2/3/2010

Dynamic Braking
Chapter 10: Braking of IM

Example
Dynamic braking • An induction motor is driven by a six-step converter.
The voltage at the dc link is 200 V. At normal full
Ib load operation, the motor current is 25 A. The stator
a c
Rb 0 5 .
resistance is 0.5  The FWM technique is used
Vbraking Rotor during the dynamic braking. Calculate the duty ratio
terminals of the FWM.
n
Rotor
windings
Q1 Q3 Q5

Ib
b V
dc a b c

Stator Circuit Rotor Circuit Q4 Q6 Q2

V
I dc  b  I b
1.5R1 o

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 2/3/2010

Vb
Ib 
1.5 R1
Vb
75
1.50.5
Counter Current Braking
Error in book
The duty ratio is Vb d Vdc
correctly computed
h
here
V 
d  b 
Vdc 

Speed
ABC Sequence
Countercurrent braking s2 
ns n ns n
 1
1 s1 
ns n
1
ns ns 2 ns

A A ns
ns C
s3  1
ns B ns
Tl
C B
3 Tl
Torque

ns ( n) n n
s6   s 0
5 ns ns
6
4
ACB Sequence
ns (  n) ns n n n
s4    s
ns  ns ns

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 2/3/2010

Operating Motor Field Slip Approximation Motor Torque Motor

point Speed speed method Current

1 n ns s1 < 1 Small slip V 2 s1 V s1

 s R'2 R'2

2 n - ns s2 > 1 Large slip V 2 R'2 V

s2 (  s ) X eq
2 X eq
Regenerative Braking
3 0 - ns s3 = 1 Large slip V 2 R'2 V
X eq
s3 (  s ) X eq
2

4 -n - ns s4 < 1 Small slip V 2 s4 V s4

(  s )R'2 R'2

5 - ns - ns s5 = 0 Small slip 0 0

6 - ns s6 < 0 Small slip V 2 s6 V s6

n6  ns
(  s )R'2 R'2

Basic Relationships Speed

S<0
Motor
S=0
60 f f Generator
ns   120 rpm
pp p S>0
n ns
V 2 R'2
n  n s   Td 
s s   2 
  R'2  2 
ns s f: Frequency
eque cy of
o the
t e source
sou ce
s s R1 
 s 
 X eq

pp: Number of pole pairs  
n p: Number of poles
  2 s: Slip n n Torque
60 n: Speed in rpm s s
: Speed in rad/sec ns

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Regenerative braking
Speed
Motor Model
 X1 R1 X 2’ R 2’

S>0, positive
S>0 positive
Resistance 
I1 Im I2’
1 R2
'
V Rm Xm (1 s )
2 s

2 N 
N 
2
N  I '2  I r  2 
R'2  R2  1  X '2  X 2  1 
T2 T1  N2   N2   N1 
Torque

Generator Model
 X1 R1 X 2’ R 2’

 Active Power Flow

SS<0, negativ
0 ti e 

I1 Im I2’ Resistance 

' R1 X1 X '2 R'2

R2
V Rm Xm (1 s )
s
Im
I '2
R'2
Vs Rm Xm (1  s )
s

2 N 
N 
2
N  I '2  I r  2 
R'2  R2  1  X '2  X 2  1 
 N2   N2   N1 

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 2/3/2010

Power Flow
Simplified Generator Model
R2'
Input Power (Pm) Pm  Pd  ( I )
' 2
2 (1  s )  Xeq Req
s I1
Pm  T  Negative
Negative 
Im I2 ’ Resistance 

'
R2
V Rm Xm ( 1 s )
Rotor Copper Losses Airgap Power (Pg) s
(Pcu 2)
R2'
Pcu 2  ( I 2' ) 2 R2' Pg  Pm  Pcu 2  ( I 2' ) 2 1  2s 
s
Pm  T  s
Pcu1  I R1 Stator Losses:
1
2
Output Power (Pe) Req  R1  R'2
V 2 Copper losses (Pcu 1) Pe  V I1 cos 1 X eq  X 1  X '2
Piron  Core losses (Piron )
Rm

Applications of Regenerative
Real Power Flow
Braking
 Xeq Req
• Induction machines are heavily used in wind energy Real Power
systems Negative 
Resistance 
• If the wind power drives the induction machines Im Real Power 

above its synchronous speed, the induction machine R'2

Xm ( 1 s )
operates in its regenerative braking mode V Rm
s
– The induction machine is a generator that delivers real Real Power
power to the grid.
– The induction machine doesn’t produce reactive power
• Reactive power must be supplied by the grid or locally.

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 2/3/2010

Power-Speed Characteristics: Real Power

Main Advantages of IG 3000

nd Turbine Outputt (kW)

Generator Action
• Main Advantages:

Motor Actiion
2000
– Rugged machine; requires little maintenance
– The least expensive option among all other wind 1000
systems
– Self-synchronized with the power grid; no 0
synchronization equipment 3 V 2 n R2'
• Main disadvantages: -1000
1000 Pe 
 ns R2' 
2


Win
– Reactive power demand is high ns  n   R1    X eq2 
– Fluctuations in voltage -2000 ns  ns  n   
– Limited control actions
-3000
1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800
Speed (rpm)

Power-Speed Characteristics: Reactive Power

Reactive Power Flow 6000

ut (kVAr)
Generator Action


Motor Acttion
Xeq Req 5000


ne Reactive Power Inpu

R
Reactive P
Power
Negative  4000
Reactive Power Resistance 
Im  
R'2 3000  
V Rm Xm ( 1 s )  1 X eq 
s Q V 
2
 2 
2000
Reactive Power  Xm  R2'  2 
Wind Turbin

  R1    X eq 
1000   s  

01600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800

Speed (rpm)

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 2/3/2010

Reactive Power Voltage Variations

Connection
Point
• The induction machine has no field circuit
– draws significant amount of reactive power from Xline SC
the grid IG
Trunk Line
– the magnitude of the reactive power imported from
the grid could exceed the magnitude of the Grid

oad
ggenerated real power
p Vs=1pu Vload=?
?

Lo
– The reactive power is dependent on the speed of
the turbine, so it is continuously changing
– The voltage at the wind farm could sag and flicker

n
Reactiive power

Generation range
Tim
Q e

 
 
 1 X 
Q V 
2

eq
Qmin ' 2
 Tim
 m 
X R2  2 
  R 
 1 s    X eq  V e
   
Vr

Speed
ns
Tim
e

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 2/3/2010

Voltage Fluctuations: Strong Trunk Line (Small Xline) Voltage Fluctuations: Weak Trunk Line (Large Xline)

Generator Speed (rpm)

eed (rpm)

1900 1900
1890 1890
1880 1880
1870 1870
1860 1860
Generator Spe

1850 1850
1840 1840
1830 1830
1820 1820
1810 1810
1800 0 1800 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Time Time

1
1.005
ge (pu)

ge (pu)
1 0.95

0.995 0.9
Load Voltag

Load Voltag
0.99 0.85
0.985
0.8
0.98
0.75 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
0.975 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Time
Time

Correlation of Voltage & Reactive

Adaptive VAR Compensator
Power
1 (AVC)
P
ge (pu)

Q
0.95 P
Load Voltag

09
0.9

0.85
IM
0.8
Qs Q Time
0.75 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Time
Qc
Qc
30
wer (pu)

25
20
Reactive power controller
Generator Reactive Pow

15 Time
10
5
0
-5 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Time

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 2/3/2010

AVC Main Switching Circuit

Power Line

50 100 200
kvar kvar kvar

Switching at zero crossing of

line voltage to eliminate
switching
it hi transients
t i t

Tehachapi Data Flicker Control

1.
IG

Line
. (a)

AVC
-1 (b)
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22

Time (Hour)
time

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Tehachapi Site: Flicker Control

120
119

rms voltagee (V)

118
117
116
115
p h a se A
114
0 5 10 15
123 tim e (s)
122

rms voltagee (V)

121
120
119
118
117
0 2 4 6 8 10
tim e (s) p h ase A

Main Technologies for Wind Turbine

Systems
Types of WTG
• Generator • Type 1: Squirrel cage induction generator directly
– Asynchronous Generator (Induction Machine)
• Squirrel Cage Induction Generator (SCIG)
coupled to the grid. May have pitch control
• Wound Rotor Induction generator (WRIG) • Type 2: Wound rotor induction machine with the
– Synchronous Generator (SG)
external rotor resistance control
• Controls
– No Control or fixed compensation • Type 3: Wound rotor Doubly-fed induction
– Internal voltage and var control generator (Voltage injected in the rotor winding)
– External flicker and reactive power controls
– Pitch control
• Type
T 4:
4 Synchronous
S h or iinduction
d i generator, theh
– AGC participation stator is connected to the grid via power converter.
– Stability and ride through fault control
– ………

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 2/3/2010

Type1: SCIG with Fixed Type1: SCIG with Variable

CompensationFarm Collection CompensationFarm Collection
Grid Connection HV-GSU Point Grid Connection HV-GSU Point
Point Point Point Point
SCIG SCIG
Trunk Line Gea Trunk Line Gea
r r
Box Box
GSU GSU
Grid xfm
f Grid xfm
f
Fixed Variable
Compensation Compensation

HV-GSU: High Voltage side of Generation Step-Up transformer HV-GSU: High Voltage side of Generation Step-Up transformer

Type 3: Doubly Fed Induction

Type 2: Wound Rotor IG
Generator (DFIG)
Farm Collection Farm Collection
P i t
Point WRIG P i t
Point WRIG

Gear Gear
Box Box

AC/DC +
DC/AC

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 2/3/2010

Type 3: DFIG with AGC Type 4: SG with AGC

WRIG
Gear AC/DC +
Box DC/AC

Farm Collection Farm Collection

Point Point
AC/DC +
DC/AC Excitation
Pitch angle Pit h angle
Pitch l
Grid Injected voltage Excitation control
Grid
Conditions
Conditions

Commands
AGC AGC
Wind Conditions Commands Wind Conditions

Performance Comparison Type 2: WRIG with Rotor

Resistance
Type1 & 2 Type 3 Type 4 Farm Collection
P i t
Point WRIG
Voltage Control Poor Better Best
Flicker Control Poor Better Best Gear
Low Voltage Ride-Through Poor Better Best Box
Stability Control Poor Better Best
AGC Control Poor Better Best

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 2/3/2010

3 V 2 n R2'
Pe 
 ns R2' 
2
 Type 3: Doubly Fed Induction Generator
ns  n   R1    X eq2 
 ns  n    WRIG Pblade
Power

Pgrid
P

Ps
Gear
Box

R2 R3 Pr
R1 Grid
AC/DC +
R1<R2<R DC/AC

ns
3
Speed Pgrid  Ps  Pr
Δn

Vdc  1.6542Vmax cos (  30)

DFIM / SLIP-Energy Recovery
From stator dc Link To rotor
a vs

AC AC/DC AC
b

Rectifier C DC/AC c
vs s Pg L
Pe vs
1 3
D1
Pr
D3 D5 + -
V er
Vrms  max
S1 S3 S5
2  a
b
Vi 
v2 v1
2 d Vdc c
3 Pr S4 S6 S2

Vi  1.1 d Vmax cos (  30) D4 D6 D2

2
- +
ac/dc dc/ac
Vi  1.56 d Vrms cos (  30)
El-Sharkawi@University of 51
Washington

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 2/3/2010

Example Rotor Injection


• Compute the duty ratio for an injected voltage R1 X1
N 1 : N2
s X2 R2

of 10V.
10V The stator voltage is 690V.
690V The
triggering angle of the AC/DC converter is 50o I1 I2

• Solution Vs s E2 Vi
Vi  1.56 d Vrms cos (  30)
2
 Vi 
d   

 1.56 Vrms cos (50  30)  Frequency of Vi is the frequency of the rotor
2

d  
10 
  2.9 *10 3
f rotor  s f s
 1.56 * 690 * cos (80) 

Rotor Injection Rotor Injection

 R1 X1 X2 R 2 /s  R1 Xeq R 2’/s
N 1 : N2 I1

I1 I 2 Im I2 
’

Vs E2 V i /s Xm V i’/s
Vs Rm

 R1 Xeq R 2’/s
I1
Vi ' Both I2 and are
Im I 2’
 Vs
V i’/s I 2'  s  I2   functions of generator
 R' 
Xm
Vs Rm
speed and injected voltage
 R1  2   j X eq
 s 

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 2/3/2010

Rotor Injection

I1
R1 Xeq R 2’/s Approximation
• Ignore all losses
I2 
’
Im

Vs Rm Xm V i’/s • Ignore the magnetizing branch

Vi Pr  sPs
s
V2 Vs
Ps  Vs I 2 cos   s Since I2 and  are functions
Rm off th
the generator
t speedd andd
injected voltage, P and Q are
Qs  Vs I 2 sin   
Vs2 also functions of the
generator speed and injected
Pgrid  Ps  Pr  (1  s ) Ps
Xm voltage

Injected Voltage; Effect on Real

Injected Voltage: Effect on Reactive Power
Power 4000
3000
Vi=0
Vi=0 Vi>0
2500

Ar)
Vi<o

Wind Turbine Reactiev Power (kVA

Vi>0
3000
Vi<o
Wind Turbine power (kW)

2000
2000

1500
1000

1000
0

500
-1000

0
-2000

-3000 -500
1780 1790 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1780 1790 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880
Speed (rpm)
Speed (rpm)

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 2/3/2010

Constant Complex Power Operation Wind Energy

Kinetic Energy of Air
1900 20

1880
15

Voltage (V)
ed (rpm)

1860
10
1 m: mass of air
KE  m v 2 v: speed of wind

Injection V
Spee

1840

1820
5
2
1800 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Time Time

m  volume *   A v t 
Complex Power Command
1.5 200

150

age
Ar)

1 100

A: sweep area
Reactive Power (MVA

Angle of Injection Volta

50

0.5 0

-50
1 : air density (kg/m3)
0 -100
KE  A t v3
2
-150

-0.5
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Real Power (MW)
1.4 1.6 1.8 2
-200
0 10 20 30 40 50
Time
60 70 80 90 100 t: time

Air Power and Power Density () in

W/m2
1
KE  A  t v 3
2
KE 1
P  A v3
t 2

P 1
   v3
A 2
 ~ v3

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 2/3/2010

Wind Turbine
Tip speed ratio (TSR)
Gear box High speed shaft vtip
Rotating blades
 vtip   r  2 n r
w
Housing vtip
Generator w: wind speed 
Low speed shaft
vtip: tip velocity of blade Blade
Yaw
: angular speed of blade in rad/s
r
n: blade
bl d speedd isi rps
Tower

Coefficient of Performance Variable Pitch Angle

3 > 2 >
The blades of the wind turbine only capture part of the available Cp 1
wind energy.
1
Cp 2
C p  ,    blade
P
3
C p  ,   
Pblade Cp max Pwind
Pwind

ideal  
For variable speed wind turbine, when wind speed changes, the
For fixed pitch angle, when wind speed changes, Cp changes
pitch angle  is changed to keep  close to maximum

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 2/3/2010

1.5 MW Turbine
Betz Limit
• Not all of the energy present in a stream of
moving air can be extracted
– Building a wall would stop the air and no more
energy can be obtained
• The maximum Theoretical energy that can
be extracted from a stream is 59%
– This is known as Albert Betz maximu

Basic Wind Turbine Specifications (2MW)

Rotor Diameter = 80 meters

Swept Area = 5,026 m2
Bl d Rotation
Blade R t ti = 15.5-16.5
15 5 16 5 rpm
Generator Voltage = 690 Volts
Capacity = 1,800-2,000 kW
Nacelle (housing) Weight = 77 tons
Rotor Weight = 41 tons
Tower Weight = 105 tons
Total Weight = 223 tons

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 2/3/2010

GE 3.6MW
Typical Blade length
Blade length (m) Power Rating (kW)
27 225
27-33 300
33-40 500
40-44 600
44-48 750
48-54 1000
54-64 1500
64-72 2000
72-80 2500

Can We Exceed 100m? VESTAS

1.8MW
• Wind speed increases with height above
ground
• 100m diameter can produce 3-5MW
• Can we go higher than 100m?
– Introduces transportation constraints in most
highways
• Max trailer dimension is 44.1m
1m (H) X 2.6m
2 6m (W)
– Requires large cranes that are not readily available
– Produces a new set of technical and environmental
problems (impact on grid, wake, etc.)

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 2/3/2010

Off-Shore Wind System

Two Blades Turbines

• Advantages:
– Runs at fast speed to improve Cp; gearbox ratio
reduced
– Blades easier to assembled on ground
• Disadvantages:
– For the same wind speed, the two-blade system
captures less power then the three-blade system
– Creates gyroscopic imbalances (tower wind
shade)
– Higher speed means more noise, visual, and
wildlife impact
– Higher rate of bird collisions
– Noisy

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 2/3/2010

Three-Blade Turbine Bending Moments (2-blade)

• Advantages: • When one blade is at the top, it is Wind Force

– Slow rotation receivingg the maximum force of

– three blades capture more energy than
the wind
two blades for the same wind speed • The bottom blade is in the shadow
– Gyroscopic forces are better balanced of the tower; thus receiving less
– More aesthetic, less noise, fewer bird force Wind Force

collisions • The forces are not balanced at hub

• Disadvantages: – Torque on the hub is pulsating, thus
– Slower rotation increases gearbox costs stressing the hub gears
– Rotor cannot fully assembled on the
ground

Why not 5 or 7 Blades?

Bending Moments (3-blade)
• The bottom blade in the • More expensive Wind Force

sshadow
adow oof tthee towe
tower receives
ece ves • Increase wind wall effect
less than the maximum
force – Reduction of wind speed
in front of the blades,
• The other two blades are not
in the vertical position, so
thus reducing the amount Wind Force

they also receive less than of energy

gy that can be
the maximum force captured by the blade
• The forces are balanced at
the hub

21
 2/3/2010

Typical Power-Speed Characteristics

Pitch, Yaw and Feather Control

Power
• Most turbines operate
p at wind speed
p of 12 – 30 mph
p Wind power
• Pitch Control
– To maximize Cp Output Power
Rated
– Reduce Cp when wind speed produces power higher
than the rating of the turbine Power
– Regulate the output power of the turbine as part of grid
control action
• Yaw
Y C Controll
Ramp up Ramp down
– To align the rotor to face the wind
• Feathering
– To lock the blades at high wind speeds (>50mph) Cut-in speed Rated speed Cut-out speed
Wind Speed

Wind Turbine Performance Typical On-Shore System

Vestas V80 Power Curve Farm Collection
2000
Grid Connection HV-GSU Point
1800 Point Point
1600
Trunk Line
1400
WP
Power kW

1200
1000
S
800
600 GSU
Grid xfm
f
400 On-Shore
200 Wind Power
0 System
0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Windspeed MPH
HV-GSU: High Voltage side of Generation Step-Up transformer

22
 2/3/2010

Typical Off-Shore System

Off-Shore
Farm Collection
Grid Connection HV-GSU Point
Point Point
Trunk Cable
Marine Cable WP
S

GSU
Grid xfm
f Off-Shore
Wind Power
System

Offshore Wind Energy Offshore Wind Energy

• Normally y between 2-5MW
• A good match between generation and
• 80-126m in blade length
demand • Transportation restriction is less than on-shore systems
– 28 states in the USA have costal lines • Mostly at relatively shallow water, depth of up to 30m
• Marine cables are used to connect the systems to the
– These states consumes 78% of the national shore stations
electric energy – Cable capacitance is much higher than that for overhead
lines
• 900 MW offshore capacity installed in – This may result in leading power factor at the shore station
Europe – Inductive compensation may be needed to prevent the
overvoltage at the shore stataion
• 10 offshore system, 2.4GW capacity are
considered in the USA

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 2/3/2010

Challenges to Offshore Systems Challenges to Off-Shore Wind

• High cost of installation • Prediction of the dynamic forces and motions
– Transportation, construction, foundations,
acting on off-shore turbines are needed
anchors, and moorings • Offshore winds are much more difficult to
characterize than winds over land
• High cost of maintenance
• Marine life
• Technology
gy is limited for deep
p waters – Foundations can act as artificial reefs
• Wind specific safety standards – fish population increases
– offshore oil and gas standards – bird population increases
– bird collisions increases

Challenges to Off-Shore Wind

• Interference with
– commercial shipping and fishing
– recreational boating.
• Could affect maritime radar systems
• Visual impacts for systems close to shores
• Impacts of low frequency motion noise on
mammals is unknown

24
 2/3/2010

Factors Affecting Wind Generation

Floating Technology
• Wind speed and length of wind season
– Most wind turbines operate at 4 -16 m/s
• Diameter
i off rotating
i blades
bl d
– The power captured by the blades is a function of the
area they sweep
– The area is circular with a radius equal to the length of
one blade
– The power is then proportional to the square of the
radius
di
• a 10% increase in the blade length will result in 21% increase in the
captured power.
• Efficiency of wind turbine components

Factors Affecting Wind Generation Factors Affecting Wind Generation

• Pitch control • Arrangement of the turbines (array effect)

– With pitch control, the TSR can be adjusted to produce – the blades of the front turbines create wakes of turbulent wind that
can reach the rare turbines.
turbines
power at a wide range of wind speeds. – efficiency is reduced when wind is turbulent.
• Yaw Control • Reliability and maintenance
– Most wind turbines are equipped with yaw mechanism – The cost of electricity generated by the wind farm is a function of
to keep the blades facing into the wind as the wind • Capital cost
• Land use
direction changes. • Maintenance
– Some turbines are designed to operate on downwind; • Contractual arrangement.
these turbines don't need yaw mechanisms as the wind – The early designs of wind turbines were high maintenance
aligns these turbines. machines as well as cost ineffective systems. Newer designs,
however, are much better with a reliability rate around 98 percent.

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