Dog

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This article is about the domestic dog. For related species known as "dogs", see Canidae. For other uses, see Dog
(disambiguation).

Cat
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to navigationJump to search

This article is about the cat species that is commonly

kept as a pet. For the cat family, see Felidae. For other
uses, see Cat (disambiguation) and Cats
(disambiguation).

For technical reasons, "Cat #1" redirects here. For the

album, see Cat 1 (album).

Domestic cat

Various types of domestic cat

Conservation status

Domesticated

Scientific classification

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Chordata

Class: Mammalia

Order: Carnivora
 Suborder: Feliformia

Family: Felidae

Subfamily: Felinae

Genus: Felis

Species: F. catus[1]

Binomial name

Felis catus[1]

(Linnaeus, 1758)[2]

Synonyms

 F. catus domesticus Erxleben, 1777[3]

 F. angorensis Gmelin, 1788
 F. vulgaris Fischer, 1829

The cat (Felis catus) is a

small carnivorous mammal.[1][2] It is the
only domesticated species in the family Felidae and
often referred to as the domestic cat to distinguish it
from wild members of the family.[4] The cat is either
a house cat or a farm cat, which are pets, or a feral
cat, which ranges freely and avoids human
contact.[5] A house cat is valued by humans for
companionship and for its ability to hunt rodents.
About 60 cat breeds are recognized by various cat
registries.[6]

The cat is similar The cat is similar in anatomy to

in anatomy to the the other felid species, has a
other felid species, strong flexible body, quick
has a strong reflexes, sharp teeth and
flexible body, retractable claws adapted to
quick reflexes, killing small prey. Its night
sharp teeth and vision and sense of smell are well
retractable claws developed. Cat
adapted to killing communication includes vocaliza
small prey. tions like meowing, purring, trilli
Its night ng,
vision and sense of hissing, growling and grunting as
smell are well well as cat-specific body
developed. Cat language. It is a solitary hunter,
communication inc but a social species. It can hear
ludes vocalizations sounds too faint or too high
like meowing, pur in frequency for human ears, such
ring, trilling, as those made by mice and other
hissing, growling a small mammals. It is
nd grunting as well a predator that is most active at
as cat-specific dawn and dusk.[7] It secretes and
body language. It perceives pheromones.[8]
is a solitary hunter,
but a social
species. It can hear
sounds too faint or
too high
in frequency for
human ears, such
as those made by
mice and other
small mammals. It
is a predator that is
most active at
dawn and
dusk.[7] It secretes
and
perceives pheromo
nes.[8]

Female domestic Female domestic cats can have

cats can have kittens from spring to late
kittens from spring autumn, with litter sizes ranging
to late autumn, from two to five
with litter sizes kittens.[9] Domestic cats are bred
ranging from two and shown as
to five registered pedigreed cats, a
kittens.[9] Domesti hobby known as cat fancy.
c cats are bred and Failure to control breeding of pet
shown as cats by spaying and neutering, as
registered pedigree well as abandonment of pets,
d cats, a hobby resulted in large numbers of feral
known as cat cats worldwide, contributing to
fancy. Failure to the extinction of entire bird
control breeding of species, and evoking population
pet cats control.[10]
by spaying and ne
utering, as well as
abandonment of
pets, resulted in
large numbers of
feral cats
worldwide,
contributing to the
extinction of entire
bird species, and
evoking populatio
n control.[10]

It was long thought It was long thought that cat

that cat domestication was initiated in
domestication was Egypt, because cats in ancient
initiated in Egypt, Egypt were venerated since
because cats in around
ancient Egypt were 3100 BC.[11][12] However, the
venerated since earliest indication for
around the taming of an African
3100 BC.[11][12] wildcat (F. lybica) was found
However, the in Cyprus, where a cat skeleton
earliest indication was excavated close by a
for the taming of human Neolithic grave dating to
an African around 7500 BC.[13] African
wildcat (F. lybica) wildcats were probably first
was found domesticated in the Near
in Cyprus, where a East.[14]
cat skeleton
was excavated clos
 e by a
human Neolithic g
rave dating to
around 7500
BC.[13] African
wildcats were
probably first
domesticated in
the Near East.[14]

As of 2017, the As of 2017, the domestic cat was

domestic cat was the second-most popular pet in
the second-most the U.S. by number of pets
popular pet in the owned, after freshwater
U.S. by number of fish,[15] with 95 million cats
pets owned, owned.[16][17] In the United
after freshwater Kingdom, around 7.3 million cats
fish,[15] with 95 lived in more than 4.8 million
million cats households as of 2019.[18]
owned.[16][17] In
the United
Kingdom, around
7.3 million cats
lived in more than
4.8 million
households as of
2019.[18]

Contents Contents

 
1Etymo 1Etymology
logy
 
2Taxon 2Taxonomy
omy
 3Evolution
 3.1Domestication
 4Characteristics
 4.1Size
 Dogs show great morphological variation

The domestic dog (Canis lupus familiaris when considered a subspecies of the wolf or Canis familiaris when
considered a distinct species)[5] is a member of the genus Canis (canines), which forms part of the wolf-like
canids,[6] and is the most widely abundant terrestrial carnivore.[7][8][9][10][11] The dog and the extant gray
wolf are sister taxa[12][13][14] as modern wolves are not closely related to the wolves that were
first domesticated,[13][14] which implies that the direct ancestor of the dog is extinct.[15] The dog was the
first species to be domesticated[14][16] and has been selectively bred over millennia for various behaviors, sensory
capabilities, and physical attributes.[17]
Their long association with humans has led dogs to be uniquely attuned to human behavior[18] and they are able to
thrive on a starch-rich diet that would be inadequate for other canid species.[19] Dogs vary widely in shape, size and
colors.[20] They perform many roles for humans, such as hunting, herding, pulling loads, protection, assisting
police and military, companionship and, more recently, aiding disabled people and therapeutic roles. This influence
on human society has given them the sobriquet of "man's best friend".

Contents

 1Terminology
 2Taxonomy
 3Origin
 4Biology
 4.1Anatomy
 4.1.1Size and weight
 4.1.2Senses
 4.1.3Coat
 4.1.4Tail
 4.1.5Differences from wolves
 4.2Health

 4.2.1Lifespan
 4.3Reproduction

 4.3.1Neutering
 4.4Inbreeding depression
 5Intelligence, behavior, and communication
 5.1Intelligence
 5.2Behavior
 5.3Communication
 6Ecology
 6.1Population
 6.2Competitors and predators
 6.3Diet
 6.4Range
 7Breeds
 8Roles with humans

 8.1Early roles
 8.2As pets
 8.3Work
 8.4Sports and shows
 8.5As food
  8.6Health risks to humans
 8.7Health benefits for humans
 8.8Shelters
 9Cultural depictions

 9.1Mythology and religion

 9.2Literature
 9.3Art
 9.4Education and appreciation
 10See also

 10.1Lists
 11References
 12Bibliography
 13Further reading
 14External links

Terminology
 The term dog typically is applied both to the species (or subspecies) as a whole, and any adult male
member of the same.
 An adult female is a bitch.
 An adult male capable of reproduction is a stud.
 An adult female capable of reproduction is a brood bitch, or brood mother.
 Immature males or females (that is, animals that are incapable of reproduction) are pups or puppies.
 A group of pups from the same gestation period is called a litter.
 The father of a litter is a sire. It is possible for one litter to have multiple sires.
 The mother of a litter is a dam.
 A group of any three or more adults is a pack.

Taxonomy
Further information: Canis lupus dingo § Taxonomic debate – dog, dingo, and New Guinea singing dog
In 1758, the Swedish botanist and zoologist Carl Linnaeus published in his Systema Naturae the binomial
nomenclature – or the two-word naming – of species. Canis is the Latin word meaning "dog",[21] and under
this genus he listed the dog-like carnivores including domestic dogs, wolves, and jackals. He classified the domestic
dog as Canis familiaris, and on the next page he classified the wolf as Canis lupus.[3] Linnaeus considered the dog to
be a separate species from the wolf because of its cauda recurvata - its upturning tail which is not found in any
other canid.[22]
In 1999, a study of mitochondrial DNA indicated that the domestic dog may have originated from multiple
grey wolf populations, with the dingo and New Guinea singing dog "breeds" having developed at a time when
human populations were more isolated from each other.[23] In the third edition of Mammal Species of the
World published in 2005, the mammalogist W. Christopher Wozencraft listed under the wolf Canis lupus its wild
subspecies, and proposed two additional subspecies: "familiaris Linneaus, 1758 [domestic dog]" and "dingo Meyer,
1793 [domestic dog]". Wozencraft included hallstromi – the New Guinea singing dog – as a taxonomic synonym for
the dingo. Wozencraft referred to the mDNA study as one of the guides in forming his decision. [1] The inclusion
of familiaris and dingo under a "domestic dog" clade has been noted by other mammalogists.[24] This classification
by Wozencraft is debated among zoologists.[25]

Origin
Main article: Origin of the domestic dog
The origin of the domestic dog includes the dog's evolutionary divergence from the wolf, its domestication, and its
development into dog types and dog breeds. The dog is a member of the genus Canis, which forms part of
the wolf-like canids, and was the first species and the only large carnivore to have been domesticated.[14][26] The
dog and the extant gray wolf are sister taxa, as modern wolves are not closely related to the population of wolves that
was first domesticated.[14]
The genetic divergence between dogs and wolves occurred between 40,000–20,000 years ago, just before or during
the Last Glacial Maximum.[27][2] This timespan represents the upper time-limit for the commencement of
domestication because it is the time of divergence and not the time of domestication, which occurred
later.[27][28] The domestication of animals commenced over 15,000 years ago, beginning with the grey wolf (Canis
lupus) by nomadic hunter-gatherers.[27] The archaeological record and genetic analysis show the remains of
the Bonn–Oberkassel dog buried beside humans 14,200 years ago to be the first undisputed dog, with disputed
remains occurring 36,000 years ago.[2] It was not until 11,000 years ago that people living in the Near East entered
into relationships with wild populations of aurochs, boar, sheep, and goats.[27]
Where the domestication of the dog took place remains debated, with the most plausible proposals spanning Western
Europe,[9][28] Central Asia[28][29] and East Asia.[28][30] This has been made more complicated by the recent
proposal that an initial wolf population split into East and West Eurasian groups. These two groups, before
going extinct, were domesticated independently into two distinct dog populations between 14,000 and 6,400 years
ago. The Western Eurasian dog population was gradually and partially replaced by East Asian dogs introduced by
humans at least 6,400 years ago.[28][2] This proposal is also debated.[2]

Biology

Lateral view of skeleton

Anatomy
Main article: Dog anatomy

Skull of a dog

Domestic dogs have been selectively bred for millennia for various behaviors, sensory capabilities, and physical
attributes.[17] Modern dog breeds show more variation in size, appearance, and behavior than any other domestic
animal.[17] Dogs are predators and scavengers, and like many other predatory mammals, the dog has powerful
muscles, fused wrist bones, a cardiovascular system that supports both sprinting and endurance, and teeth for
catching and tearing.

Size and weight

Dogs are highly variable in height and weight. The smallest known adult dog was a Yorkshire Terrier, that stood
only 6.3 cm (2.5 in) at the shoulder, 9.5 cm (3.7 in) in length along the head-and-body, and weighed only 113 grams
(4.0 oz). The largest known dog was an English Mastiff which weighed 155.6 kg (343 lb) and was 250 cm (98 in)
from the snout to the tail.[31] The tallest dog is a Great Dane that stands 106.7 cm (42.0 in) at the shoulder.[32]

Senses
Further information: Dog anatomy § Senses
The dog's senses include vision, hearing, sense of smell, sense of taste, touch and sensitivity to the earth's magnetic
field. Another study suggested that dogs can see the earth's magnetic field. [33][34][35]

Coat
Main article: Coat (dog)

Dogs display a wide variation on coat type, density, length, color, and composition

The coats of domestic dogs are of two varieties: "double" being common with dogs (as well as wolves) originating
from colder climates, made up of a coarse guard hair and a soft down hair, or "single", with the topcoat only. Breeds
may have an occasional "blaze", stripe, or "star" of white fur on their chest or underside.[36]
Regarding coat appearance or health, the coat can be maintained or affected by multiple nutrients present in the diet,
see Coat (dog) for more information.
Premature graying can occur in dogs from as early as one year of age. This has been shown to be associated
with impulsive behaviors, anxiety behaviors, fear of noise, and fear of unfamiliar people or animals. [37]

Tail
See also: Docking
There are many different shapes for dog tails: straight, straight up, sickle, curled, or cork-screw. As with many
canids, one of the primary functions of a dog's tail is to communicate their emotional state, which can be important in
getting along with others. In some hunting dogs, however, the tail is traditionally docked to avoid injuries.[38] In
some breeds, such as the Braque du Bourbonnais, puppies can be born with a short tail or no tail at all. [39]

Differences from wolves

 The Saarloos wolfdog carries more gray wolf DNA than any other dog breed[40]

Despite their close genetic relationship and the ability to inter-breed, there are a number of diagnostic features to
distinguish the gray wolves from domestic dogs. Domesticated dogs are clearly distinguishable from wolves by
starch gel electrophoresis of red blood cell acid phosphatase.[41] The tympanic bullae are large, convex and almost
spherical in gray wolves, while the bullae of dogs are smaller, compressed and slightly crumpled. [42] Compared with
equally sized wolves, dogs tend to have 20% smaller skulls and 30% smaller brains.[43]:35 The teeth of gray wolves
are also proportionately larger than those of dogs.[44] Dogs have a more domed forehead and a distinctive "stop"
between forehead and nose.[45] The temporalis muscle that closes the jaws is more robust in wolves.[5]:p158 Wolves
do not have dewclaws on their back legs, unless there has been admixture with dogs that had them. [46] Most dogs
lack a functioning pre-caudal gland and enter estrus twice yearly, unlike gray wolves which only do so once a
year.[47] So-called primitive dogs such as dingoes and Basenjis retain the yearly estrus cycle.[48]
Dogs generally have brown eyes and wolves almost always have amber or light colored eyes.[49] The skin of
domestic dogs tends to be thicker than that of wolves, with some Inuit tribes favoring the former for use as clothing
due to its greater resistance to wear and tear in harsh weather.[50] The paws of a dog are half the size of those of a
wolf, and their tails tend to curl upwards, another trait not found in wolves.[51] The dog has developed into hundreds
of varied breeds, and shows more behavioral and morphological variation than any other land mammal. [52]

Health
Main article: Dog health
There are many household plants that are poisonous to dogs (and other mammals)
including begonia, Poinsettia and aloe vera.[53]
Some breeds of dogs are prone to certain genetic ailments such as elbow and hip
dysplasia, blindness, deafness, pulmonic stenosis, cleft palate, and trick knees. Two serious medical conditions
particularly affecting dogs are pyometra, affecting unspayed females of all types and ages, and gastric dilatation
volvulus (bloat), which affects the larger breeds or deep-chested dogs. Both of these are acute conditions, and can
kill rapidly. Dogs are also susceptible to parasites such as fleas, ticks, mites, hookworms, tapeworms, roundworms,
and heartworms (roundworm species that lives in the heart of dogs).
A number of common human foods and household ingestibles are toxic to dogs, including chocolate
solids (theobromine poisoning), onion
and garlic (thiosulphate, sulfoxide or disulfide poisoning),[54] grapes and raisins, macadamia nuts, xylitol,[55] as
well as various plants and other potentially ingested materials.[56][57] The nicotine in tobacco can also be dangerous.
Dogs can be exposed to the substance by scavenging through garbage bins or ashtrays and eating cigars and
cigarettes. Signs can be vomiting of large amounts (e.g., from eating cigar butts) or diarrhea. Some other signs are
abdominal pain, loss of coordination, collapse, or death.[58] Dogs are susceptible to theobromine poisoning,
typically from ingestion of chocolate. Theobromine is toxic to dogs because, although the dog's metabolism is
capable of breaking down the chemical, the process is so slow that for some dogs even small amounts of chocolate
can be fatal, especially dark chocolate.
Dogs are also vulnerable to some of the same health conditions as humans, including diabetes, dental and heart
disease, epilepsy, cancer, hypothyroidism, and arthritis.[59]

Lifespan
Further information: Aging in dogs

Mixed-breed dogs such as this terrier have been found to run faster and live longer than their pure-bred parents
(see Heterosis).

In 2013, a study found that mixed breeds live on average 1.2 years longer than pure breeds, and that increasing
body-weight was negatively correlated with longevity (i.e. the heavier the dog the shorter its lifespan). [60]
The typical lifespan of dogs varies widely among breeds, but for most the median longevity, the age at which half the
dogs in a population have died and half are still alive, ranges from 10 to 13 years.[61][62][63][64] Individual dogs may
live well beyond the median of their breed.
The breed with the shortest lifespan (among breeds for which there is a questionnaire survey with a reasonable
sample size) is the Dogue de Bordeaux, with a median longevity of about 5.2 years, but several breeds,
including miniature bull terriers, bloodhounds, and Irish wolfhounds are nearly as short-lived, with median
longevities of 6 to 7 years.[64]
The longest-lived breeds, including toy poodles, Japanese spitz, Border terriers, and Tibetan spaniels, have median
longevities of 14 to 15 years.[64] The median longevity of mixed-breed dogs, taken as an average of all sizes, is one
or more years longer than that of purebred dogs when all breeds are averaged. [62][63][64][65] The longest-lived dog
was "Bluey", an Australian Cattle Dog who died in 1939 at 29.5 years of age.[66][67]

Reproduction
Main article: Canine reproduction

Female dog nursing newborn puppies

In domestic dogs, sexual maturity happens around six to twelve months of age for both males and
females,[17][68] although this can be delayed until up to two years old for some large breeds. This is the time at
which female dogs will have their first estrous cycle. They will experience subsequent estrous cycles semiannually,
during which the body prepares for pregnancy. At the peak of the cycle, females will come into estrus, being
mentally and physically receptive to copulation.[17] Because the ova survive and are capable of being fertilized for a
week after ovulation, it is possible for more than one male to sire the same litter. [17]
Fertilization typically occurs 2–5 days after ovulation; 14–16 days after ovulation, the embryo attaches to the uterus,
and after 7-8 more days the heart beat is detectable.[69][70]
Dogs bear their litters roughly 58 to 68 days after fertilization,[17][71] with an average of 63 days, although the
length of gestation can vary. An average litter consists of about six puppies,[72] though this number may vary widely
based on the breed of dog. In general, toy dogs produce from one to four puppies in each litter, while much larger
breeds may average as many as twelve.
Some dog breeds have acquired traits through selective breeding that interfere with reproduction. Male French
Bulldogs, for instance, are incapable of mounting the female. For many dogs of this breed, the female must
be artificially inseminated in order to reproduce.[73]

Neutering

A feral dog from Sri Lanka nursing very well-developed puppies

Neutering refers to the sterilization of animals, usually by removal of the male's testicles or the
female's ovaries and uterus, in order to eliminate the ability to procreate and reduce sex drive. Because of
the overpopulation of dogs in some countries, many animal control agencies, such as the American Society for the
Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA), advise that dogs not intended for further breeding should be neutered,
so that they do not have undesired puppies that may later be euthanized.[74]
According to the Humane Society of the United States, 3–4 million dogs and cats are euthanized each year in the
United States and many more are confined to cages in shelters because there are many more animals than there are
homes. Spaying or castrating dogs helps keep overpopulation down.[75] Local humane societies, SPCAs, and
other animal protection organizations urge people to neuter their pets and to adopt animals from shelters instead of
purchasing them.
Neutering reduces problems caused by hypersexuality, especially in male dogs.[76] Spayed female dogs are less
likely to develop some forms of cancer, affecting mammary glands, ovaries, and other reproductive
organs.[77] However, neutering increases the risk of urinary incontinence in female dogs,[78] and prostate cancer in
males,[79] as well as osteosarcoma, hemangiosarcoma, cruciate ligament rupture, obesity, and diabetes mellitus in
either sex.[80]

Inbreeding depression
A common breeding practice for pet dogs is mating between close relatives (e.g. between half- and full
siblings).[81] Inbreeding depression is considered to be due largely to the expression of homozygous deleterious
recessive mutations.[82] Outcrossing between unrelated individuals, including dogs of different breeds, results in the
beneficial masking of deleterious recessive mutations in progeny.[83]
In a study of seven breeds of dogs (Bernese mountain dog, basset hound, Cairn terrier, Epagneul Breton, German
Shepherd dog, Leonberger, and West Highland white terrier) it was found that inbreeding decreases litter size and
survival.[84] Another analysis of data on 42,855 dachshund litters found that as the inbreeding coefficient increased,
litter size decreased and the percentage of stillborn puppies increased, thus indicating inbreeding depression.[85] In a
study of boxer litters, 22% of puppies died before reaching 7 weeks of age.[86] Stillbirth was the most frequent cause
of death, followed by infection. Mortality due to infection increased significantly with increases in inbreeding.[86]

Intelligence, behavior, and communication

Intelligence
Main article: Dog intelligence
Dog intelligence is the ability of the dog to perceive information and retain it as knowledge for applying to solve
problems. Dogs have been shown to learn by inference. A study with Rico showed that he knew the labels of over
200 different items. He inferred the names of novel items by exclusion learning and correctly retrieved those novel
items immediately and also 4 weeks after the initial exposure. Dogs have advanced memory skills. A study
documented the learning and memory capabilities of a border collie, "Chaser", who had learned the names and could
associate by verbal command over 1,000 words[87]. Dogs are able to read and react appropriately to human body
language such as gesturing and pointing, and to understand human voice commands, although a 2018 study on
canine cognitive abilities found that dogs' capabilities are not more exceptional than those of other animals, such
as horses, chimpanzees or cats.[88]
Dogs demonstrate a theory of mind by engaging in deception[89]. An experimental study showed compelling
evidence that Australian dingos can outperform domestic dogs in non-social problem-solving, indicating that
domestic dogs may have lost much of their original problem-solving abilities once they joined humans.[90] Another
study indicated that after undergoing training to solve a simple manipulation task, dogs that are faced with an
insoluble version of the same problem look at the human, while socialized wolves do not.[91] Modern domestic dogs
use humans to solve their problems for them.[92][93]

Behavior
Main article: Dog behavior
See also: Dog behavior § Behavior compared with other canids
Dog behavior is the internally coordinated responses (actions or inactions) of the domestic dog (individuals or
groups) to internal and/or external stimuli.[94] As the oldest domesticated species, with estimates ranging from
9,000–30,000 years BCE, the minds of dogs inevitably have been shaped by millennia of contact with humans. As a
result of this physical and social evolution, dogs, more than any other species, have acquired the ability to understand
and communicate with humans, and they are uniquely attuned to human behaviors.[18] Behavioral scientists have
uncovered a surprising set of social-cognitive abilities in the domestic dog. These abilities are not possessed by the
dog's closest canine relatives nor by other highly intelligent mammals such as great apes but rather parallel some of
the social-cognitive skills of human children.[95]
Unlike other domestic species which were primarily selected for production-related traits, dogs were initially
selected for their behaviors.[96][97] In 2016, a study found that there were only 11 fixed genes that showed variation
between wolves and dogs. These gene variations were unlikely to have been the result of natural evolution, and
indicate selection on both morphology and behavior during dog domestication. These genes have been shown to
affect the catecholamine synthesis pathway, with the majority of the genes affecting the fight-or-flight
response[97][98] (i.e. selection for tameness), and emotional processing.[97] Dogs generally show reduced fear and
aggression compared with wolves.[97][99] Some of these genes have been associated with aggression in some dog
breeds, indicating their importance in both the initial domestication and then later in breed formation. [97] Traits of
high sociability and lack of fear in dogs may include genetic modifications related to Williams-Beuren syndrome in
humans, which cause hypersociability at the expense of problem solving ability.[100][101][102]

Communication
Main article: Dog communication
Dog communication is how dogs convey information to other dogs, how they understand messages from humans,
and how humans translate the information that dogs are transmitting. [103]:xii Communication behaviors of dogs
include eye gaze, facial expression, vocalization, body posture (including movements of bodies and limbs) and
gustatory communication (scents, pheromones and taste). Humans communicate to dogs by using vocalization, hand
signals and body posture.

Ecology
Population
In 2013, an estimate of the global dog population was 987 million.[104] Although it is said that the "dog is man's best
friend",[105] this refers largely to the ~20% of dogs that live in developed countries. In the developing world, dogs
are more commonly feral or communally owned, with pet dogs uncommon.[50] Most of these dogs live their lives as
scavengers and have never been owned by humans, with one study showing their most common response when
approached by strangers is to run away (52%) or respond aggressively (11%).[106] Little is known about these dogs,
or the dogs in developed countries that are feral, stray or are in shelters, because the great majority of modern
research on dog cognition has focused on pet dogs living in human homes.[107]

Competitors and predators

Although dogs are the most abundant and widely distributed terrestrial carnivores, the potential of feral
and free-ranging dogs to compete with other large carnivores is limited by their strong association with
humans.[7] For example, a review of the studies in the competitive effects of dogs on sympatric carnivores did not
mention any research on competition between dogs and wolves.[108][109] Although wolves are known to kill dogs,
they tend to live in pairs or in small packs in areas where they are highly persecuted, giving them a disadvantage
facing large dog groups.[108][110]
Wolves kill dogs wherever they are found together.[111] One study reported that in Wisconsin in 1999 more
compensation had been paid for losses due to wolves taking dogs than for wolves taking livestock. In Wisconsin
wolves will often kill hunting dogs, possibly because the dogs are in the wolf's territory. [111] A strategy has been
reported in Russia where one wolf lures a dog into heavy brush where another wolf waits in ambush. [112] In some
instances, wolves have displayed an uncharacteristic fearlessness of humans and buildings when attacking dogs, to
the extent that they have to be beaten off or killed.[113] Although the numbers of dogs killed each year are relatively
low, it induces a fear of wolves entering villages and farmyards to take dogs, and losses of dogs to wolves has led to
demands for more liberal wolf hunting regulations.[108]
Coyotes and big cats have also been known to attack dogs. Leopards in particular are known to have a predilection
for dogs, and have been recorded to kill and consume them regardless of their
size.[114] Tigers in Manchuria, Indochina, Indonesia, and Malaysia are also reported to kill dogs.[115] Striped
hyenas are known to kill dogs in Turkmenistan, India, and the Caucasus.[116]

Diet
See also: Dog food

Golden Retriever gnawing on a pig's foot

Dogs have been described as carnivores[117][118] or omnivores.[17][119][120][121] Compared to wolves, dogs have
genes involved in starch digestion that contribute to an increased ability to thrive on a starch-rich diet.[19] Based on
metabolism and nutrition, many consider the dog to be an omnivore. However, the dog is not simply an omnivore.
More like the cat and less like other omnivores, the dog can only produce bile acid with taurine, and it cannot
produce vitamin D, which it obtains from animal flesh. Also more like the cat, the dog requires arginine to maintain
its nitrogen balance. These nutritional requirements place the dog part-way between carnivores and omnivores.[122]

Range
As a domesticated or semi-domesticated animal, the dog is nearly universal among human societies. Notable
exceptions once included:

 Aboriginal Tasmanians, who were separated from Australia before the arrival of dingos on that continent
 The Andamanese, who were isolated when rising sea levels covered the land bridge to Myanmar
 The natives of Tierra del Fuego, who instead domesticated the Fuegian dog, a different canid species
 Certain Pacific islands whose maritime settlers did not bring dogs, or where dogs died out after original
settlement, notably: the Mariana Islands,[123] Palau,[124] Marshall Islands,[125] Gilbert Islands,[125] New
Caledonia,[126] Vanuatu,[126][127] Tonga,[127] Marquesas,[127] Mangaia in the Cook Islands, Rapa
 Iti in French Polynesia, Easter Island,[127] Chatham Islands,[128] and Pitcairn Island (settled by the Bounty
mutineers, who killed off their dogs in order to escape discovery by passing ships[129]).
Dogs were introduced to Antarctica as sled dogs, and some became nearly feral. Dogs became apex predators in
Antarctica by killing prey (largely penguins) and posing a risk of spreading contagious diseases to seals before dogs
were outlawed in Antarctica in accordance with an international agreement. [130]

Breeds
Main article: Dog breed

Different dog breeds show a range of phenotypic variation

The domestic dog is the first species, and the only large carnivore, known to have been domesticated. Especially
over the past 200 years, dogs have undergone rapid phenotypic change and were formed into today's modern dog
breeds due to artificial selection by humans. These breeds can vary in size and weight from a 0.46 kg (1.0 lb)
teacup poodle to a 90 kg (200 lb) giant mastiff. Phenotypic variation can include height measured to
the withers ranging from 15.2 centimetres (6.0 in) in the Chihuahua to 76 cm (30 in) in the Irish Wolfhound; color
varies from white through grays (usually called "blue") to black, and browns from light (tan) to dark ("red" or
"chocolate") in a wide variation of patterns; coats can be short or long, coarse-haired to wool-like, straight, curly, or
smooth.[131] The skull, body, and limb proportions vary significantly between breeds, with dogs displaying more
phenotypic diversity than can be found within the entire order of carnivores. Some breeds demonstrate outstanding
skills in herding, retrieving, scent detection, and guarding, which demonstrates the functional and behavioral
diversity of dogs. The first dogs were domesticated from shared ancestors of modern wolves, however the
phenotypic changes that coincided with the dog–wolf genetic divergence are not known.[26]
Further information: Dog type

Roles with humans

Gunnar Kaasen and Balto, the lead dog on the last relay team of the 1925 serum run to Nome
Domestic dogs inherited complex behaviors, such as bite inhibition, from their wolf ancestors, which would have
been pack hunters with complex body language. These sophisticated forms of social cognition and communication
may account for their trainability, playfulness, and ability to fit into human households and social situations, and
these attributes have given dogs a relationship with humans that has enabled them to become one of the most
successful species on the planet today.[132]:pages95-136
The dogs' value to early human hunter-gatherers led to them quickly becoming ubiquitous across world cultures.
Dogs perform many roles for people, such as hunting, herding, pulling loads, protection, assisting
police and military, companionship, and, more recently, aiding handicapped individuals. This influence on human
society has given them the nickname "man's best friend" in the Western world. In some cultures, however, dogs are
also a source of meat.[133][134]

Early roles
Wolves, and their dog descendants, likely derived significant benefits from living in human camps – more safety,
more reliable food, lesser caloric needs, and more chance to breed.[135] They would have benefited from humans'
upright gait that gives them larger range over which to see potential predators and prey, as well as better color vision
that, at least by day, gives humans better visual discrimination. [135] Camp dogs would also have benefited from
human tool use, as in bringing down larger prey and controlling fire for a range of purposes.[135]
Humans would also have derived enormous benefit from the dogs associated with their camps. [136] For instance,
dogs would have improved sanitation by cleaning up food scraps.[136] Dogs may have provided warmth, as referred
to in the Australian Aboriginal expression "three dog night" (an exceptionally cold night), and they would have
alerted the camp to the presence of predators or strangers, using their acute hearing to provide an early warning.[136]
It has been suggested that the most significant benefit would have been the use of dogs' robust sense of smell to assist
with the hunt.[136] The relationship between the presence of a dog and success in the hunt is often mentioned as a
primary reason for the domestication of the wolf, and a 2004 study of hunter groups with and without a dog gives
quantitative support to the hypothesis that the benefits of cooperative hunting was an important factor in wolf
domestication.[137]
The cohabitation of dogs and humans likely improved the chances of survival for early human groups, and the
domestication of dogs may have been one of the key forces that led to human success.[138]
Human emigrants from Siberia that came across the Bering land bridge into North America likely had dogs in their
company. Although one writer[139] even suggests that the use of sled dogs may have been critical to the success of
the waves that entered North America roughly 12,000 years ago, [139] the earliest archaeological evidence of
dog-like canids in North America dates from about 9,400 years ago. [132]:104[140] Dogs were an important part of
life for the Athabascan population in North America, and were their only domesticated animal. Dogs as pack
animals may have contributed migration of the Apache and Navajo tribes 1,400 years ago. This use of dogs in these
cultures often persisted after the introduction of the horse to North America.[141]

As pets
 Green velvet dog collar, dating from 1670 to 1690

Siberian Huskies are pack animals that still enjoy some human companionship

A British Bulldog relaxes at a park

It is estimated that three-quarters of the world's dog population lives in the developing world as feral, village, or
community dogs, with pet dogs uncommon.[50]
"The most widespread form of interspecies bonding occurs between humans and dogs"[136] and the keeping of dogs
as companions, particularly by elites, has a long history.[142] (As a possible example, at the Natufian culture site
of Ain Mallaha in Israel, dated to 12,000 BC, the remains of an elderly human and a four-to-five-month-old puppy
were found buried together).[22] However, pet dog populations grew significantly after World War II as
suburbanization increased.[142] In the 1950s and 1960s, dogs were kept outside more often than they tend to be
today[143] (using the expression "in the doghouse" to describe exclusion from the group signifies the distance
between the doghouse and the home) and were still primarily functional, acting as a guard, children's playmate, or
walking companion. From the 1980s, there have been changes in the role of the pet dog, such as the increased role of
dogs in the emotional support of their human guardians.[144] People and dogs have become increasingly integrated
and implicated in each other's lives,[145] to the point where pet dogs actively shape the way a family and home are
experienced.[146]
There have been two major trends in the changing status of pet dogs. The first has been the 'commodification' of the
dog, shaping it to conform to human expectations of personality and behaviour.[146] The second has been the
broadening of the concept of the family and the home to include dogs-as-dogs within everyday routines and
practices.[146]
There are a vast range of commodity forms available to transform a pet dog into an ideal companion.[147] The list of
goods, services and places available is enormous: from dog perfumes, couture, furniture and housing, to dog
groomers, therapists, trainers and caretakers, dog cafes, spas, parks and beaches, and dog hotels, airlines and
cemeteries.[147] While dog training as an organized activity can be traced back to the 18th century, in the last
decades of the 20th century it became a high-profile issue as many normal dog behaviors such as barking, jumping
up, digging, rolling in dung, fighting, and urine marking (which dogs do to establish territory through scent), became
increasingly incompatible with the new role of a pet dog.[148] Dog training books, classes and television programs
proliferated as the process of commodifying the pet dog continued.[149]
The majority of contemporary dog owners describe their pet as part of the family, [146] although some ambivalence
about the relationship is evident in the popular reconceptualization of the dog–human family as a
pack.[146] A dominance model of dog–human relationships has been promoted by some dog trainers, such as on the
television program Dog Whisperer. However it has been disputed that "trying to achieve status" is characteristic of
dog–human interactions.[150] Pet dogs play an active role in family life; for example, a study of conversations in
dog–human families showed how family members use the dog as a resource, talking to the dog, or talking through
the dog, to mediate their interactions with each other.[151]
Increasingly, human family members are engaging in activities centered on the perceived needs and interests of the
dog, or in which the dog is an integral partner, such as dog dancing and dog yoga.[147]
According to statistics published by the American Pet Products Manufacturers Association in the National Pet
Owner Survey in 2009–2010, it is estimated there are 77.5 million people with pet dogs in the United
States.[152] The same survey shows nearly 40% of American households own at least one dog, of which 67% own
just one dog, 25% two dogs and nearly 9% more than two dogs. There does not seem to be any gender preference
among dogs as pets, as the statistical data reveal an equal number of female and male dog pets. Yet, although several
programs are ongoing to promote pet adoption, less than a fifth of the owned dogs come from a shelter.
The latest study using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) comparing humans and dogs showed that dogs have the
same response to voices and use the same parts of the brain as humans do. This gives dogs the ability to recognize
emotional human sounds, making them friendly social pets to humans. [153]

Work
Dogs have lived and worked with humans in many roles. In addition to dogs' role as companion animals, dogs have
been bred for herding livestock (collies, sheepdogs),[154][17] hunting (hounds, pointers),[43] and rodent control
(terriers).[17] Other types of working dogs include search and rescue dogs,[155] detection dogs trained to
detect illicit drugs[156] or chemical weapons;[157] guard dogs; dogs who assist fishermen with the use of nets; and
dogs that pull loads.[17] In 1957, the dog Laika became the first animal to be launched into Earth orbit, aboard
the Soviets' Sputnik 2; she died during the flight.[158][159]
Various kinds of service dogs and assistance dogs, including guide dogs, hearing dogs, mobility assistance dogs,
and psychiatric service dogs provide assistance to individuals with disabilities.[160][161] Some dogs owned by
epileptics have been shown to alert their handler when the handler shows signs of an impending seizure, sometimes
well in advance of onset, allowing the guardian to seek safety, medication, or medical care. [162]

Sports and shows

See also: Conformation show
People often enter their dogs in competitions[163] such as breed-conformation shows or sports, including racing,
sledding and agility competitions.
In conformation shows, also referred to as breed shows, a judge familiar with the specific dog breed evaluates
individual purebred dogs for conformity with their established breed type as described in the breed standard. As the
breed standard only deals with the externally observable qualities of the dog (such as appearance, movement, and
temperament), separately tested qualities (such as ability or health) are not part of the judging in conformation
shows.

As food
Main article: Dog meat
Dog meat is consumed in some East Asian countries, including Korea, China[133] and Vietnam,[134] a practice that
dates back to antiquity.[164] It is estimated that 13–16 million dogs are killed and consumed in Asia every
year.[165] In China, debates have ensued over banning the consumption of dog meat.[166] Following the Sui and
Tang dynasties of the first millennium, however, people living on the plains of northern China began to eschew
eating dogs. This is likely due to the spread of Buddhism and Islam, two religions that forbade the consumption of
certain animals, including dogs. As members of the upper classes shunned dog meat, it gradually became a social
taboo to eat it, despite the fact that the general population continued to consume it for centuries afterward.[167] Other
cultures, such as Polynesia and pre-Columbian Mexico, also consumed dog meat in their history. However, Western,
South Asian, African, and Middle Eastern cultures, in general, regard consumption of dog meat as taboo. In some
places, however, such as in rural areas of Poland, dog fat is believed to have medicinal properties – being good for
the lungs for instance.[168] Dog meat is also consumed in some parts of Switzerland.[169] Proponents of eating dog
meat have argued that placing a distinction between livestock and dogs is western hypocrisy, and that there is no
difference with eating the meat of different animals.[170][171][172][173]

In Korea, the primary dog breed raised for meat, the nureongi (누렁이), differs from those breeds raised for pets that
Koreans may keep in their homes.[174]
The most popular Korean dog dish is gaejang-guk (also called bosintang), a spicy stew meant to balance the body's
heat during the summer months. Followers of the custom claim this is done to ensure good health by balancing
one's gi, or vital energy of the body. A 19th century version of gaejang-guk explains that the dish is prepared by
boiling dog meat with scallions and chili powder. Variations of the dish contain chicken and bamboo shoots. While
the dishes are still popular in Korea with a segment of the population, dog is not as widely consumed as beef, chicken,
and pork.[174]

Health risks to humans

Further information: Dog attack and Canine vector-borne disease
Further information: Dog bite prevention
In 2005, the WHO reported that 55,000 people died in Asia and Africa from rabies, a disease for which dogs are the
most important vector.[175]
Citing a 2008 study, the U.S. Center for Disease Control estimated in 2015 that 4.5 million people in the USA are
bitten by dogs each year.[176] A 2015 study estimated that 1.8% of the U.S. population is bitten each year.[177] In the
1980s and 1990s the US averaged 17 fatalities per year, while since 2007 this has increased to an average of
31.[178] 77% of dog bites are from the pet of family or friends, and 50% of attacks occur on the property of the dog's
legal owner.[178]
A Colorado study found bites in children were less severe than bites in adults.[179] The incidence of dog bites in the
US is 12.9 per 10,000 inhabitants, but for boys aged 5 to 9, the incidence rate is 60.7 per 10,000. Moreover, children
have a much higher chance to be bitten in the face or neck.[180] Sharp claws with powerful muscles behind them can
lacerate flesh in a scratch that can lead to serious infections.[181]
In the UK between 2003 and 2004, there were 5,868 dog attacks on humans, resulting in 5,770 working days lost in
sick leave.[182]
In the United States, cats and dogs are a factor in more than 86,000 falls each year.[183] It has been estimated around
2% of dog-related injuries treated in UK hospitals are domestic accidents. The same study found that while dog
involvement in road traffic accidents was difficult to quantify, dog-associated road accidents involving injury more
commonly involved two-wheeled vehicles.[184]
Toxocara canis (dog roundworm) eggs in dog feces can cause toxocariasis. In the United States, about 10,000 cases
of Toxocara infection are reported in humans each year, and almost 14% of the U.S. population is infected. [185] In
Great Britain, 24% of soil samples taken from public parks contained T. canis eggs.[186][failed verification] Untreated
toxocariasis can cause retinal damage and decreased vision.[186] Dog feces can also contain hookworms that
cause cutaneous larva migrans in humans.[187][188][189][190]

Health benefits for humans

Doberman puppy being cuddled

The scientific evidence is mixed as to whether companionship of a dog can enhance human physical health and
psychological wellbeing.[191] Studies suggesting that there are benefits to physical health and psychological
wellbeing[192] have been criticised for being poorly controlled,[193] and finding that "the health of elderly people is
related to their health habits and social supports but not to their ownership of, or attachment to, a companion animal."
Earlier studies have shown that people who keep pet dogs or cats exhibit better mental and physical health than those
who do not, making fewer visits to the doctor and being less likely to be on medication than non-guardians.[194]
A 2005 paper states "recent research has failed to support earlier findings that pet ownership is associated with a
reduced risk of cardiovascular disease, a reduced use of general practitioner services, or any psychological or
physical benefits on health for community dwelling older people. Research has, however, pointed to significantly
less absenteeism from school through sickness among children who live with pets."[191] In one study, new guardians
reported a highly significant reduction in minor health problems during the first month following pet acquisition, and
this effect was sustained in those with dogs through to the end of the study. [195]
In addition, people with pet dogs took considerably more physical exercise than those with cats and those without
pets. The results provide evidence that keeping pets may have positive effects on human health and behaviour, and
that for guardians of dogs these effects are relatively long-term.[195] Pet guardianship has also been associated with
increased coronary artery disease survival, with human guardians being significantly less likely to die within one
year of an acute myocardial infarction than those who did not own dogs.[196]
The health benefits of dogs can result from contact with dogs in general, and not solely from having dogs as pets. For
example, when in the presence of a pet dog, people show reductions in cardiovascular, behavioral, and psychological
indicators of anxiety.[197] Other health benefits are gained from exposure to immune-stimulating microorganisms,
which, according to the hygiene hypothesis, can protect against allergies and autoimmune diseases. The benefits of
contact with a dog also include social support, as dogs are able to not only provide companionship and social support
themselves, but also to act as facilitators of social interactions between humans. [198] One study indicated that
wheelchair users experience more positive social interactions with strangers when they are accompanied by a dog
than when they are not.[199] In 2015, a study found that pet owners were significantly more likely to get to know
people in their neighborhood than non-pet owners.[200]
The practice of using dogs and other animals as a part of therapy dates back to the late 18th century, when animals
were introduced into mental institutions to help socialize patients with mental disorders. [201] Animal-assisted
intervention research has shown that animal-assisted therapy with a dog can increase social behaviors, such as
smiling and laughing, among people with Alzheimer's disease. [202] One study demonstrated that children with
ADHD and conduct disorders who participated in an education program with dogs and other animals showed
increased attendance, increased knowledge and skill objectives, and decreased antisocial and violent behavior
compared with those who were not in an animal-assisted program.[203]

Shelters
Main article: Animal shelter
Every year, between 6 and 8 million dogs and cats enter US animal shelters.[204] The Humane Society of the United
States (HSUS) estimates that approximately 3 to 4 million of those dogs and cats are euthanized yearly in the United
States.[205] However, the percentage of dogs in US animal shelters that are eventually adopted and removed from
the shelters by their new legal owners has increased since the mid-1990s from around 25% to a 2012 average of 40%
among reporting shelters[206] (with many shelters reporting 60–75%).[207]

Cultural depictions

Dogs at Lake Balaton, depicted on the Seuso Treasure

Main article: Cultural depictions of dogs

In China, Korea, and Japan, dogs are viewed as kind protectors.[208]

Mythology and religion

In ancient Mesopotamia, from the Old Babylonian period until the Neo-Babylonian, dogs were the symbol
of Ninisina, the goddess of healing and medicine,[209] and her worshippers frequently dedicated small models of
seated dogs to her.[209] In the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian periods, dogs were used as emblems of magical
protection.[209]
In mythology, dogs often serve as pets or as watchdogs.[208] Stories of dogs guarding the gates of the underworld
recur throughout Indo-European mythologies[210][211] and may originate from Proto-Indo-European
religion.[210][211] In Greek mythology, Cerberus is a three-headed watchdog who guards the gates
of Hades.[208] In Norse mythology, a bloody, four-eyed dog called Garmr guards Helheim.[208] In Persian
mythology, two four-eyed dogs guard the Chinvat Bridge.[208] In Welsh mythology, Annwn is guarded by Cŵn
Annwn.[208] In Hindu mythology, Yama, the god of death, owns two watch dogs who have four eyes. They are said
to watch over the gates of Naraka.[212]

A painting of Saint Dominic with a dog bearing a torch at his side

The hunter god Muthappan from North Malabar region of Kerala has a hunting dog as his mount. Dogs are found in
and out of the Muthappan Temple and offerings at the shrine take the form of bronze dog
figurines.[213] In Philippine mythology, Kimat who is the pet of Tadaklan, god of thunder, is responsible for
lightning.
The role of the dog in Chinese mythology includes a position as one of the twelve animals which cyclically represent
years (the zodiacal dog). Three of the 88 constellations in western astronomy also represent dogs: Canis Major (the
Great Dog, whose brightest star, Sirius, is also called the Dog Star), Canis Minor (the Little Dog), and Canes
Venatici (the Hunting Dogs).
In Christianity, dogs represent faithfulness.[208] Within the Roman Catholic denomination specifically, the
iconography of Saint Dominic includes a dog, after the hallow's mother dreamt of a dog springing from her womb
and becoming pregnant shortly thereafter.[214] As such, the Dominican Order (Ecclesiastical Latin: Dominicanus)
means "dogs of the Lord" or "hounds of the Lord" (Ecclesiastical Latin: domini canis).[214] In Christian folklore,
a church grim often takes the form of a black dog to guard Christian churches and
their churchyards from sacrilege.[215]
Jewish law does not prohibit keeping dogs and other pets.[216] Jewish law requires Jews to feed dogs (and other
animals that they own) before themselves, and make arrangements for feeding them before obtaining them. [216]
The view on dogs in Islam is mixed, with some schools of thought viewing it as unclean,[208] although Khaled Abou
El Fadl states that this view is based on "pre-Islamic Arab mythology" and "a tradition to be falsely attributed to the
Prophet".[217] Therefore, Sunni Malaki and Hanafi jurists permit the trade of and keeping of dogs as pets. [218]

Literature
In Homer's epic poem the Odyssey, when the disguised Odysseus returns home after 20 years he is recognized only
by his faithful dog, Argos, who has been waiting for his return.
Art
Main article: Cultural depictions of dogs in Western art

Wikimedia Commons has

media related to Dogs
in art.

Cultural depictions of dogs in art extend back thousands of years to when dogs were portrayed on the walls of caves.
Representations of dogs became more elaborate as individual breeds evolved and the relationships between human
and canine developed. Hunting scenes were popular in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Dogs were depicted to
symbolize guidance, protection, loyalty, fidelity, faithfulness, watchfulness, and love. [219]

Education and appreciation

The American Kennel Club reopened a museum called "Museum of the Dog" in Manhattan after moving the
attraction from outside of St. Louis.[220] The museum contains ancient artifacts, fine art, and educational
opportunities for visitors