cylinder Relief Valve.

{Scale, 3 /n. = I ft.)

(Draw to a scale of 4 io. = i ft )

Data.—V»\vc, 4 in. diameter. Pressure, zo lbs.

ameter of spring as being about equal to diameter of valve

Then, Rule, 1000 X T' = Mean diameter of coil x Load on valve.

1000 X T' = 3-5 X 4- X -7854 X »
Then. -p = 3j,Xf X-:^Sj_X 20 ^ .^^
1^= V-0799 = -43 in-, or. say, ^ in. coU.

Observe that cude root extraction is required.

Allow 6 studs of ample strength, say \ in. or \ in. diameter.

Diameter of spmdle = Valve diameter -r- 3.

= 4 in -^S^ *" say li in. diameter.

 .; f

Xpcu

reucfu

IV-
B
f>Oli

'al DvicT t

tl^
 No- 15.— Slide Valve and Spindle.
(Scale. 2 in. = i ft.).

(Draw to a scale of 3 in. = i Tt).

OjiM. — Cylinder ports = 2j in s 6 in exhaust Width of valve face + 18 + 2 = 22 in.

Centre bars=tj in.
Face area X Pres sure x
Valve travel 7 in. = Diameter
3500 X 785;
Top lead =: ^ in.
Bottom lead = i in Allow 2 for Erictioa. and 3500 lbs. tensile stress per sq.
Top exhaust lap ^ o in.
Then,
Bottom exhaust lap — +i in.
Pressure = 56 lbs ^ /22X^9X56X iy ih in- diam
Cylinder diameter = 24 in V 3500 X -7854

Stroke = 36 in. w screw =1-5 in. X 1-33 = 1-99 in-,

Assume that, Top steam por

Then, Bottom steam por gland = 1-5 in. X 1-6 = 2-4 "> 1 say

in front of spindle and J to. clear at

As the bottom lead i iiorethan top lead, the bottom
port opening is also J ; than top port opening.
Bottom exhaust opening with crank on
Rule. ) travel = Steam lap + Lead (either top or bottom). steam lap + Lead — Bottom exhaust lap.
Then. — 25 — 2-125 opening 1 exhaust.
(Top), 7 in.-i-2=3.s m.. and 35 in, — 1-25 = 2-25 steam lap.
, of p,st nd steam port openi J. compared (for
And,
bottom).
(Bottom), 7 in.-r2=3-5 in., and 3-5— 1-375 = 2125 steam lap.
Then, 24' X 7854 - iB or '
Length of ports = Diameter of cylinder X 75. »8 X 1-375
= 24 I 75 = >8 i
Area of pistoi and exhaust port opening
Allow bearing^ width at sides as. say, 2 id. (crank on top).
Then.
liepth ol valve face = 21 -(- li + lA + 6 -f li + 2i + 2J =
 j:f^t

Valve (rAvel-7'
JD»
?q)
 N.)H; The valve face measures' rourhly 50 in. by 52 in AIIovj diamclcr of
rod at gland db=
Thcre'orc, 2-75>;i-4 = 385, say 3; in. diameter.

The rod is swelled out at top and bottom to 3 in. diameter, which forms the outside
diameter of the screw Allow spindle i in. clear at front and \ in ^kar at back for
 No. i8.— Air Pump Complete
(Draw to a scale of 2 = in. 1 ft

Data.~L.P. cylinder, 74 in. diameter. Stroke, 42 in. Air pump stroke.

diameter of pump.

Rule. Air pump capacity = ^ ^- '^y'*"'*" capaci^

Then, Air pump diameter = /74*'142_ >" =24, say 25 I

Note. — 7854 cancels out top and bottom

Rule. Diameter 'of pump rod - ^-}^^^^?LA.£^P + .6.

9
Then. ^^S^.6^3-3;7 in., say 3* i

Rule. Thickness of barrel - °'*"«'SiL?f-P'™P-|-.3.

Then, -^ ^^+3 =[7^6

60^ in., say I ia.

Length of barrel 1 - Stroke + Bucket -!-Vatve depth + CIear;

- 20 + 5 in. + 3i + 2 in

Note.— Allow, say, t in. clearance top and bottom.

i'cibai Noleb ami Jjkcichts.

 '

J ;J6u'

A-
XP«o' c^'^'^l'f^ <*l ^!' '^^^''^l I

_i

: A i^i jpt bti 2d w\ . 1

ynje= r^pq
1 1000 " «^v '>«

i^HH A'l^^ 2^M"^

hi2:~9^^

fsR te r-^
--i—y.

Mep^t
 No 19.— Feed Pump Complete with Air Vessel.
\ Draw to a scale of 3 in = : ft,

Dafa. 1 HP. 1500 Engine revolutioos or pump strokes,

65 per min. Stroke of pump. 24 b. Steam
HP
(

water consunipuon taken as 15 lbs per I.

hour. Assume pump effidfncv as equal ptf cent
to 50 f
Then to find diameter of each feed pump of a
pair.
h
^ y
Pump Plunger
Rule. l.H P xlbs, waterx2766= Diameter'x7854XStroke in X Strokes per I x6o> Effideccy.
Therefore. 1500x15x27.66= Diameter-x7854X24 in. x65x6ox-50,
so that Diameter^ = -
iSWXi5X27'66 _ _. .
7854X24X6sx6ox-50~ ^'
and Diameter xVi6^ = 4 ic. diameter of each feed pump plunger.
Note. -27-66 cub. in. of fresh water=i lb.

Relief Valve Spring.

Rule. iiooox«/'=Load valve X Mean diameter of spring.
1 t
Assume 1 I loading pressure of,
Bay, 125 lbs. per sq. in.

Then iioooxrf= = 3^X7854Xi25X3.

10 that rfs = 3^7854Jl_i35X3 _ .
j.

, say. I in. square steel

t for square steel.
d=5ide of square of steel spring.
Mean diameter of coil =r 3 in.

Air Vessel-
Allow capacity of air vessel to be equal to 17 t ;s capacity of the pump chamber, and fix diameter 1
say. 6i in,

Then, Capacity of air vessel (exclusi

top and bottom) = 5-x7854X24 in. xi7 = 8oo cub, 1

NrvTF.,— 5 in, = inside diameter of pump barrel

24 in. = working stroke of pump.
Then. Height of air vessel =
 j\^c£Gi' suq t>nmb /^ai

-*i1.

-3rg M4t
No. I9a.-Feed Relief, Air Vessel, and Pump Valves.
I Draw to a scale of 3 in, = i ft.)

See Drawing No. 19 for calculations and data.

J
 .li«| J»f«iC)J«

q hio/iq i^oi q>G "Jnuf. uo6

O' 1^3 W oi' sal' q lu oujl

_/ 3oco o^ a SLooq wsl^L _ _,^

-

pof (oui 0{ cpLCsrq >

iK*" qrauj»u.i
JISlUCfGL O^ ?CLeM

iooo ipa 2d- iu lO;.

VUOM- i?ooo IP? sd IU ^ol

DitsUTGfSi. 01 :.?q »f pr^qi

J«.(.uii- j;.

I,I.698nLC- IgO IpS

 :

No. 20— HP Piston and Rod (Cast Steel;.

(Scale. 2 in. = i ft. ).

(Draw to a scale of zin = i ft.).

r of rod at screw Ibottom of thread Piston area X Pressure

5000 x~7854

Diameter of rod at body Piston area K Pressure

3000 X 7854
for tensile stress limit,

for compressive stress limit.

/ 5000

Allow.
Oiometer of rod
V i6r

Depth of piston at boss = Rod diameter

X 180
3000
_ 39 in
of a
. or, say, 4i in.,
good margin
1-5.
which allows
of safety.

Then, Depth = 4-25 x 15 = 6-3 in., or, say. 6 in only.

Allow i of this as taper, and make the remamder parallel.
Allow a taper of 6 in, for 4 in. of length as shown.

The nuiiiljcr and size olstuds allowed provide ample strenglh for the junk ring.
A I in. shoulder is allowed for the fitting of the piston on the rod.
/ V
 No. 21.— LP. Piston and Rod (Cast Steel).
(Seale, i /n. = i ft.].

(Draw to a scale of 2 in. = i ft.).

Dfl/«.— Cylinder, 60 in- diameter. Pressure. 25 lbs.

Diameter of rod at screw (bottom of thread) = /^UiJ5 = 4.5 in. diameter.

\/ 4400

Diameter of rod at body = /**°-^-^5 = 6.^ !„., or, say. 7 in. diameter.

Allow 4400 lbs. per sq. in. for tensile stress limit (large piston rods).
,, 2000 ,, ,, compressive ,. ( .. .. 1

Depth of piston at boss = Rod diameter x 15

= 7X 1-5=10 in
Allow, say, 7 in. for taper, and 3 io. for parallel portion of rod.
Thickness of piston at boss fillet = Rod diameter x -288.

7 in. x-288 =
2 in. thick. =
Make thickness of piston near junk ring rather less than near boss, say ij io.

Thickness of piston rings in. = ^f

Diameter of spring coil = 3 in.

Verbal" Notes and Sketches

 No. 22.~L.P. Cylinder Cover.
Scale. I /ff. = I fl-

iDraw to scale of 2 in. = i ft.)

I Cylinder 60 in. diameter.

\ Pressure - - - 20 lbs.

Allow thickness of cylinder walls to be, say, il in. or i)

Then. Thickness of coTer i-25 in. =
-25=i-5 in. +
then. Thickness of cover flange = 1-25 in. X 1-4= 1-75 in.
then, Thickness of cylinder flang^e= 125 in. X 16 2 in. =
Altow diameter of flange studs to be equal to cylinder thickness, that is, 1

Allow pitch of studs to equal $ stud diameters.

Then. 5X 125 in =6-25 in. pitch limit,
Take pitch circle as 64* in. diameter (centre to centre of flange).
Then. 64-5 in, x 31416 -r- 625 in. = 32-6, or, say. 32 studs exactly.

C
 ^•^g

-c; lu
Ll jj
l;
TTITT i

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d^ 6^^

*Att
2(.0U •T^nfllinj ji
 No. 23.— Donkey Pump Cylinder and Valve.
(Draw to a scale of 6 in. =1 foot)

Valve travel = il in. Cut off =-9 stroke,

NOTE. — As this engine is not fitted with a connecting rod, equal steam lap and lead is given at either end of the valve.

Data. - Pressure, i8o lbs. Revolutions, 72 per min. Stroke, 8 in. Steam Port Areas.
Allow speed of exhaust steam to be, say, only 20 ft per second.

Rule, Piston areaxstroke in ft xzx Revolutions = 20X60X Port ar

Then, Length = 8 + ij + ,;, + = loj
,",, in. Then, 6^X7854X,"3X2X72 = 20X6oxPort area.

Piston Rod Diameter. S» .hat. Port area = ''^^^^!^^^^^ = 2-^ s,^ ».

Allow a compressive stress limit of, say, 3000 lbs. per <
Depth of port = 2-26^4 in. = -5fi in., say J in. deep.

Then, = A-X7854 X^80- ,..

Diaraeterof rod |at body) NV.n:,— Width of port =4
V 3000x7854 in.

Thickness of Cylinder. Allow depth of exhaust port to be equal 1

that of the f

Rule. = Diameterx Pressure ports, therefore % X2=i4 in.

Thickness ,

5000
NoiT,.— For small s of auxiliary engine cylinders the stean. s|
in. XI 80'+•25 = -466 i
5000 allowed per second are much less than for

o
 iH

.LP''

'X)

« *f

..(,4] t J

SL
 No. 24. —Eccentric and Rod Complete.
(Draw to 3 scale of 2 in = i ft 1

Data-Sh&h 14 in. diameter. Valve travel 7 in Diameter of valve spindle (d) 34 i

Rule Diameter of pulley =

d x 7-8 =3-5 x 7-8 = 27-3 in. say 28 in
Diameter of bolts and studs Id x 5) = + 3.
'^^^"- ' .. .. =(3-5 X -5) + -2= 1-95 in., say z in.
Diameter of eccentric rod pins = d x -85 .5 = 3.47 in,, say 31
-+• in.

Shaft diameter 14
Depth of eccentric key = "-'^^ in.
= 2-33 >n . say jj in.

'diameter of one strap bolt "

Diameter of bolts in top end brass = . /

=v/V=-- ' 3^7 <'5 in, diameter.

Thickness of cap and butt = diameter of bolts x 1-3 = *S in- Xi.33=»-99i

•Verbal" Note* and Skcichc:

 (U K* k"
;i::..p
ft
V ^.'

'ilr It

fin

m :5S
V
i.
3_,
rr

'UJ .,1 I
K'
t>^ }

1 iS'i

;
y ,. 1

.^Jiui^l '^BiQ bi

.r.i ;> v£«

VIJOM fp.(|
 No. 25.— Quadrant Bars, Valve Eye Block, and Drag Links.
( Draw to a scale of 2 in. = i ft

travel, 7 in. Diameter of valve spindle at body. 3^ 10. — rf.

Distance between bars = dx 1-75 + -25.

=3-5Xi75 + -25 = 6'37. say 6i in.

Diameter of valve rod eye (steeli = ixdepth of bars.

Allow eye block brass to be. say, j in. thijk.

Length of slipper = dX3-6.

Then, .. ,. =3.5x3-6-
Allow thickness of slipper to be about i in. at centre.
Allow eye block thickness at sides to be about ;; in.

Allow eye block thickness at top and bottom to be about i^ in.

Diameter of bolts in eye bIock = dX*5-|-'2.

= 3-5 X + -2 =1-95.
-5 say :

Diameter of drag links f2l=dx-7Z.

= 3-5X72-2'52. say 21 m.
NoTK.~For other proportions of quadrant bars and eccentric rods. pins. : drawing No. 24.

'Verbal" Notes and Sketches.

• C
 A&tern

5-
-'(U

y^^
H2^ —
zi:

No. 26. — Reversing Gear Bell-Crank and Expansion Slot.

(Draw to a Scale of 3 in. = 1 ft.)

The expansion block has a range of 4 inches in the slot.

N0TE.-Depth of key = ^M^-^iin^?t?^+.i2S=5inches^.^ .

^^ ^, .^^^^^^
4 4
Thickness „ =
Depth X-5 = -687S, or f^ inch.
Observe that "linked up" ahead becomes "full gear" astern, owing to the change from the
horizontal position to the vertical position of the expansion slot.

"Verbal" Notes and Sketches.

 1

_!
1

o ')." JBttJ svnaadO

30' •><< ^
 'f'

(.11 X.-

•'U^•^ = £x^I =
.s-X = zu'tban
llfirfa i9^lJ^ ;gfltb
"• - -s- Xji —
; isxie = islsmsib ahiio dbi»
Rule .11.'
i> .y_t>v. .1,1 ^-5.: -^t;-. .< £1
—
Where
ziioi So tsdraun X 3uib4i r

d X 2-11

.bsvtroUf tt99d svitd oilod xi8

.g-ii =s-^ £S =8aibai Jiofl
.nx

•X- X ilarie -- e<f9w sIoaio lo tntuloidT

Then,
<[8 = zsaaod d»w. lo isismaiCI

•arnfiiCI = mq aitisis lo laJsmeia =iuq 3liui-i3 lo ri^ansC/v

Note.
NOTE.-

Diamel

Verbal
 No. 27— Crank Shafting.
(Scalr. = 8 //I, 1 fl.)

(Draw to a scale of ^ in. = i ft.)

Data. —CyVmdtts 30 in., 52 in., 8( Thickness of couplings = shaft X -3.

Stroke, 48 in. = 15x3= 4-5 in.

Boiler steam, 185 lbs. Coupling fillet radius = shaft X -2.

= 15 X -2 = 3 in.

Rule C X P X D^ = S^ X Constant x{» + Bolt pitch circle diameter = shaft X 1-5.

^> = i5X 1-5 = 2
Where C= Length of crank.
Shaft diameter" X half shaft radius
,,
P = Absolute boiler pressure.
Bolt pitch radius X number of bolts
„ D= L.P. cylinder.
d=H.P. ig- X 17- 5 '
= 3-S (nearly) say, 3-5 i

,, S = Shaft diameter. 1-5X6

Constant = mo for propeller shafts and crank shafting. Six bolts have been allowed.
,, =1295 ,, tunnel shafting.
Bolt radius =
23 in. ^-2=11-5.
Thickness of crank webs = shalt X -7-
Constant X + °=j- = i5X 7=10-5. or, aay. II in
(2 = shaft X
Diameter of web bosses 2.

3 24in. XaooX Sg^ =15x2=30 in.

Allow length of crank pin = Diameter of crank pin = Diamelc

Therefore. Crank pin= 15 in. x 15 in.

S (shaft diameter) = ^'3041-2= ^4*5 ^ . say, IS in. diameter. Length from centre of coupling centre of crank pin is equal to half

Note.— Observe that cube root extraction is required.

length of pin +
web thickness 4- cleai e 4- twice pulley thickness length of +
bearing 4- clearance and coupling rad 4- coupling thickness.
Note.— Stroke = 48 in. therefore crank (C) 24 in. =
185 +15 = = Allowing pulley thickness as 4) h) and bearing 15 in. length.
200 P.
Diameter of couplings =
Shaft diameter X 2 [at least). Then,
=
15 X 2 =
30. say 3* in- diametef. 7-5 +"+ I in- +9 in- + 15 in- +I in- +3 in- + 4-.S in. = 52 ii

"\erbat" Notes and Sketches.

 No. 28.— Thrust Shaft and Shoe.
{Scale, -i
in. = i ft.)

(Draw to a scale of lA in. = i ft)

For (ompUU design cakiilalions jcc Drawing No, 29.

D«(a.-1.H.P. 1500.
Speed, 10 knots.
Pressure on shoes 60 lbs. per sq.
Ahead surface 567 sq. in.

Astern 486 sq. in.

ring surface is equal to about | only of the total surface of the

Shaft -f clearance = izin. + 4 + in. = 13 in- J

in.

Annulus area of collar = — X •78s4=i2i'7 sq.

1
18- 13'-) in.

Actual bearing surface = 121-7 X i)=8i-i.

As there are 7 shoes for ahead, then, 8ir X 7 = 567-7 sq, in.

6 astern, ,, 8ii X 6 = 486-6 sq. in.

Total pressure on block = 15?? .>133^^ = 33218 tbs.

6o~
Pressure per square inch on each shoe = 5^= = 58 lbs., or, say. 60 lbs.

-Allow -68 of total I.H.P. as effective power on block.

'Verbal" Nolcs and Sketches.

 ^

'
I

H'l \s'
15 J. .k-

^.
^
ii»

L
m U-—
ti
 No. 29. —Thrust Block.
(Draw to a scale of i^ in. = i f

Data.-l.HP.. 201 Ship speed. 15 knots. To find required bearing surface of shoes
Bearing area of each shoe = 4^=:7i-6 sq, in.
allowing of 60 lbs. per sq. in., and 7 shoes to be fitted.
Diameter of collars = Shaft diameterxi-ti.
.. =i3-37SXi-6 = 2i in,

Then Total pounds pressure on block = ^ L 11^^33000 Thickness of collars = Shaft diaoieterx-iS'
.. =I3'375X-I5 =2 in.

= 30000 lbs. nearly. Thickness of shoes = Collar thickness x 3.

Speed in feet per min. = '5>^^= 1520 ft Thickness of white metal =(Collar thickness -r 5)
.. =2-=-5 + -o8 = -48 in.

Distance between collars =5 in.

Allowing a stress of, say, 2200 lbs. on side stay bars, then,

= ^°^ = 4300 30000 _,

V/
Pressure on each shoe lbs. r of bars= say 3} in. diameter over thread.
:
<-78S7

" Verbal " Nntes and Sketches.

o
 A " —

'(T)
CM

_1.

rf=: K.P. cylinder.

= Shaft diameter.
S
Constant = mo for propeller shafts and crank shafting.
,, = 1295 for tunnel shafting.
i
Then, S' =
C X P X D2
.

Constant X (2 + — V
Allow 5 d^
yV less i
S3= 21X195X66;^ ^^^^
of the sh
Forth
end (22 So that, S (diameter of shaft) = 'n'i5o8 = 11-5, nearly, say, 12 in.
(2.i): A shaft.
Allow
the shaft
Observe that cude root extraction is required.

Allow Stroke, 42 in. -r 2 = 21 in. length of crank. 180 + 15 = 195 lbs. absolute

'Verl
 No. 30.— Stern Tube and Shaft
KU&lt, J /ft. = 1 U.
(Draw to a scale of ij in. = I ft.)

»«(«. — Cylinders. 24 in. —40 in.. 66 in. Allow length of after bearing {lignum vitse) to be equal to four d=H.P. cylinder.
Stroke, 42 in. times diamyter of shaft. Then, 12 in. X4 in. =48 in. length of S = Shaft diameter.
Boiler pressure, 180 lbs. gauge. wood in bearing. Constant = mo for propellej shafts and crank shafting.
Diameter of tunnel shafting, it^ in. Observe the lip {\ in. thick) cast on the forward end of the ::
1395 for tunnel shafting.
Shaft, 12 in. diameter. Length of taper, 30 1
brassbush to hold the wood in place, also the check ring fitted CxPX r

aft for the same purpose, Constant X {

2
Allow thickness of brass I ler to be ^ '" ^t forward nd and NoTZ. —The sectional view on line AB is drawn to double the
y\ less at after end to alio' of easy withdrawal and scale of the other view. _ 21x195x66'
of the shaft.
The diatr of the shaft delermined as follows
For the same reason make diameter of tube shoulder at forward
ii
X'+i)
end (22 in.) ^ in. more than diameter of shoulder at after end Rule, C PX D- = S^ < Constant X f
^ + -i, V '1508 = ii-S, nearly, say, i

(2 1
J): this is important.
Allow a taper of about % in., or \ in. per foot, which reduces Where, C = Length of crank.
the shaft diameter from 12 in. to about 10^ in., as shown. P = Absolute boiler pressure. Observe that cube root extraction is required.

Allow lignum strips of i in. by ai in. or 3 in. D = L,P, cylinder. Stroke, 42 in. -^ 3 = 21 in. length of crank. 180 + 15 = 195 l*>s. absolute.

"Verbal" Notes and Sketches.

JT-
1

(D
 No. 31.— Propeller Boss-
(4 Bladed Propeller.)
{Scale. I ln. = i {{. )

[Draw to a scale of ij in. = i

Data. —Cylinders Combined of studs)

for each blade
^Shafts
I.H.P. -

Pitch of propeller Combined area of studs

Diameter of propeller - for each blade
Circumference of propellei
Then,
Tunnel shaft
Propeller ,. -
So that, Diameter of studs =
V -7854 '
_Shaft diameter ,
^
Length of boss = Tail shaft diametej X 2-6 ft

= 12 io. X 26 = 3i-2 in., or. say, 32 i

Diameter of boss = Shaft diameter X 2'S = 30 in.

Thickness of key = Breadth of key x -5.

of blade flange = Shaft diameter x 2-i. = 2.625 in. X 5 = i-3«S.

= 12 X 2-1 =252, or, say.
in. 254 in.
The boss is recessed 1
to fit the blade flanges ;

Thickness of blade flange = Shaft diameter X -25.

60 degrees.
t. .. =: 12 in. X -25 =3 in. (bronze).
Note.— Blades of bron Boss of cast steel.

Verbal " Notes and Sketches

r
I joint:

JOLTS SCREWED-" \^

PLATE AND RIVETTED

? rarHf-3-2 in
jKsa qnrmcfct oi by

L|J«J

.^LCiiUi^'&i.cucfe o^ b|r'

'*
gfoqa 01 ' lo qrsrnicru. A&ortjq pc 3n|}ic:«ur pn( ;o ay, idviSjii 01 svifif^ esl

jiua'

Vn^^ 9 efi^ . I oa (;;c \pm. 9(aqr

tvbbi.oxmKr(v]l>

;^C9U >viiq^^ o^ bu.

C98| VL69 O^ bott- yt63 '^^ '

'^^
i
* BOLTS SCREWED-^ ^
INTO PLAT£ AND RrVETTED

No. 32.— Bottom Blow-Down Cock.

(Ship's Side.)

( Draw to a scale of 6 in. = i ft

Boiler pressure. 180 lbs. gauge per sq. in.

ast area of port = Area of pipe. Taper of plug — 3 in. per

Mean width of port= ^5t:_ =2.25.

Area of port = 4 X 2'25 ~ 9 sq. in. (approximately).

., pipe = 3- X 7854 = 7 sq. in.

Allow a stress of 3000 lbs. per sq. in. on the four studs.

Diameter of studs - /s" X 7 854 X 80 _

say in diameter.
V 4x7854
< 7854x3000
,
i

NoTR.— Studs of g in. diameter would be sufGcient, but to allojff for a margin of safety say
in. diameter.

Rule, Cover < lap when closed = /"Mean

(
-
circumference of plug\
(Mean width of port).

Then,

—' = 4-25 in. mean diameter of plug.

VerUr' Nous and Skelches.

oiE 1 "« p^n*^' JCJir nb :

l^'-'K-
i

10 tiuc

IJjaBUf

£;lL-a=Gi&'i- '; Ci'^L"-* 2^'^'-

ni cc AA «f1k r"n«fii¥?f.
 No> 33-— Tbree-'Way Change Cock.

To Find Cover or Lap when Cock is Closed.

Cover = ""° circumference of plug_ j^^ ^J^, ^j ^^

.{^^^^^U^^^^^)=
It should be observed thai the pi]>e branches of the plug are not
rcukr in section, but are flattened to correspond to the taper
lape of (he port, so that in elevation th: port and branches are
ich 4 in. in depth inside, but in plan the port and branches only
lOw as a in. in width (mean). This accounts for the sectional

No 33a.— Sketch Showing Tank>filUag Arrangements.

^
,^^- .^.nfa

f^oJtf Tg^-

-/'«>

gnnBsH xiieM ii^

locf .adi 00(:{; lo lioui eanJa ^iis

ibit^idl 1
 No. 34.— Main Bearing.
(Scale. i\ ln:= 1 ft)',

(Draw to a scale of 2 in. = i ft 1

sq.

/ilP: area x Pressure.

Rule. Holding down bolt diameter =
V 4>'-3JOox-78s4

Then. Holdiner down bolt diameter — /=^ — =2-fi. say 2; in diameter (bottom of thread)
V
,
4x3300
Note. — Allow a tensile stress of 3300 lbs. per sq. in.

NOTB —7854 cancels out top and bollom.

Note. —TTie total load on each crank is taken up by a pair of main bearings, hence 4 bolts.

Thickness of white metal = -04 x Diameter of shaft -f-i in.

= 04Xi3-375-h-r = -63Sin., say g in.

Thickness of metal (W.M. included! = Diameter of shaft X -144 + -s.

= 13-375 X 14'i + -3 = 2-22. say zi in.

Thickness of caps= Bolt diameter X -7+ Bolt pitch x i.

= 275 X -7 + 24-5 X = 4-37 -I in., say 4^ in.

 ^
-^
& Jl
A

\
d

/ \

\. ^
-J

yj..

...h d.r liSl

^ ^

ji
TW?
 1

p u
€) li
\

«Ulii ^flKl ''I Irt Iftffi '>

 St'^A
/, q t»n*t

No 35— Steam Pipe Expansion Joint

(Draw to a scale of 3 in. = i ft)

iPresstire. 180 lbs. per sq. in.)

Diameter of Tie Bolts.

Allow a tensile stress ot 3700 lbs. per sq. in. on the bolts.

Then, Diameter of each tie bolt= /?_?1™= 1.24 in,, say li in. diameter.
V 2x3700
NoiB.— The pressure is taken as acting on an 8 in. diameter circle, in place of that of the pipe bore.

'
Notes and Sketches.
 —

t
"w
(8 —>—

rrf
u
No. 36.— Pump Levers.
{Seah, 8 //i. =i /(.)

(Draw to a scale of ij in. =: i ft

D«/a I Engine stroke

-

I
t. Pump stroke

Assume a distance between centre of cylinder and o 7 ft., and set ofiT the respective strokes
at either end. If now a line is drawn diagonally from one stroke to the opposite end of the engine
stroke, it will cut the horizontal centre line at the required ( gudgeon. After finding the rocking shaft
centre in this way, arrange (by trial) that the centre of the pin in pump end of lever is exactly as far short of the

pump when on top or bottom position as it is beyond the pump centre line when at half stroke.
centre line Repeat
this for the engine end and it will be found on scaling that the distance from pin centre at pump end to rocking shaft
centre is exactly 2 ft. 5^ in., and from pin centre at engine end to rocking shaft centre is exactly 5 ft. loj in.

The correct position of these centres is all-important.

We have then the following dimensions determined as described:

Centre of pump to ceattc of ^dgeon As the strokes.

4 ft 8 in.
Length of pump end of lever, centre t< 2 ft Si in.
„ cylinder ,, 4 ft loi in
Square inches of effective bearing surface of studs (pins) per^ 4-5 X 4-5 X_2 _
"~ '

square inch of bucket area J 24* x -7854 .

Square inches of stud (pin) area per square inch of bucket - = ^^i.^ci ='°7 ^ *"

Note.—The bearing surface of a pin, stud, or journal is equal to Length x Diameter (not circumference).

In the foregoing calculations the two pins of the pump end are taken.

"Verbal" Noies and Sketches.

 S/ggI pir\

—r-

-IW

rjisu'bjfc)

^un poj;:
 .

a Sfeol pin

No. 37.— Connecting Rod.

{Scale I ln. = i ft.)

(Draw to a Scale of i^ in. =1 ft.)

-Cylinders. 24 in.. 40 in., 66 in.

Stroke, 42 in.
Boiler steam, 170 lbs.
Crank pin, 12^ in. diameter by 14A in. Then,
Crosshead pin, 6h in. diameter by 63 i
Diameter = diameter.
V
.

Piston rod, 6} in. diameter. <40oo

2x4000
t tensile stress of 4000 lbs. per sq.

Then,
. X 2-3 = 96-6, or, say, 9S i Diameter = /?4ix_L7? 2.47,
V 4x^)00
Make diameter of rod : small end equal to diameter of Thickness of connecting rod butt bolt diameter x t- =
piston rod, and allow i n. taper in length, which gives
' Then. 3-5 in. X 1-32 =
4-62 in., qf. say. 4^ in. thick.
6j^ in. and 7J in. as the t\\ I
diameters. Thickness of butt at jaws =: bolt diameter X 1*2.
Then, 25 x 1-2 3 i" thick. =
Make thickness of jaw = rod diameter at top X '

Then. 6-5 in. x -55 = 3-57 ">.. or. aay, 3§ in.

Inner radius of jaw, 5 in., and outer radius=5 in. -(-3^ ii

After striking off the jaw < at 8^ in. radius, contin Total thickness of metal round crank pin and crosshead pin
the line of jaw into rod w 60° angk- set square, — pin diameter x -16.
shown. Then, 12-5 X -16= 2 in. (bottom end),
and. 6-5 X -16= 1-04 in. (top end).
Width of jaw = diameter of rod (small end) x 1

Then. 6-5 in. x M =7'i in., say 7 in. width. Allow thickness of white mi-tal ^ in. to ^ in. reduced
to in. between recessed dovetails.
BOLTS, I

Depth of nuts +
collars = diameter of bolts (at least).
Diameter of bottom end bolts = /- Width of bottom end but and cap = bolt diameter >
(2 bolts) \' 2
Then, 35 in. X 2-6 - 9-10 in., or, say, gi in,
Load ( Width of top end butt i length of crosshead pin. less
clearance at sides.
 3'liut
^_

?ia. J

For

" Verbal " Not

 No. 38— Pump Crosshead and Links.
{Scale, i in =1 ft)

(Draw to a scale of i^ in = 1 ft )

For pumps of the size^; given, the above are the average diniensipns and proportions adopted in practice.

" Verbal " Notes and Skclches,

 baturated Steam Tabks 665

Properties of Saturated Steam

Offrom 0-5 lb. to 250 lbs. Absolute Pressure per Square Inch.

Absolute
666 **
Verbal" Notes and Sketches

Properties of Saturated Steam —continued.

Total Heat of
Absolute of Steam
I lb.
Pressure per Temperatures.
from Water sup-
Square Inch.
plied at 32° Fahr.

Lbs. Deg. Fahr. Units.

27 244 •4
28 246
29 2

30 250
31 252
32 254
255
34 257
35 259
36 260
37 262
38 264
39 265
40 267
41 268
42 270
43 271
44 273
45 274
46 275
47 277
48 278
49 279
50 281
51 282
52 283
53 284
54 285
55 287
56 288
57 289
58 290
59 291
60 292
61 293
62 294
295
64 296
65 298
66 299
67 300
68 300
69 301
 Saturated Steam Tables 66^
Properties of Saturated Stta.m— continued.

Absolute
Pressure per
Square Inch.
668 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

Properties of Saturated Steam —continued.

Absolute
 Saturated Steam Tables 669

Properties of Saturated Steam —continued.

Absolute
670 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

Table of Circumferences and Areas of Circles.

Diam.
 Areas and Circumferences 67 l

Table of Circumferences and Areas of C'wqXqs— continued.

Diam.
672 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

Table of Circumferences and Areas of Circles— conftnued.

Diam.
 Areas and Circumferences 673

Table of Circumferences and Areas of Circles— tron/i/iued.

Diam.
($74 "Verbal" Notes and Sketches

Table of Circumferences and Areas of CircXts— continued.

Diam.
 Areas and Circumferences 675
Table of Circumferences and Areas of Circles -continued.

Diam.
 " Notes and Sketches
6/6 Verbal

Hyperbolic Logarithms.

No. of
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY
Los Angeles
•T^rhis book is DUE on the last date stamped below.
-CEB

DEC 1