DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS – I

Design of Machine Members – I

(For B.E./B.Tech. Mechanical Engineering Students)

Dr. E.V.V. RAMANAMURTHY, M.Tech., Ph.D.,

Professor – Mech.
Raghu Institute of Tech.
Visakhapatnam.

Dr. S. RAMACHANDRAN, M.E., Ph.D.,

Professor – Mech.
Sathyabama Institute of Science & Technology
Chennai – 119

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 ME 401 – DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS – I
KTU Syllabus − VII Sem. Mech.
MODULE I
Introduction to Design − Definition, steps in design process, preferred numbers,
standards and codes in design − Materials and their properties − Elastic and
plastic behaviour of metals, ductile and brittle behaviour, shear, bending and
torsional stresses, combined stresses, stress concentration factor.
MODULE II
Theories of Failure − Guest’s Theory, Rankine’s Theory, St. Venant’s Theory,
Haigh’s Theory, and Von Mises and Hencky Theory. − Shock and Impact
loads, fatigue loading, endurance limit stress, factors affecting endurance limit,
factor of safety.
MODULE III
Threaded Joints − Terminology, thread standards, types of threads, stresses in
screw threads − Bolted joints − effect of initial tension, eccentric loading,
design of bolts for static and fatigue loading, gasketed joints, power screws.
MODULE IV
Design of riveted joints − Material for rivets, modes of failure, efficiency of
joint, design of boiler and tank joints, structural joints − Cotter and Knuckle
joints − Gib and Cotter Joint, analysis of knuckle joint. − Design of welded
joints- welding symbols, stresses in fillet and butt welds, Butt joint in tension,
fillet weld in tension, fillet joint under torsion, fillet weld under bending,
eccentrically loaded welds.
MODULE V
Springs − classification, spring materials, stresses and deflection of helical
springs, axial loading, curvature effect, resilience, static and fatigue loading,
surging, critical frequency, concentric springs, end construction. − Leaf springs
− Flat springs, semi elliptical laminated leaf springs, design of leaf springs,
nipping.
MODULE VI
Shafting − material, design considerations, causes of failure in shafts, design
based on strength, rigidity and critical speed, design for static and fatigue
loads, repeated loading, reversed bending. Design of Coupling − selection,
classification, rigid and flexible coupling, design of keys and pins.

*********
 DESIGN OF MACHINE MEMBERS – I
JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
KAKINADA – ANDHRA PRADESH
SYLLABUS
UNIT – I
INTRODUCTION: General considerations in the design of Engineering
Materials and their properties − selection − Manufacturing consideration in
design, tolerances and fits − BIS codes of steels.
STRESSES IN MACHINE MEMBERS: Simple stresses − combined stresses
− torsional and bending stresses − impact stresses − stress strain relation −
various theories of failure − factor of safety − design for strength and rigidity
− preferred numbers. The concept of stiffness in tension, bending, torsion and
combined situations − static strength design based on fracture toughness.
UNIT – II
STRENGTH OF MACHINE ELEMENTS: Stress concentration − theoretical
stress concentration factor − fatigue stress concentration factor notch sensitivity
− design for fluctuating stresses − endurance limit − estimation of endurance
strength − Goodman’s line − Soderberg’s line − modified Goodman’s line.
UNIT – III
Riveted and welded joints − design of joints with initial stresses − eccentric
loading. Bolted joints − design of bolts with pre-stresses − design of joints
under eccentric loading − locking devices − both of uniform strength, different
seals.
UNIT – IV
KEYS, COTTERS AND KNUCKLE JOINTS: Design of keys-stresses in
keys-cotter joints-spigot and socket, sleeve and cotter, jib and cotter joints-
knuckle joints.
SHAFTS: Design of solid and hollow shafts for strength and rigidity − design
of shafts for combined bending and axial loads − shaft sizes − BIS code. Use
of internal and external circlips, gaskets and seals (stationary & rotary).
UNIT – V
SHAFT COUPLING: Rigid couplings − muff, split muff and flange couplings,
flexible couplings − flange coupling (modified).
UNIT – VI
MECHANICAL SPRINGS: Stresses and deflections of helical springs −
extension -compression springs − springs for fatigue loading, energy storage
capacity − helical torsion springs − co-axial springs, leaf springs.
Contents ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It has been a long time dream to write this book for the young
budding Design of Machine Elements – I, which came true. Keeping
in mind, the importance of fundamentals of the subject, and as well as
an approach towards the examination point of view, this book has been
written and compiled with easily understandable format. Simple
drawings have been drawn and many important problems have been
solved which are frequently asked in various University Examinations.
Crisp and precise explanations are rendered for the problems and as
well as the theory associated with it. This book is an eye opener for
the beginner with no prior knowledge on this subject. It is quite relevant
to state here that our parents’ blessings gave us the required courage
to write this book.
We express our sincere gratitude to the honourable Chairman
Thiru Dr. B. BABU MANOHARAN, M.A., M.B.A., Ph.D., Chairman,
St. Joseph’s Group of Institutions, who is the GOD FATHER for us,
who has given strong support and encouragement to write many number
of books and thanks to beloved Director Mr. B. SHASHI SEKAR, M.Sc.,
and Managing Director, Mrs. B. JESSIE PRIYA, M.Com., St. Joseph’s
Group of Institutions, for their constant encouragement and support to
bring out this book a success one.
Any errors, omissions and suggestions for the improvement of this
book, brought to our notice will be thankfully acknowledged and
incorporated in the next edition.

AUTHORS
 CONTENTS

MODULE – I
1.1. – 1.88
INTRODUCTION TO DESIGN

1.1. Introduction to design 1.1

1.1.1. Steps in design process 1.2

1.2. Classification of design 1.3

1.3. Factors influencing machine design 1.4

1.4. Classification of engineering materials 1.5

1.4.1. Mechanical properties of materials 1.6

1.4.2. Selection of materials 1.8

1.5. Ferrous metals 1.9

1.5.1. Cast iron 1.9

1.5.2. Steel 1.10

1.5.3. Cast steel 1.11

1.5.4. Alloy steels 1.11

1.5.5. System of designation for steels 1.12

1.6. Non-ferrous metals 1.14

1.7. Preferred numbers 1.15

1.8. Standards and codes 1.17

1.9. Simple stresses 1.19

1.9.1. Types of the load 1.19

1.10 Direct, bending, torsional, and shear stresses 1.20

1.11. Elastic and plastic behaviour of metals 1.24

Contents ii

1.11.1. Stress-strain diagram for ductile materials 1.24

1.11.2. Plastic behaviour of metals 1.26

1.11.3. Ductile fracture 1.26

1.11.4. Brittle fracture and stress – strain diagram for 1.29

brittle materials
1.12. Factor of safety 1.30

1.13. Impact stress 1.35

1.14. Principal stresses 1.37

1.15. Combined stresses due to eccentric loading 1.68

1.16. Stress concentration 1.72

1.16.1. Definition of stress concentration 1.74

1.16.2. Nominal stress (σo) cross section 1.74

1.16.3. Stress concentration factors 1.75

1.16.4. Reduction of stress concentration effects 1.76

MODULE – II
2.1. – 2.110
THEORIES OF FAILURE

2.1. Design principles 2.1

2.1.1. Common modes of failure 2.1

2.1.2. Factor of safety 2.2

2.2. Theories of failure 2.3

2.3. Fatigue failure 2.39

2.4. Shock and impact loads 2.40

iii Contents

2.5. Design for fatigue (variable) loading 2.41

2.6. Endurance limit stress 2.43

2.6.1. Factors affecting endurance limit 2.45

2.7. Soderberg and Goodman diagrams 2.47

2.8. Goodman method for combination of stresses 2.49

2.9. Soderberg method for combination of stresses: (Ductile 2.51

materials)

2.10. Modified goodman’s diagram [For brittle materials] 2.52

2.11. Design equations for fatigue (variable) loading 2.54

2.11.1. Combined loading (bending and torsion) 2.56

2.11.2 Design for finite life 2.56

2.11.3. Cumulative fatigue damage 2.57

MODULE – III
3.1. – 3.82
DESIGN OF FASTENERS

3.1. Threaded joints 3.1

3.1.1. Advantages of threaded joints 3.1

3.1.2. Disadvantages of threaded joints 3.2

3.1.3. Terminology (Nomenclature) of screw threads 3.2

3.1.4. Common types of screw fastening 3.4

3.1.5. Bolt of uniform strength 3.6

3.1.6. Thread standards (Designation of screw threads) 3.8

Contents iv

3.1.7. Design of bolts for cylinder cover 3.8

3.1.8. Stresses in screw threads and effect of initial tension 3.13

3.2. Bolted joints 3.17

3.2.1. Effect of initial tension 3.17

3.2.1.1. Direct tensile stress 3.18

3.2.1.2. Torsional shear stress 3.18

3.2.1.3. Shear stress in the threads 3.19

3.2.1.4. Compression stress 3.19

3.2.2. Design of bolted joints under eccentric loading 3.19

3.2.2.1. Eccentric load acting parallel to the axis 3.19

of bolt

3.2.2.2. Eccentric load acting perpendicular to the 3.23

axis of bolt

3.2.2.3. Eccentric load acting in the plane 3.26

containing the bolts

3.3. Gaskets 3.31

3.3.1. Gasketed joint 3.32

3.4. Design of power screws 3.39

3.4.1. Introduction 3.39

3.4.2. Application of power screw 3.39

3.4.3. Types of power screw threads 3.40

3.5. Friction in power screw (screw jack) 3.41

v Contents

3.5.1. Action of the power screw in screw jack 3.41

3.5.2. Efficiency of a power screw in screw jack 3.44

3.6. Friction in V-threads (ACME thread) 3.49

3.7. Stresses in power screws 3.54

3.8. Design of screw jack 3.74

MODULE – IV
DESIGN OF RIVETED JOINTS – COTTER 4.1. – 4.154
AND KNUCKLE JOINTS – WELDED JOINTS

4.1. Riveted joints 4.1

4.1.1. Material for Rivets 4.2

4.1.2. Types of riveted joints 4.4

4.1.3. Terms used in riveted joints 4.6

4.1.4. Caulking and fullering 4.6

4.2. Modes of failures in riveted joint 4.7

4.3. Design of structural joints 4.10

4.4. Procedure for design of rivetted joint using PSG data book 4.62

4.4.1. Standard diameter of rivet and rivet hole diameter 4.63

4.4.2. Design stresses 4.63

4.4.3. Strength of a Riveted Joint 4.64

4.4.4. Efficiency of a Riveted Joint 4.64

4.5. Design of structural joints 4.64

Contents vi

4.6. Design of boiler joints and tank joints 4.67

4.6.1. Design of longitudinal butt joint for a boiler 4.68

4.6.2. Design of circumferential joint 4.71

4.7. Knuckle joint 4.79

4.7.1. Proportions 4.80

4.7.2. Design procedure 4.80

4.8. Cotter joints 4.84

4.8.1. Design procedure 4.86

4.9. Sleeve and Cotter joint 4.106

4.9.1. Design of sleeve and cotter joint 4.106

4.10. Design of Gib and Cotter joint 4.113

4.10.1. Design procedure 4.114

4.11. Welded joints 4.118

4.11.1. Classification of welding 4.119

4.11.2. Types of welded joints 4.119

4.11.3. Stresses in Fillet Weld (Strength of Fillet Weld) 4.119

4.11.4. Fillet weld in tension (parallel fillet weld) 4.120

4.11.5. Method of indication of welding symbol 4.122

4.11.6. Combination of transverse and parallel fillet welds 4.122

in Tension

4.11.7. Fillet joint under torsion and bending – eccentric 4.134

load on welded joints
vii Contents

4.11.8. Design procedure 4.136

4.11.9. Stresses in butt weld 4.152

4.11.10. Butt joint in tension 4.153

MODULE – V
5.1. – 5.120
DESIGN OF SPRINGS

5.1. Springs 5.1

5.2. Spring materials 5.1

5.3. Classification – important types of springs 5.3

5.4. Helical springs 5.5

5.4.1. Terminology used for helical springs 5.5

5.4.2. Close-coiled helical spring 5.6

5.4.3. Open-coiled helical spring 5.6

5.5. Stresses and deflection of helical compression springs 5.6

subjected to axial loading

5.5.1. Curvature effect 5.9

5.5.2. To find angular deflection θ 5.10

5.5.3. End connections for helical springs 5.10

5.5.4. Eccentric loading of springs 5.11

5.5.5. Buckling of compression springs 5.11

5.5.6. Helical tension springs (extension springs) 5.12

5.5.7. Types of ends for extension springs 5.12

Contents viii

5.5.8. Load on the extension spring 5.13

5.5.9. Resilience 5.13

5.5.10. Static loading 5.13

5.5.11. Critical frequency 5.14

5.6. Advantages of compression springs over extension springs 5.16

5.7. Surging (spring surge) and critical frequency 5.16

5.8. Energy stored in helical springs of circular wire 5.17

5.9. Fatigue loading of helical springs 5.65

5.10. Springs in series 5.69

5.11. Springs in parallel 5.70

5.12. Helical torsion spring 5.71

5.13. Flat spiral spring 5.78

5.14. Disc springs (or) belleville springs 5.81

5.15. Concentric springs 5.87

5.15.1. Design procedure of concentric springs 5.88

5.15.2. Coaxial springs 5.89

5.15.3. Advantages of concentric springs 5.96

5.16. Conical and volute springs 5.96

5.17. Leaf spring 5.97

5.17.1. Constructional details 5.98

5.17.2. Nipping of leaf springs 5.103

ix Contents

5.17.3. Initial gap (C) 5.104

5.17.4. Initial pre-load (Pi) 5.105

5.17.5. Factors not considered when deriving the design 5.107

formulae

5.17.6. Design formulae 5.107

5.17.7. Leaf spring material 5.108

5.17.8. Permissible stresses 5.108

MODULE – VI
6.1. – 6.162
DESIGN OF SHAFTS, KEYS AND COUPLINGS

6.1. Introduction to design of shafts 6.1

6.2. Types of shaft (according to use) 6.2

6.3. Standard shaft diameters 6.2

6.4. Stress in shafts 6.3

6.5. Shafting materials 6.3

6.6. Causes of failure in shafts 6.3

6.7. Design of shafts – design considerations 6.4

6.8. Design of shaft based on strength 6.4

6.9. Design of shaft based on torsional rigidity 6.9

6.9.1. Stiffness (k) 6.9

6.9.2. Comparison of stiffness 6.10

6.9.3. Percentage saving of material 6.10

6.9.4. Calculation of twisting moment (Mt) 6.11

6.9.5. In case of gear drives 6.11

Contents x

6.10. Design based on critical speed 6.12

6.11. Torque diagrams 6.14

6.12. Introduction to design of keys 6.85

6.13. Forces acting on a key 6.89

6.13.1. Assumptions made in the design of keys 6.90

6.13.2. Failures modes of keys 6.90

6.13.3. Design procedure of key 6.93

6.13.4. Effects of keyways 6.93

6.14. Introduction to design of couplings 6.97

6.15. Design of rigid coupling 6.98

6.15.1. Box (or) Sleeve (or) Muff coupling 6.98

6.15.2. Clamp (or) Compression (or) Split sleeve coupling 6.108

6.15.3. Flange coupling 6.111

6.16. Design of flexible couplings 6.116

6.16.1. Bushed pin flexible coupling 6.117

6.16.2. Oldham Coupling 6.160

6.16.3. Universal or Hooke’s coupling 6.160

Short Questions and Answers S.Q.A.1 – S.Q.A.40

Index I.1 – I.3

 MODULE – I

INTRODUCTION TO DESIGN

☛ Introduction to Design − Definition, steps in design process,

preferred numbers, standards and codes in design −
Materials and their properties − Elastic and plastic
behaviour of metals, ductile and brittle behaviour, shear,
bending and torsional stresses, combined stresses, stress
concentration factor.

1.1. INTRODUCTION TO DESIGN

Definition

Design is an innovative and highly iterative process of formulating a

plan for the realisation of a specified need or to solve a specific problem
resulting in creation of a product that is functional, safe, reliable, competitive,
usable, manufacturable and marketable. A designer’s personal resources,
communicative ability and problem solving skills are interlinked with the
knowledge of technology and engineering tools to produce the product.

Machine design is creation of new machines and improving the existing

machines which are more economical in overall cost of production and
operation.
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1.1.1. Steps in design process

Designing of a machine component or solving a design problem involves
the various steps as shown in the Fig. 1.1.

Fig. 1.1: Steps in Design Process

There is no general rigid rule but design can be made in several methods
and procedure is as follows.

(i) Identification of need/design problem

The first step in design process involves identifying the need or defining
of a design problem for which a machine needs to be designed. Definition of
a problem is more specific and must include all the specifications for the
object that is to be designed.

(ii) Synthesis

Synthesis is the scheme of connecting possible elements or mechanisms

or group of mechanism which gives the desired motion. Synthesis is sometimes
called the invention of the concept or concept design.
Introduction to Design 1.3

(iii) Analysis and optimisation

It is the process of calculating the various forces acting on each machine
element and the energy transmitted by each member. Each element has to
survive the analysis and elements which have the higher margins are optimised
to determine the best performance and this process is an iterative with
subsequent process.
(iv) Material selection
Based on the different material physical and functional properties suitable
material is selected for each machine element being designed.
(v) Design of size and stresses of elements
Sizes of each machine element member is defined based on the analysis
of various forces acting on each member causing stresses which are within
limits of the permissible stresses of material used. It is ensured that no element
deflects or deforms within the permissible limit.
(vi) Evaluation and modification
Evaluation is the final proof of successful design and usually involves
testing of a prototype in the laboratory. Any deficiency noticed, the process
gets iterated with the synthesis or analysis.
(vii) Detailed design and drawings
Once the design has satisfactorily completed the evaluation and
modification process, the detailed design and drawings of each machine
component, assemblies are made with complete specification of manufacturing
to reduce the overall cost.
(viii) Production and product
The component as per the drawing is manufactured, assembled and the
product is launched.
1.2. CLASSIFICATION OF DESIGN
Machine design is classified as follows

(a) Adaptive design

Adaptive design is one in which designer’s work is concerned with the
adaptation of the existing design requiring no special skills and knowledge.
Examples are bicycles and IC engines where development has practically
ceased except for certain minor modification and alterations.
1.4 Design of Machine Elements – I - www.airwalkbooks.com

(b) Developed design

In developed design, a high standard of scientific training is essential

when the proven existing designs are to be modified to their method of
manufacture, material, appearance etc. In this case, designer starts with an
existing design and the final product outcome is remarkably different from the
original product.

(c) New design

New design requires a lot of research, technical capability and creativity.

A few designers bring out new machines by making use of basic scientific
principles. Designers with high personal capabilities of higher order can only
take up new design.

1.3. FACTORS INFLUENCING MACHINE DESIGN

Machine design is greatly influenced by the factors arising from the

customer’s requirement and factors concerned with the manufacture. Machine
component design should meet the following important requirements.

1. Functional

2. Operational
3. Maintenance

4. Material used

5. Manufacturing methods used

(i) Factors related to customer requirement

(a) Material cost, production cost, operating cost.

(b) Mechanical and chemical environmental influence.
(c) Ease of maintenance.
(d) Economy of energy consumption.
(e) Handling, shipping and transportation.
(f) Size, weight and form.
(g) Appearance and Aesthetics.
Introduction to Design 1.5

(h) Quantity and delivery schedules.

(i) Spare part availability.

(ii) Factors related to manufacturing

(a) Loading and stress limits.

(b) Working principle and design.

(c) Strength, wear resistance and corrosion resistance.

(d) Material selection, its condition and availability.

(e) Manufacturing method and assembly method.

(f) Limits, fits and tolerance.

(g) Type and quality of surface finish.

(h) Protective coating requirements.

(i) Type of standards required.

(j) Jigs, fixtures and tools required.

(k) Gauges and inspection method.

(l) Design for manufacture.

(m) Type of scrap generated and utilisation.

(n) Interchangeability.

1.4. CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Engineering materials are broadly classified as

(i) Metal and its alloys.

Eg: Iron, steel, copper, aluminium

(a) Ferrous metals containing iron as major constituent.

(b) Non-ferrous metal containing other than iron like Cu, Al, etc.

(ii) Non metals like plastic, fibre, rubber, glass, composite, etc.
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MATERIALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES

1.4.1. Mechanical Properties of Materials
(a) Strength is the ability of the material to resist the externally applied loads
without failure (fracture or yielding). Measure of strength is ultimate strength
for brittle materials and yield point stress for ductile materials.
(b) Elasticity is a property of the material to regain the original shape after
deformation on removal of load.
(c) Plasticity enables the material to permanently retain the deformation
produced by the externally applied loads.
(d) Stiffness (Rigidity) enables the material to resist deformation under loads.
(e) Ductility enables the material to be drawn into wire when tensile force is
applied. Steel, aluminium and copper are ductile materials. Ductile material
has large plastic deformation before rupture while brittle material has a small
plastic deformation (Fig. 1.2 (a) & (b)).

Ductility helps the material to absorb large overloads. Operations like

bending, drawing, heading, etc., require ductility in the materials.
(f) Brittleness means lack of ductility. Cast iron is a brittle material.
(g) Malleability is ability of material to be drawn into thin sheets under
compressive force. Eg: Gold, Aluminium
(h) Resilience of a material is its capacity to absorb energy with in the elastic
range. Resilience enables material to resist shock and impact and hence it is
desired in springs. The shaded area (Fig. 1.3 (a)) represents modulus of
resilience, i.e., strain energy stored per unit volume when the stress is at the
proportional limit.
Introduction to Design 1.7

(i) Toughness enables the material to absorb energy in the plastic range
(Fig. 1.3 (b)), it enables the material to be twisted or bent under a sudden
load before rupture. Shaded area in Fig. 1.3 (b) represents the modulus of
toughness.
(j) Hardness enables the material to resist indentation, wear or plastic
deformation.
(k) Creep: At elevated temperatures, materials yield and undergo permanent
deformation at a stress lower than the yield point stress. In addition to the
loss of strength, there is a continuous gradual elongation of the members at
high temperature over a long period of time, known as creep. Steam and gas
turbine castings, turbine blades, rocket engines, missile nose cones and nuclear
reactor components are subjected to creep.
(l) Strain hardening: When drawing ductile materials like mild steel, copper,
brass and aluminium through dies or when rolling them between rollers, plastic
deformation takes place and this increases the yield point stress and ultimate
strength. This is known as strain hardening.
(m) Damping capacity is the ability of a material to damp vibrations by
absorbing the kinetic energy of vibration. Cast iron has greater damping
capacity than steel. Hence C.I is used in machine tools to decrease vibrations.
(n) Hardenability is the ability of steel to through harden. Hardenability can
be improved by using alloying elements like boron, vanadium, manganese,
chromium and molybdenum.
(o) Machinability is the ease with which the metal can be removed in
machining operations like turning, drilling, etc. When selecting materials for
mass production of components, machinability is a deciding factor. Good
machinability results in less tool wear, good surface finish and less power
1.8 Design of Machine Elements – I - www.airwalkbooks.com

consumption. Good machinability is obtained by adding sulphur and lead in

steel. However, there is a reduction in tensile strength.
1.4.2. Selection of Materials
Selection of a proper material for the machine component is one of the
most important steps in the process of machine design. The selection process
may involve trial and error method.
The following factors should be considered while selecting the material.
1. Availability: The material should be readily available in large enough
quantities to meet the requirement.
2. Cost: When the limiting cost of the component exceeds, the designer has
to consider other alternative materials. In cost analysis, there are two factors
(a) Cost of Material.
(b) Cost of Processing the material into finished goods.
3. Mechanical Properties: The important mechanical properties from the
consideration of design are strength, rigidity, ductility, hardness, toughness.
Depending upon the service conditions and the functional requirements,
different mechanical properties are considered and a suitable material is
selected.

★ For example, the material for the connecting rod of an internal

combustion engine should be capable to withstand the fluctuating
stresses induced due to combustion of fuel. In this case, the endurance
strength becomes the criterion of design.

★ The piston rings should have hard surface to resist the wear. In this
case, surface hardness is the design criterion.

★ In case of bearing materials, low coefficient of friction is desirable.

★ In case of clutch or brake lining, high coefficient of friction is
required.
4. Manufacturing Considerations: Some times, an expensive material is more
economical than a low priced material, which is difficult to machine.
When the product is of a complex shape, casting properties are important.
Introduction to Design 1.9

The manufacturing processes, such as casting, rolling, forging, extrusion,

welding and machining govern the selection of the material.

1.5. FERROUS METALS

1.5.1. Cast Iron

Cast iron is an alloy of iron, carbon and silicon with carbon content
around 3%. The type of cast irons are grey iron, white iron, chilled cast iron,
malleable iron, spheroidal or modular graphite iron, alloy cast iron.

Advantages

1. It is available in large quantities and is produced on a mass scale.

The tooling required for the casting process is relatively simple and
inexpensive. This reduces the cost of Cast iron products.

2. Cast iron components can be given any complex shape without

involving costly machining operations.

3. Cast iron has a higher compressive strength compared to steel.

4. Cast iron has an excellent ability to damp vibrations, which makes

it an ideal choice for machine tool guides and frames.

5. Cast iron has more resistance to wear even under the conditions of
boundary lubrication.

6. Mechanical properties of cast iron parts do not change between room

temperature and 350°C.

Disadvantages

1. It has a poor tensile strength compared to steel.

2. Cast iron does not offer any plastic deformation before failure, and
exhibit no yield point. The failure of cast-iron parts is sudden and
total.

3. Cast iron is brittle and has poor impact resistance.

4. The machinability of cast iron parts is poor compared to parts made

of steel.
1.10 Design of Machine Elements – I - www.airwalkbooks.com

Applications
1. Machine tool-beds, Frames and Guideways, Hydraulic cylinders,
Pulleys, Gears, Anvils etc.
2. I.C. engine-cylinder block, cylinder head, Flywheel, Brake drums etc.
1.5.2. Steel
Steel consists of iron, carbon and manganese. Carbon content is less than
1.7%.
1. Effects of various elements in steel
Carbon: Increase in carbon content from 0% to 0.83% increases the ultimate
strength. If the carbon content is going to be more than 0.83%, the increase
in carbon content reduces the strength. Hardness increases with carbon content
but ductility and weldability decrease as carbon content increases.
Manganese: As manganese content increases, ultimate strength and hardness
increase and weldability decreases.
Sulphur: Sulphur lowers toughness and makes the steel soft (adds to free
cutting).
Silicon: Silicon is added to steel as a deoxidiser to minimize the last traces
of oxygen.
2. Classifications
Low carbon steels/mild steels Carbon content 0.05 to 0.25%.
Medium carbon steels Carbon content 0.3 to 0.83%.
High carbon steels Carbon content 0.9 to 1.3%.
3. Applications
Carbon 0.1 to 0.2% Tubing, forgings, pressed steel parts, rivets, screws and
for case hardened parts.
Carbon 0.2 to 0.3% General purpose grade. Forged and machined parts,
structural members, boiler plates.
Carbon 0.3 to 0.55% Forged and machined parts, automotive bolts, shafts.
Heat treated to a hardness of 200 − 450 BHN.
Introduction to Design 1.11

Carbon 0.55 to 0.75% Rails, hammers.

Carbon 0.65 to 0.85% Coil and flat springs.

Carbon 0.6 to 0.95% Tools, punches, dies, saws. Heat treated to a hardness
of 375 − 500 BHN.

1.5.3. Cast steel

Cast steel has higher strength, higher endurance limit, much higher
ductility and greater toughness than cast iron. Cast steel weighs less than cast
iron for the same strength and stiffness. Steel castings are used for heavy
machinery bases, machine frames, gears, wheels, etc.

Designation

Example: CS 130 Unalloyed steel castings with minimum tensile strength

1300 N ⁄ mm2.

1.5.4. Alloy steels

In alloy steels alloying elements are added to impart special effects like
higher tensile strength, increased toughness and hardness, greater resistance to
corrosion etc.

Most common alloying elements and their effects

1. Chromium improves hardenability, corrosion resistance and increases wear

resistance and hardness. If the chromium content is more than 11%, the steel
is called stainless steel. Stainless steels offer high resistance to corrosion.

2. Nickel increases strength (ultimate strength) without decreasing ductility.

Nickel steels have good impact properties.

Nickel and chromium are mostly used together to obtain the toughness
and ductility provided by nickel and hardness and wear resistance provided
by chromium.

3. Molybdenum improves hardenability and creep strength.

4. Vanadium improves hardenability, imparts toughness, retains strength and

hardness at elevated temperature, improves shock and fatigue resistance
(increases resilience) and retards softening during tempering.
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5. Tungsten retains hardness even at elevated temperature, improves wear

resistance and imparts toughness and hardness.
1.5.5. System of designation for steels
1. Carbon steel
Example: C 30
Prefix C stands for carbon, 30 for the average percentage of 0.30%.
Steels specified by tensile properties
Example: St 40 − Steel having a minimum tensile strength of 400 N/mm2
2. Alloy steel
Prefix C is not used.
Chemical symbols of significant elements are arranged in the descending
order of their average percentages.
Underlining by a bar indicates percentage is in the decimal value.
Example: 15 Ni 13 Cr 1 Mo 12
Carbon 0.15% average
Nickel 1.3% average
Chromium 1% average
Molybdenum 0.12% average
3. Carbon tool steel
Example: T 80 − Letter T for tool steels. Carbon 0.8% average.
Designation of Steels
A large number of varieties of steel are used for machine components.
Steels are designated by a group of letters or numbers indicating any of the
following three properties:
1. Tensile strength
2. Carbon content
3. Composition of alloying element.
Introduction to Design 1.13

Steels which are standardised on the basis of their tensile strength without
detailed chemical composition.

Ex: Fe 360 indicates a steel with a minimum tensile strength of 360 N/mm2.

(or) Fe E250 indicates a steel with a minimum yield strength of 250 N/mm2.

4. Designation of Plain carbon steels

(a) A number indicating 100 times the average percentage of carbon.

(b) A letter C.
(c) A number indicating 10 times the average % of Mn.

Example: 55C4.

Indicates plain carbon steel with 0.55% of Carbon and 0.4% of

Manganese.

Ex: A steel with 0.35 − 0.45% C and 0.7 to 0.9% Mn is designated as 40C8.

In case of cast alloy steels, chemical symbol of significant alloying

elements are arranged in descending order of percentage content. The average
percentage of each alloying element is indicated by the number following its
chemical symbol. When the alloying element is less than one percent, it is
written upto two decimal places underlined by a bar.

Ex Carbon 0.12 to 0.81% 15 Cr 65 Silicon and Manganese are not

Silicon 0.10 to 0.35% important alloying elements and
Manganese 0.4 to 0.6% they are deleted
Chromium 0.5 to 0.8%
Ex Carbon 0.15 to 0.25% Average Carbon content − 0.2%
Silicon 0.1 to 0.5% or 20 hundredth of a percent.
Manganese 0.3 to 0.5% 20 Cr 18 Ni 2
Nickel 1.5% to 2.5%
Chromium 16 to 20%
Ex 40 Cr 14 Carbon 0.4%
Chromium 0.14%
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1.6. NON-FERROUS METALS

These are used to meet the following requirements:
(a) Resistance to corrosion
(b) Ease of casting and cold working
1. Copper base alloys: Copper is alloyed with zinc to produce brass. If alloyed
with tin, aluminium, manganese, silicon or phosphorous, it is called bronze.
Brass is used in application where moderate strength and ductility,
resistance to corrosion and resistance to wear are required. Bronze is superior
to brass in the above qualities but it is more costly.
Materials for bearing linings
Tin babbit 87.75% tin, 4% copper, 8% antimony and 0.25% bismuth
Lead babbit 80% lead, 20% antimony
2. Aluminium and its alloys
Pure aluminium is highly ductile and has good forming properties, but
it has poor casting and machining properties.
When alloyed with copper, ultimate strength and endurance strength
increased and there is an improvement in machinability and casting
characteristics. Aluminium-Copper alloys are used in crank cases, transmission
housing, etc.
Aluminium-Silicon alloys have better mechanical properties and corrosion
resistance than Aluminium-Copper alloy, but they have poorer machinability.
These alloys are used in marine castings, water jacket housings and castings
where machining is minimum.
Duralumin
Duralumin is an Al-Cu-Mg-Mn alloy and it has good corrosion resistance
and strength.
3. Non-metallic materials
Non-metallic materials used are
(a) Plastics (light weight housings, panels, flexible hoses).
(b) Fibre Reinforced Plastics (car bodies, boat hulls).
Introduction to Design 1.15

(c) Rubber (insulators, belts, piping, tyres).

(d) Leather (belts).
(e) Asbestos (friction lining for clutches and brakes).
1.7. PREFERRED NUMBERS
1.7.1. Preferred Numbers
When a machine is to be made in several sizes with different powers
or capacities, it is necessary to decide what capacities will cover a certain
range efficiently with minimum number of sizes. It has been shown by
experience that a certain range can be covered efficiently when it follows a
geometrical progression with a constant ratio. The preferred numbers are the
conventionally rounded off values derived from geometric series including the
integral powers of 10 and having as common ratio of the following factors:

Ratio’s Series

10
√  = 1.58
5
(R5)

10
√  = 1.26
10
(R10)

10
√  = 1.12
20
(R20)

10
√  = 1.06
40
(R40)

These four series are called basic series. The other series called derived
series may be obtained by simply multiplying or dividing the basic sizes by
10, 100, etc. The preferred numbers in the above four series shown in
Table 1.1 as per standard IS: 1076 (Part I).
Notes
1. The standard sizes (in mm) for wrought metal products are shown
in Table 1.2 according to IS: 1136 − 1990. The standard G.P. series
used correspond to R10, R20 and R40.
2. The hoisting capacities (in tonnes) of cranes are in R10 series, while
the hydraulic cylinder diameter are in R40 series and hydraulic
cylinder capacities are in R5 series.
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3. The basic thickness of sheet metals and diameter of wires are based
on R10, R20 and R40 series. Wire diameter of helical springs are
in R20 series.
4. Standard spindle speeds for machine tools are given in Table 1.3.
5. Also preferred basic and design sizes are given in PSG design data
book Pg. No. 3.12.
Table 1.1: Preferred numbers of the basic series. IS: 1076−1990

Basic
Preferred numbers
series
R5 1.00, 1.60, 2.50, 4.00, 6.30, 10.00
R10 1.00, 1.25, 1.60, 2.00, 2.50, 3.15, 4.00, 5.00, 6.30, 8.00, 10.00
R20 1.00, 1.12, 1.25, 1.40, 1.60, 1.80, 2.00, 2.24, 2.50, 2.80, 3.15,
3.55, 4.00, 4.50, 5.00, 5.60, 6.30, 7.10, 8.00, 9.00, 10.00
R40 1.00, 1.06, 1.12, 1.18, 1.25, 1.32, 1.40, 1.50, 1.60, 1.70, 1.80,
1.90, 2.00, 2.12, 2.24, 2.36, 2.50, 2.65, 2.80, 3.00, 3.15, 3.35,
3.55, 3.75, 4.00, 4.25, 4.50, 4.75, 5.00, 5.30, 5.60, 6.00, 6.30,
6.70, 7.10, 7.50, 8.00, 8.50, 9.00, 9.50, 10.00

Table 1.2: Preferred sizes for wrought metal products. IS: 1136-1990

Size range Preferred sizes (mm)

0.01 − 0.10 mm 0.02, 0.025, 0.030, 0.04, 0.05, 0.06, 0.08 and 0.10
0.10 − 1 mm 0.10, 0.11, 0.12, 0.14, 0.16, 0.18, 0.20, 0.22, 0.25,
0.28, 0.30, 0.32, 0.35, 0.36, 0.40, 0.45, 0.50, 0.55,
0.60, 0.63, 0.70, 0.80, 0.90 and 1
1-10 mm 1, 1.1, 1.2, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.8, 2.22, 2.5, 2.8, 3, 3.2, 3.5,
3.6, 4, 4.5, 5, 5.5, 5.6, 6, 6.3, 7.8, 9 and 10
10 − 100 mm 10 to 25 (in steps of 1 mm), 28, 30, 32, 34, 35, 36,
38, 40, 42, 44, 45, 46, 48, 50, 52, 53, 55, 56, 58, 60,
62, 63, 65, 67, 68, 70, 71, 72, 75, 78, 80, 82, 85, 88,
90, 92, 95, 98 and 100
Introduction to Design 1.17

Size range Preferred sizes (mm)

100−1000 mm 100 to 200 (in steps of 5 mm), 200 to 310 (in steps of
10 mm), 315, 320, 330, 340, 350, 355, 360, 370, 375,
380 to 500 (in steps of 10 mm), 520, 530, 550, 560,
580, 600, 630, 650, 670, 700, 710 and 750 − 1000 (in
steps of 50 mm)
1000−10000 mm 1000, 1100, 1200, 1250, 1400, 1500, 1600, 1800, 2000,
2200, 2500, 2800, 3000, 3200, 3500, 3600, 4000, 4500,
5000, 5600, 6000, 6300, 7000, 7100, 8000, 9000 and
10000

Table 1.3: Standard spindle speeds for machine tools

Basic series Preferred numbers

R20 φ = 1.12 100, 112, 125, 140, 160, 180, 200, 224, 250, 280, 315,
355, 400,450, 500, 560, 630, 710, 800, 900, 1000
R20/2 φ = 1.25 112, 140, 180, 224, 280, 355, 450, 560, 710, 900
R20/3 φ = 1.4 11.2, 16, 22.4, 31.5, 45, 63, 90, 125, 180, 250, 355,
500, 710, 1000, 1400, 2000, 2800, 4000, 5600, 8000
R20/4 φ = 1.6 112, 140, 180, 224, 280, 355, 450, 560, 710, 900
R20/6 φ = 2 11.2, 22.4, 45, 90, 180, 355, 710, 1400, 2800, 5600

1.8. STANDARDS AND CODES

A standard is a set of specifications for parts, materials or processes
intended to achieve uniformity, efficiency and specified quality. The main
purpose of standardization is to establish mandatory (or) obligatory norms for
the design and production of machines so as to reduce variation in their types
and grades, and to achieve quality characteristics in Raw materials, semi
finished and finished products.
The benefits of standardization are given below.

★ Better product quality, reliability and longer service life.

★ Mass production of components at low cost.
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★ Easy availability of parts for replacement and maintenance.

★ Less time and effort required to manufacture.
★ Reduction in variation in size and grades of an article.
★ The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has standardized a number of
items for the benefits of designers and users.

★ Some Examples for standards are given below, most commonly

referred standards by piping engineers are:

IS 210 : Grey iron castings.

IS 226 : Structural steel (Superseded by IS 2062).
IS 554 : Dimensions of pipe thread.
IS 778 : Specification for Copper Alloy gate, globe and check
valves.
IS 1363 : Hexagonal Bolts, Screws and Nuts − Grade C.
IS 1364 : Hexagonal Bolts, Screws and Nuts − Grade A and B.
IS 1538 : Cast Iron fittings.
IS 1979 : High Test line pipe
IS 2002 : Steel plates.
IS 3114 : Code of practice for laying pipes.
IS 13095 : Butterfly Valves.
IS 13257 : Ring type joints gasket and grooves your flanges.

CODE

★ A code is a set of specifications for analysis, design, manufacture and

construction of something.

★ The purpose of a code is to achieve a specific degree of safety,

efficiency and performance or quality.

★ Examples for standard and code in design are given here.

Introduction to Design 1.19

IS 3935 : 1966 Code practice for composites construction.

IS 3201 : 1988 Criteria for design and construction of pre cast trusses
and purling.

IS 6332 : 1984 Code of practice for construction of floor and roofs

using pre-cast doubly − curved shell units.

IS 14215 : 1994 Code of practice for design and construction of floor

and roof with RC channel units.

IS 11447 : 1985 Code of practice for construction with large panel

prefabricates.

1.9. SIMPLE STRESSES

LOAD: It is an external force acting on machine member.

1.9.1. Types of the Load

1. Static load (or) Steady load

2. Variable load (or) Dynamic load (Load varying with time)

3. Suddenly applied load (or) Shock load (When load is suddenly

applied or removed)

4. Impact load (When load is applied with some initial velocity)

STRESS

The internal resistance force per unit area at any section of the body is
known stress.

Mathematically,

load
Stress = in N ⁄ mm2
unit area
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1.10. DIRECT, BENDING, TORSIONAL, AND SHEAR STRESSES

1. Direct stress stresses due to Axsial loading (or) Direct loading
(i) Tensile Stress (σt)

P
Tensile Stress = σt =
A
[K.M. Data Book Pg. No. 2] Eqn. No. 1.1(a)

P − Tensile load in N

A − Cross-sectional area in mm2

[K.M. Means K. Mahadevan, K. Balaveera Reddy − Design Data Hand Book]

(ii) Compressive stress (σc)

P
Compressive stress (σc) = −  
A
P − Compressive load in N
A − Cross-sectional area in mm2
If
l Length of specimen in m
E Modulus of elasticity in N/m2
G Modulus of rigidity in N/m2
γ Poisson’s ratio
e Elongation in m
We have
P.l [K.M. Data Book Pg. No. 3, Eqn. No. 1.2(b)]
(iii) Elongation (e) =
A .E
E
(iv) Poisson’s ratio (γ) =
2G
[Refer PSG Design Data Book Page No 7.1]
* In general, for tensile load, consider + ve sign.
for compressive load, consider − ve sign.
Introduction to Design 1.21

1.(a) Contact stress, Bearing stress (or) Crushing stress

It is a localised compressive stress at the surface of contact between two
members.
P
Bearing stress = Pb =
l×d
where P − Radial load acting on the
journal.; l − length of the contact
between journal & bearing; d − Dia. of
the journal; (l × d) − represents the
projected area. (It is not cross-sectional
area).
Bearing stress (or) Crushing stress
Radial load
=
Projected area
P
=
l×d

2. Bending Stress (Stresses due to Bending load)

(i.e., Due to transverse load)

According to theory of simple bending.
σb M E [PSG Databook Pg. No. 7.1]
= =
y I R [K.M. Databook Pg. No. 3 Eqn. No. 1.3(a)]

M⋅y
σb =
I
where σb − Bending stress; y − Distance between Neutral axis and Extreme
outer fibre; M − Bending moment; I − Movement of Inertia, R − Radius of
curvature.

M⋅y
In Fig 1.7(a) at (A), (σb) Bendingstress is compressive σb =
l
M⋅y
at (B), (σb) Bending stress is tensile σb = +
I
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M⋅y
In Fig. 1.7(b) at (A), Bending stress is tensile (σb) = +
I

M⋅y
at (B) Bending stress is compressive (σb) = −
I

* In general, Tensile bending stress, consider + ve sign.

Compressive bending stress, consider − ve sign.

★ For Circular Cross-Section

M⋅y d
σb = bending stress = ± y=
I s

M⋅d⁄2 32 M π 4
=± =± I= d
π ⁄ 64 d 4 π d3 64

32 M
σb = ±
π d3
Introduction to Design 1.23

3. Torsional stress (Stresses due to torque)

Consider a shaft of radius (r) and diameter (d) subjected to a twisting
movement or torque (T) as shown in Fig. 1.8.
If

T Torque or twisting moment in Nm

r Radius of shaft in m
J Polar moment of inertia in m4
l Length of shaft in m
G Modulus of rigidity in N/m2
N Speed of shaft in RPM
τ Shear stress in (kgf/cm2 in MKS and in N/m2 in SI)
θ Angle of twist in radians

We have Torsional equation

T Gθ τ [Refer PSG DB Pg. No. 7.1]
= =
J l r [K.M. Databook Pg. No. 3
Eqn. No. 1.3(b)]
Tr
∴ Shear stress τ=
J
Tl [Refer PSG DB Pg. No. 7.1]
Angle of twist θ =
GJ [K.M. Databook Pg. No. 3
Eqn. No. 1.3(c)]
Polar moment of Inertia (J)
π d4
For solid shaft J =
32
π (d40 − d4i )
Hollow shaft J =
32
d0 outer diameter
di inner diameter
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4. Shear Stresses

(i) Direct Shear Stress

Ex: Shearing of Rivet.

Let d − Dia. of the rivet.

P − shear load.

P
Direct Shear Stress = τd =
π 2
d
4
(ii) Torsional Shear τs

When a body is subjected to twisting moment or torque (T)

T τs
According to torsion equation =
J r

T τs
=
π 4 d
d
32 2

where T − Twisting moment.; J − Polar moment of inertia.;

d
r − Radius of the shaft = ,
2

π 4 π 4
JS = d (Solid shaft); JH = (d − d4i ) (Hollow shaft)
32 32 0

16 T
τs = Torsional shear stress =
π d3

1.11. ELASTIC AND PLASTIC BEHAVIOUR OF METALS

1.11.1. Stress-Strain diagram for ductile materials

In designing various parts of a machine, it is necessary to know the

mechanical properties of the material. These properties are commonly
determined by conducting a standard tensile test, on UNIVERSAL TESTING
MACHINE (UTM).
Introduction to Design 1.25

A – Proportional limit
B – Elastic limit

C – Upper yield point

D – Lower yield point

E – Ultimate (or) Maximum stress

F – Breaking point.

This test consists of gradually loading a standard specimen of a material

and recording the corresponding values of load and elongation until the
specimen fractures. The load is applied gradually and measured by a testing
machine. The stress is determined by dividing the load value by the original
cross-sectional area of the standard specimen.
The elongation is measured by determining the distance between the two
reference points on the specimen which are moved apart by the application
of gradual load. The original length between two reference points is known
as Gauge length.
The strain is determined by dividing the elongation value by the gauge
length.
The values of the stress and strain are used to draw the stress-strain
diagram of the material used.
The stress-strain diagram for a mild steel under tensile test is shown in
the Fig. 1.10.
Proportional limit: From point O to A is a straight line, which represents
that the stress is proportional to strain. The Hook’s law holds good upto point
A, and it is known as proportional limit.
Elastic limit: It may be noted that even if the load is increased beyond point
A upto the B, the material will regain its shape and size, when the load is
removed. The material has elastic properties upto the point B. This point is
1.26 Design of Machine Elements – I - www.airwalkbooks.com

known as elastic limit. It is defined as the stress developed in the material

without any permanent deformation.
1.11.2. Plastic Behaviour of Metals

Yield point: If the material is stressed beyond point B, the plastic stage will
reach, i.e., on removal of the load, the material will not be able to recover
its original size and shape. Beyond point B, the strain increases at a faster
rate with any increase in the stress until the point C is reached. At this point,
the material yields before the load and there is an appreciable strain without
any increase in stress. The stress corresponds to yield point is known as yield
point stress.

C − Upper yield stress,

D − Lower yield stress,

E − Ultimate stress,

F − Breaking stress.

1.11.3. Ductile fracture

A material is said to be ductile if it can withstand large plastic

deformation. A ductile fracture can be defined as a fracture which is the result
of intense localised plastic deformation of the metal at the tip of the crack.
At elevated temperatures, all fractures tend to become ductile because slip can
occur more easily.

The ductile fracture is defined as the fracture which takes place by a

slow propagation of crack with extensive plastic deformation. The crack is
stable resisting further extension unless applied stress is increased.

The ductile fracture takes place in metals which do not harden much
and is the end result of extensive plastic deformation of a specimen in a tensile
test.

The deformation of the specimen with the corresponding force (i.e. load)
is noted and a graph is drawn as shown in Fig. 1.11.
Introduction to Design 1.27

From the graph, we see that from O to A, the ratio of stress to strain
is constant. After the point A, the ratio is not constant and is changing. The
point B is the yield point after which the strain increases more quickly than
the stress. The ultimate tensile stress is at point E and if the stress is increased
more than this, fracture will occur.
1.11.3.1. Mechanism of Ductile Fracture
When the tensile stress across the specimen is increased beyond the
elastic limit, there is an uniform reduction in its cross-sectional area.
Steps in Ductile Fracture
(a) Necking.
(b) Formation of microvoids.
(c) Coalescence of microvoids to form a crack.
(d) Crack propagation by shear deformation.
(e) Fracture.
(a) Necking
When the tensile stress is increased beyond ultimate tensile strength
value, a neck is formed some where near the middle of the specimen. This
process of formation of Neck is called as Necking as shown in Fig. 1.12 (a).
1.28 Design of Machine Elements – I - www.airwalkbooks.com

(b) Formation of microvoids

The continuation of the loading causes the plastic deformation that
produces many fine cavities in the specimen called as microvoids as shown
in Fig. 1.12 (b).
Here, the small cracks are created due to the combination of dislocations,
which were formed during the manufacture of the material.
(c) Formation of crack
As the stress increases, the cracks join together to form larger cavities.

It has been observed that during the formation of small cracks, the neck
propagates due to the combination of dislocation as shown in Fig. 1.12 (c).

(d) Crack propagation by shear deformation

These cavities keep growing outwards due to the increase of plastic

deformation and a central crack is formed.

It has been observed that the continuation of plastic deformation produces

bigger cracks in the specimen as shown in Fig. 1.12 (d).
Introduction to Design 1.29

(e) Fracture
On further increase of stress, the crack propagates on the surface of the
specimen which results in a ‘Cup and Cone’ type of fracture as shown in
Fig. 1.12 (e).
The ‘cup’ region of the fracture has a very fibrous appearance. The
appearance is as if the individual elements are split into longitudinal fibers
and drawn to a point before fracture. The outer ‘cone’ is a region of highly
localised shear. Extensive localised deformation occurs by sliding of grains
one over the others.
Ductile fracture is a less serious problem and compared to brittle fracture
it is slow and occurs with the expenditure of large amount of energy.
1.11.4. Brittle fracture and Stress – Strain diagram for brittle materials

★ Brittle fracture may be defined as a fracture which takes place by the

rapid propagation of crack with a negligible deformation.

★ It has been observed that in amorphous materials, the fracture is

completely brittle.

★ But in crystalline materials, it occurs after small deformation.

★ The brittle fracture generally occurs in body centred cubic and
hexagonal close packed single crystal at very low temperatures.
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★ In crystalline materials, the fracture takes place normal to the specific

crystallographic planes called cleavage planes.

★ Brittle fracture also occurs along the grain boundaries in

polycrystalline materials. The stress strain curve shows the occurrence
of brittle fracture.

★ A completely brittle fracture is shown in the Fig. 1.13(a) where very

little plastic deformation occurs while Fig. 1.13(b) shows the brittle
fracture with some deformation where cracks can be seen on the
fractured surface.

1.12. FACTOR OF SAFETY

While designing a component, it is necessary to ensure sufficient reserve

strength in case of an accident. It is ensured by taking a suitable factor of
safety. (FOS)

Failure stress Failure load

Factor of safety = =
Allowable stress Allowable load

The allowable stress is the stress value which is used in design to

determine the dimensions of the component.

For Ductile materials,

Yield stress
FOS =
Allowable stress (or) Permissible stress
For Brittle materials,
Ultimate stress
FOS =
Allowable stress
There are number of factors which are difficult to evaluate accurately
in design analysis.
Some factors are as follows:
1. Uncertainty in the magnitude of external force acting on the component.
2. Variations in the properties of materials like yield strength or ultimate
strengths.
3. Variables in the dimensions of the component due to imperfect
workmanship.
Introduction to Design 1.31

In addition to these factors, the no. of assumptions made in analysis, in

order to simplify the calculations, may not be exactly valid in working
conditions. The factor of safety ensures against these uncertainties and
unknown conditions.
Problem 1.1: A steam engine cylinder of diameter 200 mm, the maximum
pressure across the piston is 50 kN/m2. Design the diameter of piston rod if
the maximum tensile or compressive stress on piston rod is limited to
42 N/mm2.

Given:

σmax = 42 N ⁄ mm2 = 42 × 10+ 6 N ⁄ m2 ; dc = 200 mm = 0.2 m,

Pmax = 50 kN ⁄ m2 = 50 × 103 N ⁄ m2
Solution:

(i) Load on piston rod

Load (P) = Pmax × Area of cylinder

π d2c 50 × 103 × π × 0.22

= Pmax × = = 1.57081 × 103 N
4 4
Load (P) = 1571 N
(ii) Find diameter of piston rod
Load (P)
σmax ≥
Area of piston rod
1571
42 × 106 ≥
π d2p
4
1571 × 4
d2p ≥ = 4.762 × 10− 5
42 × 106 × π

dp ≥ 6.9 × 10− 3 m

(or) dp ≥ 6.9 mm

From nearest standard diameter R20 series we get dp = 7.10 mm

1.32 Design of Machine Elements – I - www.airwalkbooks.com

Problem 1.2: A link as shown in figure is subjected to a steady tensile force

of 50 kN. Find the tensile stress induced in link.

Solution:
Given:

Load P = 50 kN = 50 × 103 N

Tensile stress at section B – B

Area at section B − B (AB) = l × b = 10 × 50 = 500 mm2

Load (P) 50 × 103

Tensile stress σtB = = = 100 N ⁄ mm2 = 50 MPa
Area (AB) 500

Tensile stress induced at section A – A

Area at section A − A (AA) = 30 (75 − 50) = 750 mm2

Load (P) 50 × 103

Tensile stress σt = = = 66.67 N ⁄ mm2 = 66.67 MPa.
A Area (AA) 750

Problem 1.3: Two rectangular plates are fastened by two bolts of 25 mm

diameter and nut. There is a washer whose ID = 27 mm and OD = 55 mm
placed between the plates and there is an another washer placed between the
nut and upper plate of dimensions ID = 27 mm and OD = 49 mm. The base
plate carries a load of 100 kN. Calculate the stress on both washers before
nut is tightened. When nut is tightened so as to produce a tension of 10 kN
an each bolt, what are the stresses in each washer.
Introduction to Design 1.33

Solution:

Given:

Bolt dia (d) = 25 mm, washer 1: d01 = 55 mm, di1 = 27 mm;

washer 2 d02 = 49 mm, di2 = 27 mm; load (P) = 100 kN = 100 × 103 N

(i) Stresses without nut tightening

π 2 π
Area of washer 1 A1 = d01 − d2i1  =  552 − 272  = 1803.27 mm2
4  4
π π
Area of washer 2 A2 = d − d2i2  =  492 − 272  = 1313.18 mm2
4  o2  4
(ii) Load acting and stress before tightening of nut

Load (P) is acting on two bolts, so load on each washer

100 × 103
P1 = = 50 × 103 N
2
Upper washer (2) load = 0
Lower washer (1) load = P1 = 50 × 103 N

P1 50 × 103
Stress on washer between plates (σ1) = = = 27.73 N ⁄ mm2
A1 1803.27

(iii) Nuts are tightened

Load on upper washer (2) = P2 = 10 kN = 10 × 103 N

P2 10 × 103
Stress on upper washer (σ2) = = = 7.615 N ⁄ mm2
A2 1313.18

Load on lower washer (1) = P3 = P1 + 10 kN

P3 = 100 + 10 = 110 kN

P3 110 × 103
Stress on washer between plates (σ3) = = = 61 N ⁄ mm2
A1 1803.27
1.34 Design of Machine Elements – I - www.airwalkbooks.com

Problem 1.4: A simply supported beam of rectangular cross section having depth
three times width is subjected to a point load of 20 kN at 300 mm from the left
support. The span of beam is 700 mm. Determine the dimensions of section if
the allowable strength of material is 200 MPa. (FAQ)

Solution:
Given:
Si mply supporte d beam,
L = 700 mm,

a = 300 mm, b = 700 − 300 = 400 mm

P = 20 kN = 20 × 103 N, [ σ ] = 200 N ⁄ mm2 , d = 3b

From PSG DB pg no 6.5 for SSB with a, b and point load we have
maximum bending moment

Pab 20 × 103 × 300 × 400

Mmax = =
L 700

Mmax = 3.428 × 106 N−mm

Mb σb [PSG D.B Pg. No. 7.1]

Bending stress equation =
I y [K.M. D.B. Pg. No. 3]

bd3 b ⋅ (3b)3 27b4

I= = = mm4
12 12 12

d 3b
y= =
2 2

3.428 × 106 σ 3.48 × 106 × 3b × 12

∴ = (or) σb = ≤ 200
27 b 4 36 ⁄ 2 27 b4 × 2
12
3.428 × 106 × 3 × 12
b3 ≥ ≥ 11426.66
27 × 2 × 200
Introduction to Design 1.35

b ≥ 22.52 mm say 23 mm

∴ width b = 23 mm

depth d = 23 × 3 = 69 −
~ 70 mm

1.13. IMPACT STRESS

When machine members are subjected to the load with impact, then the
stress produced in the member due to the falling load is known as ‘impact
stress’.

Consider a load ‘W’ falling on a body from a height ‘h’.

The load is suddenly applied

and the type of loading is called
impact loading.

Let A = area of cross-section

of the member.

The stress on the member

for gradually applied load is
W
σ= .
A

But due to the application of

sudden load, the stress induced in
the member will be greater than
W
the value .
A

Let δ = Deflection due to the

impact.

P = Equivalent load which

will produce the deflection ‘δ’.
1.36 Design of Machine Elements – I - www.airwalkbooks.com

Energy gained by the system in the form of strain energy = Area of

triangle OAB.

1
= Pδ .... (1)
2

Potential energy lost by weight

= W (h + δ) .... (2)

But, the energy gained by the system in the form of strain energy is
equal to the potential energy lost by the weight.

Equate equations (1) and (2)

1
P δ = W (δ + h) .... (3)
2

Let σ = stress induced in the member due to the application of impact

load.

P
where E = young’s modulus; σ =
A

(or) P = (σ ⋅ A)

 P l  l
Deflection  δ = ⇒δ=σ
 A E  E

l
Replace P = σ ⋅ A and δ = σ ⋅ in the equation (3)
E

1  l   l 
⋅ (σ ⋅ A)  σ ⋅  = W  σ ⋅ + h  expand and simplify the equation.
2  E   E 

Al 2 Wl
σ − σ − Wh = 0 (is a Quadratic equation.)
2E E
Introduction to Design 1.37

Solving the equation,

 


√
W 2hAE 
σ= 1± 1+
A  Wl 

 
(or) σ ⋅ A = W  1 ±

√
2hAE 
1+
 Wl 

 
P=W1±

√
2hAE 
1+
 Wl 
1.14. PRINCIPAL STRESSES
Machine components are subjected to several external loads of different
nature.
Therefore, it is necessary to find the equivalent single stress by using
principal stresses.
1.38 Design of Machine Elements – I - www.airwalkbooks.com

At any point in a strained material, there are three mutually perpendicular

planes on which only direct stresses are acting, and there are no shear stresses.
These planes are principal planes and the direct stresses are called Principal
stresses or Normal stresses. Out of three Principal stresses (σ1 , σ2 , and σ3)
one is maximum, one is minimum and the other one is intermediate.
Two-dimensional

Max. principal stress (K.M. D.B. Pg. No. 5, Eqn. No. 1.8(c))

= σ1 =
σx + σy
2
+

√  σx − σy 2

 2
 + τ2xy =

σx + σy 1
2
+ √
2

(σx − σy)2 + 4 
τ2xy

Min. principal stress

= σ2 =
σx + σy
2
−

√  σx − σy 2

 2
 + τ2xy =

σx + σy 1
2
− √
2

(σx − σy)2 + 4 
τ2xy

Max. shear stress (K.M. D.B. Pg. No. 5, Eqn. No. 1.8(d))

σ1 − σ2
= τmax = [Refer PSG D.B Pg. No. 7.2]
2

2 τxy
tan 2 θ = where θ = angle between σ1 and x − axis.
σx − σy

Note: If σ1 and σ2 both are + ve, consider σ3 into account.

Let σz be stress in z-direction. If σz = 0, then σ3 = 0

σ1 − σ3 σ1 − 0
Then τmax = =
2 2

σ1
τmax =
2
Introduction to Design 1.39

Problem 1.5: Calculate normal stresses at (A) and (B)

Also calculate max. shear stresses at (A) and (B).

(FAQ)

Solution:
Given:
d = 50 mm, T = 1 kNm = 1 × 103 Nm, F = 3 kN = 3000 N
P = 15 kN = 15 × 103 N, l = 250 mm

(i) Consider axial load

Axial load induces direct stress.

P 15 × 103
σt = Direct stress = = (tensile) = 7.639 N ⁄ mm2
A 1963.49

P = Axial load = (Tensile) = 15 kN = + 15 × 103kN

 π 2 π π 2 π 2
 Area (A) = 4 d = 4 (50) = 1963 (A) = 4 d = 4 (50) = 1963.49 mm 
2 2
 
(ii) Consider transverse (or) Bending load

Bending load = F = 3 kN = 3 × 103 N

Bending moment = F × l = 3 × 103 × 250 = 750 × 103 N−mm

1.40 Design of Machine Elements – I - www.airwalkbooks.com

Bending load induces bending stress,

M⋅y d 50
σb = ± y= = = 25 mm
I 2 2

π d4
[PSG D.B. Pg. No. 7.1] I=
64
π
I= (50)4 = 306.79 × 103 mm4
64
at (A)

750 × 103 × 25
(σb)tensile = +
306.79 × 103

= + 61.115 N ⁄ mm2 (tensile)

at (B) (σb)comp. = − 61.115 N ⁄ mm2 (comp)

Total stress = σx = σt + σb

at (A) σx = σt + (σb)t

= + 7.639 + 61.115 = + 68.75 N ⁄ mm2

at (B) σx = σt + (σb)c

= + 7.693 + ( − 61.115) = − 53.422 N ⁄ mm2

(iii) Consider torsion
Twisting moment T = 1 kN − m = 1000 × 1000 N−mm

T τ 50
= [PSG D.B Pg. No. 7.1] r= = 25 mm
J r 2
T⋅r π 4
τxy = τ = J= d [K.M. D.B. Pg. No. 14]
J 32
106 × 25 π
= J= × 504
613.59 × 103 32

τxy = 40.74 N ⁄ mm2 J = 6134.59 × 103 mm4

At (A) At (B)
Introduction to Design 1.41

σx = + 68.75 N ⁄ mm2 σx = − 53.476 N ⁄ mm2

σy = 0 σy = 0

τxy = + 40.74 N ⁄ mm2 τxy = + 40.74 N ⁄ mm2

At (A)

σ1 = Max. normal stress =

σx + σy
2
+

√  σx − σy 2

 2
 + τ2xy

[PSG D.B. Pg. No. 7.2]
[K.M. D.B. Pg. No. 5]

=
68.75
2
+

√  68.75 2
 2  + (40.74)
 
2

= 34.375 + 53.30

= + 87.675 N ⁄ mm2

σ2 = Min. normal stress =

σx + σy
2
−

√  σx − σy 2

 2
 + τ2xy


= 34.375 − 53.30

= − 18.925 N ⁄ mm2

σ1 − σ2
Max. Shear stress = (τmax)at A =
2

87.675 − ( − 18.925)
=
2

 τmax  = 53.3 N ⁄ mm2

 at (A)
1.42 Design of Machine Elements – I - www.airwalkbooks.com

At (B)

σ1 = Max. normal stress =

σx + σy
2
+

√  σx − σy 2

 2
 + τ2xy


=
− 53.476
2
+

√  − 53.476 2

 2  + (40.74)2 = − 26.738 + 48.730


= + 21.992 N ⁄ mm2 (tensile)

σ2 = Min. normal stress = − 26.738 − 48.73

= − 75.468 N ⁄ mm2 (comp.)

σ1 − σ2
Max. Shear stress = (τmax)at (B) =
2

21.992 − ( − 75.468)
=
2

 τmax  = 48.73 N ⁄ mm2

 at (B)

Problem 1.6: For the stress state given, find the principal normal and shear
stresses and determine the angle from the x-axis to σ1. Draw the stress element
and label all details.

Solution:

σx = 16 MPa = 16 N ⁄ mm2 where θ1 = Angle from σ1 to x-axis

σy = 9 MPa = 9 N ⁄ mm2 θ2 = Angle from σ2 to x−axis

τxy = 5 MPa = 5 N ⁄ mm2

2 τxy
tan 2 θ1 = [K.M. D.B. Pg. No. 5, Eqn. No. 1.8(g)]
σx − σy

2 × 5 10
= = = 1.428
16 − 9 7
Introduction to Design 1.43

2 θ1 = tan− 1 1.428

55°
θ1 = = 27.5°
2
θ2 = 90 + 27.5 = 117.5°

Max. Principal stress (or) Max. normal stress

[Refer PSG D.B Pg. No. 7.2]

= σ1 =
σx + σy
2
+

√  σx − σy 2

 2
 + τ2xy

[K.M. D.B. Pg. No. 5]

=
16 + 9
2
+

√  16 − 9 2
 2  + 52 = 12.5 + 6.1032 = 18.60 N ⁄ mm2
 
Min. principal stress (or) Min. normal stress

= σ2 =
σx + σy
2
=

√ σx − σy 2

 2
 + τ2xy


= 12.5 − 6.1032 = 6.3968 N ⁄ mm2

1.44 Design of Machine Elements – I - www.airwalkbooks.com

Since σ1 and σ2 are + ve, ∴ Consider σ3 into account.

σ3 = 0
σ1 − σ3 18.6 − 0
Max. shear stress = τmax = =
2 2
τmax = 9.3 N ⁄ mm2
Problem 1.7: Determine the required thickness of the steel bracket at section
A-A. When loaded as shown in Fig. in order to limit the tensile stress to
60 MN/m2. (FAQ)

Solution:

At section A-A imagine two forces

F1 and F2 equal to F

i.e., F1 = F2 = 4500 N.

The force F and F1 constitute

couple (F × e). The effect of couple
produces bending, which induces
bending stress.

M⋅y M=F×e
σb =
I = 4500 × 50 N−mm
[K.M. D.B Pg. No. 2]

4500 × 50 × 25
=
1 50
⋅ t ⋅ 503 y= = 25 mm
25 2

540
= N ⁄ mm2
l 1
I= × t × 503
12

The force F2 produces a direct

tensile load which induces direct tensile
stress.
Introduction to Design 1.45

P F2 4500 90
σt = = = = [A = (50 × t)]
A A (50 × t) t

Total stress
540 90 630
= σtotal = σb + σt = + =
t t t

630
i.e., σx =
t
σy = 0; τxy = 0; θ1 = 60 N ⁄ mm2 (given) (since it is tensile)

σ1 =
σx + σy
2
+

√  σx − σy 2

 2
 + τ2xy


[Refer PSG D.B. Pg. No. 7.2]

[K.M. D.B. Pg. No. 3]

=
630
2t
+

√  630 2
 2t  = 60
 

630 630
+ = 60
2t 2t
630
t= = 10.5 mm.
60

Thickness of steel bracket = t = 10.5 mm

Problem 1.8: Determine the maximum shear stress in the member loaded
shown in Fig. (FAQ)

Solution:

Assume point (C) and image (F1 and F2) two equal and opposite force
i.e., F1 = F2 = F = 500 N.

The force F and F1 produces couple, the effect of couple produces

twisting, which induces torsional shear stress.
1.46 Design of Machine Elements – I - www.airwalkbooks.com

T⋅r
τs =
J

5000 (500) × 50
τs =
π T = 5000 × 500 N−mm
× 1004
32

= τxy r = 50 mm

τs = τxy = 12.73 N ⁄ mm2 π 4 π

J= d = × 1004
32 32

The force F2 produces bending, which induces bending stress

M⋅y M = F2 × 250
σb =
I = 5000 × 250 N−mm

5000 × 250 × 50 d 100

= y= = = 50 mm
π 2 2
(100)4
64 π 4 π
I= d = 1004 mm4
= 12.73 N ⁄ mm2 64 64

σx = σb = 12.73 N ⁄ mm2 ; σy = 0

τxy = 12.73 N ⁄ mm2 [Refer PSG DB Pg. No. 7.2]

[K.M. D.B. Pg. No. 5]

σ1 = Max. principal stress


√
σx + σy  σx − σy 2
= +   + τ2xy
2  2 

=
12.73
2
+

√  12.73 2
 2  + (12.73)
 
2

= 6.365 + 14.23 = + 20.595 N ⁄ mm2

Introduction to Design 1.47

σ2 = Min. principal stress =

σx + σy
2 
√ σx − σy 2

 2
 + τ2xy

= 6.365 − 14.23 = − 7.865 N ⁄ mm2
1.48 Design of Machine Elements – I - www.airwalkbooks.com

σ1 − σ2
Max. Shear stress = τmax =
2

20.595 − ( − 7.865)
= = 14.23 N ⁄ mm2
2

Problem 1.9: Stresses in a wheel hub are found to be 40 N/mm2 and

50 N/mm2 tension at a point as shown in the Fig. Calculate the max. shear
stress at the point.

Solution:

Given data:

σx = 40 N ⁄ mm2; σy = 50 N ⁄ mm2;

σz = 0 since σ3 = 0; τxy = 0

[Refer K.M. D.B. Pg. No. 5]

Max. principal stress

σ1 =
σx + σy
2
+

√  σx − σy 2

 2
 + τ2xy


=
40 + 50
2
+

√  40 − 50 2

 2  = 45 + 5 = 50 N ⁄ mm

2

Min. principal stress

σ2 = 45 − 5 = 40 N ⁄ mm2

Since σ1 and σ2 are + ve, Consider σ3 into account. (σ3 = 0)

σ1 − σ3 50 − 0
Max. shear stress = τmax = = = 25 N ⁄ mm2
2 2
Introduction to Design 1.49

Problem 1.10: A 50 mm diameter rod is subjected to a 10 kN force and a

torsional moment of 100 N-m as shown in the Fig. Determine the maximum
tensile and maximum shear stress at point (A).

Solution:

Assume point ‘C’ and imagine two

equal and opposite forces

F1 and F2 (i.e., F1 = f2 = f = 10,000 (N))

The force F and F1 constitute a

couple. The couple produces bending, which
induces bending stress.

∴ At (A) the bending stress is tensile.

y
σb = M ⋅ M = 10,000 × 25 N−mm
I

10,000 × 25 × 25 50
σb = y= = 25 mm
π 2
× 504
64 π
I= 504
= 20.37 N ⁄ mm2 64

[K.M. D.B. Pg. No. 13]

The remaining force F2 produces a direct

tensile stress.
F2 10,000
σt = = = 5.0929 N ⁄ mm2
A π 2
50
4

total stress = σx = σb + σt = 20.37 + 5.09

= 25.46 N ⁄ mm2

The torsional moment induces

torsional shear stress.
1.50 Design of Machine Elements – I - www.airwalkbooks.com

T⋅r J = 100 N−m

τxy = [Refer K.M. D.B. Pg. No. 2]
J = 100 × 1000 N−mm
100 × 1000 (25) [K.M. D.B. Pg. No. 14]
=
613592.3 π 4
J= d
= 4.07 N ⁄ mm2 32

π
=× 504 = 6135923 mm4
32
50
r= = 25 mm
2

σ1 =
σx + σy
2
+
√

 σx − σy 2

 2
 + τ2xy

(σy = 0)

=
25.46
2
+

√  25.46 2
 2  + (4.07)2
 

= 12.73 + 13.36 = 26.09 N ⁄ mm2

σ2 = 12.73 − 13.36

= − 0.63 N ⁄ mm2

σ1 − σ2
Max. shear stress = τmax =
2

26.09 − ( − 0.63)
=
2

τmax = 13.36 N ⁄ mm2

Introduction to Design 1.51

Problem 1.11: Determine the maximum principal stress, min. principal stress
and max. shear stress at the centre of the crank shaft bearing for the load
as shown in the Fig.

Solution:

The force 10 kN is acting perpendicular to the crank pin and this force
induces bending stress and torsional shear stress at the axis of the crank shaft.

P = 10 kN = 10 × 103 N

Bending moment M = 10 × 103 × 100 N−mm

Twisting moment T = 10 × 103 × 120 × 104 N−mm

M⋅y π 4
Bending stress = σb = I= d [K.M. D.B. Pg. No. 13]
I 64

106 × 30 π
σx = σb = = × 604 = 636.17 × 103 mm4
636.17 × 103 64
= 47.15 N ⁄ mm2 60
y= = 30 mm
2

T⋅r
Shear stress = τxy =
J

120 × 104 × 30 r=
d 60
= = 30 mm
=
1.27 × 106 2 2

π 4 π
J= d = × 604
= 28.34 N ⁄ mm2 32 32
[K.M. D.B. Pg. No. 14]

σy = 0 = 1.27 × 106 mm4

[Refer K.M. D.B. Pg. No. 5]

1.52 Design of Machine Elements – I - www.airwalkbooks.com

Max. principal stress = σ1 =

σx + σy
2
+

√  σx − σy 2

 2
 + τ2xy


=
47.15
2
+

√  47.15 2
 2  + (28.34)
 
2

= 23.575 + 36.863 = 60.4 N ⁄ mm2

Minimum principal stress = σ2 =

σx + σy
2
=

√  σx − σy 2

 2
 + τ2xy

= σ2 = 23.575 − 36.863

= − 13.25 N ⁄ mm2
Introduction to Design 1.53

σ1 − σ2 60.4 − ( − 13.25)
Max. shear stress = τmax = =
2 2

τmax = 36.825 N ⁄ mm2 .

Problem 1.12: Determine the maximum normal and max. shear stresses at
section A-A as shown in the Fig.

Solution:

The load F is resolved into vertical and horizontal components.

FV and FH.

F = 10 kN = 10 × 103 N

FV = Vertical load = F ⋅ sin θ = 10,000 × sin 30° = 5,000 N

FH = Horizontal load = F ⋅ cos θ = 10,000 × cos 30° = 8660.25 N

Both vertical and horizontal loads produces bending moments

(i.e., vertical bending moment and horizontal bending moment.)
1.54 Design of Machine Elements – I - www.airwalkbooks.com

Therefore, it is necessary to find resultant bending moment.

Vertical bending moment

= BMV = FV (30 + 25 + 65) = 5000 (120) = 600 × 103 N−mm

Horizontal bending moment

= BMH = FH (30 + 25 + 65) = 8660.25 × 120 = 1.039 × 106 N−mm

Resulting bending moment = BMR = √

 )2
(MBV)2 + (BMH

(BM)R = √

(600 × 103)2 + (1.039 × 10
6)2 = 1.199 × 106 N−mm

This resultant bending moment induces bending stress σb

(BMR) y 80
Bending stress = σb = y= = 40 mm
I 2

1.199 × 106 × 40 π
σb = σx = I= × 804 [K.M. D.B. Pg. No. 13]
2.01 × 106 64

σb = σx = 23.85 N ⁄ mm2 = 2.01 × 106 mm4

And also, the horizontal load induces torsional shear stress.

[Refer K.M. D.B. Pg. No. 2]
Torsional shear stress T = Twisting moment due to horizontal load.
T⋅r
= τxy = = FH × 150
J
1.29 × 106 × 40
τxy = = 8660.25 × 150 = 1.29 × 106 N−mm
4.02 × 106
80
τxy = 12.83 N ⁄ mm2 (σy = 0) r= = 40 mm
2
π 4 π
J= d = × 804 = 4.02 × 106 mm4
32 32
[Refer K.M. D.B. Pg. No. 5]
Introduction to Design 1.55

Max. principal stress = σ1 =

σx + σy
2
+

√  σx + σy 2

 2
 + τ2xy


=
23.85
2
+

√  23.85 2
 2  + (12.83) = 11.925 + 17.517
 
2

σ1 = 29.442 N ⁄ mm2

Min. principal stress

= σ2 =
σx + σy
2
−

√  σx − σy 2

 2
 + τ2xy = 11.925 − 17.517


σ2 = − 5.592 N ⁄ mm2

σ1 − σ2 29.442 − ( − 5.592)
Max. shear stress at A-A =  τmax  = =
 A − A 2 2

 τmax  = 17.517 N ⁄ mm2

 A − A

Problem 1.13: A wall bracket is loaded as shown in the Fig. The cross-section
of the bracket is rectangular having b = 3t. Determine the dimensions of the
cross-section of the bracket if the permissible stress is limited to 28 N/mm2.
(FAQ)

Solution:

Mark the angle with respect to x-axis. i.e., 30° with x-axis.

Resolve the force F = 5 kN into horizontal and vertical components

Horizontal component of F = FH = F ⋅ cos 30° = 5 × 103 × cos 30° = 4330.12 N

Vertical component of F = FV = F ⋅ sin 30° = 50 × 103 × sin 30° = 2500 N

1.56 Design of Machine Elements – I - www.airwalkbooks.com

Consider a point ‘C’.

At ‘C’ imagine two forces FH & FH equal and opposite forces with
1 2

magnitude of FH; (i.e., FH = FH = FH = 4330.12 N)

1 2

1. The force FV induces bending stress.

M⋅y M = FV × 120
σb =
1 I = 2500 × 120 = 300 × 103 N−mm

300 × 103 × 3t × 12 b 3t
= y= = But b = 3t
27 t4 × 2 2 2

200 × 103 I=
1
t b3 =
1
t (3t)3
σb = N ⁄ mm2
1 t3 12 12

[K.M. D.B. Pg. No. 12]

2. The force FH and FH constitute a couple the effect of couple produces

2

bending. The couple induces bending stress.

M⋅y M = (F ⋅ cos 30°) × 60

σb =
2 I
= (5 × 103 cos 30°) × 60 = 259.8 × 103 N−mm

3t b 3t
259.8 × 103 × y= = But b = 3t
2 2 2
=
1
× 27 × t4
12 1 1
I= (t) b3 = t (3t)3
12 12
173.2 × 103
σb = N ⁄ mm2
2 t3
Introduction to Design 1.57

3. The force FH (tensile) induces direct tensile stress.

1

FH
5 × 103 cos 30° 4330.12 1443.37
σt = = = =
1
A b×t (3t) t t2
1.58 Design of Machine Elements – I - www.airwalkbooks.com

At – A

Total stress = σx = σb + σb + σt
1 2

200 × 103 173.2 × 103 1443.37

= + +
t3 t3 t2

373.2 × 103 1443.37

= +
t3 t2

σy = 0; τxy = 0;

σx = σ1 = 28 N ⁄ mm2 (Given)

373.2 × 103 1443.37

∴ + = 28.
t3 t2

Calculate ‘t’ by trail and error method

Let t = 10 t = 15
L.H.S. 373.2 + 14.43 = 387.63 L.H.S. 110.57 + 6.41 = 116.98
L.H.S. > R.H.S. L.H.S. > R.H.S.

t = 20 t = 25
L.H.S. 46.65 + 3.60 = 50.25 L.H.S. 23.88 + 2.309 = 26.18
L.H.S. > R.H.S. L.H.S. ≈ R.H.S.

Therefore, take thickness t = 25 mm

and b = 3 × t = 3 × 25 = 75 mm.
Problem 1.14: Determine the maximum shear stress and the principal stress
for the member shown in Fig. (a).
Solution:

Introduc e equal and opposit e vertica l forces Fv1 a nd

Fv2 (Fv1 = Fv2 = Fv) perpendicular to the axis of the circular bar and equal and
opposite horizontal forces FH1 and FH2 (FH1 = FH2 = FH), along the axis. This
does not disturb the equilibrium.
Introduction to Design 1.59

Effects of various loads (Fig. (b))

Fv and Fv2 constitute a couple Fv l1 and twist the circular bar. Fv1 bends
the circular bar in the vertical plane. FH and FH2 constitute a couple FH l1
and bends the circular bar in the horizontal plane. FH1 gives tensile load to
the circular bar. Twisting moment,

T = Fv l1 = 2000 × 500 = 10 × 105 N−mm

1.60 Design of Machine Elements – I - www.airwalkbooks.com

Shear stress,
16 T 16 × 10 × 105
τ= = = 40.7 N ⁄ mm2
π d3 π × 503
Bending moment (vertical) = BMv = Fv1 l2

= 2000 × 125 = 25 × 104 N−mm

Bending moment (horizontal) = BMH = FH l1

= 1000 × 500 = 50 × 104 N−mm

Bending moment (resultant) = √
 2H
BM2V + BM

BMR = √

(25 × 104)2 + (50 × 104)2 = 55.9 × 104 N−mm
32 BMR 32 × 55.9 × 104
Bending stress σb = = = 45.6 N ⁄ mm2
π d3 π × 503
FH1
Tensile stress due to FH1 =
(π d2 ⁄ 4)
1000
σt = = 0.509 N ⁄ mm2
(π × 502 ⁄ 4)
σT = σb + σt = 45.6 + 0.509 = 46.1 N ⁄ mm2
[Refer K.M. D.B.

Maximum shear stress = τmax =


√  σT 2

 2 
 + τ2
Pg. No. 3
Eqn. No. 1.5(b)]

=

√  46.1 2
 2  + (40.7) = 46.8 N ⁄ mm
 
2 2

Maximum normal stress = σ1 =


√ σT
2
+
 σT 2

 2 
 + τ2

=
46.1
2
+

√  46.1 2
 2  + (40.7) = 69.8 N ⁄ mm
 
2 2
Introduction to Design 1.61

Problem 1.15: An unknown weight falls through 10 mm on to a collar rigidly

attached to the lower end of a vertical bar 3 m long and 600 mm2 cross
section. The maximum instantaneous extension is 2 mm. What is the
corresponding stress and the value of the weight. Take E = 200 kN ⁄ mm2.
(FAQ)

Refer Fig.
1. Equate the energy of impact to the strain energy of the bar and determine W.
1 .... (1)
W (h + δ) = Pδ
2

δ = instantaneous extension = 2 mm
δ AE
P = equivalent static load =
L

E = 2 × 105 N ⁄ mm2

2 × 600 × 2 × 105
P= = 80,000 N
3000
Now, using (1) solve for W.
1
W (10 + 2) = × 80,000 × 2
2
W = 6666.7 N
P 80,000
2. Instantaneous stress σinst = = = 133.3 N ⁄ mm2
A 600
Problem 1.16: An unknown weight falls through 10 mm on to a collar rigidly
attached to the lower end of a vertical bar 3 m long and 600 mm2 cross-section.
The maximum instantaneous extension is 2 mm. What is the corresponding stress
and the value of the weight; Take E = 200 kN ⁄ mm2. (FAQ)

Given data:

h = 10 mm; l = 3 m = 3000 mm; A = 600 mm2 ; δ = 2 mm (δl);

E = 200 kN ⁄ mm2 = 200 × 103 = 2 × 105 N ⁄ mm2

1.62 Design of Machine Elements – I - www.airwalkbooks.com

Solution:

σ stress (e = ε)
Young’s modulus = E = =
e strain

δ δl 2
Strain = = = = 6.66 × 10− 4
l  l  3000

Instantaneous stress σ = E ⋅ e = 2 × 105 × 6.66 × 10− 4 = 133.33 N ⁄ mm2

P
But σ= .
A

Instantaneous static load P = σ ⋅ A = 133.33 × 600 = 80 × 103 N

1
P δ = W (h + δ)
2

1
× 80 × 103 × 2 = W (10 + 2)
2

80 × 103
W= = 6666.66 N
12

W = 6.666 kN.

Problem 1.17: An I-section beam of depth 250 mm is supported at two points

4 m apart. It is loaded by a weight 4 kN falling through a height h and
striking the beam at mid span. Moment of inertia of the section is
8 × 107 mm4. Modulus of Elasticity is 210 kN ⁄ mm2. Determine the permissible
value of h if the stress is limited to 120 N ⁄ mm2. (FAQ)

Solution:

d 250
depth = d = 250, mm ; y = = = 125 mm; l = 4 m = 4,000 mm
2 2

W = 4 kN = 4 × 103 N ; I = 8 × 107 mm4 ; E = 210 kN ⁄ mm2 = 210 × 103 N ⁄ mm2

Instantaneous stress = σ = 120 N ⁄ mm2

Introduction to Design 1.63

M⋅y  M I [From PSG D.B.

Instantaneous stress = σ = σ= where Z = 
I  Z y Pg. No. 7.1]

P⋅l
But Max. BM = M = (for a simply supported beam load acting at centre)
4
P⋅l [From PSG D.B Pg. No. 6.5]
×y
4
σ=
I

σ ⋅ I ⋅ 4 120 × 8 × 107 × 4
Instantaneous static load P = = = 76.8 × 103 N
l⋅y 4000 × 125
Instantaneous deflection, δ for a simply supported beam with a
concentrated centre load.
P ⋅ l3 [From PSG D.B. P.No. 6.5]
δ=
48 EI [K.M. D.B. Pg. No. 15]
76.8 × 10 × 4000
3 3 [–ve sign indicates the deflection
δ=
48 × 210 × 103 × 8 × 107 in downward direction]

Instantaneous deflection δ = 6.095 mm

We know that
1
P δ = W (h + δ)
2
1
× 76.8 × 103 × 6.095 = 4 × 103 (h + 6.095)
2
h = 58.514 − 6.095 mm

h = 52.419 mm
1.64 Design of Machine Elements – I - www.airwalkbooks.com

Problem 1.18: A weight of 6000 N falls through a distance ‘h’ at the middle
of a beam of span 4.5 m. The end connections of the beam may be considered
as simply supported. Determine the value of h, such that the maximum induced
stress in the beam does not exceed 160 N ⁄ mm2. The modulus of section of
the beam = 2 × 10− 4 m3, second moment of area = 1 × 10− 5 m4 (FAQ)

Given data:

W = 6000 N; l = 4.5 m = 4500 mm; Z = 2 × 10− 4 m3 = 2 × 10− 4 × (1000)3

= 200 × 103 mm3; I = 1 × 10− 5 m4 = 1 × 10− 5 × (1000)4 = 107 mm4.

Let M = Max. BM for a simply supported beam, concentrated load acting

at the centre.

P ⋅ l P × 4500 [From PSG D.B Pg. No. 6.5]

Max. BM = M = =
4 4

P × 4500 M
4 bending stress σ =
160 = z
200 × 103

P = 28444.44 N

Pl3 28.44 × 103 × 45003

Instantaneous deflection, δ = =
48 EI 48 × 210 × 103 × 107

= 25.71 mm E is not given Assume

E = 120 × 102 N ⁄ mm2
[From PSG D.B Pg. No. 6.5]
[K.M. D.B. Pg. No. 15]

1
P δ = W (h + δ)
2

1
× 28.44 × 103 × 25.71 = 6000 (h + 25.71)
2

h = 60.93 − 25.71 = 35.22 mm

h = 35.22 mm
Introduction to Design 1.65

Problem 1.19: A cantilever shaft of 60 mm diameter and 0.3 m length in

subjected to following load (a) point load of 5 kN at free end (b) Axial load
of 20 kN and (c) Torque of 1 kN-m as shown in Fig. Determine the stresses
at A and B.
Solution:
F 20,000 × 4
1. Axial stress due to 20 kN, σa = = = 7.07 N ⁄ mm2
A π × 602
Bending stress due to the tip load 5 kN,
32 × M 32 × 5000 × 300
σbt = σbc = = = 70.7 N ⁄ mm2
π d3 π × 603
Shear stress due to torque 1 kN-m,
16T 16 × 1,000,000
τ= = = 23.6 N ⁄ mm2
π d3 π × 603
2. At A state of stress is depicted in Fig. (c)

Total normal stress σT = σbt + σa = 70.7 + 7.07 = 77.8 N ⁄ mm2

τ = 23.6 N ⁄ mm2

σ1, 2 =
σx + σy
2
±
√  σx − σy 2

 2
 + τ2xy

[Refer K.M. D.B. Pg. No. 5]

=
σT
2
±

√  2
√
 σT 2
  + τ2 =

77.8
2
±
 77.8 2
 2  + 23.6 = 38.9 ± 45.5
 
2

σ1 = 84.4 N ⁄ mm2 , σ2 = − 6.6 N ⁄ mm2

σ1 − σ2 84.4 − ( − 6.6)
τmax = = = 45.5 N ⁄ mm2
2 2
3. At B state of stress is depicted in Fig. (d)

σT = − σbc + σa = − 70.7 + 7.07 = − 63.6 N ⁄ mm2

τ = 23.6 N ⁄ mm2
1.66 Design of Machine Elements – I - www.airwalkbooks.com

σ1.2 =
σT
2
=±

√  σT 2

 2
 + τ2 =

− 63.6
2
±

√  − 63.6 2
 2  + 23.6
 
2

σ1 = 7.8 N ⁄ mm2 ; σ2 = − 71.4 N ⁄ mm2

σ1 − σ2 7.8 − ( − 71.4)
τmax = = = 39.6 N ⁄ mm2
2 2
Introduction to Design 1.67

Problem 1.20: Calculate the strain energy stored per unit volume,
i.e., resilience is increased for the same maximum stress by turning down the
shank of the bolt to t he core diameter of t he thread. Take
E = 2.1 × 105 N ⁄ mm2.

Solution:
1. Calculation of stresses in the shank and in the threaded portion

π d2c π × 16.62
At = Area of the core section = = = 216.4 mm2
4 4

Load
Stress in the threaded portion =
Area

20000
σ1 = = 92.42 N ⁄ mm2
216.4

As = Area of the shank section

π × d2 π × 202
= = = 314.2 mm2
4 4

20000
σs = Stress in the shank section = = 63.65 N ⁄ mm2
314.2

2. Strain energy calculation

σ2
U= × volume [Refer K.M. DB Pg. No. 29, Eqn. No. 2.27(b)]
2E
σ2t At lt σ2s As ls 92.422 × 216.4 × 40 63.652 × 314.2 × 80
U= + = +
2E 2E 2 × 2.1 × 105 2 × 2.1 × 105
= 176.05 + 242.46 = 418.5 N−mm
3. Strain energy after the shank is turned to the core diameter

σ = σt = 92.42 N ⁄ mm2

σ2t 92.422 × 216.4 × (40 + 80)

U= × At (lt + ls) = = 528.11 N−mm
2E 2 × 2.1 × 105
1.68 Design of Machine Elements – I - www.airwalkbooks.com

1.15. COMBINED STRESSES DUE TO ECCENTRIC LOADING

Frames of punching machines, hydraulic riveter, clamps etc. are subjected
to combined stresses due to eccentric loading.
In Fig. 1.17(b), the loading is eccentric. In Fig. 1.17(c), equal and
opposite forces (F1 = F2 = F) are introduced along the axis of the member.
This results in a direct force F and a couple C = Fe, acting on the member
as shown in Fig. 1.17(d). The stress distribution are shown in Fig. 1.18.
Introduction to Design 1.69

Stresses on section m − n
At m, tensile stress
F e Ct F Ct = Distance between axis and
σm = −
I A
outer most layer in leftside

At n, compressive stress
F e Cc F Cc = Distance between axis and
σn = +
I A outermost layer in right side

Problem 1.21: Determine the required thickness of the steel bracket at section
X – X when loaded as shown in Fig. The permissible tensile stress is
100 MN ⁄ m2.
1.70 Design of Machine Elements – I - www.airwalkbooks.com

Solution:

This is a problem in eccentric loading.

Along the axis, two equal and opposite forces F are introduced (Fig.(b)).
The upward F at A and downward F at B constitute a couple C = F e.
Therefore, at B, we have the upward F and a couple C. This equivalent loading
is depicted in Fig. (c).
Induced bending stress due to the couple

Fe
σb =
Z
F e = 5000 × 50 = 250,000 N−mm
1 2 1
Z= tb = × t × 502 = 416.7 t
6 6
250,000 600
= ≈ N ⁄ mm2
416.7 t t

Direct tensile stress due to F

F 5000 100
σt = = = N ⁄ mm2
bt 50 × t t

The stress distribution is shown in Fig. (d)

Maximum stress is on side 1
σT1 = σbt + σt (both are tensile)

600 100 700

= + =
t t t
700
≤  σt  ( = 100 N ⁄ mm2)
t
t ≤ 7 mm, take t = 8 mm
Note: Stress on side 2
− 600 100
σ12 = − σbc (compressive stress) + σt = + = − 62.5 N ⁄ mm2
8 8
Introduction to Design 1.71

Problem 1.22: A wall bracket shown in Fig. is subjected to a pull of 5 kN

at 60° to the vertical. The cross section of the bracket is rectangular having
b = 3t. Determine the dimensions of the cross section of the bracket if the
permissible stress is limited to 28 N ⁄ mm2. (FAQ)

1. Refer to Fig. (b)

F is resolved into FH and FV

FV bends the bracket and bending stresses are induced across AB.

Introduce equal and opposite forces FH1 and FH2 ( FH1 = FH2 = FH) along
the axis. FH and FH2 constitute a couple inducing bending stresses. FH1 induces
uniform tensile stress across the section.

2. Direct tensile stress

FH 4330 1443.3 FH = 5000 sin 60° = 4330 N

σ1 = = =
bt 3t2 t2 FV = 5000 cos 60° = 2500 N
b = 3t

3. Bending stress due to FV (at (A & B)

M 300,000 200,000 M = FV × 120 = 250 × 120

σ2 = = =
1 2 1
t (et)2 t3
6
tb
6 = 300,000 N−mm
1.72 Design of Machine Elements – I - www.airwalkbooks.com

4. Bending stress due to couple FH × 60

Couple = C = 4330 × 60 = 259,800 N−mm

C 259,800 173,200
σ2 = = =
1 2 1
tb t (3t)2 t3
6 6

5. Total normal stress at A – Tensile stress

1443.2 200000 173200

σ = σ1 + σ2 + σ3 = + +
t2 t3 t3

373200 1443.3
σ= +
t3 t2

6. Now σ ≤ [ σ ]

373200 1443.3
i.e. 3
+ 2
≤ [ σ ] = 28 N ⁄ mm2
t t

t is evaluated by trial and error method

trail 1: If t = 20 mm, we get σ = 50.25 N ⁄ mm2 > 28 N ⁄ mm2

N  N 
trail 2: If t = 25 mm, we get σ = 26.18 < [ σ ]  = 28 2
mm2  mm 
Hence, it is safer to take
t = 25 mm and
b = 3 × 25 = 75 mm
1.16. STRESS CONCENTRATION

Elementary equations for stresses,

P
Tensile stress = σt =
A
M⋅y
Bending stress = σb =
I
T⋅r
Shear stress = τ =
J
Introduction to Design 1.73

The above equations are based on assumptions, that there are no

dis-continuities in the cross-section of the component.

A plate, with a small circular hole subjected to tensile stress is shown

in Fig. 1.19.

It is observed from the nature of stress distribution at the section passing

through the hole, that there is a sudden rise in the magnitude of stresses in
the neighbourhood of the hole.

The localised stresses in the neighbourhood of the hole are far greater
than the stresses obtained by the elementary equations.
1.74 Design of Machine Elements – I - www.airwalkbooks.com

1.16.1. Definition of Stress Concentration

It is defined as the localisation of high stresses due to irregularities (or)

abrupt changes of the cross-section.
Highest value of actual stress
Theoretical stress
near discontinuity
concentration = Kt =
Nominal stress obtained by elementary
factor
equations for min. cross−section

σmax τMax
= (or)
σo τo

σmax = max. stress; τmax = Max. shear stress

σo = Nominal stress; τo = Nominal shear stress

★ σo and τ0 are the stresses calculated by the elementary equations for

minimum cross-section.
★ The values of Kt depends upon the geometry of the component. (From
PSG Databook P.No. 7.9 to 7.16). (From K.M. Data Book Pg. No.
36 to 45)
1.16.2. Nominal Stress (σo) Cross Section

P
σo =
(W − d) t

P
σo =
d×t
Introduction to Design 1.75

P
σo =
π 2
4d 
 

Mb ⋅ y
σo =
I
d
y=
2
π 4
I= d
64

Mt ⋅ r
τo =
J

1.16.3. Stress Concentration Factors

The stress concentration factors are determined by two methods.

1. Mathematical analysis based on the theory of elasticity.
2. Experimental methods like photo-elasticity.

There are limitations for the techniques of the theory of elasticity. For
more complex shapes, the stress concentration factors are determined by
photos-elasticity.
The chart represents stress concentration factors for different geometric
shapes and conditions of loading. (PSG databook – 7.9 to 7.16) (K.M. D.B.
Pg. No. 36 to 45)
Example: Pg. No. 7.10 in PSG Databook

Rectangular plate with a transverse hole loaded in tension or

compression.
1.76 Design of Machine Elements – I - www.airwalkbooks.com

σmax
Kt = .... (1) σo = Nominal stress; where t = Plate thickness
σo

P
σo = .... (2) (PSG Pg. No. 7.10)
(W − a) t

Calculate a / W ratio; From chart, corresponding to the value of a / W

ratio, take the value of Kt (stress concentration factor). Substitute the value of
Kt and σo in equation (1) and find the maximum stress.

★ The effect of stress concentration depends upon the material of the

component.
★ Under static loads, ductile materials are not affected by stress
concentration.
★ Therefore, stress concentration factors are not used for ductile
materials under static loading.
★ The effect is more severe in case of brittle materials, due to their
inability to plastic deformation.
★ Stress concentration factors are used for components made up of
brittle materials subjected to static loads.
★ When the load is fluctuating, the endurance strength of the ductile
material is greatly reduced due to stress concentration.
1.16.4. Reduction of Stress Concentration Effects

In many cases, it is not possible to avoid the discontinuities or abrupt

changes of the cross-section. However, it is possible for the designer to reduce
the severity of stress concentration by selecting the correct geometric shape.
The original component with a V-notch is shown in Fig. 1.21. It is obtained
that a single notch results in a high degree of stress concentration.

The severity of stress concentration is reduced by using the principle of

minimisation of the material.

There are three methods for achieving this effect:

(i) Use of multiple notches.

Introduction to Design 1.77

(ii) Removal of undesired material.

(iii) Drilling additional holes.

Problem 1.23: Determine the maximum stress produced in a rectangular plate

50 mm wide, 8 mm thick with a central hole of 10 mm diameter. It is loaded
in an axial tension of 1 kN. (FAQ)

Solution:
Given data:
Width = W = 50 mm

Thickness = h = 8 mm

Dia. of centre hole = a = 10 mm

Axial tension = P = 1 kN = 1 × 103 N

σmax
Stress concentration = Kt = To find Kt
σo
Kt = Stress concentration (Refer Databook Page No. 7.10)
(K.M. D.B. Pg. No. 36)

σmax = Maximum stress = N ⁄ mm2

1.78 Design of Machine Elements – I - www.airwalkbooks.com

σ0 = Nominal stress a 10
= = 0.2
W 50

P a
= Corresponding to the value of = 0.2, take the
(W − a) h W
value of Kt which is equal to 2.5.

1 × 103
= = 3.125 N ⁄ mm2
(50 − 10) 8
σmax
∴ Kt = ,
σ0

2.5 × 3.125 = σmax,

The maximum stress = σmax = 7.8125 N ⁄ mm2

Problem 1.24: A flat plate is subjected to a tensile force of 5 kN as shown

in the Fig. Take FOS = 2.5; ultimate stress = 200 N ⁄ mm2. Calculate the plate
thickness. (FAQ)

Solution:
Given:

Flat plate, tensile force (P) = 5 kN = 5 × 103 N,

FOS = 2.5; σu = 200 N ⁄ mm2

Introduction to Design 1.79

The stresses are critical at two sections,

1. Section at the fillet A-A
2. Section at the hole B-B
1. SECTION – A-A (Fillet section)
D = 45 ; d = 30
Fillet radius r = 5
D 45
= = 1.5
d 30

r 5
= = 0.167
d 30

σmax [From PSG databook, Pg. No. 7.9]

Kt =
σo [K.M. Databook Pg. No. 38]

σmax = Kt ⋅ σo Kt = 1.8

1.8 × 5 × 103 σo = Nominal stress

=
30 × t

 300  P 5 × 103
=  N ⁄ mm2 .... (1) σo = =
 t  d × t 30 × t
1.80 Design of Machine Elements – I - www.airwalkbooks.com

2. SECTION – B-B: (Hole section) (From PSG DB Pg. No.7.10)

P
σo = W = 30 mm
(W − a) t
5 × 103
= a = 15 mm
(30 − 15) t
t = thickness
a 15
= = 0.5
W 30
a
at = 0.5 take Kt value, Kt = 2.16
W
σmax = Kt ⋅ σo
5000
= 2.16 ×
15 × t
720 .... (2)
σmax = N ⁄ mm2
t
From (1) and (2) it is seen that maximum stress is induced at the hole
section. Equating permissible stress to equation (2)
720 200  σu 
i.e., = = 
t FOS  FOS 
700 200
=
t 2.5
700 × 2.5
or t= = 8.75 mm
200
∴ t = 8.75 mm Take t = 9 mm
Problem 1.25: A stepped shaft has maximum dia = 45 mm, minimum
dia. = 30 mm, fillet radius = 6 mm. If the shaft is subjected to an axial load
of 10 kN, find the maximum stress induced.
Solution:
Given Stepped Shaft
D = 45 mm ; d = 30 mm

r = 6 mm ;

P = 10 kN = 10 × 103 N
Introduction to Design 1.81

The maximum stress occurs

at fillet cross-section at A-A
D 45
= = 1.5
d 30
r 6 [K.M. D.B. Pg. No. 42]
= = 0.2
d 30 [PSG D.B. Pg. No. 7.11]

Kt from Graph,

Kt = 1.45

P 10 × 103
Nominal stress = σo = =
A π
(30)2
4
σo = 14.147 N ⁄ mm2

σmax
Kt =
σo

Kt ⋅ σo = σmax

σmax = Max. stress = 1.45 × 14.147 = 20.513 N ⁄ mm2

σmax = 20.513 N ⁄ mm2

Problem 1.26: A stepped shaft has maximum dia = 50 mm, minimum dia. =
25 mm, fillet radius 5 mm. If the shaft is subjected to a twisting moment of
1500 N-m, find the maximum stress induced.
Solution:

Given:

Stepped shaft: D = 50 mm

d = 25 mm

Fillet radius r = 5 mm

T = Mt = 1500 N−mm
1.82 Design of Machine Elements – I - www.airwalkbooks.com

Calculate Max. shear

Mt ⋅ r
stress τo =
J
(Refer PSG DB Pg. No. 7.1),
(K.M. D.B. Pg. No. 2)
π 4
J= d
32
D 50
= =2
d 25
r 5 1
= = = 0.2
d 25 5

Kt = 1.35

τmax
Kt =
τo

(From PSG D.B Pg. No. 7.14), (K.M. D.B. Pg. No. 43)

where r = minimum shaft diameter

Mt ⋅ r d 25
τo = Nominal shear stress = = = 12.5 mm
J 2 2

1500 × 12.5
= = 0.488 N ⁄ mm2
π
× 254
32

τmax
∴ Kt =
τo

τmax = 1.35 × 0.4889 = 0.66 N ⁄ mm2

Introduction to Design 1.83

Problem 1.27: A Non-rotating shaft supporting a load of 2.5 kN is shown in

the Fig. The material of the shaft is brittle, with an ultimate tensile strength
of 300 N ⁄ mm2. Calculate the dia. of the shaft. Take FOS = 3.

Solution:
The stresses are critical at
1. fillet
2. at the centre of the span
1. At fillet
r 0.1 d [PSG Databook Pg. No. 7.11]
= = 0.1
d d [K.M. Databook Pg. No. 42]
D 1.1 d
= = 1.1
d d

Kt = 1.47 from Graph

d (From PSG D.B. Pg. No. 7.1)
1250 × 350 ×
M⋅y 2 4.4563 × 106 (K.M. D.B Pg. No. 2)
σo = = =
I π 4 d3
d
64
1.47 × 4.4563 × 106 6.55 × 106 .... (1)
σmax = kt ⋅ σo = = N ⁄ mm2
d3 d3
1.84 Design of Machine Elements – I - www.airwalkbooks.com

2. At centre
The beam is subjected to max. bending moment at centre.
d Simply supported beam, concentrated
625 × 103 ×
M⋅y 2 load acting at its centre, Max. B.M.
σb = =
I π 4
d
64
6.366 × 106 PL 2.5 × 103 × 1000
σb = N ⁄ mm2 .... (2) M= =
d3 4 4
= 625 × 10 N ⁄ mm2
3

[From PSG D.B Pg. No. 6.5], [K.M. D.B. Pg. No. 15]
From equations (1) and (2)
The stress is max. at the fillet section.
∴ Equating it with permissible stress,
σu 300
Permissible stress = = = 100 N ⁄ mm2
FOS 3
6.5508 × 106
∴ 100 =
d3
dia. of shaft d = 40.31 mm
Take d = 42 mm
D
Problem 1.28: Calculate the dimension of a stepped cylinder with = 1.5
d
and the ratio of fillet radius to the dia. ‘d’ as 0.25, when the cylinder is
subjected to a BM of ± 1500 N−mm; Material for the cylinder is C 15 steel.
(FAQ)
Solution:
Introduction to Design 1.85

Given: Stepped cylinder

σmax D
Kt = = 1.5
σo d

σmax = Kt (σo) r
= 0.25
d
M⋅y (From PSG D.B Pg. No. 7.14), K t = 1.25
120 = 1.25 ×
I (K.M. Data Book Pg. No. 43)
d
1500 ×
2 M⋅y
= 1.25 × (σb)nominal =
π 4 I
d
64
1.25 × 15 W × 32
d3 = For C15 materials
π × 120
d = 5.419 mm Take σy = (PSG Pg. No. 1.9)
D = 1.5 d = 1.5 × 5.419 = 240 N ⁄ mm2 ; Assume FOS = 2
σy 240
= 8.128 mm. σmax = = = 120 N ⁄ mm2
FOS 2
Problem 1.29: What maximum axial force can be applied on a plate of width
50 mm and thickness 10 mm with a central hole of 10 mm diameter without
exceeding the yield point stress of 62.5 MPa across its width. (FAQ)

Solution:

Given data

Let P = Maximum axial force

Width = w = 50 mm
1.86 Design of Machine Elements – I - www.airwalkbooks.com

Thickness = h = 10 mm

Central hole diameter = a = 10 mm

Stress = 62.5 MPa

= 62.5 N ⁄ mm2

(Refer PSG Databook Page No. 7.10). To find Kt

σmax
Stress concentration = Kt =
σo

Kt = stress concentration

σmax = maximum stress

= 62.5 MPa = 62.5 N ⁄ mm2

σ0 = nominal stress in N ⁄ mm2

P P
= =
(w − a) h (50 − 10) 10

P
= N ⁄ mm2
400

σmax a 10
Kt = = = 0.2
σ0 w 50

62.5 a
2.5 = Corresponding to the value of = 0.2, take
P w
400 the value of Kt. It’s value is 2.5.

Max. axial P = 10000 N

Force = P = 10 kN
Introduction to Design 1.87

Problem 1.30: Taking stress concentration into account, find the maximum
stress induced when a tensile load of 20 kN is applied to
(i) a rectangular plate of 80 mm wide and 12 mm thick with a transverse
hole of 16 mm diameter.
(ii) a stepped shaft of diameter 60 mm and 30 mm with a fillet radius of
6 mm. (FAQ)

Solution: Given data

Tensile load = P = 20 kN = 20 × 103 N

(a) A rectangular plate of 80 mm wide and 12 mm thick with a
transverse hole of diameter 16 mm.

σmax w = width = 80 mm
Kt = .... (1) based on net section. h = thickness = 12 mm
σnom
a = hole diameter = 16 mm
Finite width-plate with a transverse
hole. Refer Graph P. No. 7.10 PSG
a 16 σmax = maximum stress
= = 0.2
w 80 Kt = stress concentration
From Graph, P
But , σnom =
(w − a) h
a Substitute the values in above eq. (1)
for = 0.2, the value of Kt = 2.5
w

σmax
Kt =
P
(w − a) h

σmax
2.5 =
20 × 103
(80 − 16) 12

Maximum stress

= σmax = 65.104 N ⁄ mm2

1.88 Design of Machine Elements – I - www.airwalkbooks.com

(b) a stepped shaft of diameter 60 mm and 30 mm with a fillet radius of

6 mm.

[Refer PSG Databook, Page No. 7.11]

[K.M. Databook Pg. No. 43]

D = 60 mm

d = 30 mm

r = 6 mm

D 60
Shaft with a shoulder fillet in tension. = =2
d 3

r 6 1
Refer Graph = = = 0.2
d 30 5

From Graph,

r D
for = 0.2 and =2
d d

the value of Kt = 1.5

P
σnom = nominal stress =
A

π 2
A= d
4
(Consider smaller diameter)

σmax π
Kt = (30)2 = 706.858 mm2
σnom 4

σmax 20 × 103
1.5 = σnom = = 28.294 N ⁄ mm2
28.294 706.858

Maximum stress = σmax = 42.4413 N ⁄ mm2

*********
Index I.1

INDEX

A Cumulative fatigue damage, 2.57

Curvature effect, 5.9
Alloy steels, 1.11
Application of power screw, 3.39
D
Applications of the springs, 5.2

B Design of shaft based on strength, 6.4

Design of gib and cotter joint, 4.113
Bolt of uniform strength, 3.6 Design procedure of key, 6.93
Bolted joints, 3.17 Design of screw jack, 3.74
Buckling of compression springs, 5.11
Design of structural joints, 4.10
Bushed pin flexible coupling, 6.117
Design of circumferential joint, 4.71
Butt joint in tension, 4.153
Design of structural joints, 4.64
C Design stresses, 4.63
Design of sleeve and cotter joint, 4.106
Cast iron, 1.9
Design of flexible couplings, 6.116
Cast steel, 1.11
Design of bolts for cylinder cover, 3.8
Caulking and fullering, 4.6
Design of rigid coupling, 6.98
Causes of failure in shafts, 6.3
Design of power screws, 3.39
Classification of couplings, 6.97
Design for finite life, 2.56
Classification of design, 1.3
Design based on critical speed, 6.12
Classification of welding, 4.119
Direct tensile stress, 3.18
Close-coiled helical spring, 5.6
Coaxial springs, 5.89 Disc springs (or) belleville springs, 5.81
Common types of screw fastening, 3.4 Ductile fracture, 1.26
Common modes of failure, 2.1
Compression stress, 3.19 E
Concentric springs, 5.87
Conical and volute springs, 5.96 Eccentric loading of springs, 5.11
Cotter joints, 4.84 Effect of initial tension, 3.17
Critical frequency, 5.14 Effects of keyways, 6.93
I.2 Design of Machine Elements – I - www.airwalkbooks.com

Efficiency of a Riveted Joint, 4.64 K

End connections for helical springs, 5.10
Endurance limit stress, 2.43 Knuckle joint, 4.79

F L

Leaf spring material, 5.108

Factor of safety, 1.30, 2.2
Leaf spring, 5.97
Factors influencing machine design, 1.4
Factors affecting endurance limit, 2.45
M
Failures modes of keys, 6.90
Fatigue loading of helical springs, 5.65 Material for Rivets, 4.2
Fatigue failure, 2.39 Mechanical properties of materials, 1.6
Features of shaft coupling, 6.97 Mechanism of ductile fracture, 1.27
Ferrous metals, 1.9 Modes of failures in riveted joint, 4.7
Flange coupling, 6.111
Flat spiral spring, 5.78 N
Forces acting on a key, 6.89
Nipping of leaf springs, 5.103
Friction in V-threads (ACME thread), 3.49
Non-ferrous metals, 1.14
Friction in power screw, 3.41

O
G
Oldham Coupling, 6.160
Gasketed joint, 3.32
Open-coiled helical spring, 5.6
Gaskets, 3.31
P
H
Permissible stresses, 5.108
Helical springs, 5.5 Plastic behaviour of metals, 1.26
Helical torsion spring, 5.71 Preferred numbers, 1.15
Principal stresses, 1.37
I
R
Impact stress, 1.35
Initial gap, 5.104 Resilience, 5.13
Initial pre-load, 5.105 Riveted joints, 4.1
Index I.3

S Types of riveted joints, 4.4

Types of power screw threads, 3.40
Selection of materials, 1.8 Types of shaft (according to use), 6.2
Shafting materials, 6.3
U
Shear stress in the threads, 3.19
Shock and impact loads, 2.40 Universal or Hooke’s coupling, 6.160
Simple stresses, 1.19 Welded joints, 4.118
Sleeve and cotter joint, 4.106
Soderberg and Goodman diagrams, 2.47 *********
Spring materials, 5.1
Springs in series, 5.69
Springs in parallel, 5.70
Springs, 5.1
Standard shaft diameters, 6.2
Standards and codes, 1.17
Static loading, 5.13
Steel, 1.10
Stiffness (k), 6.9
Strength of a Riveted Joint, 4.64
Stress in shafts, 6.3
Stress concentration, 1.72
Stresses in power screws, 3.54
Stresses in butt weld, 4.152
System of designation for steels, 1.12

Theories of failure, 2.3

Threaded joints, 3.1
Torque diagrams, 6.14
Torsional shear stress, 3.18
Types of ends for extension springs, 5.12
Types of welded joints, 4.119