A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

K-12 Mathematics

Foreword
We are excited to announce that the State Board of Education took a key step in
reforming Ohio’s education system on December 11, 2001, when it unanimously
adopted academic content standards in reading, writing and mathematics. Clear
standards about what students should know and be able to do in reading, writing
and mathematics is the first component of an aligned system that will ensure no
child is left behind.

This enormous undertaking could not have occurred without the hard work and
dedication of Ohio’s educators and community members. Classroom teachers,
parents, higher education faculty and business community leaders worked in
teams across the state to develop these standards over the last several years. Fifty
percent of the math writing team and 48 percent of the English Language Arts
team were classroom teachers, so we especially want to extend our gratitude to
the men and women in the teaching profession who gave their time, energy and
expertise to create these standards.

The people of Ohio played a key role in the development of these standards. The
Office of Curriculum and Instruction at the Ohio Department of Education,
which facilitated the standards writing process, aggressively engaged the public
in reviewing the standards in draft forms. Thousands of Ohioans gave suggestions
that were evaluated and incorporated, as appropriate, by the writing teams into the
final adopted standards.

The standards fulfill the requirement and timeline of Amended Substitute Senate
Bill 1 for the State Board of Education to develop and adopt clear academic
content standards in the areas of reading, writing and mathematics by the end of
2001. The bill gives the Department of Education 18 months from the standards
adoption to design and produce model curricula for kindergarten through 12th
grade, which Ohio school districts may, but are not obligated to, use.

The State Board of Education will use these standards as the basis for the
development of achievement or diagnostic assessments for kindergarten through
grade 10.

i
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Achieve, Inc., an independent, bipartisan, nonprofit national organization that helps states
raise academic standards, considers Ohio’s standards in both areas to be among the best
in the country. A review of the new standards to the State Board of Education reported
that they are clear and comprehensive and that they set high expectations for student
learning. “We commend the State on the high quality of the mathematics benchmarks and
grade-level indicators. They represent a good balance of conceptual, procedural, and
practical knowledge and skills,” the review stated. “Ohio has standards, indicators and
benchmarks that serve as the basis for a powerful language arts framework for literacy.”

Jennifer L. Sheets Susan Tave Zelman

President Superintendent of Public Instruction
State Board of Education Ohio Department of Education

Front Row (left to right): Marlene R. Jennings, Melanie Bates, Sue Westendorf,
Deborah Owens Fink
Second Row (left to right): Jennifer L. Sheets, Cyrus B. Richardson, Jr., Virginia E. Jacobs,
Carl Wick, Jennifer Stewart, Emerson J. Ross, Jr., Martha W. Wise,
James L. Turner, Susan Zelman
Third Row: Richard E. Baker
Absent: Virgil E. Brown, Jr., Michael Cochran, Thomas E. McClain, Joseph D. Roman, Jo Thatcher

ii
A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

K-12 Mathematics

Table of Contents
Page

Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

Structure and Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17

Philosophy and Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23

Benchmarks and Indicators by Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29

Benchmarks and Indicators by Grade-Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109

Instructional Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .189

Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .223

Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .235

iii
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

iv
A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

K-12 Mathematics

Overview

1
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

K-12 Mathematics
The mathematics academic content standards prepare all students for success in
the workplace and post-secondary education. Competency in mathematics
includes understanding of mathematical concepts, facility with mathematical
skills, and application of concepts and skills to problem-solving situations.
Students are able to communicate mathematical reasoning using mathematical
and everyday language.

Whenever possible, students should have opportunities to learn mathematics

through real-world contexts, including practical applications, real data, and
numbers often associated with situations and problems encountered in the
workplace and daily life. All students should be exposed to a mathematics program
rich in technology, including calculators, computers, and technology applications.

The six standards that follow represent the mathematics content and processes all
students should know and be able to use as they progress through school. These
include:

Content Standards: Number, Number Sense and Operations

Measurement
Geometry and Spatial Sense
Patterns, Functions and Algebra
Data Analysis and Probability
Process Standard: Mathematical Processes

The rigorous, yet realistic standards provide a comprehensive foundation for all
students to think and reason mathematically and use mathematics knowledge
and skills effectively in post-secondary education, the workplace, and daily life.
These standards represent a connected body of mathematical understandings and
competencies, rather than a menu of discrete topics from which to choose.

Throughout the five content standards, students will use mathematical processes,
including reasoning, communication and representation skills, and appropriate
technology within problem-solving situations. Making connections within
mathematics and between mathematics and other disciplines is critical for
student success in using mathematics effectively in school, work and daily life.

Even though each of these six standards applies to all grades, emphases will vary
both within and between the grade clusters. For example, the emphasis on num-
2
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

ber, number sense and operations is greatest in elementary grades and by grades 9-12,
topics related to number, number sense and operations represent a smaller portion of the
curriculum.

This set of six standards does not neatly separate the curriculum into separate or discrete
topics. The content described by the standards and benchmarks are interrelated. For
example, number pervades all areas of mathematics, and some topics in measurement are
closely related to those within geometry. And mathematical processes are used in all
content areas and are best learned when carefully integrated with content in instruction
and assessment.

Technology, such as calculators and computers, help students learn mathematics and
support effective mathematics teaching. Rather than replacing the learning of basic
concepts and skills, technology can connect skills and procedures to deeper mathematical
understanding. For example, geometry software allows experimentation with families of
geometric objects, and graphing utilities facilitate learning about the characteristics of
classes of functions.

The following terms and definitions are used in the document:

Standard: An overarching goal or theme in mathematics. The standard statement

describes, in broad terms, what students should know and be able to do as
a result of the K-12 program.

Benchmark: A specific statement of what a student should know and be able to do at a

specific time in his/her schooling. Benchmarks are used to measure a
student’s progress towards meeting the standard. Benchmarks are defined
for grades 2, 4, 7, 10 and 12.

Grade-level A specific statement of the knowledge and/or skills that a student

Indicator: demonstrates at each grade level. These indicators serve as checkpoints
that monitor progress toward the benchmarks.

3
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

The Development of
Academic Content Standards
Joint Council of the
State Board of Education and
the Ohio Board of Regents
Academic Content Standards

The process for developing academic content standards began in 1997 when the
State Board of Education and the Ohio Board of Regents created a Joint Council
to oversee the implementation of recommendations made by the Secondary and
Higher Education Remediation Advisory Commission. The boards began to
build a common long-term agenda for pre-K through 16 education.

The Joint Council started its work by establishing a set of common expectations
for what all students should know and be able to do upon completion of high
school. The initial work established common expectations in six content areas:
(1) the arts, (2) English language arts, (3) foreign languages, (4) mathematics,
(5) science, and (6) social studies. These drafts were transformed into Ohio’s
Academic content standards.

The Joint Council assembled advisory groups to assist in completing preliminary

planning for the process to draft Ohio’s new academic content standards. This
preliminary planning included review of exemplary world-class standards from
the United States and other countries and the formulation of strategic policy
recommendations. The recommendations assured that the drafting and refining
of academic content standards would respect Ohio’s history for sharing
responsibility for curriculum decisions with Ohio’s diverse learning communities.

Writing Teams were made up of representatives from all twelve regions served
by the Ohio Department Regional Professional Development Centers and
included educators from each grade level, K-12, as well as career-technical,
special education, and gifted education. Ohio’s diverse ethnicity, geography,
types of school districts, and colleges and universities were represented on the
writing teams. Parent and business and industry representatives also were
represented on the writing teams. All original members of the teams who wrote
the Common Expectations were invited back to join the writing teams.

4
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

When the writing teams completed the draft academic content standards documents,
these documents were subjected to a period of extensive public engagement and rigorous
review. Focus group meetings and electronic feedback via the web page allowed all
stakeholders to express their opinions. The writing teams reviewed the public feedback
and made revision recommendations to respond to the issues raised by feedback. The
draft standards presented to the State Board of Education for adoption reflect the final
recommendations of this writing process and include grade-level indicators of progress
(K-12), benchmarks that will serve as checkpoints at key grade bands, philosophies and
guide principles.

5
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Development and Implementation Timeline

Based on Amended Substitute Senate Bill 1

English Mathematics Science Social Studies Technology

Language Foreign Languages
Arts The Arts

(1) Assemble Advisory State Board

Committee adoption of these
Development

(2) Identify Writing Team content areas will

(3) Develop Draft Standards follow the
and Benchmarks adoption of
(4) Convene Writing Team English Language
(5) Seek Focused Input Arts,
(6) Engage the Public Mathematics,
(7) Revise Draft Standards Science and
and Benchmarks Social Studies
(8) Adoption of Academic December December December December
Content Standards by the 2001 2001 2002 2002
State Board of Education
Implementation

(9) Develop products

and services
(10) Design Curriculum Models
(11) Present for Public Review
(12) State Board Review
(13) Adoption of Curriculum June June June June
Models by State Board 2003 2003 2004 2004
of Education

(14) Deliver Curriculum September September September September

Models; Professional 2003 2003 2004 2004
Development

6
A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Mathematics Writing Teams

The Ohio Department of Education wishes to express appreciation and gratitude

to the writing teams who contributed expertise and time to the development of
Ohio’s Mathematics Academic Content Standards. Many hours were devoted to
research and thoughtful consideration of issues to ensure the standards reflect
wise and responsible thinking regarding mathematics teaching and learning. The
writing team members represent the many caring and concerned individuals
across the state dedicated to their profession and to high quality mathematics
education for all Ohio students.

Mathematics Common Expectations John Conklin

Writing Team Trimble High School
High School Teacher
Thomas Ballas
The Timken Company Robert Jones
Business Cleveland Municipal Schools
Supervisor, K-12 Mathematics
Lamar Bently
The University of Toledo Genita Jordan
Chair, Mathematics Department Cleveland
Parent
Richelle Blair
Lakeland Community College Debra Mauk
Professor, Mathematics Promedia Health Systems
Business
Roseanne Deucher
Columbus Robert Mertens
Parent Capital University
Chair, Mathematics,
Ann Farrell Computer Science & Physics
Wright State University
Associate Professor, Mathematics Margaret Raub Hunt
Ohio Council of Teachers of
Michael Huler Mathematics
Columbus City Schools Executive Director
High School Teacher
7
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Dennis Ray Richelle Blair*

Chillicothe City Schools Lakeland Community College
High School Teacher Professor, Mathematics

Karen Spriegel Jack Boyd

Muskingum Area Technical College Zanesville City Schools
Associate Professor, Mathematics High School Teacher

Elaine Strutner Dan Brahier

American Electric Power Bowling Green State University
Business Associate Professor, Mathematics Education

Linda Taylor Ethel Briggs

University of Cincinnati Mansfield City Schools
Professor, Mathematics Supervisor, Math Curriculum

John Conklin*
Mathematics Academic Content Standards Trimble Local Schools
Advisory/Writing Teams High School Teacher

Kathy Beck Doug Darfus

Napoleon Area City Schools Upper Arlington City Schools
Middle School Teacher Middle School Teacher

Teresa Behan Carolyn Day

Cincinnati City Schools Dayton Public Schools
Elementary Teacher Program Director

Lamar Bentley* Iris DeLoach Johnson

The University of Toledo Miami University
Chair, Mathematics Department Professor, Mathematics Education

Melodie Berhard Fred Dillon

Greenville City Schools Strongsville City Schools
Mathematics Specialist High School Teacher

Sara Eisenhardt
Cincinnati City Schools
Elementary Teacher
* Indicates a member of the original
Common Expectations Writing Team

8
A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Ann Farrell* Jim Lynch

Wright State University Marion
Associate Professor, Mathematics Parent

Dianthia Gilmore Debra Mauk*

Cleveland Municipal Schools Promedia Health Systems
Middle School Teacher Business

Barbara Grover Anita Mauter

Ohio University Toledo City Schools
Professor, Mathematics Elementary Teacher

William Hazlett Patricia McNichols

Vermilion Local Schools Sylvania City Schools
Middle School Teacher Director, Curriculum and Assessment

Michael Huler* Robert Mertens*

Columbus City Schools Capital University
High School Teacher Chair, Mathematics, Computers Science
and Physics
Karen Jeffries
Dayton Public Schools Chris Myers
Middle School Teacher Bellefontaine City Schools
Elementary Teacher
Robert Jones*
Cleveland Municipal Schools Suzanne Nichols
Supervisor, K-12 Mathematics Waverly City Schools
Elementary Teacher
Saba Kassaye
Xenia City Schools Margaret Raub Hunt*
High School Teacher Ohio Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Executive Director
Margaret Kasten
Ohio Resource Center for Mathematics, Dennis Ray*
Science and Reading Chillicothe City Schools
Director High School Teacher

Trish Koontz Linda Ross

Kent State University Mahoning County ESC
Professor, Mathematics & Science/ Curriculum Specialist
Early Grades
9
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Yvonne Shellburn
Springfield City Schools
Supervisor, Mathematics Curriculum

Kay Shrewsbery**
Toledo Public Schools
Elementary Teacher

Nancy Sattler
Terra Community College
Associate Dean, Curriculum

Vicki Sprague
Elyria City Schools
Elementary Teacher

Linda Taylor*
University of Cincinnati
Professor, Mathematics

Bette Jo Walgren
Cuyahoga Falls City Schools
Middle School Teacher

Kay Wallace
Pickerington Local Schools
High School Teacher

* Indicates a member of the original

Common Expectations Writing Team
** Indicates a member of the Governor’s
Commission for Student Success

10
A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Ohio’s K-12
Mathematics Standards
Number, Number Sense and Operations Standard
Students demonstrate number sense, including an understanding of number
systems and operations and how they relate to one another. Students compute
fluently and make reasonable estimates using paper and pencil, technology-
supported and mental methods.

Measurement Standard
Students estimate and measure to a required degree of accuracy and precision by
selecting and using appropriate units, tools and technologies.

Geometry and Spatial Sense Standard

Students identify, classify, compare and analyze characteristics, properties and
relationships of one-, two- and three-dimensional geometric figures and objects.
Students use spatial reasoning, properties of geometric objects, and transformations
to analyze mathematical situations and solve problems.

Patterns, Functions and Algebra Standard

Students use patterns, relations and functions to model, represent and analyze
problem situations that involve variable quantities. Students analyze, model and
solve problems using various representations such as tables, graphs and equations.

Data Analysis and Probability Standard

Students pose questions and collect, organize, represent, interpret and analyze
data to answer those questions. Students develop and evaluate inferences,
predictions and arguments that are based on data.

Mathematical Processes Standard

Students use mathematical processes and knowledge to solve problems. Students
apply problem-solving and decision-making techniques, and communicate
mathematical ideas.
Note: Mathematical processes are used in all content areas and should be incorporated within instruction
and assessment of the content-specific standards, benchmarks and grade-level indicators.
11
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

National Council of
Teachers of Mathematics’
Standards for School Mathematics:
Pre-Kindergarten through Grade 12*
Instructional programs from prekindergarten through grade 12 should enable all
students to:

Number and Operations Standard:

• Understand numbers, ways of representing numbers, relationships among
numbers, and number systems;
• Understand meanings of operations and how they relate to one another; and
• Compute fluently and make reasonable estimates.

Measurement Standard:
• Understand measurable attributes of objects and the units, systems, and
processes of measurement; and
• Apply appropriate techniques, tools, and formulas to determine measurements.

Geometry Standard:
• Analyze characteristics and properties of two- and three-dimensional geometric
shapes and develop mathematical arguments about geometric relationships;
• Specify locations and describe spatial relationships using coordinate geometry
and other representational systems;
• Apply transformations and use symmetry to analyze mathematical situations;
and
• Use visualization, spatial reasoning, and geometric modeling to solve problems.

Algebra Standard:
• Understand patterns, relations, and functions;

* from Principles and Standards for School Mathematics

12
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

• Represent and analyze mathematical situations and structures using algebraic symbols;
• Use mathematical models to represent and understand quantitative relationships; and
• Analyze change in various contexts.

Data Analysis and Probability:

• Formulate questions that can be addressed with data and collect, organize, and display
relevant data to answer them;
• Select and use appropriate statistical methods to analyze data;
• Develop and evaluate inferences and predictions that are based on data; and
• Understand and apply basic concepts of probability.

Process Standards:
Instructional programs for prekindergarten through grade 12 should enable students to –

Problem Solving Standard:

• Build new mathematical knowledge through problem solving; solve problems that arise
in mathematics and in other contexts;
• Apply and adapt a variety of appropriate strategies to solve problems; and
• Monitor and reflect on the process of mathematical problem solving

Reasoning and Proof Standard:

• Recognize reasoning and proof as fundamental aspects of mathematics; make and investi-
gate mathematical conjectures;
• Develop and evaluate mathematical arguments and proofs; and
• Select and use various types of reasoning and methods of proof.

Communication Standard:
• Organize and consolidate their mathematical thinking through communication;
• Communicate their mathematical thinking coherently and clearly to peers, teachers, and
others;
• Analyze and evaluate the mathematical thinking and strategies of others; and
• Use the language of mathematics to express mathematical ideas precisely.

13
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Connections Standard:
• Recognize and use connections among mathematical ideas;
• Understand how mathematical ideas interconnect and build on one another to produce a
coherent whole; and
• Recognize and apply mathematics in contexts outside of mathematics.

Representation Standard:
• Create and use representations to organize, record, and communicate mathematical
ideas;
• Select, apply and translate among mathematical representations to solve problems; and
• Use representations to model and interpret physical, social, and mathematical
phenomena.

14
A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Looking at Ohio’s Mathematics Standards

and National Standards
Ohio Standards NCTM Standards
Number, Number Sense and Number and Operations Standard
Operations Standard • Understand numbers, ways of
Students demonstrate number sense, representing numbers, relationships
including an understanding of number among numbers, and number systems;
systems and operations and how they • Understand meanings of operations
relate to one another. Students compute and how they relate to one another;
fluently and make reasonable estimates and
using paper and pencil, technology- • compute fluently and make
supported and mental methods. reasonable estimates.
Measurement Standard Measurement Standard
Students estimate and measure to a • Understand measurable attributes of
required degree of accuracy and objects and the units, systems, and
precision by selecting and using processes of measurement; and
appropriate units, tools and technologies. • Apply appropriate techniques,
tools, and formulas to determine
measurements.

Geometry and Spatial Sense Standard Geometry Standard

Students identify, classify, compare and • Analyze characteristics and properties
analyze characteristics, properties and of two- and three-dimensional
relationships of one-, two- and three- geometric shapes and develop
dimensional geometric figures and mathematical arguments about
objects. Students use spatial reasoning, geometric relationships;
properties of geometric objects, and • Specify locations and describe spatial
transformations to analyze mathematical relationships using coordinate
situations and solve problems. geometry and other representational
systems;
• Apply transformations and use
symmetry to analyze mathematical
situations; and
• Use visualization, spatial reasoning,
and geometric modeling to solve
problems.

15
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Ohio Standards NCTM Standards

Patterns, Functions and Algebra Algebra Standard

Standard
Students use patterns, relations and • Understand patterns, relations, and
functions to model, represent and functions; represent and analyze
analyze problem situations that involve mathematical situations and structures
variable quantities. Students analyze, using algebraic symbols; and
model and solve problems using various • Use mathematical models to represent
representations such as tables, graphs and understand quantitative
and equations. relationships; analyze change in
various contexts.

Data Analysis and Probability Data Analysis and Probability

Standard Standard
Students pose questions and collect, • Formulate questions that can be
organize, represent, interpret and addressed with data and collect,
analyze data to answer those organize, and display relevant data to
questions. Students develop and answer them;
evaluate inferences, predictions and • Select and use appropriate statistical
arguments that are based on data. methods to analyze data;
• Develop and evaluate inferences and
predictions that are based on data; and
• Understand and apply basic concepts
of probability.
Mathematical Processes Standard Problem Solving Standard
Students use mathematical processes Reasoning and Proof Standard
and knowledge to solve problems. Communication Standard
Students apply problem-solving and Connections Standard
decision-making techniques, and Representation Standard
communicate mathematical ideas.

16
A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

K-12 Mathematics

Structure and
Format

17
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

18
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Academic Content Standards Framework

Mathematics K-12

Standards are made up of several component parts. Those parts are outlined below:

Academic Content Standards ACADEMIC CONTENT STANDARDS

• What all students should know MATHEMATICS
and be able to do
• The overarching goals and
themes

K-2 3-4 5-7 8-10 11-12

Benchmarks
• Key checkpoints that monitor
progress toward academic
content standards
• Identified by grade-level
clusters/bands (K-2, 3-4,
5-7, 8-10, 11-12)
• Grade level bands will vary
across content areas and align
with achievement tests where 2 4 7 10 12
applicable

Grade-Level Indicators 1 3 6 9 11
• What all students should know
and be able to do at each grade
level
K 5 8
• Checkpoints that monitor
progress toward the
benchmarks

19
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

How to Read the Benchmarks

The benchmarks are key checkpoints that monitor student progress toward meeting the
mathematics standards. Benchmarks are organized in grade-level bands.

S
N D A R D
T S T A
O N T E N
C C
D E M I
chmarks
A C A
tic s B e n
hema Grade-
K-12 Mat d of the K-2 program: Level Band
By the en
and
Geometry
nse
Spatial Se
ent
ense Measurem Standard
Number S
Number,
K

pl
ations e and create
and Oper A. Describ ng
th e n e e d for fi g u re s : circle, recta
e p ts A. Explain it s of measure. a re , triangle, h
exa
lu e co n c stan d ard u n sq u
ce va llelog
1

A. Use pla w h o le p ri a te u n its tr a pezoid, para

n t ro id
to represe n u m era ls, B. Select ap
p
t, v o lu m e a n d rh ombus, and
in g eig h
numbers us sical for length, w me, using: th e m in the en
viron
p h y n d ti
words and (capacity) a
2

objec
models. e ., B. D e scribe solid
• objects; i. gular p
y, n its; cube, rectan r, co
B. Recogn iz e , c las sif Benchmark
non-s ta n d a rd u
sphere, cyli
nde
order whole
3

p a re a n d ry u n its : iden
com
. • U .S. customa u n c e, p yramid, and o
numbers ard, o envir
o n ly u sed inch, foot, y art, them in the
nt comm ,q u
C. Represe ing words and pound, cup compare
. Sort and
4

o n s us o n , m in u te , hour, C nal
fracti gall y e a r; tw o-dimensio
m o d els . e k a n d
physical day, we and three-d
imen
a lu e o f a n ti m e te r,
ine the v ic units: ce cts accordin
5

D. Determ f coins an d • m e tr
and li te r. o b je
cs a
collection o meter, gram characteristi
dollar bills. ev e lo p common properties.
coin s C. D
ange using r units of xplai
6

E. Make ch p to one referents fo th , D . Identify, e

len g odel (superp
for values u measure for p a city ) m
me (ca copying) th
ec
dollar. weight, volu ke
ma g
7

using nume
rals and time to shapes bein
F. Count, numbers. s a nd
and simila r.
and ordinal comparison

20
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

How to Read the Indicators

The grade-level indicators represent specific statements of what all students
should know and be able to do at each grade-level. The indicators serve as checkpoints for
monitoring progress toward the benchmarks and standards.

A C A
D E M
I C C O N
T E N
T S T A
N D A
Grade Two R D S

Number, N
umber Sense and Standard
Number an Operation
d
Number Sy
stems
1. Use pla
ce value co s Standard
Organizer
numbers us ncepts to represen

K
ingphysical t, c ompare a
tens and h
undreds. F models, numerals an nd order wGrade-
or example d words, w hole
a. Recogn : ith oLevel
nes,
ize 10 can
mean “10 o

1
through ph nes” or a s
ysical mod ingle entity
els and tra (1 ten)
b. Read a ding game
nd write 3-d s.
three, 24 te igit nu
ns and 3 on merals (e.g., 243 as tw

2
2
es, or 2 hu
Grade-
construct m
odels to re ndreds and o hundred forty
2. Recogniz present eac 43 ones, etc
Level Indicator e and classify h . .) and
n u mbers as e
3
3. Count m ven or odd
oney and m .
4. Represe a ke c hange usin
nt and writ g coins and a
decimal fo e the value dollar bill.
o f money usin
4

rm when u g the ¢ sign

5. Represe sing the $ s
nt fraction ign. and in
using word s (h a lve
s, numerals s, thirds, fourths, six
and physic ths and eig
5

al models. hth
a. Recogn
ize that a fr For example s),
depending actiona :
on the orig l part can mean diffe
inal quanti rent amoun
b. Recogn ty. ts
6

ize that a fr
be shaded a c tio n
with contig al part of a rectangle
uous parts does not h
c. Identify . ave to
and illustra
7

objects te parts of a w
h l
21
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

22
A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

K-12 Mathematics

Philosophy
and Principles

23
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Philosophy and
Guiding Assumptions
Ohio’s Mathematics academic content standards serve as a basis for what all
students should know and be able to do by the time they graduate from high
school. These standards, benchmarks and grade-level indicators are intended to
provide Ohio educators with a set of common expectations from which to base
mathematics curriculum.

Philosophy of Ohio’s Mathematics Academic Content Standards

The intent of Ohio’s Mathematics academic content standards is to ensure ALL
Ohio students understand and use mathematics effectively in everyday life and
the workplace.

• Mathematics literacy is needed to make everyday decisions such as

choosing which product to purchase, interpreting information in news
reports, and selecting insurance or health plans.
• Mathematical thinking and problem-solving are needed in the workplace,
and those who understand and can use mathematics have significantly
enhanced opportunities and options.
• Mathematics plays a central role in modern culture, including aesthetic
and recreational aspects, and an essential role in the scientific and technical
community.

Assumptions for Mathematics Academic Content Standards

Ohio’s academic content standards:

• Set high expectations and strong support for mathematics achievement by

ALL students.
• Represent mathematics knowledge and skills needed to make a successful
transition to post-secondary education, workplace and daily life.
• Reflect sound application of research on how students learn mathematics.
• Align with national standards documents and major studies in
mathematics.

24
A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

• Address mathematics content knowledge and mathematical processes, including

problem-solving, mathematical reasoning, communication, representation and
connections.
• Focus on important mathematics topics that are well-articulated through
benchmarks and grade-level indicators.
• Represent rigorous progression across grades and in-depth study within each grade.
• Provide an appropriate balance among conceptual understanding, procedural
knowledge and skills, and application and problem-solving.
• Incorporate use of technology by ALL students in learning mathematics.
• Serve as the basis for classroom, district and state assessments.
• Guide the development of local mathematics curriculum and instructional
programs.

25
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Mathematics for All

The Ohio Department of Education believes that Ohio’s academic content
standards are for all students. Clearly defined standards delineate what all
children, college and career-bound, should know and be able to do as they
progress through the grade levels. Well-defined standards ensure that parents,
teachers, and administrators will be able to monitor students’ development.
Students, as stakeholders in their own learning, will be capable of tracking their
own learning.

No individual or group should be excluded from the opportunity to learn, and

all students are presumed capable of learning. Every Ohio student, regardless of
race, gender, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, limited English proficiency, learning
disability, or giftedness, should have access to a challenging, standards-based
curriculum.

The knowledge and skills defined in Ohio academic content standards are
within the reach of all students. Students, however, develop at different rates. All
children learn and experience success given time and opportunity, but the degree
to which the standards are met and the time it takes to reach the standards will
vary from student to student.

Students with disabilities, apart from a few profoundly handicapped students,

should have Individual Education Plans aligned with the standards. Students
with disabilities are first and foremost students of the regular curriculum, yet they
may require specific supports and interventions to progress in the curriculum.
These adaptations are not intended to compromise the content standards. Rather,
adaptations provide students with disabilities the opportunity to maximize their
strengths, compensate for their learning difficulties, and participate and progress
in the standards-based curriculum.

Students who can exceed the grade-level indicators and benchmarks set for in
the standards must be afforded the opportunity and be encouraged to do so.
Gifted and talented students may require special services or activities in order to
fully develop their intellectual, creative, artistic and leadership capabilities or to
excel in a specific content area. Again, the point of departure is the standards-
based curriculum.

Students with limited English proficiency (LEP) may also need specific supports
and adaptive instructional delivery in order to achieve Ohio’s academic content
26
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

standards. An instructional delivery plan for a student with LEP needs to take into
account the student’s level of English language proficiency as well as his or her cultural
experiences.

All children deserve adjustments in order to address their individual needs, regardless
of whether they have been designated as learning disabled or gifted. Identifying and
nurturing the talents of all students, and strategizing with students to overcome their
weaknesses, will enable all children to reach the standards. The Department encourages
school districts to align their programs with the standards to ensure that all of Ohio’s
students reach their full potential.

27
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

28
A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

K-12 Mathematics

Benchmarks
and Indicators
by Standard

29
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Benchmarks
Number, Number Sense and Operations Standard
Students demonstrate number sense, including an understanding of number systems
and operations and how they relate to one another. Students compute fluently and
make reasonable estimates using paper and pencil, technology-supported and mental
methods.

Notes By the end of the K-2 program: By the end of the 3-4 program:
A. Use place value concepts to A. Use place value structure of
represent whole numbers the base-ten number system
using numerals, words and to read, write, represent and
physical models. compare whole numbers and
B. Recognize, classify, compare decimals.
and order whole numbers. B. Recognize and generate
C. Represent commonly used equivalent representations
fractions using words and for whole numbers, fractions
physical models. and decimals.

D. Determine the value of a C. Represent commonly used

collection of coins and dollar fractions and mixed numbers
bills. using words and physical
models.
E. Make change using coins for
values up to one dollar. D. Use models, points of
reference and equivalent
F. Count, using numerals and forms of commonly used
ordinal numbers. fractions to judge the size of
G. Model, represent and explain fractions and to compare,
addition as combining sets describe and order them.
and counting on. E. Recognize and classify
H. Model, represent and explain numbers as prime or
subtraction as comparison, composite and list factors.
take-away and part-to-whole. F. Count money and make
change using both coins and
paper bills.

(continued page 30) (continued page 30)

30
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

By the end of the 5-7 program: By the end of the 8-10 program: By the end of the 11-12 program:
A. Represent and compare A. Use scientific notation to A. Demonstrate that vectors
numbers less than 0 through express large numbers and and matrices are systems
familiar applications and numbers less than one. having some of the same
extending the number line. B. Identify subsets of the real properties of the real number
B. Compare, order and convert number system. system.
among fractions, decimals C. Apply properties of B. Develop an understanding
and percents. operations and the real of properties of and
C. Develop meaning for number system, and justify representations for addition
percents, including percents when they hold for a set of and multiplication of vectors
greater than 100 and less numbers. and matrices.
than 1. D. Connect physical, verbal and C. Apply factorials and
D. Use models and pictures symbolic representations of exponents, including
to relate concepts of ratio, integers, rational numbers fractional exponents, to
proportion and percent. and irrational numbers. solve practical problems.

E. Use order of operations, E. Compare, order and D. Demonstrate fluency in

including use of parenthesis determine equivalent forms operations with real numbers,
and exponents to solve of real numbers. vectors and matrices, using
multi-step problems, and mental computation or paper
F. Explain the effects of and pencil calculations for
verify and interpret the operations on the magnitude
results. simple cases and technology
of quantities. for more complicated cases.
F. Apply number system G. Estimate, compute and solve
properties when performing E. Represent and compute with
problems involving real complex numbers.
computations. numbers, including ratio,
proportion and percent, and
explain solutions.

(continued page 31) (continued page 31)

31
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Number, Number Sense and Operations Standard

Notes By the end of the K-2 program: By the end of the 3-4 program:
I. Model, represent and explain G. Model and use commutative
multiplication as repeated and associative properties for
addition, rectangular arrays addition and multiplication.
and skip counting. H. Use relationships between
J. Model, represent and explain operations, such as
division as sharing equally, subtraction as the inverse
repeated subtraction and of addition and division as
rectangular arrays. the inverse of multiplication.
K. Demonstrate fluency in I. Demonstrate fluency in
addition facts with addends multiplication facts with
through 9 and corresponding factors through 10 and
subtractions. corresponding divisions.
L. Demonstrate fluency in J. Estimate the results of whole
adding and subtracting number computations using
multiples of 10, and recognize a variety of strategies, and
combinations that make 10. judge the reasonableness.
M. Add and subtract two-digit K. Analyze and solve multi-step
numbers with and without problems involving addition,
regrouping. subtraction, multiplication
and division of whole
numbers.
L. Use a variety of methods and
appropriate tools (mental
math, paper and pencil,
calculators) for computing
with whole numbers.
M. Add and subtract commonly
used fractions with like
denominators and decimals,
using models and paper and
pencil.

32
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

By the end of the 5-7 program: By the end of the 8-10 program: By the end of the 11-12 program:
G. Apply and explain the use H. Find the square root of
of prime factorizations, perfect squares, and
common factors, and approximate the square root
common multiples in of non-perfect squares.
problem situations. I. Estimate, compute and solve
H. Use and analyze the steps in problems involving scientific
standard and non-standard notation, square roots and
algorithms for computing numbers with integer
with fractions, decimals and exponents.
integers.
I. Use a variety of strategies,
including proportional
reasoning, to estimate,
compute, solve and explain
solutions to problems
involving integers, fractions,
decimals and percents.

33
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Benchmarks
Measurement Standard
Students estimate and measure to a required degree of accuracy and precision by
selecting and using appropriate units, tools and technologies.

Notes By the end of the K-2 program: By the end of the 3-4 program:
A. Explain the need for A. Select appropriate units for
standard units of measure. perimeter, area, weight,
B. Select appropriate units for volume (capacity), time and
length, weight, volume temperature, using:
(capacity) and time, using: • objects of uniform size;
• objects; i.e., non-standard • U.S. customary units; e.g.,
units; mile, square inch, cubic
• U.S. customary units: inch, inch, second, degree
foot, yard, ounce, pound, Fahrenheit, and other
cup, quart, gallon, minute, units as appropriate;
hour, day, week and year; • metric units; e.g.,
• metric units: centimeter, millimeter, kilometer,
meter, gram and liter. square centimeter,
kilogram, cubic
C. Develop common referents centimeter, degree
for units of measure for Celsius, and other units
length, weight, volume as appropriate.
(capacity) and time to make
comparisons and estimates. B. Know that the number of
units is inversely related to
D. Apply measurement the size of the unit for any
techniques to measure item being measured.
length, weight and volume
(capacity). C. Develop common referents
for units of measure for
E. Recognize that using different length, weight, volume
units of measurement will (capacity) and time to make
yield different numbers for comparisons and estimates.
the same measurement.

(continued page 34)

34
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

By the end of the 5-7 program: By the end of the 8-10 program: By the end of the 11-12 program:
A. Select appropriate units A. Solve increasingly complex A. Explain differences among
to measure angles, non-routine measurement accuracy, precision and error,
circumference, surface area, problems and check for and describe how each of
mass and volume, using: reasonableness of results. those can affect solutions in
• U.S. customary units; e.g., B. Use formulas to find surface measurement situations.
degrees, square feet, area and volume for B. Apply various measurement
pounds, and other units specified three-dimensional scales to describe phenomena
as appropriate; objects accurate to a and solve problems.
• metric units; e.g., square specified level of precision. C. Estimate and compute areas
meters, kilograms and C. Apply indirect measurement and volume in increasingly
other units as appropriate. techniques, tools and complex problem situations.
B. Convert units of length, formulas, as appropriate, D. Solve problem situations
area, volume, mass and to find perimeter, involving derived
time within the same circumference and area measurements; e.g., density,
measurement system. of circles, triangles, acceleration.
quadrilaterals and
C. Identify appropriate tools composite shapes, and to
and apply appropriate find volume of prisms,
techniques for measuring cylinders, and pyramids.
angles, perimeter or
circumference and area D. Use proportional reasoning
of triangles, quadrilaterals, and apply indirect
circles and composite measurement techniques,
shapes, and surface area including right triangle
and volume of prisms and trigonometry and properties
cylinders. of similar triangles, to solve
problems involving
D. Select a tool and measure measurements and rates.
accurately to a specified
level of precision.

(continued page 35) (continued page 35)

35
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Measurement Standard

Notes By the end of the K-2 program: By the end of the 3-4 program:
D. Identify appropriate tools
and apply counting
techniques for measuring
side lengths, perimeter and
area of squares, rectangles,
and simple irregular
two-dimensional shapes,
volume of rectangular
prisms, and time and
temperature.
E. Tell time to the nearest
minute.

36
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

By the end of the 5-7 program: By the end of the 8-10 program: By the end of the 11-12 program:
E. Use problem solving E. Estimate and compute
techniques and technology various attributes, including
as needed to solve problems length, angle measure, area,
involving length, weight, surface area and volume, to
perimeter, area, volume, a specified level of precision.
time and temperature. F. Write and solve real-world,
F. Analyze and explain what multi-step problems
happens to area and involving money, elapsed
perimeter or surface area time and temperature, and
and volume when the verify reasonableness of
dimensions of an object are solutions.
changed.
G. Understand and demonstrate
the independence of
perimeter and area for
two-dimensional shapes and
of surface area and volume
for three-dimensional shapes.

37
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Benchmarks
Geometry and Spatial Sense Standard
Students identify, classify, compare and analyze characteristics, properties and
relationships of one-, two- and three-dimensional geometric figures and objects. Students
use spatial reasoning, properties of geometric objects, and transformations to analyze
mathematical situations and solve problems.

Notes By the end of the K-2 program: By the end of the 3-4 program:
A. Describe and create plane A. Provide rationale for
figures: circle, rectangle, groupings and comparisons
square, triangle, hexagon, of two-dimensional figures
trapezoid, parallelogram and and three-dimensional
rhombus, and identify them objects.
in the environment. B. Describe and identify points,
B. Describe solid objects: cube, lines and planes in the
rectangular prism, sphere, environment.
cylinder, cone and pyramid, C. Describe and identify
and identify them in the intersecting, parallel and
environment. perpendicular lines or
C. Sort and compare segments in the
two-dimensional figures and environment.
three-dimensional objects D. Identify and draw right,
according to their obtuse, acute and straight
characteristics and angles.
properties.
E. Use attributes to describe,
D. Identify, explain and model classify and sketch plane
(superposition, copying) the figures and build solid
concept of shapes being objects.
congruent and similar.
F. Develop definitions of classes
E. Recognize two- and of shapes.
three-dimensional objects
from different positions. G. Find and name locations in
coordinate systems.

(continued on page 38) (continued on page 38)

38
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

By the end of the 5-7 program: By the end of the 8-10 program: By the end of the 11-12 program:
A. Identify and label angle A. Formally define geometric A. Use trigonometric
parts and the regions figures. relationships to verify
defined within the plane and determine solutions
B. Describe and apply the
where the angle resides. in problem situations.
properties of similar and
B. Draw circles, and identify congruent figures; and B. Represent transformations
and determine the justify conjectures involving within a coordinate system
relationships among the similarity and congruence. using vectors and matrices.
radius, diameter, center and
circumference. C. Recognize and apply angle
relationships in situations
C. Specify locations and involving intersecting lines,
plot ordered pairs on a
perpendicular lines and
coordinate plane.
parallel lines.
D. Identify, describe and classify
D. Use coordinate geometry to
types of line pairs, angles,
two-dimensional figures and represent and examine the
three-dimensional objects properties of geometric
using their properties. figures.
E. Use proportions to express E. Draw and construct
relationships among representations of two- and
corresponding parts of three-dimensional geometric
similar figures. objects using a variety of
tools, such as straightedge,
F. Describe and use the
compass and technology.
concepts of congruence,
similarity and symmetry to F. Represent and model
solve problems. transformations in a
coordinate plane and
describe the results.

(continued on page 39) (continued on page 39)

39
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Geometry and Spatial Sense Standard

Notes By the end of the K-2 program: By the end of the 3-4 program:
F. Describe location, using H. Identify and describe line
comparative (before, after), and rotational symmetry in
directional (above, below), two-dimensional shapes and
and positional (first, last) designs.
words. I. Describe, identify and model
G. Identify and draw figures reflections, rotations and
with line symmetry. translations, using physical
materials.
J. Describe a motion or series
of transformations that show
two shapes are congruent.

40
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

By the end of the 5-7 program: By the end of the 8-10 program: By the end of the 11-12 program:
G. Describe and use properties G. Prove or disprove
of triangles to solve conjectures and solve
problems involving angle problems involving two-
measures and side lengths and three-dimensional
of right triangles. objects represented within
H. Predict and describe results a coordinate system.
(size, position, orientation) H. Establish the validity of
of transformations of conjectures about geometric
two-dimensional figures. objects, their properties
I. Identify and draw and relationships by
three-dimensional objects counter-example, inductive
from different views (top, and deductive reasoning,
side, front and perspective). and critiquing arguments
made by others.
J. Apply properties of equality
and proportionality to I. Use right triangle
solve problems involving trigonometric relationships
congruent or similar figures; to determine lengths and
e.g., create a scale drawing. angle measures.

41
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Benchmarks
Patterns, Functions and Algebra Standard
Students use patterns, relations and functions to model, represent and analyze problem
situations that involve variable quantities. Students analyze, model and solve problems
using various representations such as tables, graphs and equations.

Notes By the end of the K-2 program: By the end of the 3-4 program:
A. Sort, classify and order A. Analyze and extend patterns,
objects by size, number and and describe the rule in
other properties, and words.
describe the attributes used. B. Use patterns to make
B. Extend sequences of sounds predictions, identify
and shapes or simple number relationships, and solve
patterns, and create and problems.
record similar patterns. C. Write and solve open
C. Create and extend patterns, sentences and explain
and describe the rule in strategies.
words. D. Represent an unknown
D. Model problem situations, quantity as a variable using a
using objects, pictures, symbol, including letters.
numbers and other symbols. E. Use variables to create and
E. Solve open sentences and solve equations representing
explain strategies. problem situations.
F. Represent an unknown F. Construct and use a table of
quantity as a variable using a values to solve problems
symbol, such as ■, ▲, ●. associated with mathematical
relationships.
G. Describe and compare
qualitative and quantitative G. Describe how a change in
changes. one variable affects the value
of a related variable.

42
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

By the end of the 5-7 program: By the end of the 8-10 program: By the end of the 11-12 program:
A. Describe, extend and A. Generalize and explain A. Analyze functions by
determine the rule for patterns and sequences in investigating rates of change,
patterns and relationships order to find the next term intercepts, zeros, asymptotes,
occurring in numeric and the nth term. and local and global behavior.
patterns, computation, B. Identify and classify B. Use the quadratic formula to
geometry, graphs and other functions as linear or solve quadratic equations
applications. nonlinear, and contrast that have complex roots.
B. Represent, analyze and their properties using tables, C. Use recursive functions to
generalize a variety of graphs or equations. model and solve problems;
patterns and functions with C. Translate information from e.g., home mortgages,
tables, graphs, words and one representation (words, annuities.
symbolic rules. table, graph or equation) to D. Apply algebraic methods to
C. Use variables to create another representation of a represent and generalize
and solve equations and relation or function. problem situations involving
inequalities representing D. Use algebraic representations, vectors and matrices.
problem situations. such as tables, graphs,
D. Use symbolic algebra to expressions, functions and
represent and explain inequalities, to model and
mathematical relationships. solve problem situations.
E. Use rules and variables to E. Analyze and compare
describe patterns, functions functions and their graphs
and other relationships. using attributes, such as
rates of change, intercepts
and zeros.
F. Solve and graph linear
equations and inequalities.

(continued on page 43) (continued on page 43)

43
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Patterns, Functions and Algebra Standard

Notes By the end of the K-2 program: By the end of the 3-4 program:

44
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

By the end of the 5-7 program: By the end of the 8-10 program: By the end of the 11-12 program:
F. Use representations, such as G. Solve quadratic equations
tables, graphs and equations, with real roots by graphing,
to model situations and to formula and factoring.
solve problems, especially H. Solve systems of linear
those that involve linear equations involving two
relationships. variables graphically and
G. Write, simplify and evaluate symbolically.
algebraic expressions. I. Model and solve problem
H. Solve linear equations and situations involving direct
inequalities symbolically, and inverse variation.
graphically and numerically. J. Describe and interpret rates
I. Explain how inverse of change from graphical
operations are used to solve and numerical data.
linear equations.
J. Use formulas in
problem-solving situations.
K. Graph linear equations and
inequalities.
L. Analyze functional
relationships, and explain
how a change in one
quantity results in a change
in the other.
M. Approximate and interpret
rates of change from
graphical and numerical
data.

45
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Benchmarks
Data Analysis and Probability Standard
Students pose questions and collect, organize, represent, interpret and analyze data to
answer those questions. Students develop and evaluate inferences, predictions and
arguments that are based on data.

Notes By the end of the K-2 program: By the end of the 3-4 program:
A. Pose questions and gather A. Gather and organize data
data about everyday from surveys and classroom
situations and familiar experiments, including data
objects. collected over a period of
B. Sort and classify objects by time.
attributes, and organize data B. Read and interpret tables,
into categories in a simple charts, graphs (bar, picture,
table or chart. line, line plot), and
C. Represent data using objects, timelines as sources of
picture graphs and bar information, identify main
graphs. idea, draw conclusions, and
make predictions.
D. Describe the probability of
chance events as more, less C. Construct charts, tables and
or equally likely to occur. graphs to represent data,
including picture graphs, bar
graphs, line graphs, line
plots and Venn diagrams.
D. Read, interpret and construct
graphs in which icons
represent more than a single
unit or intervals greater than
one; e.g., each  = 10
bicycles or the intervals on
an axis are multiples of 10.
E. Describe data using mode,
median and range.

(continued page 46)

46
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

By the end of the 5-7 program: By the end of the 8-10 program: By the end of the 11-12 program:
A. Read, create and use line A. Create, interpret and use A. Create and analyze tabular
graphs, histograms, circle graphical displays and and graphical displays of
graphs, box-and-whisker statistical measures to data using appropriate tools,
plots, stem-and-leaf plots, describe data; e.g., including spreadsheets and
and other representations box-and-whisker plots, graphing calculators.
when appropriate. histograms, scatterplots, B. Use descriptive statistics to
B. Interpret data by looking for measures of center and analyze and summarize data,
patterns and relationships, variability. including measures of center,
draw and justify B. Evaluate different graphical dispersion, correlation and
conclusions, and answer representations of the same variability.
related questions. data to determine which is C. Design and perform a
C. Evaluate interpretations and the most appropriate statistical experiment,
conclusions as additional representation for an simulation or study; collect
data are collected, modify identified purpose. and interpret data; and use
conclusions and predictions, C. Compare the characteristics descriptive statistics to
and justify new findings. of the mean, median and communicate and support
mode for a given set of data, predictions and conclusions.
D. Compare increasingly
complex displays of data, and explain which measure D. Connect statistical
such as multiple sets of data of center best represents the techniques to applications in
on the same graph. data. workplace and consumer
D. Find, use and interpret situations.
E. Collect, organize, display
and interpret data for a measures of center and
specific purpose or need. spread, such as mean and
quartiles, and use those
measures to compare and
draw conclusions about sets
of data.

(continued page 47) (continued page 47)

47
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Data Analysis and Probability Standard

Notes By the end of the K - 2 program: By the end of the 3 - 4 program:

F. Conduct a simple probability
experiment and draw
conclusions about the
likelihood of possible
outcomes.
G. Identify and represent
possible outcomes, such
as arrangements of a set of
up to four members and
possible combinations from
several sets, each containing
2 or 3 members.
H. Use the set of possible
outcomes to describe and
predict events.

48
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

By the end of the 5-7 program: By the end of the 8-10 program: By the end of the 11-12 program:
F. Determine and use the E. Evaluate the validity of
range, mean, median and claims and predictions
mode to analyze and that are based on data
compare data, and explain by examining the
what each indicates about appropriateness of the data
the data. collection and analysis.
G. Evaluate conjectures and F. Construct convincing
predictions based upon data arguments based on analysis
presented in tables and of data and interpretation of
graphs, and identify graphs.
misuses of statistical data G. Describe sampling methods
and displays. and analyze the effects of
H. Find all possible outcomes method chosen on how well
of simple experiments or the resulting sample
problem situations, using represents the population.
methods such as lists, arrays H. Use counting techniques,
and tree diagrams. such as permutations and
I. Describe the probability of combinations, to determine
an event using ratios, the total number of options
including fractional and possible outcomes.
notation. I. Design an experiment to test
J. Compare experimental a theoretical probability, and
and theoretical results for record and explain results.
a variety of simple J. Compute probabilities
experiments. of compound events,
K. Make and justify predictions independent events, and
based on experimental and simple dependent events.
theoretical probabilities. K. Make predictions based on
theoretical probabilities and
experimental results.

49
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Benchmarks
Mathematical Processes Standard
Students use mathematical processes and knowledge to solve problems. Students apply
problem-solving and decision-making techniques, and communicate mathematical ideas.

Notes By the end of the K-2 program: By the end of the 3-4 program:
A. Use a variety of strategies A. Apply and justify the use of
to understand problem a variety of problem-solving
situations; e.g., discussing strategies; e.g., make an
with peers, stating problems organized list, guess and
in own words, modeling check.
problems with diagrams B. Use an organized approach
or physical materials, and appropriate strategies to
identifying a pattern. solve multi-step problems.
B. Identify and restate in own C. Interpret results in the
words the question or context of the problem being
problem and the information solved; e.g., the solution
needed to solve the problem. must be a whole number of
C. Generate alternative buses when determining the
strategies to solve problems. number of buses necessary
D. Evaluate the reasonableness to transport students.
of predictions, estimations D. Use mathematical strategies
and solutions. to solve problems that relate
E. Explain to others how a to other curriculum areas and
problem was solved. the real world; e.g., use a
timeline to sequence events;
F. Draw pictures and use use symmetry in artwork.
physical models to represent
problem situations and E. Link concepts to procedures
solutions. and to symbolic notation;
e.g., model 3 x 4 with a
geometric array, represent
one-third by dividing an
object into three equal parts.

(continued on page 50) (continued on page 50)

50
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

The benchmarks for mathematical processes articulate what students should demonstrate in problem
solving, representation, communication, reasoning and connections at key points in their mathematics
program. Specific grade-level indicators have not been included for the mathematical processes
standard because content and processes should be interconnected at the indicator level. Therefore,
mathematical processes have been embedded within the grade-level indicators for the five content
standards.

By the end of the 5-7 program: By the end of the 8-10 program: By the end of the 11-12 program:
A. Clarify problem-solving A. Formulate a problem or A. Construct algorithms for
situation and identify mathematical model in multi-step and non-routine
potential solution processes; response to a specific need problems.
e.g., consider different or situation, determine B. Construct logical
strategies and approaches to information required to verifications or counter-
a problem, restate problem solve the problem, choose examples to test conjectures
from various perspectives. method for obtaining this and to justify or refute
B. Apply and adapt information, and set limits algorithms and solutions to
problem-solving strategies for acceptable solution. problems.
to solve a variety of B. Apply mathematical C. Assess the adequacy and
problems, including knowledge and skills reliability of information
unfamiliar and non-routine routinely in other content available to solve a problem.
problem situations. areas and practical
situations. D. Select and use various types
C. Use more than one strategy
of reasoning and methods of
to solve a problem, and C. Recognize and use proof.
recognize there are connections between
advantages associated with equivalent representations E. Evaluate a mathematical
various methods. and related procedures for a argument and use reasoning
mathematical concept; e.g., and logic to judge its
D. Recognize whether an
zero of a function and the validity.
estimate or an exact solution
is appropriate for a given x-intercept of the graph of F. Present complete and
problem situation. the function, apply convincing arguments and
proportional thinking when justifications, using inductive
E. Use deductive thinking to
measuring, describing and deductive reasoning,
construct informal
functions, and comparing adapted to be effective for
arguments to support
probabilities. various audiences.
reasoning and to justify
solutions to problems.

(continued on page 51) (continued on page 51) (continued on page 51)

51
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Mathematical Processes Standard

Notes By the end of the K-2 program: By the end of the 3-4 program:
G. Use invented and F. Recognize relationships
conventional symbols and among different topics
common language to within mathematics; e.g., the
describe a problem situation length of an object can be
and solution. represented by a number.
H. Recognize the mathematical G. Use reasoning skills to
meaning of common words determine and explain the
and phrases, and relate reasonableness of a solution
everyday language to with respect to the problem
mathematical language situation.
and symbols. H. Recognize basic valid and
I. Communicate mathematical invalid arguments, and use
thinking by using everyday examples and counter
language and appropriate examples, models, number
mathematical language. relationships, and logic to
support or refute.
I. Represent problem situations
in a variety of forms
(physical model, diagram,
in words or symbols), and
recognize when some ways
of representing a
problem may be more
helpful than others.
J. Read, interpret, discuss and
write about mathematical
ideas and concepts using
both everyday and
mathematical language.
K. Use mathematical language
to explain and justify
mathematical ideas,
strategies and solutions.

52
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

By the end of the 5-7 program: By the end of the 8-10 program: By the end of the 11-12 program:
F. Use inductive thinking to D. Apply reasoning processes G. Understand the difference
generalize a pattern of and skills to construct between a statement that is
observations for particular logical verifications or verified by mathematical
cases, make conjectures, and counter-examples to test proof, such as a theorem,
provide supporting conjectures and to justify and one that is verified
arguments for conjectures. and defend algorithms and empirically using examples
G. Relate mathematical ideas to solutions. or data.
one another and to other E. Use a variety of mathematical H. Use formal mathematical
content areas; e.g., use area representations flexibly and language and notation to
models for adding fractions, appropriately to organize, represent ideas, to
interpret graphs in reading, record and communicate demonstrate relationships
science and social studies. mathematical ideas. within and among
H. Use representations to F. Use precise mathematical representation systems, and
organize and communicate language and notations to to formulate generalizations.
mathematical thinking and represent problem situations I. Communicate mathematical
problem solutions. and mathematical ideas. ideas orally and in writing
I. Select, apply, and translate G. Write clearly and coherently with a clear purpose and
among mathematical about mathematical thinking appropriate for a specific
representations to solve and ideas. audience.
problems; e.g., representing H. Locate and interpret J. Apply mathematical
a number as a fraction, mathematical information modeling to workplace and
decimal or percent as accurately, and communicate consumer situations,
appropriate for a problem. ideas, processes and including problem
J. Communicate mathematical solutions in a complete and formulation, identification
thinking to others and easily understood manner. of a mathematical model,
analyze the mathematical interpretation of solution
thinking and strategies of within the model, and
others. validation to original
problem situation.
K. Recognize and use
mathematical language
and symbols when reading,
writing and conversing with
others.

53
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

K-12 Mathematics
Grade-Level Indicators
Number, Number Sense and Operations Standard
Students demonstrate number sense, including an understanding of number
systems and operations and how they relate to one another. Students
compute fluently and make reasonable estimates using paper and pencil,
technology-supported and mental methods.

Kindergarten
Number and 1. Compare and order whole numbers up to 10.
Number Systems 2. Explain rules of counting, such as each object
should be counted once and that order does not
change the number.
3. Count to twenty; e.g., in play situations or while
reading number books.
4. Determine “how many” in sets (groups) of 10 or
fewer objects.
5. Relate, read and write numerals for single-digit
numbers (0 to 9).
6. Construct multiple sets of objects each containing
the same number of objects.
7. Compare the number of objects in two or more
sets when one set has one or two more, or one or
two fewer objects.
8. Represent and use whole numbers in flexible
ways, including relating, composing and
decomposing numbers; e.g., 5 marbles can be 2
red and 3 green or 1 red and 4 green.
9. Identify and state the value of a penny, nickel and
dime.

54
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Meaning of Operations 10. Model and represent addition as combining sets and
counting on, and subtraction as take-away and
comparison. For example:
a. Combine and separate small sets of objects in
contextual situations; e.g., add or subtract one, two,
or another small amount.
b. Count on (forward) and count back (backward) on a
number line between 0 and 10.
11. Demonstrate joining multiple groups of objects, each
containing the same number of objects; e.g., combining 3
bags of candy, each containing 2 pieces.
12. Partition or share a small set of objects into groups of
equal size; e.g., sharing 6 stickers equally among 3
children.
Computation and 13. Recognize the number or quantity of sets up to 5
Estimation without counting; e.g., recognize without counting the
dot arrangement on a domino as 5.

Grade One
Number and 1. Use ordinal numbers to order objects; e.g., first, second,
Number Systems third.
2. Recognize and generate equivalent forms for the same
number using physical models, words and number
expressions; e.g., concept of ten is described by
“10 blocks”, full tens frame, numeral 10, 5 + 5, 15 - 5,
one less than 11, my brother’s age.
3. Read and write the numerals for numbers to 100.
4. Count forward to 100, count backwards from 100, and
count forward or backward starting at any number
between 1 and 100.

55
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

5. Use place value concepts to represent whole numbers

using numerals, words, expanded notation and physical
models with ones and tens. For example:
a. Develop a system to group and count by twos, fives
and tens.
b. Identify patterns and groupings in a 100's chart and
relate to place value concepts.
c. Recognize the first digit of a two-digit number as the
most important to indicate size of a number and the
nearness to 10 or 100.
6. Identify and state the value of a penny, nickel, dime,
quarter and dollar.
7. Determine the value of a small collection of coins (with a
total value up to one dollar) using 1 or 2 different type
coins, including pennies, nickels, dimes and quarters.
8. Show different combinations of coins that have the same
value.
9. Represent commonly used fractions using words
and physical models for halves, thirds and fourths,
recognizing fractions are represented by equal size parts
of a whole and of a set of objects.
Meaning of Operations 10. Model, represent and explain addition as combining sets
(part + part = whole) and counting on. For example:
a. Model and explain addition using physical materials
in contextual situations.
b. Draw pictures to model addition.
c. Write number sentences to represent addition.
d. Explain that adding two whole numbers yields a
larger whole number.
11. Model, represent and explain subtraction as
take-away and comparison. For example:
a. Model and explain subtraction using physical
materials in contextual situations.
b. Draw pictures to model subtraction.

56
A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

c. Write number sentences to represent subtraction.

d. Explain that subtraction of whole numbers yields an
answer smaller than the original number.
12. Use conventional symbols to represent the operations of
addition and subtraction.
13. Model and represent multiplication as repeated addition
and rectangular arrays in contextual situations; e.g.,
four people will be at my party and if I want to give 3
balloons to each person, how many balloons will I need
to buy?
14. Model and represent division as sharing equally in
contextual situations; e.g., sharing cookies.
15. Demonstrate that equal means “the same as” using
visual representations.
Computation and 16. Develop strategies for basic addition facts, such as:
Estimation a. counting all;
b. counting on;
c. one more, two more;
d. doubles;
e. doubles plus or minus one;
f. make ten;
g. using tens frames;
h. identity property (adding zero).
17. Develop strategies for basic subtraction facts, such as:
a. relating to addition (for example, think of
7 - 3 = ? as “3 plus ? equals 7”);
b. one less, two less;
c. all but one (for example, 8 - 7, 5 - 4);
d. using tens frames;
e. missing addends.

57
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Grade Two
Number and 1. Use place value concepts to represent, compare and
Number Systems order whole numbers using physical models, numerals
and words, with ones, tens and hundreds. For example:
a. Recognize 10 can mean “10 ones” or a single entity
(1 ten) through physical models and trading games.
b. Read and write 3-digit numerals (e.g., 243 as two
hundred forty three, 24 tens and 3 ones, or
2 hundreds and 43 ones, etc.) and construct models
to represent each.
2. Recognize and classify numbers as even or odd.
3. Count money and make change using coins and a dollar
bill.
4. Represent and write the value of money using the ¢ sign
and in decimal form when using the $ sign.
5. Represent fractions (halves, thirds, fourths, sixths and
eighths), using words, numerals and physical models.
For example:
a. Recognize that a fractional part can mean different
amounts depending on the original quantity.
b. Recognize that a fractional part of a rectangle does
not have to be shaded with contiguous parts.
c. Identify and illustrate parts of a whole and parts of
sets of objects.
d. Compare and order physical models of halves, thirds
and fourths in relation to 0 and 1.
Meaning of Operations 6. Model, represent and explain subtraction as comparison,
take-away and part-to-whole; e.g., solve missing addend
problems by counting up or subtracting, such as “I had
six baseball cards, my sister gave me more, and I now
have ten. How many did she give me?” can be
represented as 6 + ? = 10 or 10 - 6 = ?.
7. Model, represent and explain multiplication as repeated
addition, rectangular arrays and skip counting.

58
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

8. Model, represent and explain division as sharing equally

and repeated subtraction.
9. Model and use the commutative property for addition.
Computation and 10. Demonstrate fluency in addition facts with addends
Estimation through 9 and corresponding subtractions; e.g.,
9 + 9 = 18, 18 – 9 = 9.
11. Add and subtract multiples of 10.
12. Demonstrate multiple strategies for adding and
subtracting 2- or 3-digit whole numbers, such as:
a. compatible numbers;
b. compensatory numbers;
c. informal use of commutative and associative
properties of addition.
13. Estimate the results of whole number addition and
subtraction problems using front-end estimation, and
judge the reasonableness of the answers.

Grade Three
Number and 1. Identify and generate equivalent forms of whole
Number Systems numbers; e.g., 36, 30 + 6, 9 x 4, 46 - 10, number of inches
in a yard.
2. Use place value concepts to represent whole numbers
and decimals using numerals, words, expanded notation
and physical models. For example:
a. Recognize 100 means “10 tens” as well as a single
entity (1 hundred) through physical models and
trading games.
b. Describe the multiplicative nature of the number
system; e.g., the structure of 3205 as
3 x 1000 plus 2 x 100 plus 5 x 1.
c. Model the size of 1000 in multiple ways; e.g., packaging
1000 objects into 10 boxes of 100, modeling a meter
with centimeter and decimeter strips, or gathering
1000 pop-can tabs.

59
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

d. Explain the concept of tenths and hundredths using

physical models, such as metric pieces, base ten
blocks, decimal squares or money.
3. Use mathematical language and symbols to compare and
order; e.g., less than, greater than, at most, at least, <, >,
=, ≤, ≥.
4. Count money and make change using coins and paper
bills to ten dollars.
5. Represent fractions and mixed numbers using words,
numerals and physical models.
6. Compare and order commonly used fractions and mixed
numbers using number lines, models (such as fraction
circles or bars), points of reference (such as more or less
1
than  ), and equivalent forms using physical or visual
2
models.
7. Recognize and use decimal and fraction concepts and
notations as related ways of representing parts of a whole
or a set; e.g., 3 of 10 marbles are red can also be described
3
as  and 3 tenths are red.
10
Meaning of Operations 8. Model, represent and explain multiplication; e.g.,
repeated addition, skip counting, rectangular arrays and
area model. For example:
a. Use conventional mathematical symbols to
write equations for word problems involving
multiplication.
b. Understand that, unlike addition and subtraction,
the factors in multiplication and division may have
different units; e.g., 3 boxes of 5 cookies each.
9. Model, represent and explain division; e.g., sharing
equally, repeated subtraction, rectangular arrays and
area model. For example:
a. Translate contextual situations involving division
into conventional mathematical symbols.
b. Explain how a remainder may impact an answer in a
real-world situation; e.g., 14 cookies being shared by
4 children.
60
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

10. Explain and use relationships between operations, such

as:
a. relate addition and subtraction as inverse operations;
b. relate multiplication and division as inverse
operations;
c. relate addition to multiplication (repeated addition);
d. relate subtraction to division (repeated subtraction).
11. Model and use the commutative and associative
properties for addition and multiplication.
Computation and 12. Add and subtract whole numbers with and without
Estimation regrouping.
13. Demonstrate fluency in multiplication facts through 10
and corresponding division facts.
14. Multiply and divide 2- and 3-digit numbers by a
single-digit number, without remainders for division.
15. Evaluate the reasonableness of computations based upon
operations and the numbers involved; e.g., considering
relative size, place value and estimates.

Grade Four
Number and 1. Identify and generate equivalent forms of fractions and
Number Systems decimals. For example:
a. Connect physical, verbal and symbolic
representations of fractions, decimals and whole
numbers; e.g., 1, 5, “five tenths,” 0.5, shaded
2 10
rectangles with half, and five tenths.
b. Understand and explain that ten tenths is the same
as one whole in both fraction and decimal form.
2. Use place value structure of the base-ten number system
to read, write, represent and compare whole numbers
through millions and decimals through thousandths.
3. Round whole numbers to a given place value.

61
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

4. Identify and represent factors and multiples of whole

numbers through 100, and classify numbers as prime or
composite.
5. Use models and points of reference to compare
commonly used fractions.
Meaning of Operations 6. Use associative and distributive properties to simplify
and perform computations; e.g., use left to right
multiplication and the distributive property to find an
exact answer without paper and pencil, such as
5 x 47 = 5 x 40 + 5 x 7 = 200 + 35 = 235.
7. Recognize that division may be used to solve different
types of problem situations and interpret the meaning of
remainders; e.g., situations involving measurement,
money.
Computation and 8. Solve problems involving counting money and making
Estimation change, using both coins and paper bills.
9. Estimate the results of computations involving whole
numbers, fractions and decimals, using a variety of
strategies.
10. Use physical models, visual representations, and paper
and pencil to add and subtract decimals and commonly
used fractions with like denominators.
11. Develop and explain strategies for performing computa-
tions mentally.
12. Analyze and solve multi-step problems involving addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division using an organized
approach, and verify and interpret results with respect to
the original problem.
13. Use a variety of methods and appropriate tools for
computing with whole numbers; e.g., mental math,
paper and pencil, and calculator.
14. Demonstrate fluency in adding and subtracting whole
numbers and in multiplying and dividing whole
numbers by 1- and 2-digit numbers and multiples of ten.

62
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Grade Five
Number and 1. Use models and visual representation to develop the
Number Systems concept of ratio as part-to-part and part-to-whole, and
the concept of percent as part-to-whole.
2. Use various forms of “one” to demonstrate the
18 9 2 3 6
equivalence of fractions; e.g., =  x  =  x .
24 12 2 4 6
3. Identify and generate equivalent forms of fractions,
decimals and percents.
4. Round decimals to a given place value and round
fractions (including mixed numbers) to the nearest half.
5. Recognize and identify perfect squares and their roots.
Meaning of Operations 6. Represent and compare numbers less than 0 by
extending the number line and using familiar
applications; e.g., temperature, owing money.
7. Use commutative, associative, distributive, identity and
inverse properties to simplify and perform computations.
8. Identify and use relationships between operations to
solve problems.
9. Use order of operations, including use of parentheses, to
simplify numerical expressions.
10. Justify why fractions need common denominators to be
added or subtracted.
11. Explain how place value is related to addition and
subtraction of decimals; e.g., 0.2 + 0.14; the two tenths is
added to the one tenth because they are both tenths.
Computation and 12. Use physical models, points of reference, and equivalent
Estimation forms to add and subtract commonly used fractions with
like and unlike denominators and decimals.
13. Estimate the results of computations involving whole
numbers, fractions and decimals, using a variety of
strategies.

63
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Grade Six
Number and 1. Decompose and recompose whole numbers using factors
Number Systems and exponents (e.g., 32 = 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 = 25 ), and
explain why “squared” means “second power” and
“cubed” means “third power.”
2. Find and use the prime factorization of composite
numbers. For example:
a. Use the prime factorization to recognize the greatest
common factor (GCF).
b. Use the prime factorization to recognize the least
common multiple (LCM).
c. Apply the prime factorization to solve problems and
explain solutions.
3. Explain why a number is referred to as being “rational,”
a
and recognize that the expression  can mean a parts of
b
size 1 each, a divided by b, or the ratio of a to b.
b
4. Describe what it means to find a specific percent of a
number, using real-life examples.
5. Use models and pictures to relate concepts of ratio,
proportion and percent, including percents less than 1
and greater than 100.
Meaning of Operations 6. Use the order of operations, including the use of
exponents, decimals and rational numbers, to simplify
numerical expressions.
7. Use simple expressions involving integers to represent
and solve problems; e.g., if a running back loses 15 yards
on the first carry but gains 8 yards on the second carry,
what is the net gain/loss?
8. Represent multiplication and division situations
involving fractions and decimals with models and visual
representations; e.g., show with pattern blocks what it
2 1
means to take 2   .
3 6

64
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

9. Give examples of how ratios are used to represent

comparisons; e.g., part-to-part, part-to-whole,
whole-to-part.
10. Recognize that a quotient may be larger than the
dividend when the divisor is a fraction; e.g.,
1
6   = 12.
2
Computation and 11. Perform fraction and decimal computations and justify
Estimation their solutions; e.g., using manipulatives, diagrams,
mathematical reasoning.
12. Develop and analyze algorithms for computing with
fractions and decimals, and demonstrate fluency in their
use.
13. Estimate reasonable solutions to problem situations
involving fractions and decimals; e.g.,
7 12
 +   2 and 4.23 x 5.8  25.
8 13
14. Use proportional reasoning, ratios and percents to
represent problem situations and determine the
reasonableness of solutions.
15. Determine the percent of a number and solve related
problems; e.g., find the percent markdown if the original
price was $140, and the sale price is $100.

Grade Seven
Number and 1. Demonstrate an understanding of place value using
Number Systems powers of 10 and write large numbers in scientific
notation.
2. Explain the meaning of exponents that are negative or 0.
3. Describe differences between rational and irrational
numbers; e.g., use technology to show that some
numbers (rational) can be expressed as terminating
or repeating decimals and others (irrational) as
non-terminating and non-repeating decimals.
Meaning of Operations 4. Use order of operations and properties to simplify
numerical expressions involving integers, fractions and
decimals.

65
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

5. Explain the meaning and effect of adding, subtracting,

multiplying and dividing integers; e.g., how adding two
integers can result in a lesser value.
Computation and 6. Simplify numerical expressions involving integers and
Estimation use integers to solve real-life problems.
7. Solve problems using the appropriate form of a rational
number (fraction, decimal or percent).
8. Develop and analyze algorithms for computing with
percents and integers, and demonstrate fluency in their
use.
9. Represent and solve problem situations that can be
modeled by and solved using concepts of absolute value,
exponents and square roots (for perfect squares).

Grade Eight
Number and 1. Use scientific notation to express large numbers and
Number Systems small numbers between 0 and 1.
2. Recognize that natural numbers, whole numbers,
integers, rational numbers and irrational numbers are
subsets of the real number system.
Meaning of Operations 3. Apply order of operations to simplify expressions and
perform computations involving integer exponents and
radicals.
4. Explain and use the inverse and identity properties
and use inverse relationships (addition/subtraction,
multiplication/division, squaring/square roots) in
problem solving situations.
Computation and 5. Determine when an estimate is sufficient and when an
Estimation exact answer is needed in problem situations, and
evaluate estimates in relation to actual answers; e.g.,
very close, less than, greater than.
6. Estimate, compute and solve problems involving rational
numbers, including ratio, proportion and percent, and
judge the reasonableness of solutions.

66
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

7. Find the square root of perfect squares, and approximate

the square root of non-perfect squares as consecutive
integers between which the root lies; e.g., 130 is
between 11 and 12.
8. Add, subtract, multiply, divide and compare numbers
written in scientific notation.

Grade Nine
Number and 1. Identify and justify whether properties (closure, identity,
Number Systems inverse, commutative and associative) hold for a given
set and operations; e.g., even integers and multiplica-
tion.
2. Compare, order and determine equivalent forms for
rational and irrational numbers.
Meaning of Operations 3. Explain the effects of operations such as multiplication
or division, and of computing powers and roots on the
magnitude of quantities.
Computation and 4. Demonstrate fluency in computations using real
Estimation numbers.
5. Estimate the solutions for problem situations involving
square and cube roots.

Grade Ten
Number and 1. Connect physical, verbal and symbolic representations of
Number Systems irrational numbers; e.g., construct 2 as a hypotenuse or
on a number line.
Meaning of Operations 2. Explain the meaning of the nth root.
Computation and 3. Use factorial notation and computations to represent and
Estimation solve problem situations involving arrangements.
4. Approximate the nth root of a given number greater
than zero between consecutive integers when n is an
integer; e.g., the 4th root of 50 is between 2 and 3.

67
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Grade Eleven
Number and 1. Determine what properties hold for matrix addition and
Number Systems matrix multiplication; e.g., use examples to show
addition is commutative and when multiplication is not
commutative.
2. Determine what properties hold for vector addition and
multiplication, and for scalar multiplication.
3. Represent complex numbers on the complex plane.
Meaning of Operations 4. Use matrices to represent given information in a
problem situation.
5. Model, using the coordinate plane, vector addition and
scalar multiplication.
Computation and 6. Compute sums, differences and products of matrices
Estimation using paper and pencil calculations for simple cases, and
technology for more complicated cases.
7. Compute sums, differences, products and quotients of
complex numbers.
8. Use fractional and negative exponents as optional
ways of representing and finding solutions for problem
situations; e.g., 272/3 = (271/3)2 = 9.
9. Use vector addition and scalar multiplication to solve
problems.

Grade Twelve
Number and 1. Determine what properties (closure, identity, inverse,
Number Systems commutative and associative) hold for operations with
complex numbers.
Computation and 2. Apply combinations as a method to create coefficients
Estimation for the Binomial Theorem, and make connections to
everyday and workplace problem situations.

68
A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

K-12 Mathematics
Grade-Level Indicators
Measurement Standard

Students estimate and measure to a required degree of accuracy and

precision by selecting and using appropriate units, tools and technologies.

Kindergarten
Measurement Units 1. Identify units of time (day, week, month, year)
and compare calendar elements; e.g., weeks are
longer than days.
Use Measurement 2. Compare and order objects of different lengths,
Techniques and Tools areas, weights and capacities; and use relative
terms, such as longer, shorter, bigger, smaller,
heavier, lighter, more and less.
3. Measure length and volume (capacity) using
uniform objects in the environment. For example,
find:
a. how many paper clips long is a pencil;
b. how many small containers it takes to fill one
big container using sand, rice, beans.
4. Order events based on time. For example:
a. activities that take a long or short time;
b. review what we do first, next, last;
c. recall what we did or plan to do yesterday,
today, tomorrow.

69
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Grade One
Measurement Units 1. Recognize and explain the need for fixed units and tools
for measuring length and weight; e.g., rulers and
balance scales.
2. Tell time to the hour and half hour on digital and analog
(dial) timepieces.
3. Order a sequence of events with respect to time; e.g.,
summer, fall, winter and spring; morning, afternoon and
night.
Use Measurement 4. Estimate and measure weight using non-standard units;
Techniques and Tools e.g., blocks of uniform size.
5. Estimate and measure lengths using non-standard and
standard units; i.e., centimeters, inches and feet.

Grade Two
Measurement Units 1. Identify and select appropriate units of measure for:
a. length – centimeters, meters, inches, feet or yards;
b. volume (capacity) – liters, cups, pints or quarts;
c. weight – grams, ounces or pounds;
d. time – hours, half-hours, quarter-hours or minutes
and time designations, a.m. or p.m.
2. Establish personal or common referents for units of
measure to make estimates and comparisons; e.g., the
width of a finger is a centimeter, a large bottle of soda
pop is 2 liters, a small paper clip weighs about one gram.
3. Describe and compare the relationships among units of
measure, such as centimeters and meters; inches, feet
and yards; cups, pints and quarts; ounces and pounds;
and hours, half-hours, and quarter-hours; e.g., how
many inches in a foot?
4. Tell time to the nearest minute interval on digital and to
the nearest 5 minute interval on analog (dial) timepieces.

70
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Use Measurement 5. Estimate and measure the length and weight of common
Techniques and Tools objects, using metric and U.S. customary units, accurate
to the nearest unit.
6. Select and use appropriate measurement tools; e.g., a
ruler to draw a segment 3 inches long, a measuring cup
to place 2 cups of rice in a bowl, a scale to weigh 50
grams of candy.
7. Make and test predictions about measurements, using
different units to measure the same length or volume.

Grade Three
Measurement Units 1. Identify and select appropriate units for measuring:
a. length – miles, kilometers and other units of measure
as appropriate;
b. volume (capacity) – gallons;
c. weight – ounces, pounds, grams, or kilograms;
d. temperature – degrees (Fahrenheit or Celsius).
2. Establish personal or common referents to include
additional units; e.g., a gallon container of milk; a
postage stamp is about a square inch.
3. Tell time to the nearest minute and find elapsed time
using a calendar or a clock.
4. Read thermometers in both Fahrenheit and Celsius
scales.
Use Measurement 5. Estimate and measure length, weight and volume
Techniques and Tools (capacity), using metric and U.S. customary units,
1 1
accurate to the nearest  or  unit as appropriate.
2 4
6. Use appropriate measurement tools and techniques to
construct a figure or approximate an amount of specified
length, weight or volume (capacity); e.g., construct a
1
rectangle with length 2 inches and width 3 inches,
2
fill a measuring cup to the 3 cup mark.
4

71
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

7. Make estimates for perimeter, area and volume using

links, tiles, cubes and other models.

Grade Four
Measurement Units 1. Relate the number of units to the size of the units used
to measure an object; e.g., compare the number of cups
to fill a pitcher to the number of quarts to fill the same
pitcher.
2. Demonstrate and describe perimeter as surrounding and
area as covering a two-dimensional shape, and volume
as filling a three-dimensional object.
3. Identify and select appropriate units to measure:
a. perimeter – string or links (inches or centimeters).
b. area – tiles (square inches or square centimeters).
c. volume – cubes (cubic inches or cubic centimeters).
Use Measurement 4. Develop and use strategies to find perimeter using string
Techniques and Tools or links, area using tiles or a grid, and volume using
cubes; e.g., count squares to find area of regular or
irregular shapes on a grid, layer cubes in a box to find its
volume.
5. Make simple unit conversions within a measurement
system; e.g., inches to feet, kilograms to grams, quarts to
gallons.
6. Write, solve and verify solutions to multi-step problems
involving measurement.

Grade Five
Measurement Units 1. Identify and select appropriate units to measure angles;
i.e., degrees.
2. Identify paths between points on a grid or coordinate
plane and compare the lengths of the paths; e.g., shortest
path, paths of equal length.

72
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

3. Demonstrate and describe the differences between

covering the faces (surface area) and filling the interior
(volume) of three-dimensional objects.
4. Demonstrate understanding of the differences among
linear units, square units and cubic units.
Use Measurement 5. Make conversions within the same measurement system
Techniques and Tools while performing computations.
6. Use strategies to develop formulas for determining
perimeter and area of triangles, rectangles and
parallelograms, and volume of rectangular prisms.
7. Use benchmark angles (e.g.; 45º, 90º, 120º) to estimate the
measure of angles, and use a tool to measure and draw
angles.

Grade Six
Measurement Units 1. Understand and describe the difference between surface
area and volume.
Use Measurement 2. Use strategies to develop formulas for finding
Techniques and Tools circumference and area of circles, and to determine the
1 2 1 1
area of sectors; e.g.,  circle,  circle,  circle,  circle.
2 3 3 4
3. Estimate perimeter or circumference and area for circles,
triangles and quadrilaterals, and surface area and
volume for prisms and cylinders by:
a. estimating lengths using string or links, areas using
tiles or grid, and volumes using cubes;
b. measuring attributes (diameter, side lengths, or
heights) and using established formulas for circles,
triangles, rectangles, parallelograms and rectangular
prisms.
4. Determine which measure (perimeter, area, surface area,
volume) matches the context for a problem situation;
e.g., perimeter is the context for fencing a garden,
surface area is the context for painting a room.

73
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

5. Understand the difference between perimeter and area,

and demonstrate that two shapes may have the same
perimeter, but different areas or may have the same area,
but different perimeters.
6. Describe what happens to the perimeter and area of a
two-dimensional shape when the measurements of the
shape are changed; e.g. length of sides are doubled.

Grade Seven
Measurement Units 1. Select appropriate units for measuring derived
measurements; e.g., miles per hour, revolutions per
minute.
2. Convert units of area and volume within the same
measurement system using proportional reasoning and
a reference table when appropriate; e.g., square feet to
square yards, cubic meters to cubic centimeters.
Use Measurement 3. Estimate a measurement to a greater degree of precision
Techniques and Tools than the tool provides.
4. Solve problems involving proportional relationships and
scale factors; e.g., scale models that require unit
conversions within the same measurement system.
5. Analyze problem situations involving measurement
concepts, select appropriate strategies, and use an
organized approach to solve narrative and increasingly
complex problems.
6. Use strategies to develop formulas for finding area of
trapezoids and volume of cylinders and prisms.
7. Develop strategies to find the area of composite shapes
using the areas of triangles, parallelograms, circles and
sectors.
8. Understand the difference between surface area and
volume and demonstrate that two objects may have the
same surface area, but different volumes or may have
the same volume, but different surface areas.
4. Give examples of how the same absolute error can be

74
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

9. Describe what happens to the surface area and volume

of a three-dimensional object when the measurements of
the object are changed; e.g., length of sides are doubled.

Grade Eight
Measurement Units 1. Compare and order the relative size of common U.S.
customary units and metric units; e.g., mile and kilometer,
gallon and liter, pound and kilogram.
2. Use proportional relationships and formulas to convert
units from one measurement system to another; e.g.,
degrees Fahrenheit to degrees Celsius.
Use Measurement 3. Use appropriate levels of precision when calculating
Techniques and Tools with measurements.
4. Derive formulas for surface area and volume and justify
them using geometric models and common materials.
For example, find:
a. the surface area of a cylinder as a function of its
height and radius;
b. that the volume of a pyramid (or cone) is one-third
of the volume of a prism (or cylinder) with the same
base area and height.
5. Determine surface area for pyramids by analyzing their
parts.
6. Solve and determine the reasonableness of the results for
problems involving rates and derived measurements,
such as velocity and density, using formulas, models and
graphs.
7. Apply proportional reasoning to solve problems
involving indirect measurements or rates.
8. Find the sum of the interior and exterior angles of
regular convex polygons with and without measuring
the angles with a protractor.

75
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

9. Demonstrate understanding of the concepts of perimeter,

circumference and area by using established formulas
for triangles, quadrilaterals, and circles to determine the
surface area and volume of prisms, pyramids, cylinders,
spheres and cones. (Note: Only volume should be
calculated for spheres and cones.)
10. Use conventional formulas to find the surface area and
volume of prisms, pyramids and cylinders and the
volume of spheres and cones to a specified level of
precision.

Grade Nine
Measurement Units 1. Convert rates within the same measurement system; e.g.,
miles per hour to feet per second; kilometers per hour to
meters per second.
Use Measurement 2. Use unit analysis to check computations involving
Techniques and Tools measurement.
3. Use the ratio of lengths in similar two-dimensional
figures or three-dimensional objects to calculate the ratio
of their areas or volumes respectively.
4. Use scale drawings and right triangle trigonometry to
solve problems that include unknown distances and angle
measures.
5. Solve problems involving unit conversion for situations
involving distances, areas, volumes and rates within the
same measurement system.

Grade Ten
Use Measurement 1. Explain how a small error in measurement may lead to a
Techniques and Tools large error in calculated results.
2. Calculate relative error.
3. Explain the difference between absolute error and
relative error in measurement.

76
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

problematic in one situation but not in another; e.g.,

compare “accurate to the nearest foot” when measuring
the height of a person versus when measuring the height
of a mountain.
5. Determine the measures of central and inscribed angles
and their associated major and minor arcs.

Grade Eleven 1. Determine the number of significant digits in a

Measurement Units measurement.
2. Use radian and degree angle measures to solve problems
and perform conversions as needed.
3. Derive a formula for the surface area of a cone as a
Use Measurement function of its slant height and the circumference of its
Techniques and Tools base.
4. Calculate distances, areas, surface areas and volumes of
composite three-dimensional objects to a specified
number of significant digits.
5. Solve real-world problems involving area, surface area,
volume and density to a specified degree of precision.

Grade Twelve 1. Solve problems involving derived measurements; e.g.,

Use Measurement acceleration and pressure.
Techniques and Tools 2. Use radian measures in the solution of problems
involving angular velocity and acceleration.
3. Apply informal concepts of successive approximation,
upper and lower bounds, and limits in measurement
situations; e.g., measurement of some quantities, such as
volume of a cone, can be determined by sequences of
increasingly accurate approximations.

77
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

K-12 Mathematics
Grade-Level Indicators
Geometry and Spatial Sense Standard

Students identify, classify, compare and analyze characteristics, properties

and relationships of one-, two-, and three-dimensional geometric figures and
objects. Students use spatial reasoning, properties of geometric objects and
transformations to analyze mathematical situations and solve problems.

Kindergarten
Characteristics and 1. Identify and sort two-dimensional shapes and
Properties three-dimensional objects. For example:
a. Identify and describe two-dimensional figures
and three-dimensional objects from the
environment using the child’s own vocabulary.
b. Sort shapes and objects into groups based on
student-defined categories.
c. Select all shapes or objects of one type from a
group.
d. Build two-dimensional figures using
paper shapes or tangrams; build simple
three-dimensional objects using blocks.
Spatial Relationships 2. Name and demonstrate the relative position of
objects as follows:
a. place objects over, under, inside, outside, on,
beside, between, above, below, on top of,
upside-down, behind, in back of, in front of;
b. describe placement of objects with terms, such
as on, inside, outside, above, below, over,
under, beside, between, in front of, behind.

78
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Grade One
Characteristics and 1. Identify, compare and sort two-dimensional shapes; i.e.,
Properties square, circle, ellipse, triangle, rectangle, rhombus,
trapezoid, parallelogram, pentagon and hexagon. For
example:
a. Recognize and identify triangles and rhombuses
independent of position, shape or size;
b. Describe two-dimensional shapes using attributes
such as number of sides and number of vertices
(corners or angles).
2. Create new shapes by combining or cutting apart
existing shapes.
3. Identify the shapes of the faces of three-dimensional
objects.
Spatial Relationships 4. Extend the use of location words to include distance
(near, far, close to) and directional words (left, right).
5. Copy figures and draw simple two-dimensional shapes
from memory.

Grade Two
Characteristics and 1. Identify, describe, compare and sort three-dimensional
Properties objects (i.e., cubes, spheres, prisms, cones, cylinders and
pyramids) according to the shape of the faces or the
number of faces, edges or vertices.
2. Predict what new shapes will be formed by combining
or cutting apart existing shapes.
3. Recognize two-dimensional shapes and
three-dimensional objects from different positions.
Spatial Relationships 4. Identify and determine whether two-dimensional shapes
are congruent (same shape and size) or similar (same
shape different size) by copying or using superposition
(lay one thing on top of another).

79
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Transformations and 5. Create and identify two-dimensional figures with line

Symmetry symmetry; e.g., what letter shapes, logos, polygons are
symmetrical?

Grade Three
Characteristics and 1. Analyze and describe properties of two-dimensional
Properties shapes and three-dimensional objects using terms such
as vertex, edge, angle, side and face.
2. Identify and describe the relative size of angles with
respect to right angles as follows:
a. Use physical models, like straws, to make different
sized angles by opening and closing the sides, not by
changing the side lengths.
b. Identify, classify and draw right, acute, obtuse and
straight angles.
Spatial Relationships 3. Find and name locations on a labeled grid or coordinate
system; e.g., a map or graph.
Transformations and 4. Draw lines of symmetry to verify symmetrical
Symmetry two-dimensional shapes.
Visualization and 5. Build a three-dimensional model of an object composed
Geometric Models of cubes; e.g., construct a model based on an illustration
or actual object.

Grade Four
Characteristics and 1. Identify, describe and model intersecting, parallel and
Properties perpendicular lines and line segments; e.g., use straws or
other material to model lines.
2. Describe, classify, compare and model two- and
three-dimensional objects using their attributes.
3. Identify similarities and differences of quadrilaterals;
e.g., squares, rectangles, parallelograms and trapezoids.

80
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

4. Identify and define triangles based on angle measures

(equiangular, right, acute and obtuse triangles) and side
lengths (isosceles, equilateral and scalene triangles).
Spacial Relationships 5. Describe points, lines and planes, and identify models in
the environment.
6. Specify locations and plot ordered pairs on a coordinate
plane, using first quadrant points.
Transformations and 7. Identify, describe and use reflections (flips), rotations
Symmetry (turns), and translations (slides) in solving geometric
problems; e.g., use transformations to determine if 2
shapes are congruent.
Visualization and 8. Use geometric models to solve problems in other
Geometric Models areas of mathematics, such as number
(multiplication/division) and measurement
(area, perimeter, border).

Grade Five
Characteristics and 1. Draw circles, and identify and determine relationships
Properties among the radius, diameter, center and circumference;
e.g., radius is half the diameter, the ratio of the
circumference of a circle to its diameter is an
approximation of π.
2. Use standard language to describe line, segment, ray,
angle, skew, parallel and perpendicular.
3. Label vertex, rays, interior and exterior for an angle.
4. Describe and use properties of congruent figures to solve
problems.
5. Use physical models to determine the sum of the interior
angles of triangles and quadrilaterals.
Spatial Relationships 6. Extend understanding of coordinate system to include
points whose x or y values may be negative numbers.
Visualization and 7. Understand that the measure of an angle is determined
Geometric Models by the degree of rotation of an angle side rather than the
length of either side.

81
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

8. Predict what three-dimensional object will result from

folding a two-dimensional net, then confirm the
prediction by folding the net.

Grade Six
Characteristics and 1. Classify and describe two-dimensional and
Properties three-dimensional geometric figures and objects by using
their properties; e.g., interior angle measures,
perpendicular/parallel sides, congruent angles/sides.
2. Use standard language to define geometric vocabulary:
vertex, face, altitude, diagonal, isosceles, equilateral,
acute, obtuse and other vocabulary as appropriate.
3. Use multiple classification criteria to classify triangles;
e.g., right scalene triangle.
4. Identify and define relationships between planes; i.e.,
parallel, perpendicular and intersecting.
Spatial Relationships 5. Predict and describe sizes, positions and orientations of
two-dimensional shapes after transformations such as
reflections, rotations, translations and dilations.
Transformations and 6. Draw similar figures that model proportional
Symmetry relationships; e.g., model similar figures with a 1 to 2
relationship by sketching two of the same figure, one
with corresponding sides twice the length of the other.
Visualization and 7. Build three-dimensional objects with cubes, and sketch
Geometric Models the two-dimensional representations of each side; i.e.,
projection sets.

Grade Seven
Characteristics and 1. Use proportional reasoning to describe and express
Properties relationships between parts and attributes of similar and
congruent figures.
2. Determine sufficient (not necessarily minimal) properties
that define a specific two-dimensional figure or
three-dimensional object. For example:

82
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

a. Determine when one set of figures is a subset of

another; e.g., all squares are rectangles.
b. Develop a set of properties that eliminates all but the
desired figure; e.g., only squares are quadrilaterals
with all sides congruent and all angles congruent.
3. Use and demonstrate understanding of the properties of
triangles. For example:
a. Use Pythagorean Theorem to solve problems
involving right triangles.
b. Use triangle angle sum relationships to solve
problems.
4. Determine necessary conditions for congruence of
triangles.
5. Apply properties of congruent or similar triangles to
solve problems involving missing lengths and angle
measures.
Spatial Relationships 6. Determine and use scale factors for similar figures to
solve problems using proportional reasoning.
Transformations and 7. Identify the line and rotation symmetries of
Symmetry two-dimensional figures to solve problems.
8. Perform translations, reflections, rotations and dilations
of two-dimensional figures using a variety of methods
(paper folding, tracing, graph paper).
Visualization and 9. Draw representations of three-dimensional geometric
Geometric Models objects from different views.

Grade Eight
Characteristics and 1. Make and test conjectures about characteristics and
Properties properties (e.g., sides, angles, symmetry) of
two-dimensional figures and three-dimensional objects.
2. Recognize the angles formed and the relationship
between the angles when two lines intersect and when
parallel lines are cut by a transversal.

83
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

3. Use proportions in several forms to solve problems

involving similar figures (part-to-part, part-to-whole,
corresponding sides between figures).
Spatial Relationships 4. Represent and analyze shapes using coordinate
geometry; e.g., given three vertices and the type of
quadrilateral, find the coordinates of the fourth vertex.
Transformations and 5. Draw the results of translations, reflections, rotations
Symmetry and dilations of objects in the coordinate plane, and
determine properties that remain fixed; e.g., lengths of
sides remain the same under translations.
Visualization and 6. Draw nets for a variety of prisms, pyramids, cylinders
Geometric Models and cones.

Grade Nine
Characteristics and 1. Define the basic trigonometric ratios in right triangles:
Properties sine, cosine and tangent.
2. Apply proportions and right triangle trigonometric ratios
to solve problems involving missing lengths and angle
measures in similar figures.
Visualization and 3. Analyze two-dimensional figures in a coordinate plane;
Geometric Models e.g., use slope and distance formulas to show that a
quadrilateral is a parallelogram.

Grade Ten
Characteristics and 1. Formally define and explain key aspects of geometric
Properties figures, including:
a. interior and exterior angles of polygons;
b. segments related to triangles (median, altitude,
midsegment);
c. points of concurrency related to triangles
(centroid, incenter, orthocenter, circumcenter);

84
A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

d. circles (radius, diameter, chord, circumference, major

arc, minor arc, sector, segment, inscribed angle).
2. Recognize and explain the necessity for certain terms to
remain undefined, such as point, line and plane.
3. Make, test and establish the validity of conjectures
about geometric properties and relationships using
counterexample, inductive and deductive reasoning,
and paragraph or two-column proof, including:
a. prove the Pythagorean Theorem;
b. prove theorems involving triangle similarity and
congruence;
c. prove theorems involving properties of lines, angles,
triangles and quadrilaterals;
d. test a conjecture using basic constructions made with
a compass and straightedge or technology.
Spatial Relationships 4. Construct right triangles, equilateral triangles,
parallelograms, trapezoids, rectangles, rhombuses,
squares and kites, using compass and straightedge or
dynamic geometry software.
5. Construct congruent figures and similar figures using
tools, such as compass, straightedge, and protractor or
dynamic geometry software.
Transformation and 6. Identify the reflection and rotation symmetries of
Symmetry two- and three-dimensional figures.
7. Perform reflections and rotations using compass and
straightedge constructions and dynamic geometry
software.
8. Derive coordinate rules for translations, reflections and
rotations of geometric figures in the coordinate plane.
9. Show and describe the results of combinations of
translations, reflections and rotations (compositions);
e.g., perform compositions and specify the result of a
composition as the outcome of a single motion, when
applicable.
Visualization and 10. Solve problems involving chords, radii and arcs within
Geometric Models the same circle.
85
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Grade Eleven
Spatial Relationships 1. Use polar coordinates to specify locations on a plane.
Transformations and 2. Represent translations using vectors.
Symmetry 3. Describe multiplication of a vector and a scalar
graphically and algebraically, and apply to problem
situations.
4. Use trigonometric relationships to determine lengths and
angle measures; i.e., Law of Sines and Law of Cosines.
Visualization and 5. Identify, sketch and classify the cross sections of
Geometric Models three-dimensional objects.

Grade Twelve
Transformations and 1. Use matrices to represent translations, reflections,
Symmetry rotations, dilations and their compositions.
2. Derive and apply the basic trigonometric identities; i.e.,
angle addition, angle subtraction and double angle.
Visualization and 3. Relate graphical and algebraic representations of lines,
Geometric Models simple curves and conic sections.
4. Recognize and compare specific shapes and properties
in multiple geometries; e.g., plane, spherical and
hyperbolic.

86
A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

K-12 Mathematics
Grade-Level Indicators
Patterns, Functions and Algebra Standard

Students use patterns, relations and functions to model, represent and

analyze problem situations that involve variable quantities. Students
analyze, model and solve problems using various representations such as
tables, graphs and equations.

Kindergarten
Use Patterns, Relations 1. Sort, classify and order objects by size, number
and Functions and other properties. For example:
a. Identify how objects are alike and different.
b. Order three events or objects according to a
given attribute, such as time or size.
c. Recognize and explain how objects can be
classified in more than one way.
d. Identify what attribute was used to sort groups
of objects that have already been sorted.
2. Identify, create, extend and copy sequences of
sounds (such as musical notes), shapes (such as
buttons, leaves or blocks), motions (such as hops
or skips), and numbers from 1 to 10.
3. Describe orally the pattern of a given sequence.
Use Algebraic 4. Model a problem situation using physical
Representations materials.

87
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Grade One
Use Patterns, Relations 1. Sort, classify and order objects by two or more attributes,
and Functions such as color and shape, and explain how objects were
sorted.
2. Extend sequences of sounds, shapes or simple number
patterns, and create and record similar patterns. For
example:
a. Analyze and describe patterns with multiple
attributes using numbers and shapes; e.g., AA, B, aa,
b, AA, B, aa, b,…
b. Continue repeating and growing patterns with
materials, pictures and geometric items; e.g., XO,
XOO, XOOO, XOOOO.
3. Describe orally the basic unit or general plan of a
repeating or growing pattern.
Use Algebraic 4. Solve open sentences by representing an expression in
Representations more than one way using the commutative property; e.g.,
4 + 5 = 5 + 4 or the number of blue balls plus red balls is
the same as the number of red balls plus blue balls
(R + B = B + R).
5. Describe orally and model a problem situation using
words, objects or number phrase or sentence.

Grade Two
Use Patterns, Relations 1. Extend simple number patterns (both repeating and
and Functions growing patterns), and create similar patterns using
different objects, such as using physical materials or
shapes to represent numericalpatterns.
2. Use patterns to make generalizations and predictions;
e.g., determine a missing element in a pattern.
3. Create new patterns with consistent rules or plans, and
describe the rule or general plan of existing patterns.
Use Algebraic 4. Use objects, pictures, numbers and other symbols to
Representations represent a problem situation.

88
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

5. Understand equivalence and extend the concept to

situations involving symbols; e.g., 4 + 5 = 9 and
9 = 4 + 5, and 4 + 5 = 3 + 6 = ▲ + ■…
6. Use symbols to represent unknown quantities and
identify values for symbols in an expression or equation
using addition and subtraction; e.g.,
■ + ● = 10, ▲ - 2 = 4.
Analyze Change 7. Describe qualitative and quantitative changes, especially
those involving addition and subtraction; e.g., a student
growing taller versus a student growing two inches in
one year.

Grade Three
Use Patterns, Relations 1. Extend multiplicative and growing patterns, and
and Functions describe the pattern or rule in words.
2. Analyze and replicate arithmetic sequences with and
without a calculator.
3. Use patterns to make predictions, identify relationships,
and solve problems.
Use Algebraic 4. Model problem situations using objects, pictures, tables,
Representations numbers, letters and other symbols.
5. Write, solve and explain simple mathematical
statements, such as 7 + ■ > 8 or ▲ + 8 = 10.
6. Express mathematical relationships as equations and
inequalities.
Analyze Change 7. Create tables to record, organize and analyze data to
discover patterns and rules.
8. Identify and describe quantitative changes, especially
those involving addition and subtraction; e.g., the height
of water in a glass becoming 1 centimeter lower each
week due to evaporation.

89
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Grade Four
Use Patterns, Relations 1. Use models and words to describe, extend and make
and Functions generalizations of patterns and relationships occurring in
computation, numerical patterns, geometry, graphs and
other applications.
2. Represent and analyze patterns and functions using
words, tables and graphs.
Use Algebraic 3. Construct a table of values to solve problems associated
Representation with a mathematical relationship.
4. Use rules and variables to describe patterns and other
relationships.
5. Represent mathematical relationships with equations or
inequalities.
Analyze Change 6. Describe how a change in one variable affects the value
of a related variable; e.g., as one increases the other
increases or as one increases the other decreases.

Grade Five
Use Patterns, Relations 1. Justify a general rule for a pattern or a function by using
and Functions physical materials, visual representations, words, tables
or graphs.
2. Use calculators or computers to develop patterns, and
generalize them using tables and graphs.
Use Algebraic 3. Use variables as unknown quantities in general rules
Representation when describing patterns and other relationships.
4. Create and interpret the meaning of equations and
inequalities representing problem situations.
5. Model problems with physical materials and visual
representations, and use models, graphs and tables to
draw conclusions and make predictions.
Analyze Change 6. Describe how the quantitative change in a variable affects
the value of a related variable; e.g., describe how the rate
of growth varies over time, based upon data in a table or
graph.

90
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Grade Six
Use Patterns, Relations 1. Represent and analyze patterns, rules and functions, using
and Functions physical materials, tables and graphs.
2. Use words and symbols to describe numerical and
geometric patterns, rules and functions.
Use Algebraic 3. Recognize and generate equivalent forms of algebraic
Representations expressions, and explain how the commutative,
associative and distributive properties can be used to
generate equivalent forms; e.g., perimeter as 2(l + w) or
2l + 2w.
4. Solve simple linear equations and inequalities using
physical models, paper and pencil, tables and graphs.
5. Produce and interpret graphs that represent the
relationship between two variables.
6. Evaluate simple expressions by replacing variables with
given values, and use formulas in problem-solving
situations.
Analyze Change 7. Identify and describe situations with constant or varying
rates of change, and compare them.
8. Use technology to analyze change; e.g., use computer
applications or graphing calculators to display and
interpret rate of change.

Grade Seven
Use Patterns, Relations 1. Represent and analyze patterns, rules and functions with
and Functions words, tables, graphs and simple variable expressions.
2. Generalize patterns by describing in words how to find
the next term.
3. Recognize and explain when numerical patterns are
linear or nonlinear progressions; e.g., 1,3,5,7... is linear
and 1,3,4,8,16... is nonlinear.
Use Algebraic 4. Create visual representations of equation-solving
Representations processes that model the use of inverse operations.

91
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

5. Represent linear equations by plotting points in the

coordinate plane.
6. Represent inequalities on a number line or a coordinate
plane.
7. Justify that two forms of an algebraic expression are
equivalent, and recognize when an expression is
simplified; e.g., 4m = m + m + m + m or a · 5 + 4 = 5a + 4.
8. Use formulas in problem-solving situations.
9. Recognize a variety of uses for variables; e.g.,
placeholder for an unknown quantity in an equation,
generalization for a pattern, formula.
Analyze Change 10. Analyze linear and simple nonlinear relationships to
explain how a change in one variable results in the
change of another.
11. Use graphing calculators or computers to analyze
change; e.g., distance-time relationships.

Grade Eight
Use Patterns, Relations 1. Relate the various representations of a relationship; i.e.,
and Functions relate a table to graph, description and symbolic form.
2. Generalize patterns and sequences by describing how to
find the nth term.
3. Identify functions as linear or nonlinear based on
information given in a table, graph or equation.
Use Algebraic 4. Extend the uses of variables to include covariants where
Representations y depends on x.
5. Use physical models to add and subtract monomials
and polynomials, and to multiply a polynomial by a
monomial.
6. Describe the relationship between the graph of a line and
its equation, including being able to explain the meaning
of slope as a constant rate of change and
y-intercept in real-world problems.

92
A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

7. Use symbolic algebra (equations and inequalities),

graphs and tables to represent situations and solve
problems.
8. Write, simplify and evaluate algebraic expressions
(including formulas) to generalize situations and solve
problems.
9. Solve linear equations and inequalities graphically,
symbolically and using technology.
10. Solve 2 by 2 systems of linear equations graphically and
by simple substitution.
11. Interpret the meaning of the solution of a 2 by 2 system
of equations; i.e., point, line, no solution.
12. Solve simple quadratic equations graphically;
e.g., y = x2 – 16.
13. Compute and interpret slope, midpoint and distance
given a set of ordered pairs.
Analyze Change 14. Differentiate and explain types of changes in
mathematical relationships, such as linear vs. nonlinear,
continuous vs. noncontinuous, direct variation vs.
inverse variation.
15. Describe and compare how changes in an equation
affects the related graphs; e.g., for a linear equation
changing the coefficient of x affects the slope and
changing the constant affects the intercepts.
16. Use graphing calculators or computers to
analyze change; e.g., interest compounded over time as a
nonlinear growth pattern.

Grade Nine
Use Patterns, Relations 1. Define function with ordered pairs in which each
and Functions domain element is assigned exactly one range
element.

93
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

2. Generalize patterns using functions or relationships

linear, quadratic and exponential), and freely translate
among tabular, graphical and symbolic representations.
3. Describe problem situations (linear, quadratic and
exponential) by using tabular, graphical and symbolic
representations.
4. Demonstrate the relationship among zeros of a function,
roots of equations, and solutions of equations
graphically and in words.
5. Describe and compare characteristics of the following
families of functions: linear, quadratic and exponential
functions; e.g., general shape, number of roots, domain,
range, rate of change, maximum or minimum.
Use Algebraic 6. Write and use equivalent forms of equations and
Representations inequalities in problem situations; e.g., changing a linear
equation to the slope-intercept form.
7. Use formulas to solve problems involving exponential
growth and decay.
8. Find linear equations that represent lines that pass
through a given set of ordered pairs, and find linear
equations that represent lines parallel or perpendicular
to a given line through a specific point.
9. Solve and interpret the meaning of 2 by 2 systems of
linear equations graphically, by substitution and by
elimination, with and without technology.
10. Solve quadratic equations with real roots by factoring,
graphing, using the quadratic formula and with
technology.
11. Add, subtract, multiply and divide monomials and
polynomials (division of polynomials by monomials
only).
12. Simplify rational expressions by eliminating common
factors and applying properties of integer exponents.
Analyze Change 13. Model and solve problems involving direct and inverse
variation using proportional reasoning.

94
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

14. Describe the relationship between slope and the graph of

a direct variation and inverse variation.
15. Describe how a change in the value of a constant in a
linear or quadratic equation affects the related graphs.

Grade Ten
Use Patterns, Relations 1. Define function formally and with f(x) notation.
and Functions 2. Describe and compare characteristics of the following
families of functions: square root, cubic, absolute value
and basic trigonometric functions; e.g., general shape,
possible number of roots, domain and range.
Use Algebraic 3. Solve equations and formulas for a specified variable;
Representations e.g., express the base of a triangle in terms of the area
and height.
4. Use algebraic representations and functions to describe
and generalize geometric properties and relationships.
5. Solve simple linear and nonlinear equations and
inequalities having square roots as coefficients and
solutions.
6. Solve equations and inequalities having rational
expressions as coefficients and solutions.
7. Solve systems of linear inequalities.
8. Graph the quadratic relationship that defines circles.
9. Recognize and explain that the slopes of parallel lines
are equal and the slopes of perpendicular lines are
negative reciprocals.
10. Solve real-world problems that can be modeled using
linear, quadratic, exponential or square root functions.
11. Solve real-world problems that can be modeled, using
systems of linear equations and inequalities.
Analyze Change 12. Describe the relationship between slope of a line through
the origin and the tangent function of the angle created
by the line and the positive x-axis.

95
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Grade Eleven
Use Patterns, Relations 1. Identify and describe problem situations involving an
and Functions iterative process that can be represented as a recursive
function; e.g., compound interest.
2. Translate a recursive function into a closed form
expression or formula for the nth term to solve a
problem situation involving an iterative process; e.g.,
find the value of an annuity after 7 years.
3. Describe and compare the characteristics of the
following families of functions: quadratics with complex
roots, polynomials of any degree, logarithms, and
rational functions; e.g., general shape, number of roots,
domain and range, asymptotic behavior.
4. Identify the maximum and minimum points of
polynomial, rational and trigonometric functions
graphically and with technology.
5. Identify families of functions with graphs that have
rotation symmetry or reflection symmetry about the
y-axis, x-axis or y = x.
Use Algebraic 6. Represent the inverse of a function symbolically and
Representations graphically as a reflection about y = x.
7. Model and solve problems with matrices and vectors.
8. Solve equations involving radical expressions and
complex roots.
9. Solve 3 by 3 systems of linear equations by elimination
and using technology, and interpret graphically what the
solution means (a point, line, plane, or no solution).
10. Describe the characteristics of the graphs of conic
sections.
Analyze Change 11. Describe how a change in the value of a constant in an
exponential, logarithmic or radical equation affects the
graph of the equation.

96
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Grade Twelve
Use Patterns, Relations 1. Analyze the behavior of arithmetic and geometric
and Functions sequences and series as the number of terms increases.
2. Translate between the numeric and symbolic form of a
sequence or series.
3. Describe and compare the characteristics of
transcendental and periodic functions; e.g., general
shape, number of roots, domain and range, asymptotic
behavior, extrema, local and global behavior.
4. Represent the inverse of a transcendental function
symbolically.
Use Algebraic 5. Set up and solve systems of equations using matrices
Representations and graphs, with and without technology.
6. Make arguments about mathematical properties using
mathematical induction.
7. Make mathematical arguments using the concepts of
limit.
8. Compare estimates of the area under a curve over a
bounded interval by partitioning the region with
rectangles; e.g., make successive estimates using
progressively smaller rectangles.
9. Translate freely between polar and Cartesian
coordinate systems.
Analyze Change 10. Use the concept of limit to find instantaneous rate of
change for a point on a graph as the slope of a tangent at
a point.

97
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

K-12 Mathematics
Grade-Level Indicators
Data Analysis and Probability Standard

Students pose questions and collect, organize, represent, interpret and

analyze data to answer those questions. Students develop and evaluate
inferences, predictions and arguments that are based on data.

Kindergarten
Data Collection 1. Gather and sort data in response to questions
posed by teacher and students; e.g., how many
sisters and brothers, what color shoes.
2. Arrange objects in a floor or table graph according
to attributes, such as use, size, color or shape.
Statistical Methods 3. Select the category or categories that have the
most or fewest objects in a floor or table graph.

Grade One
Data Collection 1. Identify multiple categories for sorting data.
2. Collect and organize data into charts using tally
marks.
3. Display data in picture graphs with units of 1 and
bar graphs with intervals of 1.
4. Read and interpret charts, picture graphs and bar
graphs as sources of information to identify main
ideas, draw conclusions, and make predictions.

98
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

5. Construct a question that can be answered by using

information from a graph.
Statistical Methods 6. Arrange five objects by an attribute, such as size or
weight, and identify the ordinal position of each object.
7. Answer questions about the number of objects
represented in a picture graph, bar graph or table graph;
e.g., category with most, how many more in a category
compared to another, how many altogether in two
categories.
Probability 8. Describe the likelihood of simple events as
possible/impossible and more likely/less likely; e.g.,
when using spinners or number cubes in classroom
activities.

Grade Two
Data Collection 1. Pose questions, use observations, interviews and surveys
to collect data, and organize data in charts, picture
graphs and bar graphs.
2. Read, interpret and make comparisons and predictions
from data represented in charts, line plots, picture
graphs and bar graphs.
3. Read and construct simple timelines to sequence events.
Statistical Methods 4. Write a few sentences to describe and compare
categories of data represented in a chart or graph, and
make statements about the data as a whole.
5. Identify untrue or inappropriate statements about a
given set of data.
6. Recognize that data may vary from one population to
another; e.g., favorite TV shows of students and of
parents.

Probability 7. List some of the possible outcomes of a simple

experiment, and predict whether given outcomes are
more, less or equally likely to occur.
8. Use physical models and pictures to represent possible
arrangements of 2 or 3 objects.

99
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Grade Three
Data Collection 1. Collect and organize data from an experiment, such as
recording and classifying observations or measurements,
in response to a question posed.
2. Draw and interpret picture graphs in which a symbol or
picture represents more than one object.
3. Read, interpret and construct bar graphs with intervals
greater than one.
4. Support a conclusion or prediction orally and in writing,
using information in a table or graph.
5. Match a set of data with a graphical representation of
the data.
6. Translate information freely among charts, tables, line
plots, picture graphs and bar graphs; e.g., create a bar
graph from the information in a chart.
7. Analyze and interpret information represented on a
timeline.

Statistical Methods 8. Identify the mode of a data set and describe the
information it gives about a data set.
Probability 9. Conduct a simple experiment or simulation of a simple
event, record the results in a chart, table or graph, and
use the results to draw conclusions about the likelihood
of possible outcomes.
10. Use physical models, pictures, diagrams and lists to
solve problems involving possible arrangements or
combinations of two to four objects.

Grade Four
Data Collection 1. Create a plan for collecting data for a specific purpose.
2. Represent and interpret data using tables, bar graphs,
line plots and line graphs.

100
A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

3. Interpret and construct Venn diagrams to sort and

describe data.
4. Compare different representations of the same data to
evaluate how well each representation shows important
aspects of the data, and identify appropriate ways to
display the data.
5. Propose and explain interpretations and predictions
based on data displayed in tables, charts and graphs.
Statistical Methods 6. Describe the characteristics of a set of data based on a
graphical representation, such as range of the data,
clumps of data, and holes in the data.
7. Identify the median of a set of data and describe what it
indicates about the data.
8. Use range, median and mode to make comparisons
among related sets of data.
Probability 9. Conduct simple probability experiments and draw
conclusions from the results; e.g., rolling number cubes
or drawing marbles from a bag.
10. Represent the likelihood of possible outcomes for chance
situations; e.g., probability of selecting a red marble from
a bag containing 3 red and 5 white marbles.
11. Relate the concepts of impossible and certain-to-happen
events to the numerical values of 0 (impossible) and 1
(certain).
12. Place events in order of likelihood and use a diagram or
appropriate language to compare the chance of each
event occurring; e.g., impossible, unlikely, equal, likely,
certain.
13. List and count all possible combinations using one
member from each of several sets, each containing 2 or 3
members; e.g., the number of possible outfits from 3
shirts, 2 shorts and 2 pairs of shoes.

101
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Grade Five
Data Collection 1. Read, construct and interpret frequency tables, circle
graphs and line graphs.
2. Select and use a graph that is appropriate for the type of
data to be displayed; e.g., numerical vs. categorical data,
discrete vs. continuous data.
3. Read and interpret increasingly complex displays of
data, such as double bar graphs.
4. Determine appropriate data to be collected to answer
questions posed by students or teacher, collect and
display data, and clearly communicate findings.
5. Modify initial conclusions, propose and justify new
interpretations and predictions as additional data are
collected.
Statistical Methods 6. Determine and use the range, mean, median and mode,
and explain what each does and does not indicate about
the set of data.
Probability 7. List and explain all possible outcomes in a given
situation.
8. Identify the probability of events within a simple
experiment, such as three chances out of eight.
9. Use 0, 1 and ratios between 0 and 1 to represent the
probability of outcomes for an event, and associate the
ratio with the likelihood of the outcome.
10. Compare what should happen (theoretical/expected
results) with what did happen (experimental/actual
results) in a simple experiment.
11. Make predictions based on experimental and theoretical
probabilities.

Grade Six
Data Collection 1. Read, construct and interpret line graphs, circle
graphs and histograms.

102
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

2. Select, create and use graphical representations that are

appropriate for the type of data collected.
3. Compare representations of the same data in different
types of graphs, such as a bar graph and circle graph.
Statistical Methods 4. Understand the different information provided by
measures of center (mean, mode and median) and
measures of spread (range).
5. Describe the frequency distribution of a set of data, as
shown in a histogram or frequency table, by general
appearance or shape; e.g., number of modes, middle of
data, level of symmetry, outliers.
6. Make logical inferences from statistical data.
Probability 7. Design an experiment to test a theoretical probability and
explain how the results may vary.

Grade Seven
Data Collection 1. Read, create and interpret box-and-whisker plots,
stem-and-leaf plots, and other types of graphs, when
appropriate.
2. Analyze how decisions about graphing affect the
graphical representation; e.g., scale, size of classes in a
histogram, number of categories in a circle graph.
Statistical Methods 3. Analyze a set of data by using and comparing
combinations of measures of center (mean, mode,
median) and measures of spread (range, quartile,
interquartile range), and describe how the inclusion or
exclusion of outliers affects those measures.
4. Construct opposing arguments based on analysis of the
same data, using different graphical representations.
5. Compare data from two or more samples to determine
how sample selection can influence results.
6. Identify misuses of statistical data in articles,
advertisements, and other media.

103
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Probability 7. Compute probabilities of compound events; e.g.,

multiple coin tosses or multiple rolls of number cubes,
using such methods as organized lists, tree diagrams and
area models.
8. Make predictions based on theoretical probabilities,
design and conduct an experiment to test the predictions,
compare actual results to predicted results, and explain
differences.

Grade Eight
Data Collection 1. Use, create and interpret scatterplots and other types of
graphs as appropriate.
2. Evaluate different graphical representations of the same
data to determine which is the most appropriate
representation for an identified purpose; e.g., line graph
for change over time, circle graph for part-to-whole
comparison, scatterplot for relationship between two
variants.
3. Differentiate between discrete and continuous data and
appropriate ways to represent each.
Statistical Methods 4. Compare two sets of data using measures of center
(mean, mode, median) and measures of spread (range,
quartiles, interquartile range, percentiles).
5. Explain the mean's sensitivity to extremes and its use in
comparison with the median and mode.
6. Make conjectures about possible relationship in a
scatterplot and approximate line of best fit.
7. Identify different ways of selecting samples, such as
survey response, random sample, representative sample
and convenience sample.
8. Describe how the relative size of a sample compared to
the target population affects the validity of predictions.
9. Construct convincing arguments based on analysis of
data and interpretation of graphs.

104
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Probability 10. Calculate the number of possible outcomes for a

situation, recognizing and accounting for when items
may occur more than once or when order is important.
11. Demonstrate an understanding that the probability of
either of two disjoint events occurring can be found by
adding the probabilities for each and that the probability
of one independent event following another can be found
by multiplying the probabilities.

Grade Nine
Data Collection 1. Classify data as univariate (single variable) or bivariate
(two variables) and as quantitative (measurement) or
qualitative (categorical) data.
2. Create a scatterplot for a set of bivariate data, sketch the
line of best fit, and interpret the slope of the line of best
fit.
Statistical Methods 3. Analyze and interpret frequency distributions based on
spread, symmetry, skewness, clusters and outliers.
4. Describe and compare various types of studies (survey,
observation, experiment), and identify possible misuses
of statistical data.
5. Describe characteristics and limitations of sampling
methods, and analyze the effects of random versus
biased sampling; e.g., determine and justify whether the
sample is likely to be representative of the population.
6. Make inferences about relationships in bivariant data,
and recognize the difference between evidence of
relationship (correlation) and causation.
Probability 7. Use counting techniques and the Fundamental Counting
principle to determine the total number of possible
outcomes for mathematical situations.
8. Describe, create and analyze a sample space and use it to
calculate probability.

105
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

9. Identify situations involving independent and

dependent events, and explain differences between, and
common misconceptions about, probabilities associated
with those events.
10. Use theoretical and experimental probability, including
simulations or random numbers, to estimate
probabilities and to solve problems dealing with
uncertainty; e.g., compound events, independent events,
simple dependent events.

Grade Ten
Data Collection 1. Describe measures of center and the range verbally,
graphically and algebraically.
2. Represent and analyze bivariate data using appropriate
graphical displays (scatterplots, parallel box-and-
whisker plots, histograms with more than one set of
data, tables, charts, spreadsheets) with and without
technology.
3. Display bivariate data where at least one variable is
categorical.
4. Identify outliers on a data display; e.g., use interquartile
range to identify outliers on a box-and-whisker plot.
Statistical Methods 5. Provide examples and explain how a statistic may or
may not be an attribute of the entire population; e.g.,
intentional or unintentional bias may be present.
6. Interpret the relationship between two variables using
multiple graphical displays and statistical measures; e.g.,
scatterplots, parallel box-and-whisker plots, and
measures of center and spread.
Probability 7. Model problems dealing with uncertainty with area
models (geometric probability).
8. Differentiate and explain the relationship between the
probability of an event and the odds of an event, and
compute one given the other.

106
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Grade Eleven
Data Collection 1. Design a statistical experiment, survey or study for a
problem; collect data for the problem; and interpret the
data with appropriate graphical displays, descriptive
statistics, concepts of variability, causation, correlation
and standard deviation.
2. Describe the role of randomization in a well-designed
study, especially as compared to a convenience sample,
and the generalization of results from each.
Statistical Methods 3. Describe how a linear transformation of univariate data
affects range, mean, mode and median.
4. Create a scatterplot of bivariate data, identify trends,
and find a function to model the data.
5. Use technology to find the Least Squares Regression
Line, the regression coefficient, and the correlation
coefficient for bivariate data with a linear trend, and
interpret each of these statistics in the context of the
problem situation.
6. Use technology to compute the standard deviation for a
set of data, and interpret standard deviation in relation
to the context or problem situation.
7. Describe the standard normal curve and its general
properties, and answer questions dealing with data
assumed to be normal.
8. Analyze and interpret univariate and bivariate data to
identify patterns, note trends, draw conclusions, and
make predictions.
9. Evaluate validity of results of a study based on charac-
teristics of the study design, including sampling method,
summary statistics and data analysis techniques.
Probability 10. Understand and use the concept of random variable,
and compute and interpret the expected value for a ran-
dom variable in simple cases.
11. Examine statements and decisions involving risk; e.g.,
insurance rates and medical decisions.

107
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Grade Twelve
Data Collection 1. Identify and use various sampling methods (voluntary
response, convenience sample, random sample, stratified
random sample, census) in a study.
Statistical Methods 2. Transform bivariate data so it can be modeled by a
function; e.g., use logarithms to allow nonlinear
relationship to be modeled by linear function.
3. Describe the shape and find all summary statistics for a
set of univariate data, and describe how a linear
transformation affects shape, center and spread.
4. Apply the concept of a random variable to generate and
interpret probability distributions, including binomial,
normal and uniform.
5. Use sampling distributions as the basis for informal
inference.
Probability 6. Use theoretical or experimental probability, including
simulations, to determine probabilities in real-world
problem situations involving uncertainty, such as
mutually exclusive events, complementary events, and
conditional probability.

Note: The benchmarks for mathematical processes articulate what students should demonstrate
in problem solving, representation, communication, reasoning and connections at key points in
their mathematics program. Specific grade-level indicators have not been included for the
mathematical processes standard because content and processes should be interconnected at the
indicator level. Therefore, mathematical processes have been embedded within the grade-level
indicators for the five content standards.

108
A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

K-12 Mathematics

Benchmarks and
Indicators by
Grade-Level

109
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

K-12 Mathematics Benchmarks

By the end of the K-2 program:
K

Number, Number Sense Geometry and

Measurement
and Operations Spatial Sense
1

A. Use place value concepts A. Explain the need for A. Describe and create plane
to represent whole standard units of measure. figures: circle, rectangle,
numbers using numerals, square, triangle, hexagon,
2

B. Select appropriate units

words and physical for length, weight, volume trapezoid, parallelogram
models. (capacity) and time, using: and rhombus, and identify
them in the environment.
3

B. Recognize, classify, • objects; i.e.,

compare and order whole non-standard units; B. Describe solid objects:
numbers. cube, rectangular prism,
• U.S. customary units: sphere, cylinder, cone and
4

C. Represent commonly used inch, foot, yard, ounce,

fractions using words and pyramid, and identify
pound, cup, quart, them in the environment.
physical models. gallon, minute, hour,
5

D. Determine the value of a day, week and year; C. Sort and compare
collection of coins and two-dimensional figures
• metric units: centimeter, and three-dimensional
dollar bills. meter, gram and liter.
6

objects according to their

E. Make change using coins C. Develop common characteristics and
for values up to one referents for units of properties.
dollar.
7

measure for length, D. Identify, explain and

F. Count, using numerals weight, volume (capacity) model (superposition,
and ordinal numbers. and time to make copying) the concept of
8

G. Model, represent and comparisons and shapes being congruent

explain addition as estimates. and similar.
combining sets and D. Apply measurement E. Recognize two- and
9

counting on. techniques to measure three-dimensional objects

H. Model, represent and length, weight and from different positions.
volume (capacity).
10

explain subtraction as F. Describe location, using

comparison, take-away E. Recognize that using comparative (before,
and part-to-whole. different units of after), directional (above,
measurement will yield
11

below), and positional

different numbers for the (first, last) words.
same measurement.
G. Identify and draw figures
12

with line symmetry.

110
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

K-12 Mathematics Benchmarks

By the end of the K-2 program:

K
Patterns, Functions Data Analysis
Mathematical Processes
and Algebra and Probability

1
A. Sort, classify and order A. Pose questions and gather A. Use a variety of strategies
objects by size, number data about everyday to understand problem
and other properties, and situations and familiar situations; e.g., discussing

2
describe the attributes objects. with peers, stating
used. B. Sort and classify objects problems in own words,
modeling problems with

3
B. Extend sequences of by attributes, and organize
sounds and shapes or data into categories in a diagrams or physical
simple number patterns, simple table or chart. materials, identifying a
and create and record pattern.

4
C. Represent data using
similar patterns. objects, picture graphs B. Identify and restate in
C. Create and extend and bar graphs. own words the question
or problem and the

5
patterns, and describe D. Describe the probability
the rule in words. information needed to
of chance events as more, solve the problem.
D. Model problem situations, less or equally likely to

6
using objects, pictures, occur. C. Generate alternative
numbers and other strategies to solve
symbols. problems.

7
E. Solve open sentences and D. Evaluate the
explain strategies. reasonableness of
predictions, estimations

8
F. Represent an unknown and solutions.
quantity as a variable
using a symbol, such as E. Explain to others how a
■, ▲, ●. problem was solved.
F. Draw pictures and use 9
G. Describe and compare
physical models to
qualitative and
10

represent problem
quantitative changes.
situations and solutions.
G. Use invented and
11

conventional symbols and

common language to
describe a problem
12

situation and solution.

111
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

K-12 Mathematics Benchmarks (continued)

By the end of the K-2 program:
K

Number, Number Sense Geometry and

Measurement
and Operations Spatial Sense
1

I. Model, represent and

explain multiplication as
repeated addition,
2

rectangular arrays and

skip counting.
3

J. Model, represent and

explain division as
sharing equally, repeated
subtraction and
4

rectangular arrays.
K. Demonstrate fluency in
5

addition facts with

addends through 9
and corresponding
6

subtractions.
L. Demonstrate fluency in
adding and subtracting
7

multiples of 10, and

recognize combinations
that make 10.
8

M. Add and subtract two-

digit numbers with and
without regrouping.
9
10
11
12

112
A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

K-12 Mathematics Benchmarks (continued)

By the end of the K-2 program:

K
Patterns, Functions Data Analysis
Mathematical Processes
and Algebra and Probability

1
H. Recognize the
mathematical meaning of
common words and

2
phrases, and relate
everyday language to
mathematical language

3
and symbols.
I. Communicate
mathematical thinking

4
by using everyday
language and appropriate
mathematical language.

5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

113
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

K-12 Mathematics
K

Kindergarten
1

Number, Number Sense and Operations Standard

Number and 1. Compare and order whole numbers up to 10.
2

Number Systems
2. Explain rules of counting, such as each object
should be counted once and that order does not
3

change the number.

3. Count to twenty; e.g., in play situations or while
reading number books.
4

4. Determine “how many” in sets (groups) of 10 or

fewer objects.
5

5. Relate, read and write numerals for single-digit

numbers (0 to 9).
6. Construct multiple sets of objects each containing
6

the same number of objects.

7. Compare the number of objects in two or more sets
when one set has one or two more, or one or two
7

fewer objects.
8. Represent and use whole numbers in flexible ways,
8

including relating, composing and decomposing

numbers; e.g., 5 marbles can be 2 red and 3 green
or 1 red and 4 green.
9

9. Identify and state the value of a penny, nickel and

dime.
Meaning of 10. Model and represent addition as combining sets
10

Operations and counting on, and subtraction as take-away and

comparison. For example:
11

a. Combine and separate small sets of objects in

contextual situations; e.g., add or subtract one,
two, or another small amount.
12

Kindergarten

114
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

b. Count on (forward) and count back (backward) on a number line

between 0 and 10.

K
11. Demonstrate joining multiple groups of objects, each containing
the same number of objects; e.g., combining 3 bags of candy, each
containing 2 pieces.

1
12. Partition or share a small set of objects into groups of equal size;
e.g., sharing 6 stickers equally among 3 children.
Computation and 13. Recognize the number or quantity of sets up to 5 without counting;

2
Estimation e.g., recognize without counting the dot arrangement on a domino
as 5.

3
Measurement Standard
Measurement Units 1. Identify units of time (day, week, month, year) and compare

4
calendar elements; e.g., weeks are longer than days.
Use Measurement 2. Compare and order objects of different lengths, areas, weights and

5
Techniques and capacities; and use relative terms, such as longer, shorter, bigger,
Tools smaller, heavier, lighter, more and less.
3. Measure length and volume (capacity) using uniform objects in the

6
environment. For example, find:
a. how many paper clips long is a pencil;

7
b. how many small containers it takes to fill one big container
using sand, rice, beans.
4. Order events based on time. For example:

8
a. activities that take a long or short time;
b. review what we do first, next, last;

9
c. recall what we did or plan to do yesterday, today, tomorrow.
10
11
12

Kindergarten

115
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Geometry and Spatial Sense Standard

Characteristics and 1. Identify and sort two-dimensional shapes and three-dimensional
K

Properties objects. For example:

a. Identify and describe two-dimensional figures and three-
1

dimensional objects from the environment using the child’s

own vocabulary.
b. Sort shapes and objects into groups based on student-defined
2

categories.
c. Select all shapes or objects of one type from a group.
3

d. Build two-dimensional figures using paper shapes or tangrams;

build simple three-dimensional objects using blocks.
Spatial Relationships 2. Name and demonstrate the relative position of objects as follows:
4

a. place objects over, under, inside, outside, on, beside, between,

above, below, on top of, upside-down, behind, in back of, in
front of;
5

b. describe placement of objects with terms, such as on, inside,

outside, above, below, over, under, beside, between, in front of,
behind.
6

Patterns, Functions and Algebra Standard

7

Use Patterns, 1. Sort, classify and order objects by size, number and other properties.
Relations For example:
and Functions
8

a. Identify how objects are alike and different.

b. Order three events or objects according to a given attribute, such
as time or size.
9

c. Recognize and explain how objects can be classified in more

than one way.
10

d. Identify what attribute was used to sort groups of objects that

have already been sorted.
2. Identify, create, extend and copy sequences of sounds (such as
11

musical notes), shapes (such as buttons, leaves or blocks), motions

(such as hops or skips), and numbers from 1 to 10.
12

Kindergarten

116
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

3. Describe orally the pattern of a given sequence.

Use Algebraic 4. Model a problem situation using physical materials.

K
Representations

Data Analysis and Probability Standard

1
Data Collection 1. Gather and sort data in response to questions posed by teacher and
students; e.g., how many sisters and brothers, what color shoes.

2
2. Arrange objects in a floor or table graph according to attributes,
such as use, size, color or shape.
Statistical Methods 3. Select the category or categories that have the most or fewest objects

3
in a floor or table graph.

4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

Kindergarten

117
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Grade One
Number, Number Sense and Operations Standard
K

Number and 1. Use ordinal numbers to order objects; e.g., first, second, third.
Number Systems
2. Recognize and generate equivalent forms for the same number
using physical models, words and number expressions; e.g., concept
1

of ten is described by “10 blocks,” full tens frame, numeral 10, 5 + 5,

15 - 5, one less than 11, my brother’s age.
3. Read and write the numerals for numbers to 100.
2

4. Count forward to 100, count backwards from 100, and count

or backward starting at any number between 1 and 100.
3

5. Use place value concepts to represent whole numbers using

numerals, words, expanded notation and physical models with
ones and tens. For example:
4

a. Develop a system to group and count by twos, fives and tens.

b. Identify patterns and groupings in a 100's chart and relate to
place value concepts.
5

c. Recognize the first digit of a two-digit number as the most

important to indicate size of a number and the nearness to 10
6

or 100.
6. Identify and state the value of a penny, nickel, dime, quarter and
dollar.
7

7. Determine the value of a small collection of coins (with a total value

up to one dollar) using 1 or 2 different type coins, including pennies,
nickels, dimes and quarters.
8

8. Show different combinations of coins that have the same value.

9. Represent commonly used fractions using words and physical
9

models for halves, thirds and fourths, recognizing fractions are

represented by equal size parts of a whole and of a set of objects.
Meaning of 10. Model, represent and explain addition as combining sets
10

Operations (part + part = whole) and counting on. For example:

a. Model and explain addition using physical materials in
11

contextual situations.
b. Draw pictures to model addition.
12

Grade One

118
A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

c. Write number sentences to represent addition.

d. Explain that adding two whole numbers yields a larger whole

K
number.
11. Model, represent and explain subtraction as take-away and
comparison. For example:

1
a. Model and explain subtraction using physical materials in
contextual situations.

2
b. Draw pictures to model subtraction.
c. Write number sentences to represent subtraction.
d. Explain that subtraction of whole numbers yields an answer

3
smaller than the original number.
12. Use conventional symbols to represent the operations of addition
and subtraction.

4
13. Model and represent multiplication as repeated addition and
rectangular arrays in contextual situations; e.g., four people will be

5
at my party and if I want to give 3 balloons to each person, how
many balloons will I need to buy?
14. Model and represent division as sharing equally in contextual

6
situations; e.g., sharing cookies.
15. Demonstrate that equal means “the same as” using visual
representations.

7
Computation and 16. Develop strategies for basic addition facts, such as:
Estimation
a. counting all;

8
b. counting on;
c. one more, two more;

9
d. doubles;
e. doubles plus or minus one;
10

f. make ten;
g. using tens frames;
h. identity property (adding zero).
11
12

Grade One

119
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

17. Develop strategies for basic subtraction facts, such as:

a. relating to addition (for example, think of 7 - 3 = ? as
K

“3 plus ? equals 7”);

b. one less, two less;
c. all but one (for example, 8 - 7, 5 - 4);
1

d. using tens frames;

e. missing addends.
2

Measurement Standard
3

Measurement Units 1. Recognize and explain the need for fixed units and tools for measuring
length and weight; e.g., rulers and balance scales.
4

2. Tell time to the hour and half hour on digital and analog (dial)
timepieces.
3. Order a sequence of events with respect to time; e.g., summer, fall,
5

winter and spring; morning, afternoon and night.

Use Measurement 4. Estimate and measure weight using non-standard units; e.g., blocks
Techniques and of uniform size.
6

Tools
5. Estimate and measure lengths using non-standard and standard units;
i.e., centimeters, inches and feet.
7

Geometry and Spatial Sense Standard

8

Characteristics and 1. Identify, compare and sort two-dimensional shapes; i.e., square,
Properties circle, ellipse, triangle, rectangle, rhombus, trapezoid, parallelogram,
9

pentagon and hexagon. For example:

a. Recognize and identify triangles and rhombuses independent of
position, shape or size;
10

b. Describe two-dimensional shapes using attributes such as

number of sides and number of vertices (corners or angles).
11

2. Create new shapes by combining or cutting apart existing shapes.

3. Identify the shapes of the faces of three-dimensional objects.
12

Grade One

120
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Spatial Relationships 4. Extend the use of location words to include distance (near, far, close
to) and directional words (left, right).

K
5. Copy figures and draw simple two-dimensional shapes from
memory.

1
Patterns, Functions and Algebra Standard
Use Patterns, 1. Sort, classify and order objects by two or more attributes, such as

2
Relations color and shape, and explain how objects were sorted.
and Functions
2. Extend sequences of sounds, shapes or simple number patterns, and
create and record similar patterns. For example:

3
a. Analyze and describe patterns with multiple attributes using
numbers and shapes; e.g., AA, B, aa, b, AA, B, aa, b,…

4
b. Continue repeating and growing patterns with materials,
pictures and geometric items; e.g., XO, XOO, XOOO, XOOOO.
3. Describe orally the basic unit or general plan of a repeating or

5
growing pattern.
Use Algebraic 4. Solve open sentences by representing an expression in more than one
Representations way using the commutative property; e.g., 4 + 5 = 5 + 4 or the number

6
of blue balls plus red balls is the same as the number of red balls plus
blue balls (R + B = B + R).

7
5. Describe orally and model a problem situation using words, objects or
number phrase or sentence.

8
Data Analysis and Probability Standard
Data Collection 1. Identify multiple categories for sorting data.

9
2. Collect and organize data into charts using tally marks.
3. Display data in picture graphs with units of 1 and bar graphs with
10

intervals of 1.
4. Read and interpret charts, picture graphs and bar graphs as sources
of information to identify main ideas, draw conclusions, and make
11

predictions.
12

Grade One

121
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

5. Construct a question that can be answered by using information

from a graph.
K

Statistical Methods 6. Arrange five objects by an attribute, such as size or weight, and
identify the ordinal position of each object.
7. Answer questions about the number of objects represented in a
1

picture graph, bar graph or table graph; e.g., category with most,
how many more in a category compared to another, how many
altogether in two categories.
2

Probability 8. Describe the likelihood of simple events as possible/impossible and

more likely/less likely; e.g., when using spinners or number cubes in
classroom activities.
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

Grade One

122
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Grade Two

K
Number, Number Sense and Operations Standard
Number and 1. Use place value concepts to represent, compare and order whole
Number Systems numbers using physical models, numerals and words, with ones,

1
tens and hundreds. For example:
a. Recognize 10 can mean “10 ones” or a single entity (1 ten)

2
through physical models and trading games.
b. Read and write 3-digit numerals (e.g., 243 as two hundred forty
three, 24 tens and 3 ones, or 2 hundreds and 43 ones, etc.) and

3
construct models to represent each.
2. Recognize and classify numbers as even or odd.

4
3. Count money and make change using coins and a dollar bill.
4. Represent and write the value of money using the ¢ sign and in
decimal form when using the $ sign.

5
5. Represent fractions (halves, thirds, fourths, sixths and eighths),
using words, numerals and physical models. For example:

6
a. Recognize that a fractional part can mean different amounts
depending on the original quantity.

7
b. Recognize that a fractional part of a rectangle does not have to
be shaded with contiguous parts.
c. Identify and illustrate parts of a whole and parts of sets of

8
objects.
d. Compare and order physical models of halves, thirds and

9
fourths in relation to 0 and 1.
Meaning of 6. Model, represent and explain subtraction as comparison, take-away
Operations and part-to-whole; e.g., solve missing addend problems by counting
10

up or subtracting, such as “I had six baseball cards, my sister gave

me more, and I now have ten. How many did she give me?” can be
represented as 6 + ? = 10 or 10 - 6 = ?.
11
12

Grade Two

123
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

7. Model, represent and explain multiplication as repeated addition,

rectangular arrays and skip counting.
K

8. Model, represent and explain division as sharing equally and

repeated subtraction.
9. Model and use the commutative property for addition.
1

Computation and 10. Demonstrate fluency in addition facts with addends through 9 and
Estimation corresponding subtractions; e.g., 9 + 9 = 18, 18 – 9 = 9.
2

11. Add and subtract multiples of 10.

12. Demonstrate multiple strategies for adding and subtracting 2- or
3-digit whole numbers, such as:
3

a. compatible numbers;
b. compensatory numbers;
4

c. informal use of commutative and associative properties of

addition.
13. Estimate the results of whole number addition and subtraction
5

problems using front-end estimation, and judge the reasonableness

of the answers.
6

Measurement Standard
7

Measurement Units 1. Identify and select appropriate units of measure for:

a. length – centimeters, meters, inches, feet or yards;
b. volume (capacity) – liters, cups, pints or quarts;
8

c. weight – grams, ounces or pounds;

d. time – hours, half-hours, quarter-hours or minutes and time
9

designations, a.m. or p.m.

2. Establish personal or common referents for units of measure to
10

make estimates and comparisons; e.g., the width of a finger is a

centimeter, a large bottle of soda pop is 2 liters, a small paper clip
weighs about one gram.
11
12

Grade Two

124
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

3. Describe and compare the relationships among units of measure,

such as centimeters and meters; inches, feet and yards; cups, pints

K
and quarts; ounces and pounds; and hours, half-hours, and
quarter-hours; e.g., how many inches in a foot?
4. Tell time to the nearest minute interval on digital and to the nearest

1
5 minute interval on analog (dial) timepieces.
Use Measurement 5. Estimate and measure the length and weight of common objects,
Techniques and using metric and U.S. customary units, accurate to the nearest unit.

2
Tools
6. Select and use appropriate measurement tools; e.g., a ruler to draw a
segment 3 inches long, a measuring cup to place 2 cups of rice in a
bowl, a scale to weigh 50 grams of candy.

3
7. Make and test predictions about measurements, using different units
to measure the same length or volume.

4
Geometry and Spatial Sense Standard

5
Characteristics and 1. Identify, describe, compare and sort three-dimensional objects (i.e.,
Properties cubes, spheres, prisms, cones, cylinders and pyramids) according to
the shape of the faces or the number of faces, edges or vertices.

6
2. Predict what new shapes will be formed by combining or cutting
apart existing shapes.

7
3. Recognize two-dimensional shapes and three-dimensional objects
from different positions.
Spatial Relationships 4. Identify and determine whether two-dimensional shapes are

8
congruent (same shape and size) or similar (same shape different
size) by copying or using superposition (lay one thing on top of
another).

9
Transformations and 5. Create and identify two-dimensional figures with line symmetry;
Symmetry e.g., what letter shapes, logos, polygons are symmetrical? 10
11
12

Grade Two

125
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Patterns, Functions and Algebra Standard

Use Patterns, 1. Extend simple number patterns (both repeating and growing
K

Relations patterns), and create similar patterns using different objects, such as
and Functions using physical materials or shapes to represent numerical
patterns.
1

2. Use patterns to make generalizations and predictions; e.g.,

determine a missing element in a pattern.
2

3. Create new patterns with consistent rules or plans, and describe the
rule or general plan of existing patterns.
Use Algebraic 4. Use objects, pictures, numbers and other symbols to represent a problem
3

Representations situation.
5. Understand equivalence and extend the concept to situations
involving symbols; e.g., 4 + 5 = 9 and 9 = 4 + 5, and
4

4 + 5 = 3 + 6 = ▲ + ■…
6. Use symbols to represent unknown quantities and identify values
for symbols in an expression or equation using addition and
5

subtraction; e.g., ■ + ● = 10, ▲ - 2 = 4.

Analyze Change 7. Describe qualitative and quantitative changes, especially those
6

involving addition and subtraction; e.g., a student growing taller

versus a student growing two inches in one year.
7

Data Analysis and Probability Standard

Data Collection 1. Pose questions, use observations, interviews and surveys to collect
8

data, and organize data in charts, picture graphs and bar graphs.
2. Read, interpret and make comparisons and predictions from data
9

represented in charts, line plots, picture graphs and bar graphs.

3. Read and construct simple timelines to sequence events.
10

Statistical Methods 4. Write a few sentences to describe and compare categories of data
represented in a chart or graph, and make statements about the data
as a whole.
11

5. Identify untrue or inappropriate statements about a given set of

data.
12

Grade Two

126
A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

6. Recognize that data may vary from one population to another; e.g.,
favorite TV shows of students and of parents.

K
Probability 7. List some of the possible outcomes of a simple experiment, and
predict whether given outcomes are more, less or equally likely to
occur.

1
8. Use physical models and pictures to represent possible
arrangements of 2 or 3 objects.

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

Grade Two

127
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

K-12 Mathematics Benchmarks

By the end of the 3-4 program:
K

Number, Number Sense Geometry and

Measurement
and Operations Spatial Sense
1

A. Use place value structure A. Select appropriate units A. Provide rationale for
of the base-ten number for perimeter, area, groupings and
system to read, write, weight, volume (capacity), comparisons of two-
2

represent and compare time and temperature, dimensional figures and

whole numbers and using: three-dimensional objects.
decimals.
3

• objects of uniform size; B. Describe and identify

B. Recognize and generate • U.S. customary units; points, lines and planes in
equivalent representations e.g., mile, square inch, the environment.
for whole numbers,
4

cubic inch, second, C. Describe and identify

fractions and decimals. degree Fahrenheit, intersecting, parallel and
C. Represent commonly used and other units as perpendicular lines or
5

fractions and mixed appropriate; segments in the

numbers using words • metric units; e.g., environment.
and physical models. millimeter, kilometer, D. Identify and draw right,
6

D. Use models, points of square centimeter, obtuse, acute and straight

reference and equivalent kilogram, cubic angles.
forms of commonly used centimeter, degree E. Use attributes to describe,
7

fractions to judge the size Celsius, and other classify and sketch plane
of fractions and to units as appropriate. figures and build solid
compare, describe and B. Know that the number of objects.
8

order them. units is inversely related F. Develop definitions of

E. Recognize and classify to the size of the unit for classes of shapes.
numbers as prime or any item being measured.
9

composite and list factors. G. Find and name locations

C. Develop common in coordinate systems.
F. Count money and make referents for units of
10

change using both coins measure for length, H. Identify and describe line
and paper bills. weight, volume (capacity) and rotational symmetry
and time to make in two-dimensional
G. Model and use shapes and designs.
11

commutative and comparisons and

associative properties for estimates.
addition and
12

multiplication.

128
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

K-12 Mathematics Benchmarks

By the end of the 3-4 program:

K
Patterns, Functions Data Analysis
Mathematical Processes
and Algebra and Probability

1
A. Analyze and extend A. Gather and organize data A. Apply and justify the use
patterns, and describe from surveys and of a variety of problem-
the rule in words. classroom experiments, solving strategies; e.g.,

2
B. Use patterns to make including data collected make an organized list,
predictions, identify over a period of time. guess and check.

3
relationships, and solve B. Read and interpret tables, B. Use an organized
problems. charts, graphs (bar, approach and appropriate
C. Write and solve open picture, line, line plot), strategies to solve multi-
and timelines as sources step problems.

4
sentences and explain
strategies. of information, identify C. Interpret results in the
main idea, draw context of the problem
D. Represent an unknown conclusions, and make

5
quantity as a variable being solved; e.g., the
predictions. solution must be a whole
using a symbol, including
letters. C. Construct charts, tables number of buses when

6
and graphs to represent determining the number
E. Use variables to create data, including picture of buses necessary to
and solve equations graphs, bar graphs, line transport students.
representing problem

7
graphs, line plots and D. Use mathematical
situations. Venn diagrams. strategies to solve
F. Construct and use a D. Read, interpret and problems that relate to

8
table of values to solve construct graphs in which other curriculum areas
problems associated with icons represent more than and the real world; e.g.,
mathematical a single unit or intervals use a timeline to sequence
9
relationships. greater than one; e.g., each events; use symmetry in
G. Describe how a change in  = 10 bicycles or the artwork.
one variable affects the intervals on an axis are E. Link concepts to
10

value of a related variable. multiples of 10. procedures and to

E. Describe data using mode, symbolic notation; e.g.,
model 3 x 4 with a
11

median and range.

geometric array, represent
one-third by dividing an
object into three equal
12

parts.
129
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

K-12 Mathematics Benchmarks (continued)

By the end of the 3-4 program:
K

Number, Number Sense Geometry and

Measurement
and Operations Spatial Sense
1

H. Use relationships between D. Identify appropriate tools I. Describe, identify and

operations, such as and apply counting model reflections,
subtraction as the inverse techniques for measuring rotations and translations,
2

of addition and division side lengths, perimeter using physical materials.

as the inverse of and area of squares, J. Describe a motion or
multiplication. rectangles, and simple
3

series of transformations
I. Demonstrate fluency in irregular two-dimensional that show two shapes are
multiplication facts with shapes, volume of congruent.
factors through 10 and rectangular prisms, and
4

corresponding divisions. time and temperature.

J. Estimate the results of E. Tell time to the nearest
minute.
5

whole number
computations using a
variety of strategies, and
6

judge the reasonableness.

K. Analyze and solve multi-
step problems involving
7

addition, subtraction,
multiplication and
division of whole
8

numbers.
L. Use a variety of methods
and appropriate tools
9

(mental math, paper and

pencil, calculators) for
computing with whole
10

numbers.
M. Add and subtract
commonly used fractions
11

with like denominators

and decimals, using
models and paper and
12

pencil.
130
A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

K-12 Mathematics Benchmarks (continued)

By the end of the 3-4 program:

K
Patterns, Functions Data Analysis
Mathematical Processes
and Algebra and Probability

1
F. Conduct a simple F. Recognize relationships
probability experiment among different topics
and draw conclusions within mathematics; e.g.,

2
about the likelihood of the length of an object can
possible be represented by a
outcomes. number.

3
G. Use reasoning skills to
G. Identify and represent
determine and explain the
possible outcomes, such
reasonableness of a solution
as arrangements of a set

4
with respect to the problem
of up to four members situation.
and possible combinations
from several sets, each H. Recognize basic valid and

5
invalid arguments, and use
containing 2 or 3
examples and counter
members. examples, models, number

6
H. Use the set of possible relationships, and logic to
outcomes to describe and support or refute.
predict events. I. Represent problem

7
situations in a variety of
forms (physical model,
diagram, in words or

8
symbols), and recognize
when some ways of
representing a problem
may be more helpful than
others. 9
J. Read, interpret, discuss and
10

write about mathematical

ideas and concepts using
both everyday and
mathematical language.
11

K. Use mathematical language

to explain and justify
mathematical ideas,
12

strategies and solutions.

131
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Grade Three
Number, Number Sense and Operations Standard
K

Number and 1. Identify and generate equivalent forms of whole numbers; e.g., 36,
Number Systems 30 + 6, 9 x 4, 46 - 10, number of inches in a yard.
2. Use place value concepts to represent whole numbers and decimals
1

using numerals, words, expanded notation and physical models. For

example:
a. Recognize 100 means “10 tens” as well as a single entity
2

(1 hundred) through physical models and trading games.

b. Describe the multiplicative nature of the number system;
e.g., the structure of 3205 as 3 x 1000 plus 2 x 100 plus 5 x 1.
3

c. Model the size of 1000 in multiple ways; e.g., packaging 1000

objects into 10 boxes of 100, modeling a meter with centimeter and
4

decimeter strips, or gathering 1000 pop-can tabs.

d. Explain the concept of tenths and hundredths using physical
models, such as metric pieces, base ten blocks, decimal squares
5

or money.
3. Use mathematical language and symbols to compare and order; e.g.,
less than, greater than, at most, at least, <, >, =, ≤, ≥.
6

4. Count money and make change using coins and paper bills to ten
dollars.
7

5. Represent fractions and mixed numbers using words, numerals and

physical models.
6. Compare and order commonly used fractions and mixed numbers
8

using number lines, models (such as fraction circles or bars), points

1
of reference (such as more or less than ), and equivalent forms
2
9

using physical or visual models.

7. Recognize and use decimal and fraction concepts and notations as
related ways of representing parts of a whole or a set; e.g., 3 of 10
10

3
marbles are red can also be described as  and 3 tenths are red.
10
11
12

Grade Three

132
A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Meaning of 8. Model, represent and explain multiplication; e.g., repeated addition,

Operations skip counting, rectangular arrays and area model. For example:

K
a. Use conventional mathematical symbols to write equations for
word problems involving multiplication.
b. Understand that, unlike addition and subtraction, the factors in

1
multiplication and division may have different units; e.g., 3
boxes of 5 cookies each.
9. Model, represent and explain division; e.g., sharing equally, repeated

2
subtraction, rectangular arrays and area model. For example:
a. Translate contextual situations involving division into

3
conventional mathematical symbols.
b. Explain how a remainder may impact an answer in a real-world
situation; e.g., 14 cookies being shared by 4 children.

4
10. Explain and use relationships between operations, such as:
a. relate addition and subtraction as inverse operations;

5
b. relate multiplication and division as inverse operations;
c. relate addition to multiplication (repeated addition);

6
d. relate subtraction to division (repeated subtraction).
11. Model and use the commutative and associative properties for
addition and multiplication.

7
Computation and 12. Add and subtract whole numbers with and without regrouping.
Estimation
13. Demonstrate fluency in multiplication facts through 10 and

8
corresponding division facts.
14. Multiply and divide 2- and 3-digit numbers by a single-digit
number, without remainders for division.
15. Evaluate the reasonableness of computations based upon operations 9
and the numbers involved; e.g., considering relative size, place value
10

and estimates.
11
12

Grade Three

133
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Measurement Standard
Measurement Units 1. Identify and select appropriate units for measuring:
K

a. length – miles, kilometers and other units of measure as

appropriate;
1

b. volume (capacity) – gallons;

c. weight – ounces, pounds, grams, or kilograms;
2

d. temperature – degrees (Fahrenheit or Celsius).

2. Establish personal or common referents to include additional units;
e.g., a gallon container of milk; a postage stamp is about a square
3

inch.
3. Tell time to the nearest minute and find elapsed time using a
calendar or a clock.
4

4. Read thermometers in both Fahrenheit and Celsius scales.

Use Measurement 5. Estimate and measure length, weight and volume (capacity), using
5

Techniques and
Tools
metric and U.S. customary units, accurate to the nearest 1 or 1
2 4
unit as appropriate.
6

6. Use appropriate measurement tools and techniques to construct a

figure or approximate an amount of specified length, weight or
1
volume (capacity); e.g., construct a rectangle with length 2 inches
2
7

3
and width 3 inches, fill a measuring cup to the  cup mark.
4
7. Make estimates for perimeter, area and volume using links, tiles,
cubes and other models.
8

Geometry and Spatial Sense Standard

9

Characteristics and 1. Analyze and describe properties of two-dimensional shapes and

Properties three-dimensional objects using terms such as vertex, edge, angle,
10

side and face.

11
12

Grade Three

134
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

2. Identify and describe the relative size of angles with respect to right
angles as follows:

K
a. Use physical models, like straws, to make different sized angles
by opening and closing the sides, not by changing the side
lengths.

1
b. Identify, classify and draw right, acute, obtuse and straight
angles.
Spatial Relationships 3. Find and name locations on a labeled grid or coordinate system;

2
e.g., a map or graph.
Transformations and 4. Draw lines of symmetry to verify symmetrical two-dimensional

3
Symmetry shapes.
Visualization and 5. Build a three-dimensional model of an object composed of cubes;
Geometric Models e.g., construct a model based on an illustration or actual object.

4
Patterns, Functions and Algebra Standard

5
Use Patterns, 1. Extend multiplicative and growing patterns, and describe the
Relations pattern or rule in words.
and Functions

6
2. Analyze and replicate arithmetic sequences with and without a
calculator.
3. Use patterns to make predictions, identify relationships, and solve

7
problems.
Use Algebraic 4. Model problem situations using objects, pictures, tables, numbers,
Representations letters and other symbols.

8
5. Write, solve and explain simple mathematical statements, such as
7 + ■ > 8 or ▲ + 8 = 10.

9
6. Express mathematical relationships as equations and inequalities.
Analyze Change 7. Create tables to record, organize and analyze data to discover
10

patterns and rules.

8. Identify and describe quantitative changes, especially those
involving addition and subtraction; e.g., the height of water in a
11

glass becoming 1 centimeter lower each week due to evaporation.

12

Grade Three

135
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Data Analysis and Probability Standard

Data Collection 1. Collect and organize data from an experiment, such as recording
K

and classifying observations or measurements, in response to a

question posed.
1

2. Draw and interpret picture graphs in which a symbol or picture

represents more than one object.
3. Read, interpret and construct bar graphs with intervals greater than
2

one.
4. Support a conclusion or prediction orally and in writing, using
3

information in a table or graph.

5. Match a set of data with a graphical representation of the data.
4

6. Translate information freely among charts, tables, line plots, picture

graphs and bar graphs; e.g., create a bar graph from the information
in a chart.
5

7. Analyze and interpret information represented on a timeline.

Statistical Methods 8. Identify the mode of a data set and describe the information it gives
6

about a data set.

Probability 9. Conduct a simple experiment or simulation of a simple event, record
7

the results in a chart, table or graph, and use the results to draw
conclusions about the likelihood of possible outcomes.
10. Use physical models, pictures, diagrams and lists to solve problems
8

involving possible arrangements or combinations of two to four

objects.
9
10
11
12

Grade Three

136
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Grade Four
Number, Number Sense and Operations Standard

K
Number and 1. Identify and generate equivalent forms of fractions and decimals.
Number Systems For example:
a. Connect physical, verbal and symbolic representations of

1
fractions, decimals and whole numbers; e.g., 1, 5, “five
2 10
tenths,” 0.5, shaded rectangles with half, and five tenths.

2
b. Understand and explain that ten tenths is the same as one whole
in both fraction and decimal form.
2. Use place value structure of the base-ten number system to read,

3
write, represent and compare whole numbers through millions and
decimals through thousandths.

4
3. Round whole numbers to a given place value.
4. Identify and represent factors and multiples of whole numbers
through 100, and classify numbers as prime or composite.

5
5. Use models and points of reference to compare commonly used
fractions.

6
Meaning of 6. Use associative and distributive properties to simplify and perform
Operations computations; e.g., use left to right multiplication and the
distributive property to find an exact answer without paper and
pencil, such as 5 x 47 = 5 x 40 + 5 x 7 = 200 + 35 = 235.

7
7. Recognize that division may be used to solve different types of
problem situations and interpret the meaning of remainders; e.g.,

8
situations involving measurement, money.
Computation and 8. Solve problems involving counting money and making change,
Estimation using both coins and paper bills.
9. Estimate the results of computations involving whole numbers, 9
fractions and decimals, using a variety of strategies.
10

10. Use physical models, visual representations, and paper and pencil to
add and subtract decimals and commonly used fractions with like
denominators.
11
12

Grade Four

137
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

11. Develop and explain strategies for performing computations

mentally.
K

12. Analyze and solve multi-step problems involving addition, subtraction,

multiplication and division using an organized approach, and verify
and interpret results with respect to the original problem.
1

13. Use a variety of methods and appropriate tools for computing with
whole numbers; e.g., mental math, paper and pencil, and calculator.
14. Demonstrate fluency in adding and subtracting whole numbers
2

and in multiplying and dividing whole numbers by 1- and 2-digit

numbers and multiples of ten.
3

Measurement Standard
4

Measurement Units 1. Relate the number of units to the size of the units used to measure
an object; e.g., compare the number of cups to fill a pitcher to the
number of quarts to fill the same pitcher.
5

2. Demonstrate and describe perimeter as surrounding and area as

covering a two-dimensional shape, and volume as filling
a three-dimensional object.
6

3. Identify and select appropriate units to measure:

a. perimeter – string or links (inches or centimeters).
7

b. area – tiles (square inches or square centimeters).

c. volume – cubes (cubic inches or cubic centimeters).
8

Use Measurement 4. Develop and use strategies to find perimeter using string or links,
Techniques and area using tiles or a grid, and volume using cubes; e.g., count
Tools squares to find area of regular or irregular shapes on a grid, layer
9

cubes in a box to find its volume.

5. Make simple unit conversions within a measurement system;
e.g., inches to feet, kilograms to grams, quarts to gallons.
10

6. Write, solve and verify solutions to multi-step problems involving

measurement.
11
12

Grade Four

138
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Geometry and Spatial Sense Standard

Characteristics and 1. Identify, describe and model intersecting, parallel and perpendicular

K
Properties lines and line segments; e.g., use straws or other material to model
lines.

1
2. Describe, classify, compare and model two- and three-dimensional
objects using their attributes.
3. Identify similarities and differences of quadrilaterals; e.g., squares,

2
rectangles, parallelograms and trapezoids.
4. Identify and define triangles based on angle measures (equiangular,
right, acute and obtuse triangles) and side lengths (isosceles,

3
equilateral and scalene triangles).
Spacial Relationships 5. Describe points, lines and planes, and identify models in the
environment.

4
6. Specify locations and plot ordered pairs on a coordinate plane,
using first quadrant points.

5
Transformations and 7. Identify, describe and use reflections (flips), rotations (turns), and
Symmetry translations (slides) in solving geometric problems; e.g., use
transformations to determine if 2 shapes are congruent.

6
Visualization and 8. Use geometric models to solve problems in other areas of
Geometric Models mathematics, such as number (multiplication/division) and
measurement (area, perimeter, border).

7
8
Patterns, Functions and Algebra Standard
Use Patterns, 1. Use models and words to describe, extend and make generalizations
Relations of patterns and relationships occurring in computation, numerical
9
and Functions patterns, geometry, graphs and other applications.
2. Represent and analyze patterns and functions using words, tables
10

and graphs.
Use Algebraic 3. Construct a table of values to solve problems associated with a
Representation mathematical relationship.
11

4. Use rules and variables to describe patterns and other relationships.

12

Grade Four

139
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

5. Represent mathematical relationships with equations or inequalities.

Analyze Change 6. Describe how a change in one variable affects the value of a related
K

variable; e.g., as one increases the other increases or as one increases

the other decreases.
1

Data Analysis and Probability Standard

Data Collection 1. Create a plan for collecting data for a specific purpose.
2

2. Represent and interpret data using tables, bar graphs, line plots and
line graphs.
3

3. Interpret and construct Venn diagrams to sort and describe data.

4. Compare different representations of the same data to evaluate how
well each representation shows important aspects of the data, and
4

identify appropriate ways to display the data.

5. Propose and explain interpretations and predictions based on data
5

displayed in tables, charts and graphs.

Statistical Methods 6. Describe the characteristics of a set of data based on a graphical
representation, such as range of the data, clumps of data, and holes
6

in the data.
7. Identify the median of a set of data and describe what it indicates
about the data.
7

8. Use range, median and mode to make comparisons among related

sets of data.
8

Probability 9. Conduct simple probability experiments and draw conclusions from

the results; e.g., rolling number cubes or drawing marbles from a
bag.
9

10. Represent the likelihood of possible outcomes for chance situations;

e.g., probability of selecting a red marble from a bag containing 3 red
and 5 white marbles.
10

11. Relate the concepts of impossible and certain-to-happen events to

the numerical values of 0 (impossible) and 1 (certain).
11
12

Grade Four

140
A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

12. Place events in order of likelihood and use a diagram or appropriate

language to compare the chance of each event occurring; e.g.,

K
impossible, unlikely, equal, likely, certain.
13. List and count all possible combinations using one member from
each of several sets, each containing 2 or 3 members; e.g., the

1
number of possible outfits from 3 shirts, 2 shorts and 2 pairs of
shoes.

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

Grade Four

141
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

K-12 Mathematics Benchmarks

By the end of the 5-7 program:
K

Number, Number Sense Geometry and

Measurement
and Operations Spatial Sense
1

A. Represent and compare A. Select appropriate units A. Identify and label angle
numbers less than 0 to measure angles, parts and the regions
through familiar circumference, surface defined within the plane
2

applications and area, mass and volume, where the angle resides.
extending the number using: B. Draw circles, and identify
line. and determine the
3

• U.S. customary units;

B. Compare, order and e.g., degrees, square relationships among the
convert among fractions, feet, pounds, and other radius, diameter, center
decimals and percents. units as appropriate; and circumference.
4

C. Develop meaning for • metric units; e.g., C. Specify locations and

percents, including square meters, plot ordered pairs on a
coordinate plane.
5

percents greater than 100 kilograms and other

and less than 1. units as appropriate. D. Identify, describe and
classify types of line pairs,
D. Use models and pictures B. Convert units of length,
6

angles, two-dimensional
to relate concepts of ratio, area, volume, mass and figures and three-
proportion and percent. time within the same dimensional objects using
E. Use order of operations, measurement system. their properties.
7

including use of C. Identify appropriate tools E. Use proportions to express

parenthesis and exponents and apply appropriate relationships among
to solve multi-step techniques for measuring
8

corresponding parts of
problems, and verify and angles, perimeter or similar figures.
interpret the results. circumference and area
F. Describe and use the
of triangles,
9

F. Apply number system concepts of congruence,

properties when quadrilaterals, circles and similarity and symmetry
performing computations. composite shapes, and to solve problems.
surface area and volume
10

G. Apply and explain the use of prisms and cylinders. G. Describe and use
of prime factorizations, properties of triangles to
common factors, and D. Select a tool and measure solve problems involving
11

common multiples in accurately to a specified angle measures and side

problem situations. level of precision. lengths of right triangles.
12

142
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

K-12 Mathematics Benchmarks

By the end of the 5-7 program:

K
Patterns, Functions Data Analysis
Mathematical Processes
and Algebra and Probability

1
A. Describe, extend and A. Read, create and use line A. Clarify problem-solving
determine the rule for graphs, histograms, circle situation and identify
patterns and relationships graphs, box-and-whisker potential solution

2
occurring in numeric plots, stem-and-leaf plots, processes; e.g., consider
patterns, computation, and other representations different strategies and
geometry, graphs and when appropriate. approaches to a problem,

3
other applications. B. Interpret data by looking restate problem from
B. Represent, analyze and for patterns and various perspectives.
generalize a variety of relationships, draw and B. Apply and adapt

4
patterns and functions justify conclusions, and problem-solving strategies
with tables, graphs, words answer related questions. to solve a variety of
and symbolic rules. problems, including

5
C. Evaluate interpretations
unfamiliar and
C. Use variables to create and conclusions as
non-routine problem
and solve equations and additional data are
situations.

6
inequalities representing collected, modify
problem situations. conclusions and C. Use more than one
predictions, and justify strategy to solve a
D. Use symbolic algebra to

7
new findings. problem, and recognize
represent and explain
there are advantages
mathematical D. Compare increasingly
associated with various
relationships. complex displays of data,
methods.

8
E. Use rules and variables such as multiple sets of
data on the same graph. D. Recognize whether an
to describe patterns,
estimate or an exact
functions and other E. Collect, organize, display
9
solution is appropriate for
relationships. and interpret data for a
a given problem situation.
F. Use representations, such specific purpose or need.
E. Use deductive thinking to
10

as tables, graphs and F. Determine and use the

construct informal
equations, to model range, mean, median and
arguments to support
situations and to solve mode to analyze and
reasoning and to justify
11

problems, especially those compare data, and explain

solutions to problems.
that involve linear what each indicates about
relationships. the data.
12

143
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

K-12 Mathematics Benchmarks (continued)

By the end of the 5-7 program:
K

Number, Number Sense Geometry and

Measurement
and Operations Spatial Sense
1

H. Use and analyze the steps E. Use problem solving H. Predict and describe
in standard and techniques and technology results (size, position,
non-standard algorithms as needed to solve orientation) of
2

for computing with problems involving transformations of two-

fractions, decimals and length, weight, perimeter, dimensional figures.
integers. area, volume, time and
3

I. Identify and draw

I. Use a variety of strategies, temperature. three-dimensional objects
including proportional F. Analyze and explain what from different views
reasoning, to estimate, happens to area and (top, side, front and
4

compute, solve and perimeter or surface area perspective).

explain solutions to and volume when the J. Apply properties of
problems involving dimensions of an object
5

equality and
integers, fractions, are changed. proportionality to solve
decimals and percents. G. Understand and problems involving
6

demonstrate the congruent or similar

independence of perimeter figures; e.g., create a
and area for two- scale drawing.
7

dimensional shapes and

of surface area and volume
for three-dimensional
8

shapes.
9
10
11
12

144
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

K-12 Mathematics Benchmarks (continued)

By the end of the 5-7 program:

K
Patterns, Functions Data Analysis
Mathematical Processes
and Algebra and Probability

1
G. Write, simplify and G. Evaluate conjectures and F. Use inductive thinking to
evaluate algebraic predictions based upon generalize a pattern of
expressions. data presented in tables observations for particular

2
and graphs, and identify cases, make conjectures,
H. Solve linear equations and and provide supporting
inequalities symbolically, misuses of statistical data
and displays. arguments for conjectures.

3
graphically and
numerically. H. Find all possible outcomes G. Relate mathematical ideas
to one another and to
I. Explain how inverse of simple experiments or
other content areas; e.g.,
problem situations, using

4
operations are used to use area models for
solve linear equations. methods such as lists, adding fractions, interpret
arrays and tree diagrams. graphs in reading, science
J. Use formulas in

5
I. Describe the probability of and social studies.
problem-solving
situations. an event using ratios, H. Use representations to
including fractional organize and
K. Graph linear equations

6
notation. communicate
and inequalities. mathematical thinking
J. Compare experimental
L. Analyze functional and problem solutions.
and theoretical results for

7
relationships, and explain a variety of simple I. Select, apply, and translate
how a change in one experiments. among mathematical
quantity results in a representations to solve
K. Make and justify

8
change in the other. problems; e.g., represent-
predictions based on ing a number as a fraction,
M. Approximate and experimental and decimal or percent as
interpret rates of change theoretical probabilities. appropriate for a problem.
9
from graphical and
J. Communicate
numerical data.
mathematical thinking to
10

others and analyze the

mathematical thinking
and strategies of others.
11

K. Recognize and use

mathematical language
and symbols when
reading, writing and
12

conversing with others.

145
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Grade Five
Number, Number Sense and Operations Standard
K

Number and 1. Use models and visual representation to develop the concept of ratio
Number Systems as part-to-part and part-to-whole, and the concept of percent as
1

part-to-whole.
2. Use various forms of “one” to demonstrate the equivalence of
18 9 2 3 6
fractions; e.g.,  =  x  =  x .
2

24 12 2 4 6
3. Identify and generate equivalent forms of fractions, decimals and
percents.
3

4. Round decimals to a given place value and round fractions

(including mixed numbers) to the nearest half.
5. Recognize and identify perfect squares and their roots.
4

Meaning of 6. Represent and compare numbers less than 0 by extending the

Operations number line and using familiar applications; e.g., temperature,
5

owing money.
7. Use commutative, associative, distributive, identity and inverse
properties to simplify and perform computations.
6

8. Identify and use relationships between operations to solve problems.

9. Use order of operations, including use of parentheses, to simplify
7

numerical expressions.
10. Justify why fractions need common denominators to be added or
subtracted.
8

11. Explain how place value is related to addition and subtraction of

decimals; e.g., 0.2 + 0.14; the two tenths is added to the one tenth
because they are both tenths.
9

Computation and 12. Use physical models, points of reference, and equivalent forms to
Estimation add and subtract commonly used fractions with like and unlike
10

denominators and decimals.

13. Estimate the results of computations involving whole numbers,
fractions and decimals, using a variety of strategies.
11
12

Grade Five

146
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Measurement Standard
Measurement Units 1. Identify and select appropriate units to measure angles; i.e., degrees.

K
2. Identify paths between points on a grid or coordinate plane and
compare the lengths of the paths; e.g., shortest path, paths of equal

1
length.
3. Demonstrate and describe the differences between covering the faces
(surface area) and filling the interior (volume) of three-dimensional

2
objects.
4. Demonstrate understanding of the differences among linear units,
square units and cubic units.

3
Use Measurement 5. Make conversions within the same measurement system while
Techniques and performing computations.
Tools

4
6. Use strategies to develop formulas for determining perimeter and
area of triangles, rectangles and parallelograms, and volume of
rectangular prisms.

5
7. Use benchmark angles (e.g.; 45º, 90º, 120º) to estimate the measure of
angles, and use a tool to measure and draw angles.

6
Geometry and Spatial Sense Standard

7
Characteristics and 1. Draw circles, and identify and determine relationships among the
Properties radius, diameter, center and circumference; e.g., radius is half the
diameter, the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter is

8
an approximation of π.
2. Use standard language to describe line, segment, ray, angle, skew,
parallel and perpendicular.
3. Label vertex, rays, interior and exterior for an angle. 9
4. Describe and use properties of congruent figures to solve problems.
10

5. Use physical models to determine the sum of the interior angles of

triangles and quadrilaterals.
11

Spatial Relationships 6. Extend understanding of coordinate system to include points whose

x or y values may be negative numbers.
12

Grade Five

147
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Visualization and 7. Understand that the measure of an angle is determined by the

Geometric Models degree of rotation of an angle side rather than the length of either
K

side.
8. Predict what three-dimensional object will result from folding a
two-dimensional net, then confirm the prediction by folding the net.
1

Patterns, Functions and Algebra Standard

Use Patterns, 1. Justify a general rule for a pattern or a function by using physical
2

Relations materials, visual representations, words, tables or graphs.

and Functions
2. Use calculators or computers to develop patterns, and generalize
3

them using tables and graphs.

Use Algebraic 3. Use variables as unknown quantities in general rules when describing
Representation patterns and other relationships.
4

4. Create and interpret the meaning of equations and inequalities

representing problem situations.
5

5. Model problems with physical materials and visual representations,

and use models, graphs and tables to draw conclusions and make
predictions.
6

Analyze Change 6. Describe how the quantitative change in a variable affects the value
of a related variable; e.g., describe how the rate of growth varies over
time, based upon data in a table or graph.
7

Data Analysis and Probability Standard

8

Data Collection 1. Read, construct and interpret frequency tables, circle graphs and line
graphs.
9

2. Select and use a graph that is appropriate for the type of data to
be displayed; e.g., numerical vs. categorical data, discrete vs.
continuous data.
10

3. Read and interpret increasingly complex displays of data, such as

double bar graphs.
4. Determine appropriate data to be collected to answer questions
11

posed by students or teacher, collect and display data, and clearly

communicate findings.
12

Grade Five

148
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

5. Modify initial conclusions, propose and justify new interpretations

and predictions as additional data are collected.

K
Statistical Methods 6. Determine and use the range, mean, median and mode, and explain
what each does and does not indicate about the set of data.
Probability 7. List and explain all possible outcomes in a given situation.

1
8. Identify the probability of events within a simple experiment, such
as three chances out of eight.

2
9. Use 0, 1 and ratios between 0 and 1 to represent the probability of
outcomes for an event, and associate the ratio with the likelihood of
the outcome.

3
10. Compare what should happen (theoretical/expected results)
with what did happen (experimental/actual results) in a simple
experiment.

4
11. Make predictions based on experimental and theoretical
probabilities.

5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

Grade Five

149
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Grade Six
Number, Number Sense and Operations Standard
K

Number and 1. Decompose and recompose whole numbers using factors and
Number Systems exponents (e.g., 32 = 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 = 25 ), and explain why
1

“squared” means “second power” and “cubed” means “third

power.”
2. Find and use the prime factorization of composite numbers. For
2

example:
a. Use the prime factorization to recognize the greatest common
factor (GCF).
3

b. Use the prime factorization to recognize the least common

multiple (LCM).
4

c. Apply the prime factorization to solve problems and explain

solutions.
3. Explain why a number is referred to as being “rational,” and
5

a 1
recognize that the expression  can mean a parts of size  each,
b b
a divided by b, or the ratio of a to b.
6

4. Describe what it means to find a specific percent of a number, using

real-life examples.
7

5. Use models and pictures to relate concepts of ratio, proportion and

percent, including percents less than 1 and greater than 100.
Meaning of 6. Use the order of operations, including the use of exponents,
8

Operations decimals and rational numbers, to simplify numerical expressions.

7. Use simple expressions involving integers to represent and solve
problems; e.g., if a running back loses 15 yards on the first carry but
9

gains 8 yards on the second carry, what is the net gain/loss?

8. Represent multiplication and division situations involving fractions
10

and decimals with models and visual representations; e.g., show

2 1
with pattern blocks what it means to take 2   .
3 6
9. Give examples of how ratios are used to represent comparisons; e.g.,
11

part-to-part, part-to-whole, whole-to-part.

12

Grade Six

150
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

10. Recognize that a quotient may be larger than the dividend when the
divisor is a fraction; e.g., 6  1 = 12.
2

K
Computation and 11. Perform fraction and decimal computations and justify their
Estimation solutions; e.g., using manipulatives, diagrams, mathematical
reasoning.

1
12. Develop and analyze algorithms for computing with fractions and
decimals, and demonstrate fluency in their use.

2
13. Estimate reasonable solutions to problem situations involving
fractions and decimals; e.g., 7 + 1
2
 2 and 4.23 x 5.8  25.
8 13
14. Use proportional reasoning, ratios and percents to represent

3
problem situations and determine the reasonableness of solutions.
15. Determine the percent of a number and solve related problems; e.g.,

4
find the percent markdown if the original price was $140, and the
sale price is $100.

5
Measurement Standard
Measurement Units 1. Understand and describe the difference between surface area and

6
volume.
Use Measurement 2. Use strategies to develop formulas for finding circumference and
1

7
Techniques and area of circles, and to determine the area of sectors; e.g.,  circle,
Tools 2
2 1 1
 circle,  circle,  circle.
3 3 4
3. Estimate perimeter or circumference and area for circles, triangles

8
and quadrilaterals, and surface area and volume for prisms and
cylinders by:

9
a. estimating lengths using string or links, areas using tiles or grid,
and volumes using cubes;
b. measuring attributes (diameter, side lengths, or heights) and
10

using established formulas for circles, triangles, rectangles,

parallelograms and rectangular prisms.
11
12

Grade Six

151
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

4. Determine which measure (perimeter, area, surface area, volume)

matches the context for a problem situation; e.g., perimeter is the
K

context for fencing a garden, surface area is the context for painting
a room.
5. Understand the difference between perimeter and area, and
1

demonstrate that two shapes may have the same perimeter, but
different areas or may have the same area, but different perimeters.
6. Describe what happens to the perimeter and area of a
2

two-dimensional shape when the measurements of the shape are

changed; e.g. length of sides are doubled.
3

Geometry and Spatial Sense Standard

Characteristics and 1. Classify and describe two-dimensional and three-dimensional
4

Properties geometric figures and objects by using their properties; e.g., interior
angle measures, perpendicular/parallel sides, congruent
angles/sides.
5

2. Use standard language to define geometric vocabulary: vertex, face,

altitude, diagonal, isosceles, equilateral, acute, obtuse and other
vocabulary as appropriate.
6

3. Use multiple classification criteria to classify triangles; e.g., right

scalene triangle.
7

4. Identify and define relationships between planes; i.e., parallel,

perpendicular and intersecting.
8

Spatial Relationships 5. Predict and describe sizes, positions and orientations of

two-dimensional shapes after transformations such as reflections,
rotations, translations and dilations.
9

Transformations and 6. Draw similar figures that model proportional relationships; e.g.,
Symmetry
model similar figures with a 1 to 2 relationship by sketching two of
the same figure, one with corresponding sides twice the length of
10

the other.
Visualization and 7. Build three-dimensional objects with cubes, and sketch the
Geometric Models two-dimensional representations of each side; i.e., projection sets.
11
12

Grade Six

152
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Patterns, Functions and Algebra Standard

K
Use Patterns, 1. Represent and analyze patterns, rules and functions, using physical
Relations materials, tables and graphs.
and Functions
2. Use words and symbols to describe numerical and geometric

1
patterns, rules and functions.
Use Algebraic 3. Recognize and generate equivalent forms of algebraic expressions,
Representations and explain how the commutative, associative and distributive

2
properties can be used to generate equivalent forms; e.g., perimeter
as 2(l + w) or 2l + 2w.

3
4. Solve simple linear equations and inequalities using physical
models, paper and pencil, tables and graphs.
5. Produce and interpret graphs that represent the relationship

4
between two variables.
6. Evaluate simple expressions by replacing variables with given

5
values, and use formulas in problem-solving situations.
Analyze Change 7. Identify and describe situations with constant or varying rates of
change, and compare them.

6
8. Use technology to analyze change; e.g., use computer applications or
graphing calculators to display and interpret rate of change.

7
Data Analysis and Probability Standard

8
Data Collection 1. Read, construct and interpret line graphs, circle graphs and
histograms.
2. Select, create and use graphical representations that are appropriate 9
for the type of data collected.
10

3. Compare representations of the same data in different types of

graphs, such as a bar graph and circle graph.
Statistical Methods 4. Understand the different information provided by measures of
11

center (mean, mode and median) and measures of spread (range).

12

Grade Six

153
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

5. Describe the frequency distribution of a set of data, as shown in a

histogram or frequency table, by general appearance or shape; e.g.,
K

number of modes, middle of data, level of symmetry, outliers.

6. Make logical inferences from statistical data.
Probability 7. Design an experiment to test a theoretical probability and explain
1

how the results may vary.

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

Grade Six

154
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Grade Seven

K
Number, Number Sense and Operations Standard
Number and 1. Demonstrate an understanding of place value using powers of 10
Number Systems and write large numbers in scientific notation.

1
2. Explain the meaning of exponents that are negative or 0.
3. Describe differences between rational and irrational numbers;

2
e.g., use technology to show that some numbers (rational) can be
expressed as terminating or repeating decimals and others
(irrational) as non-terminating and non-repeating decimals.

3
Meaning of 4. Use order of operations and properties to simplify numerical
Operations expressions involving integers, fractions and decimals.

4
5. Explain the meaning and effect of adding, subtracting, multiplying
and dividing integers; e.g., how adding two integers can result in a
lesser value.

5
Computation and 6. Simplify numerical expressions involving integers and use integers
Estimation to solve real-life problems.
7. Solve problems using the appropriate form of a rational number

6
(fraction, decimal or percent).
8. Develop and analyze algorithms for computing with percents and

7
integers, and demonstrate fluency in their use.
9. Represent and solve problem situations that can be modeled by and
solved using concepts of absolute value, exponents and square roots

8
(for perfect squares).

9
Measurement Standard
Measurement Units 1. Select appropriate units for measuring derived measurements;
10

e.g., miles per hour, revolutions per minute.

2. Convert units of area and volume within the same measurement
system using proportional reasoning and a reference table when
11

appropriate; e.g., square feet to square yards, cubic meters to cubic

centimeters.
12

Grade Seven

155
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Use Measurement 3. Estimate a measurement to a greater degree of precision than the

Techniques and tool provides.
Tools
K

4. Solve problems involving proportional relationships and scale

factors; e.g., scale models that require unit conversions within the
same measurement system.
1

5. Analyze problem situations involving measurement concepts, select

appropriate strategies, and use an organized approach to solve
narrative and increasingly complex problems.
2

6. Use strategies to develop formulas for finding area of trapezoids

and volume of cylinders and prisms.
3

7. Develop strategies to find the area of composite shapes using the

areas of triangles, parallelograms, circles and sectors.
8. Understand the difference between surface area and volume and
4

demonstrate that two objects may have the same surface area, but
different volumes or may have the same volume, but different
surface areas.
5

9. Describe what happens to the surface area and volume of a

three-dimensional object when the measurements of the object are
changed; e.g., length of sides are doubled.
6

Geometry and Spatial Sense Standard

7

Characteristics and 1. Use proportional reasoning to describe and express relationships

Properties between parts and attributes of similar and congruent figures.
8

2. Determine sufficient (not necessarily minimal) properties that define

a specific two-dimensional figure or three-dimensional object. For
example:
9

a. Determine when one set of figures is a subset of another; e.g., all

squares are rectangles.
10

b. Develop a set of properties that eliminates all but the desired

figure; e.g., only squares are quadrilaterals with all sides
congruent and all angles congruent.
11
12

Grade Seven

156
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

3. Use and demonstrate understanding of the properties of triangles.

For example:

K
a. Use Pythagorean Theorem to solve problems involving right
triangles.
b. Use triangle angle sum relationships to solve problems.

1
4. Determine necessary conditions for congruence of triangles.
5. Apply properties of congruent or similar triangles to solve problems

2
involving missing lengths and angle measures.
Spatial Relationships 6. Determine and use scale factors for similar figures to solve problems
using proportional reasoning.

3
Transformations and 7. Identify the line and rotation symmetries of two-dimensional figures
Symmetry to solve problems.

4
8. Perform translations, reflections, rotations and dilations of two-
dimensional figures using a variety of methods (paper folding,
tracing, graph paper).

5
Visualization and 9. Draw representations of three-dimensional geometric objects from
Geometric Models different views.

6
Patterns, Functions and Algebra Standard

7
Use Patterns, 1. Represent and analyze patterns, rules and functions with words,
Relations tables, graphs and simple variable expressions.
and Functions
2. Generalize patterns by describing in words how to find the next

8
term.
3. Recognize and explain when numerical patterns are linear or
nonlinear progressions; e.g., 1, 3, 5, 7... is linear and 1, 3, 4, 8, 16... is
nonlinear. 9
Use Algebraic 4. Create visual representations of equation-solving processes that
10

Representations model the use of inverse operations.

5. Represent linear equations by plotting points in the coordinate
plane.
11

6. Represent inequalities on a number line or a coordinate plane.

12

Grade Seven

157
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

7. Justify that two forms of an algebraic expression are equivalent, and

recognize when an expression is simplified;
K

e.g., 4m = m + m + m + m or a · 5 + 4 = 5a + 4.
8. Use formulas in problem-solving situations.
9. Recognize a variety of uses for variables; e.g., placeholder for an
1

unknown quantity in an equation, generalization for a pattern,

formula.
Analyze Change 10. Analyze linear and simple nonlinear relationships to explain how a
2

change in one variable results in the change of another.

11. Use graphing calculators or computers to analyze change;
3

e.g., distance-time relationships.

4

Data Analysis and Probability Standard

Data Collection 1. Read, create and interpret box-and-whisker plots, stem-and-leaf
5

plots, and other types of graphs, when appropriate.

2. Analyze how decisions about graphing affect the graphical
representation; e.g., scale, size of classes in a histogram, number of
6

categories in a circle graph.

Statistical Methods 3. Analyze a set of data by using and comparing combinations of
7

measures of center (mean, mode, median) and measures of spread

(range, quartile, interquartile range), and describe how the
inclusion or exclusion of outliers affects those measures.
8

4. Construct opposing arguments based on analysis of the same data,

using different graphical representations.
5. Compare data from two or more samples to determine how sample
9

selection can influence results.

6. Identify misuses of statistical data in articles, advertisements, and
10

other media.
11
12

Grade Seven

158
A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Probability 7. Compute probabilities of compound events; e.g., multiple coin

tosses or multiple rolls of number cubes, using such methods as

K
organized lists, tree diagrams and area models.
8. Make predictions based on theoretical probabilities, design and
conduct an experiment to test the predictions, compare actual results

1
to predicted results, and explain differences.

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

Grade Seven

159
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

K-12 Mathematics Benchmarks

By the end of the 8-10 program:
K

Number, Number Sense Geometry and

Measurement
and Operations Spatial Sense
1

A. Use scientific notation to A. Solve increasingly A. Formally define geometric

express large numbers complex non-routine figures.
and numbers less than measurement problems
2

B. Describe and apply the

one. and check for properties of similar
B. Identify subsets of the real reasonableness of results. and congruent figures;
3

number system. B. Use formulas to find and justify conjectures

C. Apply properties of surface area and volume involving similarity and
operations and the real for specified congruence.
three-dimensional objects
4

number system, and C. Recognize and apply

justify when they hold for accurate to a specified angle relationships in
a set of numbers. level of precision. situations involving
5

D. Connect physical, verbal C. Apply indirect intersecting lines,

and symbolic measurement techniques, perpendicular lines and
representations of tools and formulas, as parallel lines.
6

integers, rational numbers appropriate, to find D. Use coordinate geometry

and irrational numbers. perimeter, circumference to represent and examine
and area of circles, the properties of
E. Compare, order and
7

triangles, quadrilaterals geometric figures.

determine equivalent and composite shapes,
forms of real numbers. and to find volume of E. Draw and construct
representations of two-
8

F. Explain the effects of prisms, cylinders, and

operations on the pyramids. and three-dimensional
magnitude of quantities. geometric objects using a
D. Use proportional variety of tools, such as
9

G. Estimate, compute and reasoning and apply straightedge, compass and

solve problems involving indirect measurement technology.
real numbers, including techniques, including
10

ratio, proportion and right triangle F. Represent and model

percent, and explain trigonometry and transformations in a
solutions. properties of similar coordinate plane and
11

triangles, to solve describe the results.

problems involving
measurements and rates.
12

160
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

K-12 Mathematics Benchmarks

By the end of the 8-10 program:

K
Patterns, Functions Data Analysis
Mathematical Processes
and Algebra and Probability

1
A. Generalize and explain A. Create, interpret and use A. Formulate a problem or
patterns and sequences in graphical displays and mathematical model in
order to find the next term statistical measures to response to a specific need

2
and the nth term. describe data; e.g., or situation, determine
box-and-whisker plots, information required to
B. Identify and classify histograms, scatterplots,
solve the problem, choose

3
functions as linear or measures of center and
nonlinear, and contrast variability. method for obtaining this
their properties using information, and set limits
B. Evaluate different for acceptable solution.
tables, graphs or

4
graphical representations
equations. of the same data to B. Apply mathematical
C. Translate information determine which is the knowledge and skills
most appropriate routinely in other content

5
from one representation
representation for an areas and practical
(words, table, graph or identified purpose.
equation) to another situations.
C. Compare the

6
representation of a C. Recognize and use
characteristics of the
relation or function. connections between
mean, median and mode
D. Use algebraic for a given set of data, and equivalent representations

7
representations, such as explain which measure of and related procedures for
tables, graphs, expressions, center best represents the a mathematical concept;
functions and inequalities, data. e.g., zero of a function and

8
to model and solve D. Find, use and interpret the x-intercept of the
problem situations. measures of center and graph of the function,
spread, such as mean and apply proportional
E. Analyze and compare
9
quartiles, and use those thinking when measuring,
functions and their graphs measures to compare and describing functions, and
using attributes, such as draw conclusions about comparing probabilities.
rates of change, intercepts
10

sets of data.
and zeros. E. Evaluate the validity of
F. Solve and graph linear claims and predictions
11

equations and inequalities. that are based on data

by examining the
appropriateness of the
data collection and
12

analysis.

161
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

K-12 Mathematics Benchmarks (continued)

By the end of the 8-10 program:
K

Number, Number Sense Geometry and

Measurement
and Operations Spatial Sense
1

H. Find the square root of E. Estimate and compute G. Prove or disprove

perfect squares, and various attributes, conjectures and solve
approximate the square including length, angle problems involving two-
2

root of non-perfect measure, area, surface and three-dimensional

squares. area and volume, to a objects represented within
specified level of a coordinate system.
3

I. Estimate, compute and

solve problems involving precision. H. Establish the validity of
scientific notation, square F. Write and solve real- conjectures about
roots and numbers with world, multi-step geometric objects, their
4

integer exponents. problems involving properties and

money, elapsed time and relationships by counter-
temperature, and verify example, inductive and
5

reasonableness of deductive reasoning, and

solutions. critiquing arguments
made by others.
6

I. Use right triangle

trigonometric
7

relationships to determine
lengths and angle
measures.
8
9
10
11
12

162
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

K-12 Mathematics Benchmarks (continued)

By the end of the 8-10 program:

K
Patterns, Functions Data Analysis
Mathematical Processes
and Algebra and Probability

1
G. Solve quadratic equations F. Construct convincing D. Apply reasoning processes
with real roots by arguments based on and skills to construct
graphing, formula and analysis of data and logical verifications or

2
factoring. interpretation of graphs. counter-examples to test
H. Solve systems of linear G. Describe sampling conjectures and to justify
methods and analyze the and defend algorithms

3
equations involving two
effects of method chosen and solutions.
variables graphically and on how well the resulting
symbolically. sample represents the E. Use a variety of
mathematical

4
I. Model and solve problem population.
situations involving direct representations flexibly
H. Use counting techniques,
and inverse variation. such as permutations and appropriately to
organize, record and

5
and combinations, to
J. Describe and interpret communicate mathematical
determine the total
rates of change from number of options and ideas.
graphical and numerical possible outcomes.

6
data. F. Use precise mathematical
I. Design an experiment to language and notations to
test a theoretical represent problem
probability, and record

7
situations and
and explain results. mathematical ideas.
J. Compute probabilities G. Write clearly and
of compound events,

8
independent events, and coherently about
simple dependent events. mathematical thinking
and ideas.
9
K. Make predictions based
on theoretical probabilities H. Locate and interpret
and experimental results. mathematical information
accurately, and
10

communicate ideas,
processes and
solutions in a complete
11

and easily understood

manner.
12

163
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Grade Eight
Number, Number Sense and Operations Standard
K

Number and 1. Use scientific notation to express large numbers and small numbers
Number Systems between 0 and 1.
1

2. Recognize that natural numbers, whole numbers, integers, rational

numbers and irrational numbers are subsets of the real number
system.
2

Meaning of 3. Apply order of operations to simplify expressions and perform

Operations computations involving integer exponents and radicals.
3

4. Explain and use the inverse and identity properties and use inverse
relationships (addition/subtraction, multiplication/division,
squaring/square roots) in problem solving situations.
4

Computation and 5. Determine when an estimate is sufficient and when an exact answer
Estimation is needed in problem situations, and evaluate estimates in relation to
actual answers; e.g., very close, less than, greater than.
5

6. Estimate, compute and solve problems involving rational numbers,

including ratio, proportion and percent, and judge the reasonableness
6

of solutions.
7. Find the square root of perfect squares, and approximate the square
root of non-perfect squares as consecutive integers between which
7

the root lies; e.g., 130 is between 11 and 12.

8. Add, subtract, multiply, divide and compare numbers written in
scientific notation.
8

Measurement Standard
9

Measurement Units 1. Compare and order the relative size of common U.S. customary units
and metric units; e.g., mile and kilometer, gallon and liter, pound and
10

kilogram.
2. Use proportional relationships and formulas to convert units from
one measurement system to another; e.g., degrees Fahrenheit to
11

degrees Celsius.
12

Grade Eight

164
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Use Measurement 3. Use appropriate levels of precision when calculating with

Techniques and measurements.
Tools

K
4. Derive formulas for surface area and volume and justify them using
geometric models and common materials. For example, find:
a. the surface area of a cylinder as a function of its height and

1
radius;
b. that the volume of a pyramid (or cone) is one-third of the
volume of a prism (or cylinder) with the same base area and

2
height.
5. Determine surface area for pyramids by analyzing their parts.

3
6. Solve and determine the reasonableness of the results for problems
involving rates and derived measurements, such as velocity and
density, using formulas, models and graphs.

4
7. Apply proportional reasoning to solve problems involving indirect
measurements or rates.

5
8. Find the sum of the interior and exterior angles of regular convex
polygons with and without measuring the angles with a protractor.
9. Demonstrate understanding of the concepts of perimeter,

6
circumference and area by using established formulas for triangles,
quadrilaterals, and circles to determine the surface area and volume
of prisms, pyramids, cylinders, spheres and cones. (Note: Only

7
volume should be calculated for spheres and cones.)
10. Use conventional formulas to find the surface area and volume of
prisms, pyramids and cylinders and the volume of spheres and cones

8
to a specified level of precision.

Geometry and Spatial Sense Standard 9

Characteristics and 1. Make and test conjectures about characteristics and properties
10

Properties (e.g., sides, angles, symmetry) of two-dimensional figures and three-

dimensional objects.
11

2. Recognize the angles formed and the relationship between the

angles when two lines intersect and when parallel lines are cut by
a transversal.
12

Grade Eight

165
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

3. Use proportions in several forms to solve problems involving

similar figures (part-to-part, part-to-whole, corresponding sides
K

between figures).
Spatial Relationships 4. Represent and analyze shapes using coordinate geometry; e.g., given
three vertices and the type of quadrilateral, find the coordinates of
1

the fourth vertex.

Transformations and 5. Draw the results of translations, reflections, rotations and dilations
Symmetry of objects in the coordinate plane, and determine properties that
2

remain fixed; e.g., lengths of sides remain the same under

translations.
Visualization and 6. Draw nets for a variety of prisms, pyramids, cylinders and cones.
3

Geometric Models

Patterns, Functions and Algebra Standard

4

Use Patterns, 1. Relate the various representations of a relationship; i.e., relate a table
Relations to graph, description and symbolic form.
5

and Functions
2. Generalize patterns and sequences by describing how to find the nth
term.
6

3. Identify functions as linear or nonlinear based on information given

in a table, graph or equation.
Use Algebraic 4. Extend the uses of variables to include covariants where y depends
7

Representations on x.
5. Use physical models to add and subtract monomials and
polynomials, and to multiply a polynomial by a monomial.
8

6. Describe the relationship between the graph of a line and its

equation, including being able to explain the meaning of slope as a
9

constant rate of change and y-intercept in real-world problems.

7. Use symbolic algebra (equations and inequalities), graphs and tables
to represent situations and solve problems.
10

8. Write, simplify and evaluate algebraic expressions (including

formulas) to generalize situations and solve problems.
11

9. Solve linear equations and inequalities graphically, symbolically and

using technology.
12

Grade Eight

166
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

10. Solve 2 by 2 systems of linear equations graphically and by simple

substitution.

K
11. Interpret the meaning of the solution of a 2 by 2 system of equations;
i.e., point, line, no solution.
12. Solve simple quadratic equations graphically; e.g., y = x2 – 16.

1
13. Compute and interpret slope, midpoint and distance given a set of
ordered pairs.

2
Analyze Change 14. Differentiate and explain types of changes in mathematical
relationships, such as linear vs. nonlinear, continuous vs.
noncontinuous, direct variation vs. inverse variation.

3
15. Describe and compare how changes in an equation affects the
related graphs; e.g., for a linear equation changing the coefficient of
x affects the slope and changing the constant affects the intercepts.

4
16. Use graphing calculators or computers to analyze change; e.g.,
interest compounded over time as a nonlinear growth pattern.

5
Data Analysis and Probability Standard

6
Data Collection 1. Use, create and interpret scatterplots and other types of graphs as
appropriate.
2. Evaluate different graphical representations of the same data to

7
determine which is the most appropriate representation for an
identified purpose; e.g., line graph for change over time, circle graph
for part-to-whole comparison, scatterplot for relationship between

8
two variants.
3. Differentiate between discrete and continuous data and appropriate

9
ways to represent each.
Statistical Methods 4. Compare two sets of data using measures of center (mean, mode,
median) and measures of spread (range, quartiles, interquartile
10

range, percentiles).
5. Explain the mean's sensitivity to extremes and its use in comparison
with the median and mode.
11

6. Make conjectures about possible relationship in a scatterplot and

approximate line of best fit.
12

Grade Eight

167
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

7. Identify different ways of selecting samples, such as survey

response, random sample, representative sample and convenience
K

sample.
8. Describe how the relative size of a sample compared to the target
population affects the validity of predictions.
1

9. Construct convincing arguments based on analysis of data and

interpretation of graphs.
Probability 10. Calculate the number of possible outcomes for a situation,
2

recognizing and accounting for when items may occur more than
once or when order is important.
3

11. Demonstrate an understanding that the probability of either of two

disjoint events occurring can be found by adding the probabilities for
each and that the probability of one independent event
4

following another can be found by multiplying the probabilities.

5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

Grade Eight

168
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Grade Nine
Number, Number Sense and Operations Standard

K
Number and 1. Identify and justify whether properties (closure, identity, inverse,
Number Systems commutative and associative) hold for a given set and operations;

1
e.g., even integers and multiplication.
2. Compare, order and determine equivalent forms for rational and
irrational numbers.

2
Meaning of 3. Explain the effects of operations such as multiplication or division,
Operations and of computing powers and roots on the magnitude of quantities.

3
Computation and 4. Demonstrate fluency in computations using real numbers.
Estimation
5. Estimate the solutions for problem situations involving square and
cube roots.

4
Measurement Standard

5
Measurement Units 1. Convert rates within the same measurement system; e.g., miles per
hour to feet per second; kilometers per hour to meters per second.

6
Use Measurement 2. Use unit analysis to check computations involving measurement.
Techniques and
3. Use the ratio of lengths in similar two-dimensional figures or
Tools

7
three-dimensional objects to calculate the ratio of their areas or
volumes respectively.
4. Use scale drawings and right triangle trigonometry to solve problems

8
that include unknown distances and angle measures.
5. Solve problems involving unit conversion for situations involving
distances, areas, volumes and rates within the same measurement
system. 9
10

Geometry and Spatial Sense Standard

Characteristics and 1. Define the basic trigonometric ratios in right triangles: sine, cosine
11

Properties and tangent.

12

Grade Nine

169
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

2. Apply proportions and right triangle trigonometric ratios to solve

problems involving missing lengths and angle measures in similar
K

figures.
Visualization and 3. Analyze two-dimensional figures in a coordinate plane; e.g.,
Geometric Models use slope and distance formulas to show that a quadrilateral is a
1

parallelogram.
2

Patterns, Functions and Algebra Standard

Use Patterns, 1. Define function with ordered pairs in which each domain element is
Relations
3

assigned exactly one range element.

and Functions
2. Generalize patterns using functions or relationships (linear,
quadratic and exponential), and freely translate among tabular,
4

graphical and symbolic representations.

3. Describe problem situations (linear, quadratic and exponential) by
using tabular, graphical and symbolic representations.
5

4. Demonstrate the relationship among zeros of a function, roots of

equations, and solutions of equations graphically and in words.
6

5. Describe and compare characteristics of the following families of

functions: linear, quadratic and exponential functions; e.g., general
shape, number of roots, domain, range, rate of change, maximum or
7

minimum.
Use Algebraic 6. Write and use equivalent forms of equations and inequalities in
Representations problem situations; e.g., changing a linear equation to the slope-
8

intercept form.
7. Use formulas to solve problems involving exponential growth and
decay.
9

8. Find linear equations that represent lines that pass through a given
set of ordered pairs, and find linear equations that represent lines
10

parallel or perpendicular to a given line through a specific point.

9. Solve and interpret the meaning of 2 by 2 systems of linear
equations graphically, by substitution and by elimination, with and
11

without technology.
12

Grade Nine

170
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

10. Solve quadratic equations with real roots by factoring, graphing,

using the quadratic formula and with technology.

K
11. Add, subtract, multiply and divide monomials and polynomials
(division of polynomials by monomials only).
12. Simplify rational expressions by eliminating common factors and

1
applying properties of integer exponents.
Analyze Change 13. Model and solve problems involving direct and inverse variation
using proportional reasoning.

2
14. Describe the relationship between slope and the graph of a direct
variation and inverse variation.

3
15. Describe how a change in the value of a constant in a linear or
quadratic equation affects the related graphs.

4
Data Analysis and Probability Standard

5
Data Collection 1. Classify data as univariate (single variable) or bivariate (two
variables) and as quantitative (measurement) or qualitative
(categorical) data.

6
2. Create a scatterplot for a set of bivariate data, sketch the line of best
fit, and interpret the slope of the line of best fit.
Statistical Methods 3. Analyze and interpret frequency distributions based on spread,

7
symmetry, skewness, clusters and outliers.
4. Describe and compare various types of studies (survey, observation,

8
experiment), and identify possible misuses of statistical data.
5. Describe characteristics and limitations of sampling methods, and
analyze the effects of random versus biased sampling; e.g.,
9
determine and justify whether the sample is likely to be
representative of the population.
6. Make inferences about relationships in bivariant data, and recognize
10

the difference between evidence of relationship (correlation) and

causation.
11

Probability 7. Use counting techniques and the Fundamental Counting principle to

determine the total number of possible outcomes for mathematical
situations.
12

Grade Nine

171
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

8. Describe, create and analyze a sample space and use it to calculate

probability.
K

9. Identify situations involving independent and dependent events,

and explain differences between, and common misconceptions
about, probabilities associated with those events.
1

10. Use theoretical and experimental probability, including simulations

or random numbers, to estimate probabilities and to solve problems
dealing with uncertainty; e.g., compound events, independent
2

events, simple dependent events.

3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

Grade Nine

172
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Grade Ten
Number, Number Sense and Operations Standard

K
Number and 1. Connect physical, verbal and symbolic representations of irrational
Number Systems numbers; e.g., construct 2 as a hypotenuse or on a number line.

1
Meaning of 2. Explain the meaning of the nth root.
Operations
3. Use factorial notation and computations to represent and solve

2
Computation and
Estimation problem situations involving arrangements.
4. Approximate the nth root of a given number greater than zero

3
between consecutive integers when n is an integer; e.g., the 4th root
of 50 is between 2 and 3.

4
Measurement Standard

5
Use Measurement 1. Explain how a small error in measurement may lead to a large error
Techniques and in calculated results.
Tools
2. Calculate relative error.

6
3. Explain the difference between absolute error and relative error in
measurement.

7
4. Give examples of how the same absolute error can be problematic
in one situation but not in another; e.g., compare “accurate to the
nearest foot” when measuring the height of a person versus when
measuring the height of a mountain.

8
5. Determine the measures of central and inscribed angles and their
associated major and minor arcs.

9
Geometry and Spatial Sense Standard
10

Characteristics and 1. Formally define and explain key aspects of geometric figures,
Properties including:
11

a. interior and exterior angles of polygons;

b. segments related to triangles (median, altitude, midsegment);
12

Grade Ten

173
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

c. points of concurrency related to triangles (centroid, incenter,

orthocenter, circumcenter);
K

d. circles (radius, diameter, chord, circumference, major arc, minor

arc, sector, segment, inscribed angle).
2. Recognize and explain the necessity for certain terms to remain
1

undefined, such as point, line and plane.

3. Make, test and establish the validity of conjectures about geometric
properties and relationships using counterexample, inductive
2

and deductive reasoning, and paragraph or two-column proof,

including:
3

a. prove the Pythagorean Theorem;

b. prove theorems involving triangle similarity and congruence;
c. prove theorems involving properties of lines, angles, triangles
4

and quadrilaterals;
d. test a conjecture using basic constructions made with a compass
5

and straightedge or technology.

Spatial Relationships 4. Construct right triangles, equilateral triangles, parallelograms,
trapezoids, rectangles, rhombuses, squares and kites, using compass
6

and straightedge or dynamic geometry software.

5. Construct congruent figures and similar figures using tools, such
as compass, straightedge, and protractor or dynamic geometry
7

software.
Transformation and 6. Identify the reflection and rotation symmetries of two- and three-
8

Symmetry dimensional figures.

7. Perform reflections and rotations using compass and straightedge
constructions and dynamic geometry software.
9

8. Derive coordinate rules for translations, reflections and rotations of

geometric figures in the coordinate plane.
10

9. Show and describe the results of combinations of translations,

reflections and rotations (compositions); e.g., perform compositions
and specify the result of a composition as the outcome of a single
11

motion, when applicable.

Visualization and 10. Solve problems involving chords, radii and arcs within the same
Geometric Models circle.
12

Grade Ten

174
A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Patterns, Functions and Algebra Standard

K
Use Patterns, 1. Define function formally and with f(x) notation.
Relations
2. Describe and compare characteristics of the following families of
and Functions
functions: square root, cubic, absolute value and basic trigonometric

1
functions; e.g., general shape, possible number of roots, domain and
range.
Use Algebraic 3. Solve equations and formulas for a specified variable; e.g., express

2
Representations the base of a triangle in terms of the area and height.
4. Use algebraic representations and functions to describe and
generalize geometric properties and relationships.

3
5. Solve simple linear and nonlinear equations and inequalities having
square roots as coefficients and solutions.

4
6. Solve equations and inequalities having rational expressions as
coefficients and solutions.
7. Solve systems of linear inequalities.

5
8. Graph the quadratic relationship that defines circles.
9. Recognize and explain that the slopes of parallel lines are equal and

6
the slopes of perpendicular lines are negative reciprocals.
10. Solve real-world problems that can be modeled using linear,
quadratic, exponential or square root functions.

7
11. Solve real-world problems that can be modeled, using systems of
linear equations and inequalities.

8
Analyze Change 12. Describe the relationship between slope of a line through the origin
and the tangent function of the angle created by the line and the
positive x-axis.
9
Data Analysis and Probability Standard
10

Data Collection 1. Describe measures of center and the range verbally, graphically and
algebraically.
11
12

Grade Ten

175
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

2. Represent and analyze bivariate data using appropriate graphical

displays (scatterplots, parallel box-and-whisker plots, histograms
K

with more than one set of data, tables, charts, spreadsheets) with
and without technology.
3. Display bivariate data where at least one variable is categorical.
1

4. Identify outliers on a data display; e.g., use interquartile range to

identify outliers on a box-and-whisker plot.
Statistical Methods 5. Provide examples and explain how a statistic may or may not be an
2

attribute of the entire population; e.g., intentional or unintentional

bias may be present.
3

6. Interpret the relationship between two variables using multiple

graphical displays and statistical measures; e.g., scatterplots, parallel
box-and-whisker plots, and measures of center and spread.
4

Probability 7. Model problems dealing with uncertainty with area models

(geometric probability).
8. Differentiate and explain the relationship between the probability of
5

an event and the odds of an event, and compute one given the other.
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

Grade Ten

176
A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

K
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

Grade Ten

177
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

K-12 Mathematics Benchmarks

By the end of the 11-12 program:
K

Number, Number Sense Geometry and

Measurement
and Operations Spatial Sense
1

A. Demonstrate that vectors A. Explain differences among A. Use trigonometric

and matrices are systems accuracy, precision and relationships to verify
having some of the same error, and describe how and determine solutions
2

properties of the real each of those can affect in problem situations.

number system. solutions in measurement B. Represent transformations
situations.
3

B. Develop an understanding within a coordinate

of properties of and B. Apply various system using vectors
representations for measurement scales to and matrices.
addition and describe phenomena and
4

multiplication of vectors solve problems.

and matrices. C. Estimate and compute
5

C. Apply factorials and areas and volume in

exponents, including increasingly complex
fractional exponents, to problem situations.
6

solve practical problems. D. Solve problem situations

D. Demonstrate fluency in involving derived
operations with real measurements; e.g.,
7

numbers, vectors and density, acceleration.

matrices, using mental
computation or paper and
8

pencil calculations for

simple cases and
technology for more
9

complicated cases.
E. Represent and compute
with complex numbers.
10
11
12

178
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

K-12 Mathematics Benchmarks

By the end of the 11-12 program:

K
Patterns, Functions Data Analysis
Mathematical Processes
and Algebra and Probability

1
A. Analyze functions by A. Create and analyze A. Construct algorithms
investigating rates of tabular and graphical for multi-step and
change, intercepts, zeros, displays of data using non-routine problems.

2
asymptotes, and local and appropriate tools, B. Construct logical
global behavior. including spreadsheets verifications or
and graphing calculators.

3
B. Use the quadratic formula counter-examples to test
to solve quadratic B. Use descriptive statistics conjectures and to justify
equations that have to analyze and summarize or refute algorithms and
complex roots. data, including measures solutions to problems.

4
C. Use recursive functions of center, dispersion, C. Assess the adequacy and
to model and solve correlation and variability. reliability of information

5
problems; e.g., home C. Design and perform a available to solve a
mortgages, annuities. statistical experiment, problem.
D. Apply algebraic methods simulation or study; D. Select and use various

6
to represent and collect and interpret data; types of reasoning and
generalize problem and use descriptive methods of proof.
situations involving statistics to communicate
E. Evaluate a mathematical

7
vectors and matrices. and support predictions
and conclusions. argument and use
reasoning and logic to
D. Connect statistical judge its validity.

8
techniques to applications
in workplace and F. Present complete and
consumer situations. convincing arguments and

9
justifications, using
inductive and deductive
reasoning, adapted to be
10

effective for various

audiences.
11
12

179
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

K-12 Mathematics Benchmarks (continued)

By the end of the 11-12 program:
K

Number, Number Sense Geometry and

Measurement
and Operations Spatial Sense
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

180
A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

K-12 Mathematics Benchmarks (continued)

By the end of the 11-12 program:

K
Patterns, Functions Data Analysis
Mathematical Processes
and Algebra and Probability

1
G. Understand the difference
between a statement that
is verified by

2
mathematical proof, such
as a theorem, and one that
is verified empirically

3
using examples or data.
H. Use formal mathematical
language and notation to

4
represent ideas, to
demonstrate relationships
within and among

5
representation systems,
and to formulate
generalizations.

6
I. Communicate
mathematical ideas orally

7
and in writing with a clear
purpose and appropriate
for a specific audience.

8
J. Apply mathematical
modeling to workplace
and consumer situations,
9
including problem
formulation, identification
of a mathematical model,
10

interpretation of solution
within the model, and
validation to original
11

problem situation.
12

181
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Grade Eleven
Number, Number Sense and Operations Standard
K

Number and 1. Determine what properties hold for matrix addition and matrix
Number Systems multiplication; e.g., use examples to show addition is commutative
1

and when multiplication is not commutative.

2. Determine what properties hold for vector addition and
multiplication, and for scalar multiplication.
2

3. Represent complex numbers on the complex plane.

Meaning of 4. Use matrices to represent given information in a problem situation.
3

Operations
5. Model, using the coordinate plane, vector addition and scalar
multiplication.
4

Computation and 6. Compute sums, differences and products of matrices using paper
Estimation and pencil calculations for simple cases, and technology for more
complicated cases.
5

7. Compute sums, differences, products and quotients of complex

numbers.
8. Use fractional and negative exponents as optional ways of
6

representing and finding solutions for problem situations;

e.g., 272/3 = (271/3)2 = 9.
7

9. Use vector addition and scalar multiplication to solve problems.

Measurement Standard
8

Measurement Units 1. Determine the number of significant digits in a measurement.

9

2. Use radian and degree angle measures to solve problems and

perform conversions as needed.
Use Measurement 3. Derive a formula for the surface area of a cone as a function of its
10

Techniques and slant height and the circumference of its base.

Tools
4. Calculate distances, areas, surface areas and volumes of composite
three-dimensional objects to a specified number of significant digits.
11

5. Solve real-world problems involving area, surface area, volume and

density to a specified degree of precision.
12

Grade Eleven

182
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Geometry and Spatial Sense Standard

Spatial Relationships 1. Use polar coordinates to specify locations on a plane.

K
Transformations and 2. Represent translations using vectors.
Symmetry
3. Describe multiplication of a vector and a scalar graphically and

1
algebraically, and apply to problem situations.
4. Use trigonometric relationships to determine lengths and angle
measures; i.e., Law of Sines and Law of Cosines.

2
Visualization and 5. Identify, sketch and classify the cross sections of three-dimensional
Geometric Models objects.

3
Patterns, Functions and Algebra Standard
Use Patterns, 1. Identify and describe problem situations involving an iterative

4
Relations process that can be represented as a recursive function; e.g.,
and Functions compound interest.

5
2. Translate a recursive function into a closed form expression or
formula for the nth term to solve a problem situation involving an
iterative process; e.g., find the value of an annuity after 7 years.

6
3. Describe and compare the characteristics of the following families
of functions: quadratics with complex roots, polynomials of any
degree, logarithms, and rational functions; e.g., general shape,

7
number of roots, domain and range, asymptotic behavior.
4. Identify the maximum and minimum points of polynomial, rational
and trigonometric functions graphically and with technology.

8
5. Identify families of functions with graphs that have rotation
symmetry or reflection symmetry about the y-axis, x-axis or y = x.

9
Use Algebraic 6. Represent the inverse of a function symbolically and graphically as
Representations a reflection about y = x.
7. Model and solve problems with matrices and vectors.
10

8. Solve equations involving radical expressions and complex roots.

9. Solve 3 by 3 systems of linear equations by elimination and using
11

technology, and interpret graphically what the solution means

(a point, line, plane, or no solution).
12

Grade Eleven

183
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

10. Describe the characteristics of the graphs of conic sections.

Analyze Change 11. Describe how a change in the value of a constant in an exponential,
K

logarithmic or radical equation affects the graph of the equation.

Data Analysis and Probability Standard
1

Data Collection 1. Design a statistical experiment, survey or study for a problem;

collect data for the problem; and interpret the data with appropriate
graphical displays, descriptive statistics, concepts of variability,
2

causation, correlation and standard deviation.

2. Describe the role of randomization in a well-designed study,
especially as compared to a convenience sample, and the
3

generalization of results from each.

Statistical Methods 3. Describe how a linear transformation of univariate data affects
4

range, mean, mode and median.

4. Create a scatterplot of bivariate data, identify trends, and find a
function to model the data.
5

5. Use technology to find the Least Squares Regression Line, the

regression coefficient, and the correlation coefficient for bivariate
data with a linear trend, and interpret each of these statistics
6

in the context of the problem situation.

6. Use technology to compute the standard deviation for a set of data,
and interpret standard deviation in relation to the context or
7

problem situation.
7. Describe the standard normal curve and its general properties, and
8

answer questions dealing with data assumed to be normal.

8. Analyze and interpret univariate and bivariate data to identify
patterns, note trends, draw conclusions, and make predictions.
9

9. Evaluate validity of results of a study based on characteristics of the

study design, including sampling method, summary statistics and
10

data analysis techniques.

Probability 10. Understand and use the concept of random variable, and compute and
interpret the expected value for a random variable in simple cases.
11

11. Examine statements and decisions involving risk; e.g., insurance

rates and medical decisions.
12

Grade Eleven

184
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Grade Twelve
Number, Number Sense and Operations Standard

K
Number and 1. Determine what properties (closure, identity, inverse, commutative
Number Systems and associative) hold for operations with complex numbers.

1
Computation and 2. Apply combinations as a method to create coefficients for the
Estimation Binomial Theorem, and make connections to everyday and

2
workplace problem situations.

Measurement Standard

3
Use Measurement 1. Solve problems involving derived measurements; e.g., acceleration
Techniques and and pressure.

4
Tools
2. Use radian measures in the solution of problems involving angular
velocity and acceleration.

5
3. Apply informal concepts of successive approximation, upper and
lower bounds, and limits in measurement situations; e.g.,
measurement of some quantities, such as volume of a cone, can be

6
determined by sequences of increasingly accurate approximations.

Geometry and Spatial Sense Standard

7
Transformations and 1. Use matrices to represent translations, reflections, rotations, dilations
Symmetry and their compositions.

8
2. Derive and apply the basic trigonometric identities; i.e., angle
addition, angle subtraction and double angle.

9
Visualization and 3. Relate graphical and algebraic representations of lines, simple
Geometric Models curves and conic sections.
10

4. Recognize and compare specific shapes and properties in multiple

geometries; e.g., plane, spherical and hyperbolic.
11
12

Grade Twelve

185
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Patterns, Functions and Algebra Standard

Use Patterns, 1. Analyze the behavior of arithmetic and geometric sequences and
K

Relations series as the number of terms increases.

and Functions
2. Translate between the numeric and symbolic form of a sequence or
1

series.
3. Describe and compare the characteristics of transcendental and
periodic functions; e.g., general shape, number of roots, domain and
2

range, asymptotic behavior, extrema, local and global behavior.

4. Represent the inverse of a transcendental function symbolically.
3

Use Algebraic 5. Set up and solve systems of equations using matrices and graphs,
Representations with and without technology.
6. Make arguments about mathematical properties using mathematical
4

induction.
7. Make mathematical arguments using the concepts of limit.
5

8. Compare estimates of the area under a curve over a bounded

interval by partitioning the region with rectangles; e.g., make
successive estimates using progressively smaller rectangles.
6

9. Translate freely between polar and Cartesian coordinate systems.

Analyze Change 10. Use the concept of limit to find instantaneous rate of change for a
point on a graph as the slope of a tangent at a point.
7

Data Analysis and Probability Standard

8

Data Collection 1. Identify and use various sampling methods (voluntary response,
convenience sample, random sample, stratified random sample,
census) in a study.
9

Statistical Methods 2. Transform bivariate data so it can be modeled by a function; e.g.,

use logarithms to allow nonlinear relationship to be modeled by
10

linear function.
3. Describe the shape and find all summary statistics for a set of
univariate data, and describe how a linear transformation affects
11

shape, center and spread.

12

Grade Twelve

186
A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

4. Apply the concept of a random variable to generate and interpret

probability distributions, including binomial, normal and uniform.

K
5. Use sampling distributions as the basis for informal inference.
Probability 6. Use theoretical or experimental probability, including simulations, to
determine probabilities in real-world problem situations involving

1
uncertainty, such as mutually exclusive events, complementary
events, and conditional probability.

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

Grade Twelve

187
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S
K
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

188
A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

K-12 Mathematics

Instructional
Commentary

189
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Learning the Basic

Skills in Mathematics
Student attainment of basic mathematical skills is the foundation for
the academic content standards for Ohio’s students. Often the term
“basic skills” is only interpreted as performing computations –
In this changing world, those adding, subtracting, multiplying and dividing. The goal of the
who understand and can do Number, Number Sense and Operations Standard is the
mathematics will have development of strong computational skills and also the deep
significantly enhanced understanding of number concepts. For example, the grade-level
opportunities and options for indicators and benchmarks in the kindergarten through grade 4 span
shaping their futures. focus on building conceptual understanding and skills needed to
Mathematical competence opens compute with whole numbers efficiently and accurately using mental
doors to productive futures. and paper and pencil methods.
Principles and
Standards for School The “basics” in mathematics – essential for success in the workplace,
Mathematics, post-secondary education, and daily life – also include understanding
NCTM, p.5 and applying concepts and skills in measurement, algebra, geometry,
data analysis and probability. Mathematical processes provide ways
of acquiring and using content knowledge to solve problems and
serve as the cornerstone for building a firm foundation in those basics
and for Ohio’s academic content standards.
Mathematics skills are required of competent workers. Recent
reports articulating the skills required of employees for success in
today’s high performance workplace include significant mathematics
knowledge and skills beyond those of a traditional skills-based
approach to mathematics. Workplace competencies identified in the
national SCANS 2000 (Secretary’s Commission on Achieving
Necessary Skills) report include mathematics knowledge and know-
how among the foundational skills needed by competent workers.
And Ohio’s Skills Gap Initiative identifies skill in applying
mathematical reasoning to a variety of work-related problems among
critical work skills in Ohio’s current and future employment picture.
These reports verify that “basic skills” in mathematics for Ohio’s
workers include far more than computational skills. Ohio’s graduates
also need to apply “basic skills” in all areas of mathematics, including
190
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

algebra, geometry and data analysis. They need to be adept in using

mathematical processes – problem solving, reasoning, communication,
representation and connections among mathematical ideas and to a
variety of contexts and situations outside mathematics - that cut across
mathematical topics.
Mathematics skills are also required for the successful transition to
post-secondary education. The number of high school graduates
seeking post-high school educational experiences in university,
community or technical college, and workplace settings continues to
grow. And the level of mathematics skills needed to keep options
open for continuing education either immediately after high school
graduation or some years later requires students to complete a rich
and challenging mathematics program.
Mathematics skills are required to make decisions in daily life.
“Basic skills” include recognizing and using mathematical ideas in
everyday activities, such as reading a newspaper, buying a car or
home, and making medical decisions.

191
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

The Mathematics Learning Study Committee has defined a view of successful

mathematics learning recognizing that no single term completely captures all aspects
of mathematics knowledge, understanding, and skill.

“Mathematical proficiency, as we see it, has five strands:

• conceptual understanding – comprehension of mathematical concepts, operations, and
relations
• procedural fluency – skill in carrying out procedures flexibly, accurately, efficiently, and
appropriately
• strategic competence – ability to formulate, represent, and solve mathematical problems
• adaptive reasoning – capacity for logical thought, reflection, explanation, and justification
• productive disposition – habitual inclination to see mathematics as sensible, useful, and
worthwhile, coupled with a belief in diligence and one’s own efficacy
The most important observation we make about these five strands is that they are interwoven
and interdependent. This observation has implications for how students acquire mathematical
proficiency, how teachers develop that proficiency in their students, and how teachers are
educated to achieve this goal.”
Adding It Up: Helping Children Learn Mathematics
National Research Council, 2001, page 5

Students bring a variety of basic mathematical knowledge and

problem-solving skills to learning, both in school and outside school.
These need to be identified, respected, challenged and expanded.
There are many different kinds of learning in the mathematics
classroom – content, specific techniques, relationships, generalizations,
and problem solving to name a few. Each type of learning requires
different teaching strategies and lead to different expectations and
demonstrations of learning.

192
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Teaching and learning must focus on components for acquiring and In a balanced mathematics
using mathematics. Conceptual understanding provides a firm grasp program, students become
of the ideas, definitions, and relationships in mathematics. proficient with basic skills,
Procedural knowledge and skill consist of fluency in the techniques develop conceptual
or procedures, including knowing when and how to use them and understanding, and become
skill in performing them accurately, efficiently, and flexibly. Problem adept at problem solving.
solving and reasoning refers to the ability to formulate, represent, • Skills without conceptual
and solve mathematical problems and to relate mathematics to real- understanding are
world situations by thinking logically about relationships among meaningless.
concepts and situations. Learning basic skills in mathematics
requires understanding and applying concepts, procedures, and • Conceptual understanding
processes. without skills is inefficient.
• Without problem solving,
Ohio’s mathematics standards, benchmarks, and grade-level
skills and conceptual
indicators provide a strong foundation for student learning by
understanding have no
defining the content, or building blocks, and the mathematical
utility.
processes, or mortar, for acquiring and using mathematics in school,
in the workplace, and in daily life. A rigorous, balanced program
requires that students are
competent in each area.

California Department
of Education, Draft of
Mathematics Program
Advisory, June 1996

193
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Understanding
Mathematical
Processes
For teachers and curriculum leaders implementing standards-based
instruction in Ohio’s classrooms, the first step will be to become
familiar with the Ohio academic content standards. A close look at
the standards reveals the importance of both content and processes
within mathematics. It is important for teachers to understand the
role of both mathematical content and mathematical processes when
making instructional decisions and fostering success for students in
mathematics. Students need to learn the content and skills that form
the basis of mathematics, and they will also need to be able to apply
these skills using the mathematical processes. Content and processes
Content and process are are not isolated skills in mathematics and should always be taught as
“inextricably linked. One cannot interconnected parts of a whole.
solve problems without
understanding and using The academic content standards articulate the mathematics
mathematical content. standards through five content standards and one process standard.
Establishing geometric knowledge Within the standards document, the mathematical processes are
calls for reasoning. The concepts specified through benchmark statements only. This is done
of algebra can be examined and intentionally as good instruction consists of teaching mathematical
communicated through content through mathematical processes. This idea is further
representations.” reinforced within the standards by thoroughly embedding
Principles and Standards mathematical process statements within the grade-level indicators
for School Mathematics, for each content standard at each grade, in the same way that
NCTM, page 7 processes are embedded within effective mathematics instruction.
This model for incorporating mathematical processes is not new and
is clearly demonstrated within most instructional materials that have
been identified as effective.

194
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Indicators like the following show how process skills are embedded within the
mathematics content standards:
Number, Number Sense and Operations Standard
Grade-Level Indicator, Grade 1
Model and represent multiplication as repeated addition and rectangular arrays in contextual
situations; e.g., four people will be at my party and if I want to give 3 balloons to each person,
how many balloons will I need to buy?
Data Analysis and Probability Standard
Grade-Level Indicator, Grade 5
Determine appropriate data to be collected to answer questions posed by students or
teacher, collect and display data, and clearly communicate findings.
Geometry Standard
Grade-Level Indicator, Grade 8
Make and test conjectures about characteristics and properties (e.g., sides, angles, symmetry) of
two-dimensional figures and three-dimensional objects.
Patterns, Functions and Algebra Standard
Grade-Level Indicator, Grade 10
Use algebraic representations and functions to describe and generalize geometric properties and
relationships.

Throughout the five content standards, students will use Mathematical Processes
mathematical processes. Mathematical processes can be categorized Standard:
into five areas, including problem solving, reasoning, Students use mathematical
communication, representation and connections. Following is a processes and knowledge to
description and ideas for instruction within the mathematics solve problems. Students
classroom for each area. apply problem-solving and
Problem Solving: Problem solving is the process of determining a decision-making techniques,
method for arriving at a solution to a problem. Effective and communicate mathematical
mathematical problem solvers can translate words and situations ideas.
into mathematical terms and representations. They have a range of Ohio’s Academic
strategies available to them for solving problems and can effectively Content Standards
select a strategy based upon the problem situation and/or the

195
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

desired result. They can recognize when results do not make sense,
when solutions do not exist, and when results do not apply for
particular situations. They realize the importance of and have the
capacity to check their solutions given a diverse set of problem
situations and circumstances.
Problem solving is integrated into most activities in mathematics
classrooms, and can be emphasized through real-world situations
connected to the students’ lives and interests. Problem solving in the
earlier grades may initially focus on learning a variety of strategies.
In the later grades focus should include a complete problem-solving
process that incorporates selecting and adapting strategies to address
more complex problem situations.
People who reason and think
analytically tend to note Reasoning: The ability to reason is essential in mathematics, other
patterns, structure or regularities educational disciplines, such as English, history, and science, and in
in both real-world situations and everyday situations. Reasoning involves examining patterns,
symbolic objects. making conjectures about generalizations, and evaluating those
Principles and conjectures. Reasoning also includes creating mathematical
Standards for School arguments using inductive and deductive techniques to support or
Mathematics, NCTM, refute mathematical ideas and concepts. Another facet of reasoning
page 56 is the ability to evaluate reasoning and problem-solving processes of
self and others.
Reasoning must be included whenever the opportunity affords itself
in mathematics classrooms. In the earlier grades reasoning will
primarily consist of pattern recognition and categorizing objects and
data. Emphasis should also be placed on justifying answers and
using simple deductive reasoning based on established facts. As
students’ reasoning skills develop they should begin to formulate
conjectures and counter examples and apply their reasoning
techniques to mathematical ideas, concepts, and relationships.
Students begin to evaluate assertions, prove conjectures informally,
and move towards more formal inductive and deductive arguments
in the middle and later grades. Finally, students will begin to
evaluate their own arguments and solutions, and those developed by
others, and make decisions based upon those evaluations. The
ability to systematically reason and communicate this reasoning will
help students in school, in the workplace and in everyday life.

196
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Communication: Communication is an essential component of study Communication is an essential

in any discipline, including mathematics, and for success in life. part of mathematics and
Communication includes reading, writing and speaking. Reading for mathematics education. It is a
mathematical meaning is an essential tool for understanding and way of sharing ideas and
using mathematical terms, ideas and concepts. Students who clarifying understanding.
communicate orally and in writing about mathematical concepts and Principles and Standards
their own problem-solving processes clarify, organize and reflect for School Mathematics,
upon their own understanding in the process. Clearly, NCTM, page 60
communication will lead students to a deeper level of knowledge
and enable them to apply that knowledge in new and different
situations.
Communication is integrated in the classroom through activities such
as having students present their findings to peers, explain their
thought processes, or write about how they arrived at the solution to
a problem. It is important for students beginning in the early grades
to learn that the mathematics classroom is a place where their
mathematical thoughts are important and worthy of being read and
heard. It is important that students be encouraged and given
opportunities to write and speak to teachers, peers and audiences in
order to share mathematical ideas and thoughts, to clarify concepts
and to articulate results.
Representation: There are many ways to represent mathematical
The ways in which mathematical
ideas, including representations that are symbolic, such as those
ideas are represented is
using letters, numbers or equations, and those that are visual, such as
fundamental to how people can
those using charts, graphs or physical objects. Understanding and
understand and use those ideas.
using representation effectively are essential to the study of
mathematics and to the communication of mathematical ideas. Principles and Standards
An emphasis on representation in the early grades classroom might for School Mathematics,
NCTM, page 67
involve the use of physical objects to represent mathematical ideas. It
will include the use of fractions, decimals, percents, and exponential
and scientific notation to show very small and very large numbers in
later grades. With the use of technology, graphs can be used more
efficiently to allow teachers and students to describe and explain
mathematical concepts and to represent data. These skills will
enable students to be much better users of information as well as
communicators of the more complex information that accompanies
today’s society.

197
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Making connections within Connections: The concept of connections encompasses both the idea
mathematics and between of making connections between skills and concepts within
mathematics and other mathematics, as well as making connections between mathematical
disciplines is critical for student concepts and other disciplines and the outside world.
success in using mathematics
Students in the classroom need opportunities to recognize and draw
effectively in school, work, and
upon the connections between and among topics studied. Teachers
daily life.
can facilitate this process by engaging students in multi-layered
Ohio’s Academic problem solving situations that cross disciplines and engage
Content Standards students’ interests. Students need opportunities to investigate and
extend their understanding about connections between mathematical
concepts and the workplace. School districts and businesses can
facilitate this process through working together to provide internship
opportunities and mentoring programs.
When students first begin exploration with simple mathematical
concepts and problem-solving situations, students use both
mathematical concepts and mathematical processes. As they continue
through their education, students become more adept at drawing
upon specific process skills and using them in more sophisticated or
complex situations. Success at understanding and using
mathematical content and processes will enhance students’
opportunities in life and in the workplace. Our role as educators in
guiding students to this achievement is critical. Because of what we
know about implementing research-based and standards-based
programs, we are more able than ever to ensure that we reach all
children. Ohio's standards take us one step closer toward meeting
our vision of high mathematical achievement for all Ohio students.

198
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Planning for
Instruction
Ohio’s academic content standards provide the foundation for
planning integrated instruction and assessment in the classroom. The
indicators are presented as separate statements of knowledge, but the
intent was not to promote isolated instruction. The indicators should
suggest specific content for lessons that will incorporate multiple
indicators and cut across the standards and disciplines. Effective
instruction will not target individual skills alone, but will integrate
those skills. Mathematical content will be taught within the context
of mathematical processes. Students will be encouraged to use
processes like writing, communication, problem solving and
investigation of mathematical topics. Whenever possible, learning
will take place within a context that has relevant, real-world
connections for the students. Technology and a hands-on approach
will be used to enhance student learning.

The first step for teachers implementing standards-based instruction

in their classrooms is to develop an understanding of the standards. Educators will need to have a
Educators will develop a sense of the bigger picture of how each sense of the big picture in order
indicator fits within the total standards as they familiarize to see how individual skills can
themselves with the standards. We will ask questions through this be integrated into one coherent
process, such as the following: lesson plan, how one lesson fits
into a year’s program plan, and
• Which topics from different standard areas could be effectively how one set of grade-level
linked in instruction? indicators fit into the entire
standards.
• How do the standards at my grade level build on those taught at
the previous grade?
• How are the indicators built on in the next grade?
• How do the indicators culminate in the benchmarks at the end of
the grade band?

199
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

The Geometry and Spatial Sense The next step for teachers will be to evaluate their current
benchmark (K-2) (“Describe instructional programs in light of the standards. Some activities may
location, using comparative remain the same; some will necessarily change. Teachers will be able
(before, after), directional (above, to increase the instructional power of existing lessons by developing
below) and positional (first, last) additional questions or problems that connect to other indicators. We
words.”) is one example of a will ask questions through this process, such as the following:
benchmark addressed by multiple
• What standards and indicators are addressed in my current
standard areas.
program plan?
Grade 1 indicators from
Geometry and Spatial • What standards and indicators do I need to address more
Sense and Number, effectively?
Number Sense and
Operations build to this • Where can these fit into my program plan?
benchmark. • How can I improve the depth and effectiveness of my instruction?
The following vignette shows an example of how multiple standards
can be integrated in instruction.

Indicators and Benchmarks that are evident in this vignette.

Number, Number Sense and Operations Standard
Grade 8, #3
Apply order of operations to simplify expressions and perform computations involving integer
exponents and radicals.

Measurement Standard
Grade 8, #10
Use conventional formulas to find the surface area and volume of prisms, pyramids and cylinders
and the volume of spheres and cones to a specified level of precision.
Patterns, Functions and Algebra Standard
Grade 8, #1
Relate the various representations of a relationship; (i.e., relate a table to graph, description and
symbolic form.

200
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Grade 8, #3
Identify functions as linear or nonlinear based on information given in a table, graph or
equation.
Grade 8, #14
Differentiate and explain types of changes in mathematical relationships such as linear vs.
nonlinear, continuous, vs. noncontinuous, direct variation vs. inverse variation.
Grade 8, #16
Use Graphing calculators of computers to analyze change.
Mathematical Processes Standard
Grade Band 8–10 C
Recognize and use connections between equivalent representations and related procedures
for a mathematical concept.
Grade Band 8–10 E
Use a variety of mathematical representations flexibly and appropriately to organize, record
and communicate mathematical ideas.

Mrs. Nance started with a simple measurement lesson on Find the volume of a can of
volume. She introduced the lesson by bringing in a soup can soup by measuring the
for each small group. She asked each group to find the diameter and height.
volume of the can by finding the diameter of the can and ? cm
the height.
She extended the lesson by asking each group to determine
the volume of the can if the height were changed. Mrs.
Nance clarified the instruction for each group by having
them increase or decrease the height by increments of 1
centimeter while maintaining the diameter of the soup can. ? cm
The students recorded their findings as they progressed
through the activity.
Next, each group was asked to repeat this process with the
diameter of the can. The groups were now told to maintain
the height of the can while changing the diameter by
increments of 1 centimeter.

201
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Mrs. Nance then asked each group to compare the results by

plotting each set of data on separate coordinate planes using
a graphing calculator or a spreadsheet on a computer.

202
A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

As the groups plotted the data, several students raised

questions. Natalie wanted to know why changing the
diameter affected the volume differently than changing the
height, even though you were changing the measurements
by the same amount. Mrs. Nance answered Natalie by
asking a question: “What are you using the diameter to
find?” Several of the students responded that they used the
diameter to find the radius, by dividing it by two, then used
the radius to find the area of the top of the soup can.
Through discussion, students could see that in finding the
area, the radius is multiplied by itself or squared in the
calculation. Therefore, the effect on the volume is different.

Volume when changing the height Volume when changing the diameter

900.00 3500.00
800.00
3000.00
700.00
2500.00
Volume of can
Volume of can

600.00
500.00 2000.00
400.00 1500.00
300.00
1000.00
200.00
500.00
100.00
0.00 0.00
5

9
11
13

15

17
19
1

7
9

3
11

13

15
17

19
1

Height of can with radius 7cm Diameter with height of 10cm

At this point another student, Dillon, asked if that is why

the graphs looked different as well. Dillon noted that the
graph for the changing height was linear while the graph for
the changing diameter was non-linear, or curved. Again
Mrs. Nance posed a question: “How could you check to see
if this is the case?” To clarify, she asked what was taking
place with the variable that represented the height. The
students responded that the height was being multiplied by
the area of the can’s top, while the variable that represented

203
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

the diameter was being divided by two, squared, and then

multiplied by the value of pi and the height. Mrs. Nance probed
further into the difference. After some discussion, the students
made the connection that one is just being multiplied by
constants while the other is being squared. Using the graphing
calculator, Mrs. Nance had the students experiment with
functions that involved the two situations mentioned. She then
had them summarize their finding in their mathematics journal.
Mrs. Nance plans to expand upon this lesson by having the
students maintain the volume of the soup can and find other
dimensions. Each group will also make paper tube
representations for several sizes of cans with the same volume.
These activities will also allow Mrs. Nance to bring up real-
world issues as to the relevance and limitations of the
differently sized cans. Questions about why marketers of
products might choose one size can rather than another size of
the same volume will be discussed to have students think about
the implications of their inquiry into their real-world decision
making.

Throughout this lesson we can see how Mrs. Nance incorporated

many different indicators and related them to this simple topic of
volume of a can. Mrs. Nance also included process skills, the use of
technology and real-world applications. This integration across
indicators, standards, benchmarks and other disciplines represents
the most effective way that teachers will implement standards-based
instruction into their classrooms.
In addition to planning these kinds of integrated standards-based
lesson plans, teachers and curriculum leaders will consider how each
lesson fits into the progression of the year. They will look at what
skills are being built upon and how each lesson influences what can
be dealt with in the future. They will evaluate the overall plan to
ensure that Ohio’s academic content standards and local standards

204
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

are appropriately covered. They will plan and design assessments Regular classroom assessment
that will help to reinforce student learning and provide teachers with aligned with the standards and
invaluable information for program planning. This process of instruction will be an important
aligning classroom, school and district program plans to the part of implementing a
standards will require that we think carefully about what we teach standards-based system.
and when and how we teach it. This will not be an easy process, but
the result will be that all Ohio teachers will have clear instructional
plans that focus instruction on helping all students to meet the
demands of the 21st century.

205
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Program Planning
Ohio’s mathematics academic content standards provide clear
expectations for all students. They form the basis for what every
student should know and be able to do in school mathematics
programs across the state. While local programs and curriculum
may go beyond those expectations, the benchmarks and grade-level
Teachers should not have to set indicators provide clarity to Ohio teachers and curriculum leaders of
aside good instruction to what content and skills should be the focus of teaching and learning
implement standards. at each grade band and level. In order to effectively implement a
Instead, good instruction itself standards-based mathematics program, teachers and curriculum
should be the best leaders must determine how instructional programs can be
implementation. organized, delivered and managed in Ohio’s classrooms, schools and
districts.
Program planning and implementation is a shared responsibility.
Teachers, curriculum leaders, school boards, parents and community
members play important roles in making decisions about local
mathematics programs. This shared responsibility contributes to a
coherent mathematics program in which all components –
curriculum, instruction and assessment – fit together well.
Looking at the level of alignment of local mathematics programs
with Ohio’s mathematics academic content standards is an important
first step in program planning. All components of the program
should be considered, including the written curriculum or course of
study, instructional practices and materials, and classroom and
district assessments.

206
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Strategies for evaluating and aligning programs with standards

include:

• Become familiar with the standards, benchmarks and grade-

level indicators. All teachers and curriculum leaders need to be
cognizant of the specific content and expectations in the
mathematics standards for their grade level and across the K-12
program.
• Discuss interpretations of the standards, benchmarks and
grade-level indicators. Engaging in discussion of the concepts,
skills and applications within the benchmarks and grade-level
indicators is critical to examining the level of alignment of an
instructional program with content and process standards.
• Identify required learning experiences based on the standards.
A critical component of alignment with standards is a balanced
mathematics program in which students develop conceptual
understanding, use procedural skills fluently, and become adept
in problem solving. The mathematics course of study and
instructional program should be reviewed and modified, as
needed, to ensure all students have access to the full mathematics
curriculum represented by the benchmarks and grade-level
indicators, regardless of past achievement or course options
taken.
• Match instructional strategies and materials to identified
student learning experiences. Instructional practices across the
program and within grade levels should be reviewed for
Effective teaching requires
alignment and consistency with both standards and how children
understanding of what students
learn mathematics. Matching instruction with student needs is a
know and need to learn and then
complex task requiring a thorough knowledge of mathematics,
challenging and supporting them
how students learn, and effective instructional strategies.
to learn well.
• Develop a “critical eye” for selecting or developing assessment Principles and
strategies and items. Multiple assessment strategies for Standards for School
assessing student progress and achievement should be included Mathematics,
within the mathematics program. Particular attention should be NCTM, p.16
given to the alignment of assessment with standards and the
quality of the inferences that can be made about student progress
towards demonstrating those expectations. Key aspects for
aligning assessment strategies and items with standards include

207
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

identifying what standard(s) the assessment addresses, what

mathematical thinking students use during assessment, and how
the assessment and instruction are linked.
Curriculum mapping is one strategy through which teachers and
curriculum leaders can familiarize themselves with the standards
and identify alignment needs. There are a number of models that
can be used to map curriculum to standards and to evaluate the level
of alignment of current programs with standards. A key component,
whether the process is done by an individual teacher, by a grade
level team, or by a school or district curriculum committee, is to
carefully examine the standards and identify supporting evidence for
those standards within existing programs, lessons and assessments.
Teachers and curriculum leaders will find that some of their current
lessons, projects and units fulfill the expectations of the standards.
Because the mathematics standards incorporate new research in
teaching and learning mathematics and because they are more
rigorous, there will likely be some areas in which existing programs
and lessons require adjustments in order to align with the academic
content standards.
Ohio’s mathematics standards include specific areas with
implications for teachers, schools and districts and for programs.
Those areas may vary from teacher-to-teacher, building-to-building,
and district-to-district based on the current status of practices and
programs. Some of the most critical areas that may require
strengthening through program planning are:
Stronger integration of mathematical processes. Mathematical
processes – problem solving, connections, reasoning, communication
and representation – enable students to acquire and use mathematics.
Mathematical processes should be routinely incorporated within
instruction and assessment to meet this standard. Planning and
implementation should focus on integrating mathematical processes
into the program as a means for learning mathematics content and to
support the continuing development and strengthening of those key
processes.
Increased emphasis on data analysis and probability. Interpreting
and using data to make predictions and decisions is an essential skill.
The increased availability of data and of technologies for displaying

208
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

and analyzing data require greater understanding of data analysis

and related aspects of probability. Representing data in tables and
graphs, using statistical methods to analyze data, and applying
concepts of probability are used to interpret information and make
decisions in all content areas. An increased emphasis on data
analysis and probability spans all grade levels within Ohio’s
standards.
Greater level of rigor. The standards set high expectations for all
students. The need to understand and use mathematics has never
been greater. Making standards a reality for all students is an Excellence in mathematics
essential goal and significant challenge. Programs must give each education requires equity – high
student opportunities to reach the expectations set in the standards expectations and strong support
and the necessary support to do so to meet this challenge. Students for all students.
in others countries spend significant time in grades 7 and 8 studying
topics in algebra and geometry. It should be noted that mathematics Principles and
Standards for School
programs internationally do not include courses that focus on a
Mathematics, NCTM,
single area or topic in mathematics, such as algebra or geometry.
p. 12
For example, students in Japan do not take an “algebra course” at
grade 8 or any other grade, as all areas of mathematics are included
in every course.
Articulation of content within the high school program. The
benchmarks and grade-level indicators within Ohio’s standards
represent a well-articulated curriculum that provides guidance for
developing local courses of study. The local curriculum should
provide a road map for guiding teaching and learning. The content
and expectations within the curriculum should lead to increasingly
deep and sophisticated knowledge and use of mathematics content
and processes as students progress through the program. The depth
and breadth of the content and instructional experiences are key in
determining the contribution of a specific grade level or course
within the program.
Course “titles” alone are not sufficient for determining if all students
have access to the full curriculum and instruction needed to achieve
the expectations in the standards. For example, specific courses,
such as a traditional algebra I and geometry sequence, are not
required to attain the benchmarks for end-of-grade 10. Careful
examination and planning may be needed to ensure that course
options, particularly traditional topic-center courses, fully addresses

209
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Implications of Standards for the expectations data analysis and probability within this grade
Local Curriculum Teachers and band. The expectations for grades 9 through 12 can be attained
curriculum leaders need to through a variety of course organizations, such as topic-centered or
consider: integrated courses. Care must also be taken and strategies put into
place to ensure that all students are provided access to the full
• when topics are introduced; mathematics curriculum through whatever options are available
• how long they remain in the within the program.
curriculum;
• when (if ever) they receive A set of coordinated procedures for monitoring the quality of the
special attention; mathematics program and its implementation is a key component of
• what emphasis a program planning. Procedures should include ways to provide
particular topic is given; ongoing monitoring and periodic evaluation to assure that student
• how many other topics are achievement goals are being met. Examples of key aspects include
competing for attention; and alignment of policy decisions with program goals, impact of
• what students are expected professional development strategies, and measures of student
to be able to do. performance. Conducting periodic reviews, reporting findings
publicly, and using results to continually improve the quality of the
mathematics program are essential for assuring that all students
meet the Ohio’s mathematics academic content standards.

210
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Components of Program Planning

Building Awareness and Acquiring Commitment
• Develop an awareness of the standards and need for
program changes.
• Identify issues related to program planning.
• Empower a group of persons representing all stakeholders
to work together over an extended period of time to
strengthen the mathematics program.
• Identify goals and key strategies that include continuous
reflection and revision along the way.
Planning and Implementing Improvement Strategies
• Establish leadership teams to guide and monitor program
and implementation plans.
• Identify resources needed for and potential barriers
related to implementing goals and key strategies.
• Phase in strategies and changes over time and monitor
their impact.
• Maintain communication and keep all stakeholders
informed of progress.
• Develop and sustain support structures for assisting
students and teachers who encounter difficulties.
Monitoring Progress
• Establish clear and meaningful criteria for measuring
the impact of changes and ongoing program
effectiveness.
• Align evaluation methods with program goals and
key improvement strategies.
• Use results to make decisions about which goals and
strategies have been met and which may need to be
modified.
• Identify new goals and strategies that may be needed
to sustain and accelerate improvement.

211
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

The Role of
Assessment
A strong, effective, aligned educational system has three parts.
Standards are one important part. Curriculum and instruction is
the second, and assessment aligned with the standards is the third
part of an integrated system.
The Three Parts of an
Aligned Educational System

Standards Instruction

Assessment

Ohio has developed and adopted clear and rigorous academic

Ohio is currently engaged content standards for its students. Educators and the public need
in the important process of to know if students meet these standards. Assessment represents a
aligning standards, curriculum student’s demonstration of understanding, it provides evidence of
and assessments. what students know and are able to do. A comprehensive and
thoughtful assessment system also provides needed information
for instructional planning and decision-making.
Ohio’s comprehensive assessment system includes several types
of assessment:
• achievement tests;
• diagnostic assessments;
• classroom assessments; and
• national and international assessments.
Each type of assessment provides invaluable information to Ohio’s
educators, parents, students and communities. While each piece
supports the others, each also serves its own unique purpose.

212
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

s s m ent S ystem
A s se
m prehe nsive
Ohio's Co Purpose
Basis fo r Content
ypes tudent
Ass essment T • Measure sent.
emic achievem te evidence
Ohio's Acadndards a
nt Tests, Content Sta • Demonstruous
Achieveme e Ohio of conti n te
including th Test p ro v e m e nt at the sta
im
Graduation vel.
and local le for Ohio's
a ta
• Provide dbility system.
accounta

g student
• Monitorin
emic
Ohio's Acadndards progress. ctional
u
Assessments Content Sta • Make instr(e.g., intervention,
Diagnostic decis io n s
.
enrichment) rmation to
fo
• Provide inparents and
studen ts ,
teachers.

rocess as
• Measure poduct of
es of Study well as pr erstanding
Local Coursrds
Classroom A
ssessments and Standa student unddge.
and knowlehers and
ac
• Inform te bout progress.
students a rmation for
fo
• Provide innal planning.
instructio
Ohio
• Compare ent against that
d
National anal Standards achievem s and
n a l a n d In ternational Internatio n of other sta
te
Natio
Assessments nations.

213
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Achievement Tests
Ohio’s assessment system
includes both diagnostic and Achievement tests provide the broadest picture of student
achievement assessments. These performance. Ohio’s achievement assessments, including the Ohio
assessments are being created Graduation Test (OGT), are administered at specified grades and
with substantial input from are based on the Ohio academic content standards benchmarks.
Ohio’s classroom teachers, State-wide assessments measure student achievement and provide
parents, administrators, higher guidance for making program decisions and for decisions related to
education faculty, the allocation of resources at the state and local level.
and business representatives.
Diagnostic Assessments
Diagnostic assessments are administered annually and are designed
to give teachers and parents detailed information as to the strengths
and weaknesses of individual students. They provide teachers with
important information for instructional planning.
Classroom Assessments
One of the most important components in implementing an aligned
standards-based system is ongoing classroom assessment. Teachers
constantly assess student performance on an ongoing basis, using
both informal and formal measures. Listening to and questioning
students are forms of classroom assessment, as are performance
assessments, such as writing a research report or solving
mathematical problems. Teachers use classroom assessments to
evaluate students’ performance and progress and to plan instruction
that is tailored to students’ needs. Classroom assessments provide a
rich picture of student performance.
One benefit of classroom assessment is that the feedback is frequent
and immediate. Another benefit is that teachers can plan and use
assessment in the way that best suits their students’ needs. Teachers
can design and administer entry-level assessments to determine
students’ prerequisite skills. They can monitor students’ progress
frequently to adjust the pace of instruction appropriately and
Teachers have the clearest picture develop and use summative assessments to assess their instructional
of student performance. Through methods and their students’ achievement.
observations of student
performance, they can see
immediately which students can
explain, interpret, apply and

214
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

National and International Assessments

Through participation in national and international assessment

opportunities, such as NAEP and TIMSS, Ohio is able to compare the
achievement of its students against that of students in other states
and other nations. In this way, Ohio ensures that its standards are
sufficiently rigorous and world-class.
The Best Preparation for All Types of Assessment Samples of Classroom
Assessment:
In Ohio’s aligned system, teachers who develop classroom
assessments based on the academic content standards grade-level • Projects and investigations
indicators will know that they are evaluating students against a • Portfolios
common reference point shared by all Ohio teachers. When teachers
• Tests, quizzes and short-
design instructional plans based on the grade-level indicators, they
answer questions
will be preparing students for the statewide diagnostic and
achievement tests. Teachers will not have to take time out from • Extended response and
instruction to prepare students for assessments. Standards-based essay questions
instruction will prepare students for the assessments. In this way, • Group tests
Ohio’s aligned system will support schools, teachers, and parents in
ensuring that all students meet the rigorous demands of the new • On-demand assessment
century. • Self-assessment, student
reflection
• Teacher observations

215
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

The Role of
Technology
Learning and applying mathematics requires students to become
adept in using a variety of techniques and tools for computing,
“Technology is essential in measuring, analyzing data and solving problems. Computers,
teaching and learning calculators, physical models, and measuring devices are examples of
mathematics; it influences the the wide variety of technologies, or tools, used to teach, learn, and
mathematics that is taught and do mathematics. These tools complement, rather than replace, more
enhances students’ learning.” traditional ways of doing mathematics, such as using symbols and
Principles and hand-drawn diagrams.
Standards for School
Rapid developments in the design and uses of technology,
Mathematics,
NCTM, page 24 particularly in electronic tools, have changed how we work, play and
learn. For example, graphing calculators and computer-based tools
provide powerful mechanisms for communicating, applying, and
learning mathematics in the workplace, in everyday tasks, and in
school mathematics. Appropriate uses of those and other
technologies in the mathematics classroom enhance learning, support
effective instruction, and impact the levels of emphasis and ways
certain mathematics concepts and skills are learned.
Technology plays a critical role in Ohio’s mathematics academic
content standards and their successful implementation. Expectations
reflecting the appropriate use of technology are woven into the
standards, benchmarks and grade-level indicators. For example, the
standards include expectations for students to compute fluently
using paper and pencil, technology-supported and mental methods
and to use graphing calculators or computers to graph and analyze
mathematical relationships. These expectations are intended to
support a curriculum rich in the use of technology rather than limit
the use of technology to specific skills or grade levels. The
benchmarks and indicators were written to enable teachers and
programs to use whatever technology deemed most appropriate.
Many references to technology within the standards are purposefully
non-specific to allow flexibility and incorporation of new
technologies, as they become available.
216
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Technology, used appropriately, helps students learn mathematics.

Electronic tools, such as spreadsheets and dynamic geometry
software, extend the range of problems and develop understanding
of key mathematical relationships. A strong foundation in number
and operation concepts and skills is required to use calculators
effectively as a tool for solving problems involving computations.
Graphing calculators allow students to quickly and easily produce
multiple graphs for a set of data, determine appropriate ways to
display and interpret the data, and test conjectures about the impact
of changes in the data.
What We Learned about
Technology makes mathematics accessible to all students, including Using Calculators in
those with special needs. Options for assisting students to maximize Mathematics Teaching
their strengths and progress in a standards-based curriculum are
expanded through the use of technology-based support and • Change can occur if we put the
interventions. For example, specialized technologies enhance potential for change in the
opportunities for students with physical challenges to develop and hands of everyone.
demonstrate mathematics concepts and skills. • It takes practiced teachers to
change the practice of teaching.
Technology supports effective mathematics teaching. Technology is a
tool for learning and doing mathematics rather than an end in itself. • Calculators cause changes in
As with any instructional tool or aid, it is only effective when used the mathematics we teach.
well. Teachers must make critical decisions about when and how to • Calculators cause changes in
use technology to focus instruction on learning mathematics. the way we teach and in the
Technology engages students in higher-order thinking, builds strong way students learn.
problem-solving skills, and develops deep understanding of concepts Bert Waits and Franklin
and procedures when used appropriately. The model curriculum, Demana, “Calculators in
available in June 2003, provides guidance for the appropriate uses of Mathematics in
technology in instruction. Teaching and Learning:
Past, Present, and
The importance of various components of the mathematics Future” Learning
curriculum increase as new and enhanced technologies become Mathematics for a New
available. Some examples of mathematics concepts and skills that are Century: 2000 Yearbook,
more important as a result of advances in technology include: NCTM, pages 52–56

• Mental arithmetic and estimation skills;

• Concept of variable and conventions such as order of
operations;
• Systems for representing figures and the effects of
transformations;

217
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

• Characteristics of functions and their graphs; and

• Statistical operations, such as fitting curves to data.
Students who have learned to use technology effectively throughout
their mathematics program will be at an advantage in many
situations in school and in the workplace. Mathematics programs
that emphasize familiarity and flexibility with technological tools in
curriculum, instruction and assessment — firmly grounded in
conceptual understanding of mathematics and problem-solving —
better equip students for success in a world in which the technology
for the next decade, or even the next year, are unknown.

“Research has shown that

instruction that makes
productive use of computer and
calculator technology has
beneficial effects on
understanding and learning
algebraic representations.”
Adding It Up: Helping
Children Learn
Mathematics, National
Research Council,
page 420

218
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Making
Real-World
Connections
Mathematics is an integral part of society and the work place.
Thoughtfully planned instruction can help students to realize the
importance of mathematics in their lives and to learn the
mathematical skills they need in their lives as students, citizens and
workers. We know that the more connections a student makes
between the “real world” and the mathematical content that is being
taught, the greater the students’ motivation, understanding and
retention of that content. Our challenge is to find the situations that
students face or will face at home, school or within the work
environment that will make our instruction relevant.
As we develop lessons and assessments, we must consider what is
relevant to our students. For example, there are specific situations
that a student from a rural setting would relate to that a student from
an urban setting might not; the reverse of this is also true. We need to For years students
pay close attention to our students’ backgrounds and interests, as have been asking the question
well as to the content of our mathematical instruction, in order to “Where am I ever going
plan relevant instruction. to use this mathematics (stuff)?”
There are two possible approaches for teachers planning instruction This question shows the need for
that is based in real-world situations. The first is to begin with a real- relevant situations that connect
world situation, or context, and move to the mathematical content. the mathematics to the world.
The second is to start with the content and move to the context of the
situation.
In the first approach, educators start with a situation that is relevant
to the students who are going to participate in the activity and then
identify the mathematics that will take place within the situations.
This process is most appropriate for lessons that are developed in
advance. It is well suited to in-depth, on-going units and can allow
us to link multiple indicators and benchmarks within one lesson and

219
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

to make connections between mathematics and other disciplines. A

lesson of this type takes time for preparation and coordination with
other discipline teachers. The sample lesson below shows one
example of a lesson that is closely tied with its real-world context:

The following indicators and

benchmarks are addressed in Sample Real-World Mathematics Lesson
this activity: Lesson One: The Ohio State Map
Analyze and solve multi-
step problems involving Mrs. Eldridge plans a lesson to focus on travel and the use of
addition, subtraction, maps. She starts with a map of the state of Ohio and talks to
multiplication and division
using an organized
students about where they can find themselves on this map.
approach…. She continues with a discussion of map coordinates, asking
Grade 4 Indicator students to identify the coordinates of specific places of interest
Number, Number Sense on the map or challenging their peers to name a point of inter-
and Operations est that they have identified only by its coordinates. In this
Specify location and plot way, the lesson plan can cross disciplines, asking students to
order pairs on a coordinate identify key landmarks and historical sites around the state
plane, using first quadrant that they have learned about in English and social studies.
points. Mrs. Eldridge extends this lesson with students using the
Grade 4 Indicator map’s key to determine the distance between specific places in
Geometry
the state and determining the time that it would take to travel
Use mathematical strategies that distance given an average speed, or to determine possible
to solve problems that relate destinations given the origin, average speed, and time trav-
to other curriculum areas eled.
and the real world….
Grade 3-4 Benchmark Mrs. Eldridge connects this to instruction even further, making
Mathematical Processes it even more relevant to students’ own lives, by inviting stu-
dents to make their own maps of a place of interest to them.
Students are then asked to plot these maps onto coordinate a
plane, like the one on the state map of Ohio. This integrates
students’ graphing skills into the lesson plan.

220
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

The second approach is to determine an appropriate context based

upon the content that is currently being taught in the class. This
approach is much more focused on a specific topic than the previous
method where the intent was to incorporate as many of the
standards as possible. The goal is the same, however, to allow
mathematical content to come to life for the students. These lessons
are appropriate for use in a short timeframe and typically require
minimal materials or coordination with other disciplines. However,
one must be careful not to force a context onto the mathematical Relevant real-world activities are
content, making the situation contrived or irrelevant to the students beneficial, but unless the student
or mathematically inaccurate. In dealing with the topic of fractions makes the connection to the
an example of a problematic situation might be like the one that mathematics the activity is in
follows: vain. The context is important
but it does not take the place of
Martina’s mother fixed meatloaf, potatoes, beans, and pudding explicit math instruction.
for dinner. What portion of the dinner was left if Martina ate
only the meatloaf and the beans?

In this example an answer of one half may be the desired response

however the size of the portions must be considered within this
situation.
The following example, the lesson on access codes, is related to the
topic of combinations within the probability standard and serves as a
more appropriate example for this quick approach to real-world
instruction. This example could be quickly developed and would be
relevant to most students.

221
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Sample Real-World Mathematics Lesson

Lesson Two: Access Codes
Mr. Cochran wants to address the topic of combinations from
the probability standard. He invites his students to investigate
the possible combinations of a one-digit numeric code, a two-
digit numeric code, and a three-digit numeric code. He then
asks students to investigate how the possible number of
combinations changes if the digits are letters only or a
This activity addresses the combination of numbers or letters. Once a pattern has been
following indicator: determined, the students investigate access codes with larger
Use counting techniques numbers and compare this to the number of people living in
and the Fundamental the world, the types of people that may have access to the
Counting principle to system or the types of devices where a code of this nature may
determine the total number be used. Students are asked to think about and discuss why
of possible outcomes for banks and other companies use these access codes and what
mathematical situations. the trade-offs are between longer codes (more safety) and
Grade 9 Indicator shorter codes (easier to use and remember).
Data Analysis and
Probability

Educators have been given a charge to prepare students to become

productive members of society and the working community. This
task carries with it the challenge that the direction each individual
will pursue is unknown and likely subject to change. Whatever
students’ goals are for the future, however, we know that we can
make motivate students and enhance their learning of content by
making our instruction relevant. In this way, we can effectively
prepare our students for the opportunities and challenges they face
as citizens in the 21st century.

222
A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

K-12 Mathematics

Glossary

223
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

absolute error The absolute value of the difference between the measured value of a
quantity and its true value.
acute An angle whose measure is greater than 0° and less than 90°.
algorithm A procedure or series of steps used to solve a problem.
associative The result of an operation on real numbers will be unchanged due
property to grouping; e.g., for addition, (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) or for multiplica-
tion, a(bc) = (ab)c.
asymptote A straight line that a curve approaches but never touches. For example,

asymptote

asymptote

biased A sample that overrepresents or underrepresents part of the

sampling population.
bivariate data Data or events described using two variables.
box-and-whisker A diagram that shows pictorially the median and measures of spread
plot (upper and lower interquartile ranges and the range) for one set of data.
For example,
Box-and-whisker plot data:

35 25 90 60 45
40 58 90 90 55 The number of days students
60 55 80 90 60 in Mr. Jones’ homeroom spent
55 60 85 75 60 studying for the ACT exam.
56 55 75 80 90

box-and-whisker plot:

25 35 45 55 65 75 85

maximum
minimum (90)
(25) lower median upper
quartile (60) quartile
(55) (83)

224
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

causation The relationship between two variables where a change in one variable
affects the outcome of the other variable.
categorical data Data that can be classified by type; e.g., color, types of dogs. These
types of data are typically represented using bar chart, pie charts or
pictographs.
central angle An angle whose vertex is the center of a circle and is in the same plane
as the circle.

central angle

coefficient The numeric factor in a term; e.g., the number 3 in the term 3x2y is the
coefficient or in the term a3b, 1 is the coefficient.
combination A selection of a group of items or events from a set without regard to
order; e.g., the number of 3-piece outfits from the set of clothes in the
closet.
common factor A number, polynomial or quantity that evenly divides into two or more
mathematical expressions.
common Something that is familiar that can be used to relate to another
referents thing that is not familiar; e.g.,the width of a finger is a centimeter.
commutative The order of the objects in an operation can be changed with out
property affecting the results; e.g., for addition, a + b = b + a or for
multiplication, ab = ba.
compatible Numbers that go together easily, usually related by pairing in the basic
numbers facts; use of compatible numbers generally gives an approximate
result; e.g., 473  6  480  6 = 80.
compensatory Compensatory numbers are used to adjust numbers in a
numbers computation after use of compatible numbers; e.g.,
23 + 18  23 + 20 = 43. Since two was added to increase 18 to 20 as
compatible numbers, two will be subtracted from 43 to compensate for
the change. Therefore, two is the compensatory number.
complementary Two or more mutually exclusive events that together cover all possible
events outcomes. The sum of the probabilities of complementary events is 1.
compound Combining two or more separate events or outcomes and considering
events it as one single event or outcome.

225
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

conditional The probability of an event occurring given that another event has
probability already occurred. For example, What is the probability that the total of
two dice will be greater than 8 given that the first die is a 6?.
congruent Having exactly the same size and shape.
continuous data Data that can be assigned an infinite number of values between whole
numbers, the assigned values are approximated; e.g., the size of the
apples on an apple tree is continuous data. See discrete data for a
counterexample.
coordinate A plane determined by the intersection of two perpendicular number
plane lines in which any point can be located.
correlation The relation between two sets of data, a positive or direct correlation
exists when both sets vary in the same direction (both sets decrease); a
negative or inverse correlation exists when one set of data increases as
the other decreases.
correlation A measure of the correlation between two variables or sets of data.
coefficient The value of the correlation coefficient, r, is always -1  r  1,
where 1 is a perfect positive correlation, 0 is no correlation, and -1 is a
perfect negative correlation.
covariants Varying with another variable quantity in a manner that leaves a
specified relationship unchanged.
decomposing The process of breaking a number into smaller units to simplify
problem solving; e.g., 15 can be 10 + 5 or 10 can be 6 + 4.
deductive Use logic to arrive at a conclusion from a given premise.
reasoning
dependent A statement or probability for one event affects a statement or
events probability for another event.
descriptive To gather and describe data using probability, statistical methods and
statistics concepts like graphs and measures of center.
dilation See transformation.
direct variation When the values of two variables maintain a constant ratio. This
relationship can be expressed as an equation of the form y = kx.
discrete data Data that can be counted; e.g., the number of people in a town is
discrete (there is no such thing as a fractional person). See continuous
data for a counterexample.
disjoint events Two events that have no outcomes in common.

226
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

dispersion How data is spread out around some central point.

distribution The distribution of a set of data is a graph or table showing how many
pieces of data there are in each class, or of each type.
distributive The product of a number and the sum (or difference) of two numbers
property is equal to the sum (or difference) of the two products; e.g.,
7(30 + 5) = (7  5) or a(b-c) = ab - ac.
equation A statement that shows two mathematical expressions that are equal
to each other.
equiangular In a given shape, all angles have the same measure.
equilateral In a given shape, all sides have the same length.
equivalent Two items that have the same value.
experimental The probability based on a series of trials. The experimental
probability probability, P, can be found using the following equation:
P(event) = # of trials w/favorable outcomes
number of trials in experiment
experimental The outcome as a result of a probability experiment or test. These
results outcomes are sometimes called actual results.
expressions Any combination of variables, numbers, and symbols (excluding the
equality and inequality symbols).
extrema A term that refers to maximum and minimum values.
factoring Rewriting a mathematical expression as a product of factors.
frequency A collection of data that represents the number of times a set of
distribution numbers, items or events have occurred.
frequency table A table that shows how often each item, number, or range of numbers
occurs in a set of data.
front-end Using the leading, or left-most, digits to make an estimate quickly and
estimation easily. After making an initial estimate using front-end digits, an
adjustment can be made to refine the estimate; e.g., Using front-end
estimation to estimate the sum of 594, 32, and 221, an initial estimate
would be 5 + 0 + 2 hundreds or 700. An adjustment can be made by
grouping the tens and ones (about 100 + 50 or 150 more) and adding
to get an adjusted estimate of 850.

227
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

function A mathematical relationship between two variables, an independent

variable and a dependent variable, where every value of the
independent variable corresponds to exactly one value of the
dependent value.
Fundamental The principle which states that all possible outcomes in a sample space
Counting can be found by multiplying the number of ways each event can
Principle occur.
geometric A sequence or series, where each term can be found by multiplying
patterns the previous term by a constant factor, sometimes refered to as a
common ratio.
geometric The probability that a random point is located in a particular part, or
probability subregion, or a larger region.
growing patterns Patterns that involve a progression. For example,

.
histogram A graph that uses bars to show the frequency of data within equal
intervals.

histogram

0 10 20 30 40

identity property Of addition: Adding zero to a number gives a sum identical to the
given number.
Of multiplication: Multiplying a number by 1 gives a product identical
to the given number.
independent Two events in which the outcome of the first event does not affect the
event outcome of the second event.
inductive Using logic to make generalizations based on observation of specific
reasoning cases and consideration of patterns.
inequality A mathematical sentence that includes one of the inequality symbols,
<, >,  ,  , or  to compare unequal expressions.

228
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

inscribed angle An angle whose vertex is on a circle and whose sides are chords of the
circle.

inscribed
angle

intercepts The value of y on the coordinate plane where x = 0, called the

y-intercept. The value of x on the coordinate plane where y = 0, called
the x-intercept.
intersecting lines Two lines that cross at exactly one point.
inverse An operation that will undo another operation; e.g., addition and
operations subtraction.
inverse property The result of two real numbers that combine will give the identity
elements of zero or one. When a number is added to its additive
inverse, the sum is always zero; e.g., 8 + – 8 = 0. When a number is
multiplied by its multiplicative inverse, the product is always one;
e.g., ᎏ2ᎏ ⭈ ᎏ3ᎏ = 1.
3 2
inverse variation The variables x and y vary inversely if, for a constant k, yx = k or
y = ᎏkᎏ.
x
irrational Numbers that cannot be written as a ratio of two integers. The decimal
numbers form of the number never terminates and never repeats.
isosceles triangle A triangle with at least two congruent sides.
iterative process A process or set of instructions that are repeated.
Least Squares A statistical method used to find the line of best fit for a set of data
Regression Line points.
line of best fit A line drawn in the midst of the points on a scatter plot in an attempt
to estimate the mathematical relationship between the variables used to
generate the plot.
linear equation An equation whose graph on a coordinate grid is a straight line.
major arc On a circle, an arc that is larger than a semicircle and its measure is
greater than 180°.
mean See measures of center.

229
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

measures of Numbers that provide information about cluster and average of a

center collection of data.
mean The sum of a set of numbers divided by the number of elements in the
set.
mode The number or object that appears most frequently in a set of numbers
or objects.
median The middle number or item in a set of numbers or objects arranged
from least to greatest, or the mean of the two middle numbers when
the set has two middle numbers.
measures of A term used to refer to how much numbers are spread, varied or
spread or dispersed in a set of data.
variability
range The difference between the greatest and the least numbers in a set of
data.
quartile In conjunction with the median, the quartiles divide the set of data into
four groups of equal size.
interquartile The difference between the upper quartile range and the lower
range quartile.
median See measures of center.
minor arc An arc that is less than a semicircle or 180°.
mode See measures of center.
monomials An algebraic expression which is a product of constants and variables.
multiplicative Number patterns with relationships between consecutive numbers
patterns involving multiplication.
mutually Two events that cannot occur at the same time.
exclusive events
nonlinear A sequence of values that increase in a manner other than linear.
progressions
obtuse An angle measure greater than 90° and less than 180°.
odds of an event The ratio of favorable outcomes to unfavorable outcomes.
ordered pairs A pair of numbers that gives the coordinates of a point on a grid in
this order (horizontal coordinate, vertical coordinate).
ordinal position Identifies the position of an object in a sequence; e.g., first, second,
third.
230
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

outlier A data point in a sample widely separated from the main cluster of
points in the sample.
parallel lines Lines in the same plane that do not cross, the distance between the
lines is constant.
permutations Possible orders or arrangements of a set of events or items.
perpendicular Lines that intersect at one point forming 90°.
lines
polygon A closed figure formed from line segments that meet only at their
endpoints.
polynomials The sum of monomials; e.g., 2a2 + 4a – 5.
precision To determine the size of the unit to be used.
prime The expression of a number as the product of prime factors; e.g., the
factorization prime factorization of 18 is 2  3  3.
probability The chance of an event occuring. The probability of an event is equal
to the number of favorable outcomes divided by the number of
possible outcomes.
probability The set of random data and the probabilities associated with that data.
distribution
proportion An equation showing that two ratios are equal.
quadrants The two axes of a coordinate system divide the plane into four
separate sections known as quadrants. These are identified as the
first, second, third, and fourth quadrants.

II I

III IV

qualitative data Data that can be assigned qualities or categories. They are
non-numerical data.
quantitative data Data that are numerical. The data can be discrete or continuous.
random sample A sample in which every event has an equal chance of selection and
each event is chosen by a random process.

231
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

random sampling A random sample is a sample that has been chosen by a process of ran-
dom selection so that it models the characteristics of the population it
is supposed to represent as closely as possible.
random variable A variable that takes any of a range of values that cannot be predicted
with certainty.
rate of change A relationship such as distance over time, often described by using a
slope.
rational Fractions whose numerators and denominators are polynomials; e.g.,
expressions n2 – 3n
 .
2

rational numbers Any number that can be written in the form a , where a and b are
b
integers and b  0.
rectangular An arrangement of things or data in rows and columns.
arrays
recursive A function defined in terms of the repeated application of a number of
function simpler functions to their own values.
reflection See transformation.
relative error The error or uncertainty in a measurement expressed as a fraction of
the true value.
right Relating to 90°; e.g., a right angle measures 90°, a right triangle has
only one right angle.
roots of A value that will satisfy the equation which has been formed by
equations putting an expression, containing one variable, equal to zero.
rotation See transformation.
sample A set of data taken from a larger set used to create or test theories
about the data as a whole.
sample space A list of all possible outcomes of an activity.
sampling The process used to collect data; e.g., see random sampling.
method
scalene triangle A triangle that has no congruent sides.
scatterplot A graph with one point for each item being measured. The coordinates
of a point represent the measures of two attributes of each item.

232
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

scientific A form of writing numbers as the product of a power of 10 and a

notation decimal number greater than or equal to 1 and less than 10; e.g.,
8,924,000 is written as 8.924  106.
sequence An ordered set of objects or numbers.
series Sum of a finite or infinite sequence of terms.
simple event A subset of the sample space that contains only one outcome that
cannot be broken down into a simpler, more basic outcome.
standard The measure of the dispersion of a distribution is equal to the square
deviation root of the variance.
stem-and-leaf A frequency diagram which displays the actual data together with its
plot frequency, by using a part of the value of each piece of data to fix the
class or group (the stem), while the remainder of the value is actually
listed (the leaves). For example,
Stem-and-leaf plot data: Coach Smith’s last 30 basketball game scores
for the 7th grade Wildcats.
50 65 70 35 40 57 66 65 70 35
29 33 44 56 66 60 44 50 58 46
67 78 79 47 35 35 44 57 60 57

stem-and-leaf plot Stem Leaves

2 9
3 3 5 5 5 6 Key: 46 represents a
4 0 4 4 4 6 7 score of 46.
5 0 0 6 7 7 7 8
6 0 0 5 5 6 6 7
7 0 0 8 9

successive To find the approximate value of a quantity by starting from a first

approximation estimate and then deriving from each approximation another that is
more accurate.
symbolic form To represent something using numbers and symbols.
target population The set from which a sample will be selected.
tens frame A physical model that represents the structure of the number system’s
place value; e.g., the following diagram represents the number eight
using a tens frame.
• • • • •
tens frame
• • •
233
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

terms The quantities in an algebraic equation that are linked to each other by
means of + or - signs.
theoretical Identifying, using mathematical expectations, the number of ways an
probability event could happen compared to all the events that could happen.
theoretical results The expected results given the theoretical probability of an event.
transcendental Functions that are not algebraic; e.g., trigonometric functions.
function
transformation An operation that creates an image from an original figure, or
preimage.
reflection A transformation that results in a mirror image of the original shape.
rotation A rotation is a transformation about a fixed point such that every point
in the object turns through the same angle relative to that fixed point.
translation A transformation in which an image is formed by moving every point
on a figure the same distance in the same direction.
dilation A transformation that preserves the shape of a figure, but allows the
size to change.
translation See transformation.
two-dimensional A shape that has two dimensions, usually described in terms of length
figures and breadth, or length and height.
univariate data Having one variable.
variable A changing quantity, usually a letter in an algebraic equation or
expression, that might have one of a range of possible values.
variance A measure of the dispersion of the distribution of a random variable.
variants Variables.
Venn Diagrams A diagram that is used to show relationships between sets.

A
B

zeros of a The solutions of a function or the x-intercepts.

function
234
A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

K-12 Mathematics

Resources

235
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

These sample resources can be used to aid in the understanding of academic content
standards. In addition, these resources can be used to begin the process of implementing
standards-based instruction and assessment. The model curriculum will provide a greater
opportunity to explore best practices, research-based instruction, and effective lessons and
strategies for all children.

Instructional Resources
Resources listed in this section provide information for educators seeking practical and
creative ways to implement standards-based instruction.

Instructional Resources on the Internet

• ERIC Clearinghouse for Science, Mathematics and Environmental Education – the

Educational Resources Information Center is a collection sponsored by the U.S.
Department of Education. Their goal is to provide access to the best information about
teaching and learning in the areas of science, mathematics, and the environment for
educators, students, and others. Use the icons to access the different areas within ERIC;
find research papers and journal articles, use the AskERIC database to get questions
answered, access the National Education Library to find information and answer
questions.
http://www.ericse.org

• Eisenhower National Clearinghouse for Mathematics and Science Education (ENC) – is

an Internet site full of useful information. The site is organized into four areas; curriculum
resources, web links, professional resources and topics. Within the professional resources
under “timesavers” there are lesson plans organized by discipline and standards. This is
only a starting point for an educator implementing Standards using this site.
http://www.enc.org

• Illuminations – a collection of Internet resources for improving the teaching and

learning of mathematics using the national standards as a foundation.
http://illuminations.nctm.org/

• K-12 Mathematics Curriculum Center – funded by the National Science Foundation this
center supports school districts to build effective mathematics education programs
using the National mathematics standards. This web site offers curriculum analysis for
specific programs of study, resources to assist educators, and much more.
http://www.edc.org/mcc

236
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

• The Math Forum – is an Internet staple for many mathematics teachers. The Internet
address has changed (old address: forum.swarthmore.edu). The information, however,
is still good. Educators can communicate with one another, find lesson plans, access the
Internet Math Library, ask questions of Dr. Math, and access many other useful and
interesting mathematical things.
http://mathforum.org

• NCTM’s Principles and Standards for School Mathematics – provides guidelines for
excellence in mathematics education and issues a call for all students to engage in
more challenging mathematics. These guidelines are often referred to as the national
mathematics standards. The PSSM content is extended online through the E-Standards
web site through resources, Internet links, and more.
http://standards.nctm.org

Instructional Publications

• Barnett, C., Goldstein, D., & Jackson, B. (Eds.). (1994). Fractions, Decimals, Ratios, &
Percents Hard to Teach and Hard to Learn?. Portsmouth, NH: Heinenmann
• Driscoll, Mark (1999). Fostering Algebraic Thinking: A Guide for Teachers Grades 6-10.
Portsmouth, NH: Heinenmann.
• House, Peggy A. (Ed.). (2001). NCTM Principles and Standards for School Mathematics
Navigations Series, Navigating through Algebra in Prekindergarten - Grade 2, (also in grades
3-5, 6-8 and 9-12). Reston, VA: The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, Inc .
• National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (2001). Mathematics Assessment – Cases and
Discussion Questions for Grades K-5. Reston, VA: The National Council of Teachers of
Mathematics, Inc.

237
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

Professional Resources
Resources listed in this section provide access to professional organizations and public
institutions to afford educators opportunities to stay informed within their field.

Professional Organizations

• National Council of Teachers of Mathematics – NCTM is an organization dedicated to

providing the vision and leadership necessary to ensure a mathematics education of the
highest quality for all students. They have provided leadership for the creation and
development of the national mathematics standards. This web site offers access to
resources, grants, research and much more.
www.nctm.org

• National Council of Supervisors of Mathematics – NCSM is an organization for anyone

interested in leadership in mathematics education. Find articles from past issues of the
Journal of Mathematics Education Leadership, access professional development oppor-
tunities, exchange ideas with leaders within the field of mathematics, and more.
www.mathforum.org/ncsm

• Ohio Mathematics Education Leadership Council – OMELC is an organization focused

on the enhancement and extension of leadership in mathematics education in and for
Ohio schools. This site offers current news and information about the organization.
www.omelc.educ.kent.edu

• Ohio Council of Teachers of Mathematics – OCTM is the state affiliate for Ohio of NCTM.
The web site offers resources by grade level, Ohio Journal of School Mathematics article
abstracts, OCTM calendar, and more.
www.ohioctm.org

Departments of Education
• Ohio Department of Education www.ode.state.oh.us
Office of Curriculum and Instruction (Standards info)
www.ode.state.oh.us/curriculum-assessment/ci/
Office of Assessment www.ode.state.oh.us/curriculum-assessment/assessment/
Career-Technical and Adult Education
www.ode.state.oh.us/ctae/

238
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

• Other state Departments of Education (via CCSSO)

http://www.ccsso.org/seamenu.html

• U.S. Department of Education http://www.ed.gov

Research Resources
Resources listed in this section provide theory, skills and strategies to build knowledge
and understanding of standards and other related topics.

Research Resources on the Internet

• International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA) – is

an independent, international cooperative of national research institutions and
governmental research agencies. Its primary purpose is to conduct large-scale
comparative studies of educational achievement, with the aim of gaining a more
in-depth understanding of the effects of policies and practices within and across
systems of education. To find information about Trends in Mathematics and Science
Study (TIMSS) go to this site.
http://www.iea.nl/Home/home.html

• International Study Center – is the principle site for IEA’s Trends in Mathematics and
Science Study (TIMSS) which is an ongoing study scheduled to end in 2003. This site
gives status of the current TIMSS study, elaborates on its framework, provides
information for the previous TIMSS study, and details the specifics for other
educational studies past and current.
http://timss.bc.edu

• National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) – also known as “the Nation’s

Report Card,” is the only nationally representative and continuing assessment of what
America’s students know and can do in various subject areas. NAEP offers results
regarding subject-matter achievement, instructional experiences, and school
environment for populations of students (e.g., fourth-graders) and subgroups of those
populations (e.g., female students, Hispanic students). From this site you can look at
the data and use the data analysis tool to analyze the data.
http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard

239
 A C A D E M I C C O N T E N T S T A N D A R D S

• National Center for Education Statistics – is a federal agency responsible for collecting
and analyzing statistical data for education in the US and other countries. One very
interesting thing on this web site is the Encyclopedia of Ed Stats which houses a
compendium of statistical data from program areas within and outside the US. The
encyclopedia also includes statistical projections for the future.
http://nces.ed.gov

• Project 2061 – is the long-term initiative of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science (AAAS) working to reform K-12 science, mathematics, and
technology education nationwide. This Internet site offers Standards for All Americans,
which includes mathematics components; a proposed school's framework through the
Blueprint; professional development opportunities; and much more. This web site also
offers methodology and analysis of middle school textbooks for mathematics and
science based on the Project 2061 Standards.
http://www.project2061.org

• US National Research Center – is a site funded by the National Science Foundation and
the National Center for Education Statistics. There are several things of interest from
this site related to TIMSS: Internet links and related resources; presentation materials;
research and publications; and assessment items used for the study.
http://ustimss.msu.edu

Research Publications
• Barnett, C., Goldstein, D., & Jackson, B. (Eds.). (1994). Fractions, Decimals, Ratios, &
Percents: Hard to Teach and Hard to Learn? Facilitator’s Discussion Guide. Portsmouth, NH:
Heinenmann.
• Leinwand, Steven (2000). Sensible Mathematics: A Guide for School Leaders. Portsmouth,
NH: Heinenmann.
• Loucks-Horsley, Susan, Hewson, Peter W., Love, Nancy, & Stiles, Katherine E. (1998).
Designing Professional Development for Teachers of Science and Mathematics. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, Inc..

240