ic ci the devices which have contagj, 1c uiilding blocks of any electronic circuit are s on A Re i Bes which have ewo electrodes : anode ; sly vacuum tubes. The vacuum ul = 5 oe. eciet tio aes and the cubes which have three electrodes = ca tho & DD shode and grid, are called eriode valves. Such devices We%® ball, conse igh ong fede ited life and low reliability. h MU J generally operate at high volrages ‘and have limited life and low 7. SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS : MATERIALS, DEVICES ) AND SIMPLE CIRCUITS The seed of growth and development of modern solid state semiconductor CHAPTER CHECKLIST electronics goes back to 1930, when it was realised that some semiconductors + Semiconductor, Diode and their junctions have the ability of controlling the number and the direction and Its Applications of flow of charge carricrs through them. Simple excitation with the help of re light, heat or small applied voltage can change the number of mobile charge carriers in a semiconductor. The supply and flow of charge carriers in these devices are within the solid itself, no vacuum or external heating is required. So, these devices are small in size, consume low power, operate at low voltages and have long life and high reliability. CLASSIFICATION OF METALS, CONDUCTORS AND SEMICONDUCTORS ON THE BASIS OF CONDUCTIVITY On the basis of the relative values of electrical conductivity (6) or resistivity (= Wo), the solids are broadly classified as, (i) Metals They possess very low resistivity (or high conductivity). p-107?-10-$Q2m, o-107-10° Sm! ii) Semiconductors They have resistivity or conductivity intermediate to metals and insulators. p-10-°-10°Qm, o-10°-10-°Sm~""-10"O, 0-19. gee , gh can be of the following types Blement semiconductors These sea; @ ae semiconductors are eg Silicon and germanium @ Compound semiconductors These semiconcicto made by compounding the meal eg (@ Inorganic semiconductors are C ex. IS, GaAs, Cae, InP, ©) Organic semiconductors are anthracene, thalocyanines, « doped Se are polypyrrole, polythiophene, ete. ENERGY BANDS IN SOLIDS (CONDUCTOR, INSULATOR AND SEMICONDUCTOR) Fhergy Band According ‘'s atomic m and concept of electronic Serine aa isolated = = oe ee certain, the conduction band Sey ee oo oe SN SESemartep secon wawrcome Sk Nance Dan Difference between Conducter, Insulator and Semiconductor on the basis of Energy Bands But in a crystal due to interatomic } clectvons are shared by more than ¢ this, splitting of energy level takes pli ‘of theve closely spaced energy levels band. These bands are formed due | jon in different energy t These different energy levels in diff formed because inside the crystal, ea tuntique pesition and no wo dectron, same pattern of surrounding charges. Valence Band ‘The energy band, which includes the the valence electrons is called valence may be partially or completely filled 9 is never empty Conduction Band ‘The energy band above the valence conduction band. At room temperan, cither empey or partially filled with eler can gain energy fiom external electric | from valence to conduction band and ¢ clectric current, Rees ai tok® Oe ty ry P 9-10-10? Qm, 6 - 19-11 The values of p and oy «4 aagnitude and could wellgy ny. imeres in this chapter is in the sa sch ca be of the following gyn Blement semiconductors These... Dele in nara form, PS Smiconducrrs €g, Silicon and germanium, {i) Compound semiconduct. conductivity) =10" §ya-t bove are i de indiatve of anges as well ly of semiconductors, are ‘ors Th hese semiconductors made by compounding the meals eg A 19 horn exiconductons ae CaS Cady Ci, op, exc. > InP, () Organic semiconduct pthalocyanines, etc, (©) Organic polymer sen polyaniline, polythi ors ate anthracene, doped miconductors a iophene, etc ENERGY BANDS IN SOLIDS (CONDUCTOR, INSULATOR AND SEMICONDUCTOR) Energy Band According to Bohr’s atomic configuration in an isolated polypyrrole, model and concept of electronic atom, the electrons have certain Electronics : 5 * Materials, Devices and Simple Circuits Difference between Conductor, Insulator and Semiconductor of definite discrete amounts of energy corresponding to different shells and subshells, ic. there are well-defined energy levels of electrons in an isolated atom, Bur in a crystal due to interatomic interaction, valence electrons are shared by more than one atom, Due t0 this, splitting of energy level takes place. The collection of these closely spaced energy levels is called an energy band. These bands are formed due to the continuous energy variation in different energy levels. These different energy levels in different electrons are formed because inside the crystal, each electron has a tunique position and no two electrons is exactly at the same pattern of surrounding charges. Valence Band ‘The energy band, which includes the energy levels of the valence electrons is called valence band. This band may be partially or completely filled with electrons but is never empty. Conduction Band The energy band above the valence band is called conduction band. At room temperature, this band is cither empry or partially filled with electrons, Electrons can gain energy from exeemnal electric field, then jump from valence to conduction band and contribute to the electric current. n the basis of Energy Bands Conductor (Metal) hheonductor, either there is no energy gap between the conduction band which is Pattaly filed with electrons and valence Band or the conduction band and valence and overiap each other. Thus, many electrons from below the fermi level can shift o higher energy levels above the fei level in the conduction band and as free electrons by acquiting alitle fare energy from any other sources. Conduction Conduction Insulator 'n insulator, the valence band is completely fled, the conduction band is complete, empty. his, enery gap is gute lrge fang even energy tom any othr S0UrGo cannot hep elections to overcome B Thus, elections are bound to valence band and a not fee to mave. Hence, elects onducion is not posse in ths type of ees [Empty conduction band I. and ads 9 ec -| le, Mmniaint a i e>3w Tnionce | yae : [be eee eae ees ‘Semiconductor 'n semiconductor, the valence band is totally filed and the conduction band is empty but the energy gap between conduction band and valence band, unike insulators is vary small ‘Thus, at toom temperature, some electrons in the valence band acquire thermal energy ‘greater than energy band gap and jump ever to the conduction band where they are free {0 move under the influence of even a small electric field and acquire small conductivity. \g—Conduction JE band FA : esse = valence bane568 Energy Band Gap ‘The minimum energy required for shifting electrons from valence band to conduction band is called energy band gap (E, ). Ivis the gap between the top of the valence band and bottom of the conduction band. It can be zero, small or large depending upon the material Note isthe wavelength of radiation usd n iting tho eecron ffom valence band to canducton band, ten energy band gap i ‘where, his called Planck's constant and cis the velocity of light Fermi Energy Ic is the maximum possible energy possessed by free clectrons of a material at absolute zero temperature (ic.0K). The value of fermi energy is different for different materials. SEMICONDUCTORS ‘The materials whose conductivity lic between metals and insulators are known as semiconductors. They are characterised by narrow energy gap (less than 3eV) between the valence band and conduction band. At absolute zero temperature, all states in valence band are filled and all states in conduction band are empty. An applied electric field cannot give so much energy to the valence electrons, that they could cross the gap and enter the conduction band. Hence, at low temperatures, pure semiconductors arc insulators. ¥ Electrons and Holes in Semiconductors {At room temperature, however some of the valence electrons ‘acquire thermal energy greater than E, and move into Conduction band. A vacancy is created in the valence band at ‘each place where an electron was present before moving into Conduction band. This vacancy is called hole. Itis a seat of positive charge of magnitude equal to the charge of an electron. Thus, fee electrons in the conduction band and the holes are created in the valence band, which can move even tunder a small applied field. The solid is therefore conducting (On the basis of purity, semiconductors are of two types Intrinsic Semiconductors This type of semiconductor is also called an undoped semiconductor or é-type semiconductor. Ic is a pure semiconductor without any significant presence of dopant species. Pure germanium, silicon in their natural state are intrinsic semiconductors, The number of charge carriers is determined by the properties of the material itself instead of the amount of | Allznone | PHYSICS Class 12th impuritic intrinsic semiconductors, the number of Sshere n, is called intrinsic carrier concentration. At temperature 0K, the valence band is filled. The energy gap is 0.72 eV and the conduction band is totally empty. ler the action of an electric field, holes move towards ae el ging ole cutent The el tee Tis the sum of the electron current J, and the hole current Ig, ie. P= 1, + Ty. Ie may be noted that apart from the process of generation of ‘conduction in electrons and holes, a simultaneous process of recombination occurs in which the electrons recombine with the holes. At equilibrium, the rate of generation is ‘equal to rate of recombination of charge carriers. The recombination occurs due to an electron colliding with ahole. (Thermally generated fee electron) Fig. (a) is representing the generation of hole at site 1 ‘and conduction electron due to thermal energy at moderate temperatures Oe a 5 Ste1® Fig. (b) is representing possible ‘thermal motion of a hole. The Skcton trom helm ch hand coon Se cic nee the earlier hole site 1, leaving a hole at its site indicating an eectiearery commences tesjetrinsic semiconductor behaves like an insulator at 720K. The thermal energy at higher temperature is the season which excites some electrons from the valence fo w the conduction band fpFig. (0) these thermally excited electrons at T>0K, ially occupy the conduction band. They have come Code valence band leaving equal number of holes there, = | lection energy ee etc @ Oo Fig. (8) an intrinsic semiconductor at T = OK behaves like insulator. Fig, (bis representing four thermally generated electron-hole pairs at T > OK Extrinsic Semiconductors The conductivity of intrinsic semiconductors is very low at fpom temperature. But, it can be significantly increased, if some pentavalent or trivalent impurity is mixed with it Hence, those semiconductors in which some impurity goms are embedded are known as extrinsic or impurity semiconductors. NOTE When some desir sSricenducors deliberately Teimpury are called dopants, The proc itinse semiconductor in a corroted manne impurity is added to in ss oping a There are two types of dopants used in doping. () Trivalent (valency 3) atoms: ¢g., Indium (In), Boron (B), aluminium (Al), etc. (i) Pentavalent (valency 5) atoms: e.g., Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb), Phosphorous (P), etc. Entinsic semiconductors are basically of two types (ii) p-type semiconductors (9 raype semiconductors ‘Type Semiconductors This type of semiconductor is obtained when pentavalent impurity is added to Si or Ge. During doping, four Aectcons of pentavalent element bond with the four silicon Acighbours while fifth remains very weakly bound to its Patent atom. Also the ionisation energy required to set this on free is very small. Hence, these electrons are almost free to move. In other Nords, we can say that these electrons are donated by the ‘impurity atoms. So, these are also known as donor atoms 4d the conduction inside the semiconductor will take Pace with the help of the negatively charged electrons. Due this negative charge, these semiconductors are known as jiconductor Electronics ; Materials, Devices and Simple Circuits FOERSTER) Ch a ee a 569 n-type semiconductors, When the semiconductors are placed at room temperature, then the covalent bond breakage takes place. So, more free electrons are generated. ‘As.a result, same number of holes generation takes place, But as compared to the free electrons, the number of holes are comparatively less duc to the presence of donated electrons, ie. n, >> my. Therefore, major conduction in n-type semiconductors is due to clectrons. So, electrons are known as majority carriers and the holes are known as the minority carriers. This means, n, >> yi I, >>I, oe @ Fig. (a) Pentavalent donor atom (As, 8b, P, ete) doped for tetravalent Si or Ge giving n-type semiconductor ce} ° o ‘lectron iSO.Ote ooo eo Fig. (b) Commonly used schematic representation for ‘type material which shows only the fixed cores of the substt Donor core p-Type Semiconductors This type of semiconductor is obtained when a trivalent impurity is added to Si or Ge. So, the three valence electrons of the doped impure atoms will form the covalent bonds with silicon atoms but silicon atoms have four electrons in its valence shell. Hence, one covalent bond will be improper. ‘This means, one more electron is needed for the proper covalent bonding. This need of one electron is fulfilled from any of the bond between two silicon atoms. So, the bond between the silicon and imputity atoms will be ‘completed. After bond formation, the doped imputity will, get ionised. As we know that, ions are negatively charged. So, the impurity will aso get negative charge.570 AS, hole was created when the electron come from silicon-silicon bond moved to complete the bond between the doped impurity and silicon. Due to this, an electron will ow move from any one of the covalent bond to fill the empty hole. This will further result in a new hole formation. So, in p-type semiconductor, the holes movement results in the formation of the current. This ‘means, in this type of semiconductor majority charge ‘arriere are holes, i.e. positively charged and minority charge carriers are electrons, i.e. m, >>, 5 1, >>I, Hence, these conductors are known as p-type semiconductors or acceptor type semiconductors. ~ e: os a (a T>0k ‘one thrall generated electron-hole alr -+9 electrons tom donor atoms © Fig. (@) Trivalent acceptor atom (In, Al, B, etc.) doped in tetravalent Si or Ge lattice giving p-type semiconductor. Fig. (©) Commonly used schematic representation of p-type material which shows only the fixed core of the substituent acceptor with, ‘one effective additional negative charge andits associatedhole, The electron and hole concentration in a semiconductor in thermal equilibrium is given by n,n, = 12. Note The energy gaps of C.Si and Ge are 54 eV, 11 eV and 07 eV, respectively Sis a group IV element as its energy gaps is 2210, Energy Band in ! Semiconductors In extrinsic semiconductors, additional energy states due to donor impurities (Ep) and acceptor impurities (E ,) also exist. In the energy band diagram of n-type semiconductor, the donor energy level Eis slightly below the bottom Ec of conduction band and the electrons from this level move into conduction band with very small supply of energy. In p-type semiconductors, the acceptor energy level Ei ape ‘above the top energy level Ey, of the valence band. With very small supply of energy an electron from the valence band can jump to the level Ey and ionise the acceptor negatively. ‘ins fe senesced Acceptor core 4 Ex(hecepir onary gt ae ESS) orca O00 ceed eee! .,. See eee @T>0K Energy bands of (a) mtype semiconductor at 1 >0K. (6) ptype semiconductor at T>0K EXAMPLE |1| the number of silicon atoms perm? is, 5 x 10%. This is doped simultaneously with 5 x 10” atoms per m?of arsenic and 5 x 10° atoms per m? of indium, Calculate the number of electrons and holes. Given that, .5x10!m~, Is the material n-type or p-type? NoERt Sol. For cach arom doped with arsenic, one free election is received, Similarly, for each arom doped of indium, a vacancy is created. So, number of free electrons introduced by pentavalent impurity is Nqg=5 «10? me? The number of holes introduced by trivalent impurity added is N,=5x10" m> So, net number of electrons added is 1, = Ny = Ny =5 x10 =5x10" 4.95 x10 m™? We know that, nam =m 15x10!) n, 495%10" =454x10 m? As.m, > my (number of holes), So, the material is mlype semiconductor, So, m= weype anne than vet jeonccto ons. D re concent see fro P oy wrside © fue wit | pe eto fous, near. the siete ch Thissets up po steal eecttic ‘librium isc fh t0 sto aris thowevs fue across th Tetegion on (free) tin region Ronis of the Te potential « Bonis called entation i . by Proto ctu, Wetopsice eee: Stnductor Electronieg « seco nies : Materials, Devices and Simple Circuits n JUNCTION isan arrangement made by 4 loge jeonductor and. P-ype semicon OF Nye gus methods of forming py j, cctor, mye Bermaniuim crystal jg arth is, Analuminium fil ig {oto ten heated in an oven Aminiu then diffuses i saya p junction Formation of Depletion Region in p-n Junction Inan ype semiconductor, the concentration of Be thr tac of holm ina ge sigonductor, the concentration of holes me han th ofeketrons. During the formation of p-n eee a ipa concentration gradient across» and peu au aise from p-side to n-side (p +n) And cer diffuse Bea Fide (79 7). The cine cere ae Gambine with their counterparts in the immediaes vici ofthe junction and neutralise each other, ae Thus, near the junction positive charge is built on n-side and negative charge on p-side, laid on an co Peete of about 600°C. nto the surface formed. ot Sutfice of wafer, In this ion fon 2200 |eese p |ecee| , eee | eee 4 Hole ditusion— Depletion region Pn junction formation process This sets up porential difference across the junction and an intemal electric ficld , directed from n-side to p-side. The Sulibrium is established when the field £, becomes strong ough to stop further diffusion of the’ majority charge aaters (however, it helps the minority charge carriers to diffuse across the junction). The region on cither side of the junction which becomes pleted (fee) from the mobile charge carriers is called pletion region or depletion layer. The width of depletion ‘gion is of the order of 10° m. pee The potential difference developed across the depletion sone cal the potential barrier. Ic depends on ae COncentration in the semiconductor and temperature of d junction, Hote * Due othe dituson of holes from pie to side and rent $26 from ‘side to p-side at the junction, a curent rises rom Ps ich is called diffusion current i. electrons from i300 r-sde, 571 * I an electron-hole pai is created on the depletion region due to thermal colision, the electrons are pushed by the electric field towards the side and the holes towards the, p-side, which gives rise {2.2 curent from r-side 1o pide known as dit current. * In steady stato, citusion curent = dit current SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE OR P-n JUNCTION DIODE eis basically a p-n junction with metallic contacts provided at the ends for the application of an external voltage. Ie isa two tetminal device, Ieis represented by the symbol py. The direction of arrow indicates the conventional direction of current, Forward Biasing and Reverse Biasing of Junction Diode Biasing is the method of connecting external battery or emf source to a p-n function diode. The junction di connected to an external battery in two forward biasing and reverse biasing of the jun Forward Biasing A junction diode is said to be forward biased when the Positive terminal of the external battery is connected to the pride and negative terminal to the n-side of the diode, Flow of Current in Forward Biasing In this situation, the forward voltage opposes the potential barrier, due to which both the potential barrier and wideh of the depletion layer decreases. Under the effect of external electric field, holes in the P-region and electrons in the n-region, both move towards the junction. ‘These holes and electrons mutually combine just near the junction and cease (0 exist. For cach clectron-hole combination, a covalent bond breaks up in. the pr the positive terminal of the battery. Out of the hole and electron so produced, the hole moves towards the junction, while the electron enters the positive terminal of the battery through the connecting wire. Just at this moment, an electron is released from the negative terminal ofthe battery which enters the n-region to replace the electron lost by combining with a hole at the junction. Thus, a current called forward current, is econ stuntion 129 Batty Forward biasing of junction diodeaA ‘onstituted by the motion of majority charge carriers across the junction, In forward bias, the junction diode offers low resistance. Reverse Biasing A juunetion diode is said to be reverse biased when the Positive terminal of the external battery is connected to the mside and negative terminal ro the p-side of the diode. Mow of Current in Reverse Biasing In this situation, the reverse voltage supports the potential barrier, due to which both the porencial barrier and with of the depletion layer increases. Under the effect of external ‘lectric fick, holes in the p-region and electrons in the ae-egion are pushed away from the junction i. they cannot ‘be combined at the junction. So, there is almost no flow of ‘current due to majority charge cariers. Reverse biasing of junction diode However, a very small current due to minority charge ‘carriers, flows across the junction. This current is called reverse current. I-V (CURRENT-VOLTAGE) CHARACTERISTICS OF p-n JUNCTION DIODE graphical relat voltage applied y Pes estice Sool caves te jscans te called 1-V characteristics of junction diode. Forward Biased Characteristi The circuit diagram for studying forward biased characteristics is shown in the figure (a). Starting from a low value, forward bias voltage is increased step by step (measured by voltmeter) and forward current is noted (by ammeter). A graph is plotted between voltage and current is shown in figure (b). O01 02 05 04 os Battery ena @ » %, Forward biased characteristic of a diode At the start when applied voltage is low, the curene through the diode is almost zero. It is because of the potential barrier, which opposes the applied voltage. Till the applied voltage exceeds the potential barrier, the current increases. very slowly with increase in applied voltage (OA portion of the graph). With farther increase in applied voltage, the current increases very rapidly (AB portion of the graph), in this situation the diode behaves like a conductor. The forward voltage beyond which the current through the junction starts increasing rapidly with voltage is called knee voltage or threshold voltage. If line AB is extended back, ic curs the voltage axis at potential barrier voltage. Reverse Biased Characteristics The circuit diagram for studying reverse biased characteristics is shown in the figure (a). poiamraage(y Pieters oO 4 g . a Sweeties a ic ae “IKKE C i 8 Reverse biased characteristic of a diode In reverse biased, the applied voltage supports the flow of ‘minority charge carriers across the junction. So, a very small current flows across the junction due to minority charge carriers. Motion of minority charge carriers is also supported by internal potential barrier, so all the minority cartier cross over the junction,Se Sirfent tema, sufficiently long range ene almost constant wth increasing voltage (OC poryign i aeteasing, very current is voltage independent pe ae) we a is called reverse saturation cur, ee ry Pa 2 © te beam us y surrent thr lunetion inex voltage, then Mean ee coy OS Pie on coat ee of P-n junction, ae diodes, a resistance is offered by fac on the applied voltage wre {um ‘age, which is ¢; reintance, It isthe ratio of small chart yt nal change in current produced, nt, ‘Brent exceeds the rated value ction which ee aience have Ar DIODE AS A RECTIFIER The process of converting alternating voltage/currentinco dros voltage/current is called rectification. Diode seed. tretifir for converting alternating currenvvolage inne diect current/voltage. Principle From the V-I characteristic ofa junction diode, we see that itallows current to pass only when itis forward biased. Ser if'an alternating voltage is applied across a diode, the ‘arrent flows only in that part of the cycle when the diode is forvard biased. This property is used to rectify the carrent/voltage. There are two ways of using a diode as a rectifier, ie. (i) Diode as a half-wave rectfiet i) Diode as a full wave rectifier Diode as a Half-Wave Rectifier In this, the AC voleage to be rectified is connected to the Primary coil of a step-down transformer and secondary coil ‘sconnected to the diode through resistor Ry across which, ‘urput is obtained, Primary Circuit diagram of half-wave rectifier ductor El ies : lectronies ; Materials, Devices and sim nple Circuits 573 Working During positive half cycle of the input AC, the pun junction is “forward biased. Thus, the resistance in py junction becomes low and current flows. Hence, we get ‘ouput in the load, During negative halFcyele of the input AC, the p-n junction is reverse biased. Thus, the resistance of on junction is high and current does not flow. Hence, no output is in the load. 1 Votage at votape across Input and output waveforms Diode as a Full Wave Rectifier In the fall wave rectifier, ewo p-n junction diodes, D, and D, are used. This arrangement is shown in the diagram below. Cenive tap, x in Output y Circuit diagram of full wave rectifier Working During the positive half cycle of the input AC, the diode D, is forward biased and the diode D, is reverse biased. The forward current through diode D, During the negative half oycle of the input AC, the diode Dy is reverse biased and diode D, is forward biased. Hence, current flows through diode D,. Hence, we find thar during both the halves, current flows in the same direction. flows Die le wlow doused Di Be, On| Det Input and output waveforms574 Role of Filters. Wn order to get the steady DC ourpuc from the pulsating voltage normally, a capacitor is connected across the output orminals (parallel co load A). An inductor can also be used in series for the same purpose, AAs these addivional citeuies appear 1 filter out the AC. tipple and provide a pure DC voltage, s0 they are called Akers, 26 component ng: he 2 sores Onroet wee ros tne ® A full wave rectifier with capacitor fiter Fig. (a) ‘and input and output voltage of rectifier in Fig, (), Let us discuss the role of capacicor in filtering, When the voltage across the ca istising it gets charged. Iehere is no external load, it remains charged to the peak voltage of the rectified output, When there isa spets discharged through the load and the voltage co fall. In the next half cycle ofthe rec charged to the peak value (sce d {all of voltage across the capacitor depe product of capacitor Cand the effective resistance Ry used in the eiteuit and is known as cant, To make the time constant large value of C shoul be large. So, capacitor pur filters obtained by using capacitor input filter is voltage of the rectified voltage. SPECIAL PURPOSE P-n JUNCTION DIODES Zener Diode Ik is a reverse biased heavily doped p-n junetion diode, Ic is designed co operate in the reverse breakdown voltage continuously without being damaged, ‘This can be achieved by changing the thickness of the depletion layer to which the voltage is applied. Current i again gets above figure). ‘The rate of ds upon the inverse | All‘none | Piiysics hough this diode is controlled by an external resistanee, jy is represented by the symbol oo (ee Symbol of Zener diode Hina) V-1 Characteristles The Vel characteristics of Zener diode is shown in the figure. Here, we observe that when the applied reverse voltage (V) reaches the breakdown voltage (V) of the Zener diode, there is:a ry But after VA Characteristics ofa Zener voltage Vi diode rent can be produced most insignificane change in the reverse bias voltage Voltage Regulator This is the most important application of a Zener diode, Zener Diode as Principle From the above V-/ characteristic of tener diode, mains constant even though we can say that, zener voltags the current through the diode varies over a wide range, Ifa “Zener diode is joined in reverse bias to the fluctuating, D¢ input voltage through a resistance R then, the constant ‘output voltage is taken across load resistance connected in parallel with Zener diode 7 Here, when input DC voltage increases beyond a certain limit, the current through the circuit rises sharply, se in the voltage drop across the Rs. Thus, the voltage across the Zener diode femains constant and also the output voltage ren constant at Vz ee ‘When the input DC voltage decreases, the current through the cireuie goes down sharply causing sufi the voltage drop across the resistance. ‘Thus, the voltage across the Zener diode remains constant and also the output voltage actoss Ry, remains constant at V, Hence, the output voltage remains constant in. both ient decrease inductor Electronies 2 Materia is, OELECTRONIC ocr ION DEVICEs photodiode is special type of junction diode used ga signals. Tei a reverse biased py nine) Its symbol is. for detecting mn made from (onstruction iodiode fabricated with a A Es fallon the diode and op transparent cover ro allow erated under reverse bias, ‘tw >e,) pssidel Side ei A reverse biased photodiode illuminated with light Working When the photodiode is illuminated with light (photons), ith energy greater than the energy gap of the seniconductor, then electron-hole pairs are generated due ® the absorption of photons. These charge carriers ‘ontribute to the reverse current. VI Characteristics ts I characteristics are shown in the figure given below We observe from the figure that, current in phorodiode tdanges with the change in light intensity (7) when reverse basis applied. oni Reverse bias h, 5 i 3 ‘ones |ws Vl characteristics of photodiode at different intensities Devices and Simple Circuits 575 Light Emitting Diode (LED) Ir is a heavily doped p-n junction diode which converts electrical energy into light energy. ‘This diode emits Spontaneous radiation, under forward biasing, The diode is Covered with a transparent cover, o that the emitted light may come out Its symbol is Ye Working When p-n junction is forward biased, electrons and_ holes move towards opposite sides of junction through it. Therefore, thete are excess minority carriers on the either side of the junction boundary, which recombines with ‘majority carriers near the junction, alle} Forward biased LED ‘On recombination of electron and hole, the energy is given ‘out in the form of heat and V-I Characteristics V-I characteristics of LED are given below, which is similar to that of a simple junction diode. But the threshold voltages are much higher and slightly different for each colour. The reverse breakdown voltages of LEDs are very low. The colour of light emitted by a given LED, depends on its band gap energy. The photon emitted by an LED is of energy equal to or slightly less than the band gap energy. Forward current conducted by the junction determines the intensity of light emitted by LED. T(en8) Silicon ig required to operate an LED, of the order of milliampere, Current drawn by LED'sSo, in practice, a resistor of suitable value is joined in series with the LED to limie the current upto the safe value required, LEDs Advantages over Incandescent Low Power Lamps Ie has the following advantages over conventional incandescent low power lamps. (i) Fastaction and no warm up time required. (ii) The bandwideh of emitted light is from 100 A to 500A. So, it is nearly (not exactly) monochromatic. Gi) Long life and ruggedness. x) Low operational voltage and less power consumed. Solar Cell Ic is a p-n junction diode, which converts solar energy into electrical energy. NRE AN z Its symbol is 5 %, Construction : Tc consists of silicon or gallium-arsenide p-n junction diode packed in a can with glass window on the top. A, i ser 2 a Baplation region Atypical illuminated pn junction solar cell | Allgnone | PHYSICS Chass 4) cin Frere herons of light (oF nergy > By) fll a the jametion,eleon-ole pa ate generated rea the union ant vein opposite ditections due to junction fl they hits ellectad atthe «wo sides ofthe janction, giving Jae re a photovoltage between the top and bottom meta TIE codes, The top metal contact acts as positive electrode and Fecrptmetal contact acts as negative electrode. When an connected sctoss metal elettodes, “4 external load photocurrent flows L-V Characteristics i ‘eV characteristics of solar cell are shown in the figuee se tow We can sce inthe figure, chat iis drawn in the radrant of the coordinate axes because a solar cell does bu supplies the same to the load. given bel fourth qu not draw current open chet wotage Voc) ‘Short cout current 1V characteristics of a solar cell, NOTE pn junction diode and ts applications have been frequenty eked in rove yous 2015, 2014, 2013, 2012 2011, 2010 | CHAPTER PRACTICE (SOLVED) OBJECTIVE Type Questions [1 Mark] 1. ‘The conductivity of a semiconductor increases with increase in temperature, because NCERT Examplar (a) number density of free current carriers increases (b) relaxation time increases (©) both number density of carriers and relaxation time increase (4) number density of carriers increases, relaxation time decreases but effect of decrease in relaxation time is much less than increase in number density The substance which is doped in an intrinsic semiconductor to make p-type semiconductor is (a) phosphorus (b) antimony (6) aluminium (@ arsenic 3. A220 V AC supply is connected between points A and B (figure). What will be the potential difference V across the capacitor? NCERT Examplar