Sanskritisation, Westernisation and Modernisation

India presents one of the oldest, continuous and uninterrupted living civilizations in the whole
world known as Hinduism. One of the prominent features of Indian civilization is its ‘Caste
system’. Caste system is a unique way of stratifying the society. It has been conceptualized,
originated and practiced exclusively in India. It has given a distinguished identity to Indian
society. Caste-system is one of the prominent features running through the entire social fabric of
India. Castes have its ethnic roots as denoted by “ Jati ”, and a ritualistic and symbolic
significance in its Varna aspect. It has greatly influenced the culture of the whole of India. Caste
system has maintained its continuity without interruption. It has survived the vicissitudes of time,
saved itself by erosion from within and assault from outside only because of the adaptability. Its
absorptive nature has internalized alien influences. It has taken different shades and meaning
with the changing times and places. Its character during Indus Valley Civilization was altogether
different from what exists today. It is still in a transient phase. Its shade is different in the context
of village, locality, region or religion. Once changed, the system never returned to its original
form. Its absorptive nature has internalized alien influences.

Though the Indian Society which is based on caste system is often regarded as “closed society”,
it is not altogether changeless. Within the framework of the caste itself, some kind of mobility is
observed. The socio-cultural changes that has taken place in India can mainly be categorised into
these processes namely; sanskritisation, westernisation and modernisation. These three process
reflect an attempt on the part of Indian masses to achieve some amount of mobility both within
and outside the framework of the caste system.

SANSKRITISATION:- The term Sanskritisation was introduced into Indian Sociology by Prof.
M.N. Srinivas. The term refers to a process whereby people of lower castes collectively try to
adopt upper caste practices and beliefs, as a preliminary step to acquire higher status. Thus, this
indicates a process of cultural mobility that took place in the traditional social system of India.

Meaning of Sanskritisation

Sanskritisation is not a new phenomenon. It has been a major process of cultural change in
Indian history, and it has occurred in every part of the Indian sub-continent. It denotes
the process in which the lower castes try to imitate the life-styles of upper castes in their attempt
to raise their social status. The process seems to be associated with the role of local “dominant
caste”.

Definition of Sanskritisation

The definition of Sanskritisation was given by M.N. Srinivas in his “Social Change in Modern
India” published in 1971. It means “a process by which a low caste or a tribe or other group
changes its customs, rituals, ideology, and a way of life in the direction of a high and frequently,
twice born caste.”

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An analysis of the process of Sanskritisation:-

 Sanskritisation denotes the process of upward mobility. In this process, a caste is trying to
increase its position in the caste hierarchy not at once, but over a period of time. It would
take sometimes, a period of one or two generations.
 Mobility that is involved in the process of Sanskritisation results only in “positional
changes” for particular castes or sections of castes, and need not necessarily lead to a
“structural change”. It means, while individual castes move up or down, the structure as
such remains the same.
 The castes which enjoyed higher economic and political power but rated relatively low in
ritual ranking went after Sanskritisation for they felt that their claim to a higher position
was not fully effective.
 Economic betterment is not a necessary pre-condition to Sanskritisation, nor economic
development must necessarily lead to Sanskritisation. However, sometimes a
group(caste/tribe) may start by acquiring political power and this may lead to economic
development and Sanskritisation.
 Sanskritisation is not necessarily confined to the castes within the Hindu community, it is
found in tribal communities also. The Bhils of Western India, the Gonds and Oraons of
Middle India and the Pahadiyas of Himalayan region have come under the influence of
Sanskritisation. These tribal communities are now claiming themselves to be Hindus.
 The process of Sanskritisation serves as a “reference group”. It is through this process a
caste group tries to orient its beliefs, practices, values, attitudes and “lifestyles” in terms
of another superior or dominant group, so that it can also get some recognition.
 Sanskritisation does not take place in the same manner in all the places.

Impact of Sanskritisation:-

 Modern education, Western literature and philosophy of people widened, and as a result
the mental horizons and visionary of people changed. They welcomed rationality and
other good features of and made good use of liberal, and humanitarian ideas and
thoughts.
 Vedas has been conceived through intellectual contemplation and empirical observation
and used Upnishads (speculative interpretation of Vedas or Mythology) for the creation
of human imagination.
 Reformists and their organizations had purely an economic and social thrust. They aimed
at establishing a social order based on Vedic teachings and practices. They criticized the
mumbo-jumbo of rituals and superstitions created by some selfish people to entangle the
ignorant and poor masses. They laid emphasis on interpreting Vedas in a rational and
scientific way.

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  It reduced or removed the gap between the ritual and secular rankings. It also helped
upliftment of weaker persons. The lower caste group which successfully got into the seat
of secular power also tried to avail of the services of Brahmins especially at the time of
observing rituals, worshipping and offering things to God.

Criticisms of Sanskritisation:-

 According to J.F Stall, Sanskritisation as used by Srinivas and other anthropologists is a

complex concept or a class of concepts. The term itself seems to be misleading, since its
relationship to the term Sanskrit is extremely complicated.
 Yogendra Singh opines that sanskritisation fails to account for many aspects of cultural
change in past and contemporary India as it neglects the non-sanskritic traditions.
 Sanskritic influence has not been universal to all parts of country. In most of northern
India, especially in Punjab, it was the Islamic tradition which provided a basis for cultural
imitation.
 When we try to interpret certain changes that have taken place in the field of social
mobility in the light of Sanskritisation, we face certain paradoxes. According to Dr.
Srinivas, political and economic forces are normally favourable for Sanskritisation. But
the “policy of reservation” a poltico-constitutional attempt to elevate the status of
lower caste, and class people, presents here a different picture. Theoretically, the policy
of reservation must be supportive of Sanskritisation. But paradoxically it goes against it.
Those who avail of the “reservation benefits” have developed a vested interest in calling
themselves “dalits” or Scheduled Caste people. They want to be called so in order
to permanently avail of the benefits of reservation.

WESTERNISATION:-

The process of Westernization of caste-system in India began with the frantic efforts
of missionaries to convert as many Indians as possible into Christianity and coming of East India
Company in India first to trade and later on to increase its political power in India. East India
Company successfully established ‘British Imperial Rule’ in India by 1958.

British rule produced radical and lasting changes in the Indian society and culture. The British
brought with them new technology, institutions, knowledge, beliefs, and values. These have
become the main source of social mobility for individuals as well as groups. It is in this context,
M.N. Srinivas, introduced the term “Westernisation” mainly to explain the changes that have
taken place in the Indian society and culture due to Western contact through the British rule.

Definition of Westernisation:-

According to M.N. Srinivas, “Westernisation” refers to “the changes brought about in the Indian
society and culture as a result of over 150 years of British rule and the term subsumes changes
occurring at different levels – technology, institutions, ideology and values.”

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Meaning of Westernisation:-

In comparison with Sanskritisation, Westernisation is a simpler concept. It explains the impact of

Western contact (particularly of British rule) on the Indian society and culture. M.N. Srinivas
used the term “Westernisation” to describe the changes that a non-western country had
undergone as a result of prolonged contact with the western one. It implies, according to
Srinivas, “certain value preferences”, which in turn subsumes several values, such as
“humanitarianism”. It implies an active concern for the welfare of all human beings irrespective
of caste, economic position, religion, age and sex.

Westernisation not only includes the introduction of new institutions, but also fundamental
changes in old institutions. For example, India had schools long before the arrival of the British,
but they were different from the British introduced schools. Other institutions such as army, civil
service and law courts were also similarly affected.

However, the increase in Westernisation does not retard the process of Sanskritisation. Both go
on simultaneously, and to some extent increase in Westernisation accelerates
the process of Sanskritisation. For example, the postal facilities, railways, buses and
newspaper media which are the fruits of Western impact on India render more organised
religious pilgrimages, meetings, caste solidarities, etc., possible compared to the past.

Impact of Westernisation:-

 Opened up the doors of the knowledge– Modern education opened up the doors of the
knowledge flourished in Europe after Renaissance movement of Middle Ages. It had
widened the mental horizons of Indian intelligentsia.
 Education for all- During second half of the nineteenth century, British government in
India opened the doors of education to all the sections of Indian society, irrespective
of caste or creed. Still, very few amongst the general public could avail the advantages
of formal modern education. Education remained confined within a small section
of society.
 Highlighted evil practices – Modern education had highlighted the evil practices and
weaknesses developed into the system like rigidity and harshness of many social customs
and practices prevalent at that time for the weaker sections of the society i.e. un-touch-
ability and inhuman treatment to women, Sati, Polygamy, child marriage etc.etc.
prevalent at that time.
 Attracted attention of social reformers – Modern education had attracted the attention of
intellectuals and social reformers towards real issues evils caused by ignorance,
irrationality of mumbo-jumbo of rituals and superstitions created by some selfish people
to entangle the ignorant and poor masses. They suggested remedies for social, political
and economic ills of the country. They took upon themselves the responsibility to build a
modern, open, plural, culturally rich, prosperous and powerful India out of a fragmented,

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 poverty stricken, superstitious, weak, indifferent, backward and inward looking society.
As a result of such efforts, it led to the abolition of Sati System and slavery. Female
infanticide practice lowered to a great extent.
 Realization of the worth of liberty and freedom – It equipped national leaders with
intellectuals tools with which they fought the oppressive British Raj. Indians realized the
worth of liberty and freedom. They got exposure to the philosophies of thinkers like
Locke, Mill, Roussseau, Voltaire, Spencer and Burke etc. They understood the reasons
and impact of English, French, American revolutions.

Criticisms of Westernisation:-

 The concepts of Sanskritisation and Westernisation primarily analyse social change in

“cultural” and not in “structural” terms. This denoted that these terms have limited range
of application and use.
 Srinivas’s model explains the process of social change only in India which is based on
the caste system. It is not useful for other societies.
 Though Srinivas claimed that the concept of Westernisation is “ethically neutral”, it is not
really so. The Western model which Srinivas has eulogised has its own contradiction.
Mention can be made of the facts of Western life such as racial prejudice, colour
segregation and exploitive nature of the Western economy, etc. These facts contradict
humanitarian ideals or rational outlook on life.
 It is also commented that the Western model which Srinivas has eulogised has its own
contradiction. The western model sometimes conveys values that are contrary to the ones
referred by Srinivas. In this context, mention can be made of the facts of Western life
such as racial prejudice, colour segregation, and exploitative nature of Western economy,
etc. These facts contradict humanitarian ideals or rational outlook on life.

Daniel Lerner has raised some objections to the use of Westernisation as conceived by Srinivas:

a. It is too local label and the model which is imitated may not be western country; but
Russia.
b. One of the result of prolonged contact with the west is the rise of the elite class whose
attitude towards the West is ambivalent is not invariably true. In this context, Lerner
refers to the appeal of Communism in non-western countries.
c. Westernisation in one area or level of behaviour does not result in Westernisation in
another related area or level.
d. While there is certain common elements in Westernisation, yet each represent a particular
variant of a common culture and significant difference exists between one country and
another.

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Difference between Sanskritisation and Westernisation:-

1. Sanskritisation process promoted the sacred outlook; while Westernisation process

promoted secular outlook.
2. Sanskritisation is a process of upward mobility by a process of imitation while
Westernisation is a process of upward mobility by a process of development.
3. Sanskritisation implies mobility within the framework of caste while Westernisation
implies mobility outside the framework of caste.
4. While Sanskritisation puts a taboo on meat-eating and consumption of alcohol,
Westernisation promoted meat-eating and consumption of alcohol.

MODERNISATION:-

The term modernisation “does not denote any philosophy or movement, but it only symbolises a
process of change”. In fact, “modernisation” is understood as a process which indicates the
adoption of the modern ways of life and values.” The term was being used
to previously to refer only “to change in economy and its related effect on social values and pract
ices.” Today, the term ‘modernisation’ is understood as an attempt, on the part of the
people, particularly who are custom-bound, to adopt themselves to the present time, conditions,
styles and ways in general.

Definition of modernisation:-

According to Smelser, “Modernisation is a complex set of changes that place almost in every
part of society as it attempts to be industrialised. Modernisation involves ongoing change in a
society’s economy, politics, education, traditions and religion.”

According to Alatas,“ Modernisation is a process by which modern scientific knowledge is

introduced in the society with the ultimate purpose of achieving a better and amore satisfactory
life in the broadest sense of the term as accepted by the society concerned”.

Meaning of Modernisation:- The term modernisation does not denote any philosophy or
movement, but it only symbolises a process of change. In fact, Modernisation is understood as a
process which indicates the adoption of modern ways of life and values. The term was being
used previously to refer only to change in economy and its related effect on social values and
practices. Today, the term is understood as an attempt, on the part of the people, particularly
those who are custom based, to adopt themselves to the present time, conditions, styles, and
ways in general. It indicates a change in people’s food habits, dress habits, speaking styles,
tastes, choices, preferences, ideas, values, recreational facilities and so on. It is also described as
“social change involving the use of science and technology”. The scientific and technological
innovations
have brought about remarkable changes in the whole system of social relationships and installed
new ideologies in the place of traditional ones.

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Criteria of Modernity or Measures of Modernisation:-

Rustow and Ward mentioned some measures of modernisation. They are:-

a) Industrialisation of economy and adopting a scientific technology in industry, agriculture,

dairy farming, etc. to make them highly productive.
b) Secularisation of ideas.
c) Remarkable increase in geographic and social mobility which includes social mobility.
d) A spread of scientific and technical education.
e) A transition from ascribed to achieved status.
f) An increase in material standard of living.
g) High proportion of working force employed in secondary and tertiary rather than primary
production.
h) High expectancy of life at birth; and
i) Relatively greater measure of public participation in the polity.

Causes of Modernisation:-

Myron Weiner speaks of five main instruments which make modernisation possible:

1. Education:- Education pertaining to science and technology provides the basis

of modernisation. Education increases in the number of people with modern skills and
attitudes. It creates skills and attitudes essential for technological innovation. This is the
reason why in recent decades education including mass communication is given utmost
importance.
2. Mass Communication:- The process of modernisation hinges on the phenomenon of mass
communication. The development of mass communication including
newspapers, periodicals and magazines, T.V., radio, telephone, etc. is an important means
of spr-eading modern ideas at a faster rate. The function of mass communication is to
open up to larger masses in society new information, new thoughts, new attitude and new
aspirations which lead them to new achievement.
3. Ideology based on Nationalism:- Nationalism and Democracy are much linked with
modernisation. Nationalism is concerned with national awareness and political
consensus. The nationalistic ideologies serve as unifying influence in bridging social
cleavages within plural societies. They also help the political elite in changing
the behaviour of masses of people.
4. Charismatic Leadership:- A Charismatic leader is in a better position to impress upon the
people to adopt modern beliefs, values, practices and behaviour patterns. This in other
way helps in national development.
5. Coercive Government Authority:- A strong and stable government may adopt coercive
measures to compel people to accept the modern values and ways of life. It also
brings pressures on the people to follow the modern ways and practices.

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Impact of Modernisation:-

a. Development of modern means of transport: – Process of modernization and

industrialization and technological developments, especially in the areas of transport,
means of communication and information technology has made closer
interaction possible. Shortening the geographical distances had brought people living in d
istantareas together.
b. Industrialization of economy: - The process Industrialization began under British rule to
build a modern India. Thus, with the advent of industrialisation, the whole economic
system of India transformed.
c. Revolutionized Production: - Industrialisation process increased domestic production in
India to a great extent. The most revolutionized area were the agriculture and
textile production.
d. Discredited traditional occupations: – Modernisation and emergence of white-
collared jobs based on formal education tended to make many traditional occupations
obsolete, as they were considered less paying, more hazardous or time consuming.
Industrialization had eroded the authority of caste and kinship in matters of occupation.
New occupations that emerged gave choice of occupation, but accessibility to themdepen
ded on modern education, knowledge of English language and loyalty to British.
e. Unemployment increased – Very few of them could join modern occupations. Majority of
people could neither enter into modern sector, nor could stick to their traditional
occupations considering the menial work derogatory. In the near absence of industrial,
commercial or social service activity, most of them had no option, but either to join band
of agricultural labours, industrial workers and marginal labour for their survival or
increase number of unemployed or under employed.
f. Caste more liberal in social sphere: – In modern India, spread of literacy and growing
awareness among masses has already brought to an end slowly but steadily many of the
discriminatory practices and deformities developed in Caste system, while living
under alien rule. It has become more liberal and less restrictive in social life of the
people. Castes no longer enjoy legal or religious sanctions.
g. Less restrictive: – Expulsion from castes means little, while earlier it meant complete
social ostracism. Old style of authority and power exercised by caste-elders has already
diminished except for a few rural areas especially in Haryana and Rajasthan. Restrictions
or interactions between different castes arising due to considerations for purity
and pollution are fading away from public life even from rural areas.
Traditional barriers on marriage, hereditary occupations and commonality are loosing itsi
mportance.h.

Other Impacts:-

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  Spread of Scientific and technical education.
 Adopting of Scientific Technology in industry and agriculture.
 Spread of literacy and media participation.
 Life expectancy of child during birth increased and also the average life expectancy
of people increased due to the availability of drugs.

Constitutional and Legislative Effect by Modernisation after Independence:-

From 15th of August 1947 onwards, Independent India is committed to democratic, secular
and egalitarian principles as enshrined in the Constitution of India. Preamble of the Indian
Constitution promises to secure to all its citizens: JUSTICE, social, economic
and political; LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship; EQUALITY
of status and of opportunity; and to promote among them all FRATERNITY assuring the
dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the Nation. Article 15 of the
Constitution prohibits any kind of discrimination on grounds of caste, race, religion, gender
or place of birth; Article 16gives equality of opportunity in matter of public employment,
Article 338 creates National commission for Scheduled Castes to safeguard their interests
etc.

For the purpose of development of both the agricultural and industrial sectors and also for
good allocation of resources for over-all development, different five-year plan were taken up
by the government.

Provisions for the protection of low-caste people– A number of amendments in the

Constitution and legislation have been passed to remove the disabilities of backward people.
Untouchability has been declared a crime. Bonded labour is abolished by law. Civil Rights
Act,1955, aims to eliminate injustice against weaker sections. Amendment to Prevention
of Atrocities Act (SCT) 1989 provides for stern punishments for offenses committed against
SCT by Upper Castes. Special Courts, under SCT Act, have been established
for punishing officials, if found guilty.

Other than the provisions of protecting lower and below caste people, different legislations
were passed to protect the life, dignity and honour of the people of different castes. Inter-
caste and inter-religious marriages were first time recognised and were given
statutory protection. Right to hold property was made a constitutional or statutory right rather
than afundamental right by the Constitutional Amendment. Different types of Intellectual
properties were recognised and given statutory protection as India entered into different
treaties
for protection of intellectual properties; such as, the Laws relating to Patents, Trademarks,
Copyrights and allied rights.

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Lastly, it can be said that the role played by the Supreme Court of India too have led to the
process of Modernisation. It increased the horizon and ambit of Right to life and personal
liberty as guaranteed by Article 21 of the Constitution of India, and held in various
judgements, that the right to life under Article 21 does not mean mere animal existence, but it
includes right to live a life of dignity and honour. It too gave protection to privacy of one’s
life and also brought within it the right to education.

Problems of Modernisation:-

Prof. Ram Ahuja speaks of five main problems of modernisation. They can be briefly
stated below:-

1. Modernisation demands that society must change in all ways at once. But such a
regular and co-ordinated pattern of growth cannot be planned and materialised. Some
amount of social interest, hence is bound to be there. For example, discrepancy between
mass education and employment opportunities.
2. During the period of modernisation structural changes mostly remain uneven.
For example, industries may be modernised but religious system, family system, etc.
remain conservative.
3. Modernisation of social and economic institutions may create conflicts with the
traditional ways of life. For example, trained M.B.B.S. doctors may pose a threat to the
traditional medical practitioners.
4. Another problem is that, most often roles adopted by the people are modern, but
their values continue to be traditional. For example, new business firms and industrial
establishments and shops etc. are either opened or inaugurated as per the dictates
of traditional “Muhurtam”.
5. Yet another is that there is lack of cooperation among agencies which modernised and
among those institutions and systems which are already modernised. This is more or less
like the problem of “cultural lag”.
6. Finally, though the modernisation raises the aspirations of people, the social system does
not provide enough chances to materialise them. This creates frustration, disappointment
and social unrest.

Criticism of Modernisation:-

 Emergence of political identities – For political and governance purposes,

modernIndian society has been stratified in most insensitive manner. For grabbing
the
political power, the modern Indian society has been divided into the following unbrid
geablegroups– Upper castes, Scheduled Castes, Scheduled tribes, Other Backward
Class and Minorities. Sectional interests are being promoted on caste or communal
basis shamelessly.

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  Poor governance: – In modern India, millions of submerged people suffer from
discrimination and exploitation, it is not the caste-system, but the bad politics and
poor governance, which is responsible. Modern India is sharply divided into two–
“haves” and “have-nots”. The most important factors responsible for disparities are
vote-bank politics, irrational and corrupt ways of pursuing the paternal policies
and government’s failure to address real issues at central and State levels.
 Narrow loyalties of caste and religion: - Narrow loyalties of caste and religion are
encouraged in political arena. It has generated sub-cultures like caste-ism,
favouritism, and lure for easy money, nepotism, parochialism, communalism,
regionalism etc. Bigoted sentiments and irresponsible comments are spreading in-
discipline in the society. The rising aspirations and demands of people, with
the spread of education and awareness, has created added problem for the
government.
 Under-currents of caste politics: – Under-currents of caste politics have made the
government incapable to solve the burning national issues. It has made to maintain
law and order difficult. Inter-caste and intra-caste, inter-community and intra-
community and inter-tribal and intra-tribal conflicts are increasing day by day in
order to get more space in the corridors of power.
 Real issues pushed into the background:– Real issues like mass-scale
illiteracy, poverty, unemployment, inflation, deteriorated law and order situation, incr
easingviolence or general coarsening of moral fiber of the Indian society etc. are
pushed into the background. The voice of upright and honest people belonging to
middle class
is being continuously throttled mercilessly. They are being punished for followingsin
cerely family-planning norms, which has decreased their numbers. In present day
vote-bank politics based on game of numbers, it is very easy now for the pursuers
of political power to sideline them.
 Other Criticism includes:-
a) Family values diminished.
b) Marriages became more of contractual than pious.
c) Evil effects on the Environment.
d) Contrary views among the new and old generations.
e) Structural changes mostly remain uneven.
f) Society did not change in all ways

Difference between Westernisation and Modernisation:-

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 1. The term Westernisation unlike Modernisation is ethically neutral. It does not carry the
implication that it is good or bad, whereas modernisation is normally used in the sense
that it is good.
2. Westernisation as used by Srinivas covers behavioural aspects like eating, drinking,
dressing, dancing, etc., the knowledge aspect like literature, science, etc.; and the value
aspect like humanitarianism, equalitarianism, secularism, etc. the term Modernisation
involves a transformation of social, political and economic organisation.
3. Modernisation is a broader concept and has a wider range of application, while
westernisation characterises the changes brought about in Indian society and culture as a
result of over 150 years of British rule.
4. Westernisation is a middle class phenomenon while modernisation is a mass process
involving mass media.

Conclusion: Caste system has travelled a very long distance. Many changes have taken place in
the system especially during centuries of Muslim and British rule in the country. As time passed
on, vested interests in each era had distorted or interpreted the original concepts in the manner,
which suited to their purpose. Many deformities and rigidities had developed into system
to preserve its indigenous identity and culture. Still Caste-system presents one of the oldest
social institution and a continuous and uninterrupted living culture still existing in the whole
world.

In conclusion, as B. Kuppu Swamy has said that “the concepts Sanskritisation and Westernisation
helps us only to analyse the superficial change processes which took place in the later half of 19th
Century and the first two decades of 20th Century. Neither Sanskritisationnor Westernisation
affect social change. So they are entirely inadequate to help us to analyse the change processes
which are currently taking place in Indian society.” Though one cannot say that the terms
westernisation and Sanskritisation are useless one can definitely assert that the term
Modernisation is more appropriate and relevant in providing a satisfactory explanation of social
change.

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