Section I3

STEAM SYSTEMS
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3-3
THE STEAM-GENERATING FACILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3-3
Type of Application/Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3-3
Operating Conditions, Requirements and Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3-3
Steam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3-3
Condensate Return/Make-up Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3-5
Water Discharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3-5
Fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3-5
Combustion Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3-5
Stack Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3-5
Electrical Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3-5
Facility Requirements and Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3-5
Codes and Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3-5
Other Federal, State, Provincial and Local Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3-6
EQUIPMENT CONSIDERATIONS AND HARDWARE DESIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3-6
Steam Boilers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3-6
Boiler Piping and Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3-8
Low Pressure Boilers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3-8
High Pressure Boilers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3-8
Boiler Feed Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3-10
Boiler Feed System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3-10
Surge Tanks (Condensate Receiver Tanks) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3-11
Deaerators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3-11
Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3-11
Water Treatment Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3-13
The Objectives of Feedwater Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3-13
Raw Water Make-up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3-14
Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3-14
Water Softeners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3-15
Dealkalizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3-15
Chemical Feed Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3-15
Economizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3-15
Blowdown Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3-15
Types of Blowdown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3-16
SYSTEM INTEGRATION AND OPTIMIZATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3-16
EXAMPLE - STEAM SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3-17
Boiler Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3-18
Condensate Return and Feedwater System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3-19
Water Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3-19
Blowdown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3-19
Efficiency Enhancement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3-20
System Schematic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3-20

I3-1
Steam Systems System Fundamentals

ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure I3-1. Typical Steam System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3-4
Figure I3-2. Schematic Diagram of a Generic Steam-Generating Facility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3-4
Figure I3-3. Summary of Application/Energy-Use Audit Items . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3-6
Figure I3-4. Recommended Safety Valve Discharge Piping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3-9
Figure I3-5. Example of System Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3-20

TABLES
Table I3-1. Removal of Harmful Elements with Various Types of Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3-14
Table I3-2. Makeup Water Impurities, Limits and Treatment Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3-14
Table I3-3. Recommended Limits for Total Suspended Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3-16
Table I3-4. Water Test Results and Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3-19

I3-2
System Fundamentals Steam Systems

INTRODUCTION draw from that information in order to address design of inte-

grated steam systems. Ultimately, the objective is to design a
A steam system consists of a steam-supply/generating facility, steam-generating facility which is economically optimal for
a steam and condensate return/water piping system, and a the demands of the steam-use facility.
steam-use facility (Figure I3-1). In this section, the discussion
is focused on the integration of the various equipment within The following is a step-by-step procedure which assists in the
the steam-generating facility. Information is offered which design of steam-generating facilities for industrial and com-
need be considered when designing a steam-supply system. A mercial use. These items are typically addressed during an
general guideline is provided which identifies major issues to application/energy-use audit of the facility.
be addressed, leading to the evaluation of system solutions and
ultimately to equipment considerations for selection and Type of Application/Load
design. Finally, an example of an audit and system design are
1. Categorize the application and load as heating/cooling,
provided for demonstration purposes.
process or combination (see Section I1, System Load).
The reader is encouraged to review the specific product sec- There are a number of institutional applications which
tions for additional information. The discussion in this section demand not only heating/cooling, but other steam or hot
applies primarily to new systems and new boiler installations. water requirements for the purpose of cooking, washing,
When modifying existing systems, other considerations may etc. Generally speaking, these institutional loads are
apply. classified as heating applications since the requirement
typically deals with heating and cooling of air and potable-
THE STEAM-GENERATING FACILITY water.
At this juncture, a determination is made whether the
The steam-generating facility, located in the boiler room, con-
boiler should be steam- or hot water-generating (see Sec-
sists of boilers, feedwater systems, heat exchangers (e.g.,
tion I1). For the remainder of this section, it is assumed
economizers), boiler and system controls, fuel and gas han-
that a steam- generating facility is appropriately chosen.
dling equipment (e.g., fuel trains, stacks), and steam/water
(For more information on application considerations for
treatment equipment and piping (Figure I3-2). The purpose of
hot water boilers and hot water systems, please refer to
the steam-generating facility is to provide energy (in the form
Section I2, Hot Water Systems.)
of thermal energy of the steam) to drive other processes in the
steam-use facility. In turn, typical steam-use facilities are
designed to meet various industrial and commercial needs Operating Conditions, Requirements and
such as comfort heating, food processing, paper corrugation, Constraints
etc.
Steam-generating facility design is unique to the specific Steam
application and it is dictated by good engineering practice, the 2. Determine the desired operating pressure. For existing
ASME code, applicable national, state, provincial and local steam-use facilities, the operating pressure has typically
codes, and utility and insurance requirements. System design been set in the past and now acts as a constraint on the
and selection depend on job specific operating requirements, system design at hand. For new facilities, slightly more
boiler room structure and venting, fuel storage, and utility ser- flexibility exists and yet operating characteristics of
vice considerations. There is therefore no simple mathemati- equipment in the steam-use facility either set or limit the
cal expression to correlate steam boiler room design and range of operating pressure of the boiler.
application. However, there are several characteristics which
help define the application and its relevant requirements. For a 3. Determine the steam load characteristics and ultimately
steam-generating facility, these characteristics include: the profile of the steam-use facility in its entirety (see
Section I1). It is important to understand both the steady-
1. Type of Application/Load state load profile as well as the transient and instantaneous
2. Operating Conditions, Requirements and Constraints demands.

3. Facility Requirements and Limitations 4. Determine the desired or necessary steam quality (dryness)
or degree of superheat. Steam quality ranges from 0 to
4. Codes and Standards 100% and is defined as the ratio of the amount of saturated
5. Other Federal, State, Provincial and Local Requirements steam vapor to the total steam amount (which may consist
of both saturated steam vapor and liquid). A 100% steam
Many of these characteristics have been thoroughly discussed quality translates to zero amount of saturated steam liquid
in other sections of The Boiler Book. The objective here is to and, in this condition, the steam is termed to be “dry.”

I3-3
 Steam Systems System Fundamentals

STACK GASES

STEAM-SUPPLY/GENERATING FACILITY STEAM STEAM AND CONDENSATE STEAM-USE

RETURN PIPING SYSTEM FACILITY
FUEL AND
COMBUSTION
AIR BOILERS FEEDWATER SYSTEMS COMMERCIAL
CONTROLS SEPARATORS AND INDUS-
PIPING
STACKS BLOWDOWN SYSTEMS TRIAL HEATING,
STEAM TRAPS
ECONOMIZERS WATER TREATMENT PROCESS, AND
PUMPS
FUEL TRAINS PUMPS COMBINATION
HEAT EXCHANGERS APPLICATIONS
CONDENSATE
RETURN

MAKE-UP WATER

Figure I3-1. Typical Steam System

STACK GAS
MAKE-UP WATER

ECONOMIZER
STEAM STEAM-USE
WATER
TREATMENT FACILITY
SYSTEM

FEEDWATER BOILER(S)
SYSTEM

BLOWDOWN
SYSTEM

BOILER FEEDWATER
CONTROLS

CONDENSATE RETURN TO SEWER

Figure I3-2. Schematic Diagram of a Generic Steam-Generating Facility

I3-4
System Fundamentals Steam Systems

The degree of superheat refers to the amount of thermal 16. Determine the physical lengths and flow areas of stack/
energy (heat) added to the steam relative to the saturated breeching, most importantly any constraints imposed in
steam vapor point of reference, typically expressed in this area. These physical attributes will affect the stack gas
units of degrees Fahrenheit. For example, a degree of pressure which can, in turn, have an impact on combustion
superheat of 50 oF means that an additional amount of characteristics and firing rates.
heat has been added to the steam so that the final steam
temperature is 50 oF greater than the saturation tempera- Electrical Power
ture of the steam at the given operating pressure.
17. Understand the electrical power overall demand and
seasonal profiles.
Condensate Return/Make-up Water
18. Determine the electrical power costs for the facility. A
5. Determine the condensate return conditions, primarily
review of 2-3 year historical data of electric power billing
focusing on temperature, pressure and flow rate (% return).
from the local power company will assist in this area. It is
6. Calculate the make-up water requirement based on the % important to understand the demand charges separate from
condensate return. the actual electrical energy charges.
7. Determine the water charges for the specific facility under
analysis. Facility Requirements and Limitations
19. In regard to boiler room design, understand the physical
Water Discharge limitations of the facility. This understanding should
include floor space or footprint for both installation and
8. Determine the maximum temperature for water discharge,
maintenance considerations as well as height limitations
which is usually mandated by the local environmental
for equipment sizing.
governing authorities.
20. Determine noise level requirements.
9. Determine the sewer charges for the specific facility under
analysis. These twenty audit items are summarized in Figure I3-3.

Fuel Codes and Standards

10. Determine the type(s) of fuel to be combusted within the Various Codes and Standards govern the design, fabrication
boiler. Generally speaking, the fuels are limited to natural and installation of many of the boiler room components. Of
gas, propane, and fuel oil (although some other alternate primary importance is the American Society of Mechanical
fuels may be used). Engineers' (ASME) Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. The dif-
11. Obtain a composition analysis for each fuel, which will be ferent sections of this Code specify the rules by which steam
necessary for calculating fuel usage for a given load. boilers, pressure vessels and connecting piping are to be
designed, constructed and installed.
12. Determine the fuel costs; this is necessary for the
economical optimization of boiler room design. For new Section I of the ASME Code contains rules for Power Boilers
boiler(s) installation into an existing system, a two-three which, for the case of steam boilers, are boilers designed for a
year history of fuel billing data would be helpful in the maximum allowable operating pressure (MAWP) greater than
eventual design of the steam-generating facility. 15 psig. Section IV of the ASME Code would provide rules
for steam boilers with a MAWP of 15 psig or lower. B31.1
Power Piping Code provides rules for most of the piping sys-
Combustion Air
tems involved in a typical steam plant, but has special signifi-
13. Determine the ambient air conditions in the boiler area and cance relative to Section I in that it contains Certification and
determine current fresh air supply (e.g., louvre area). Stamping requirements for boiler external piping (BEP). BEP
Primarily, the intention is to understand typical air is defined as piping from the first circumferential joint leaving
temperatures and humidity and their variance during the the boiler up to and including the required stop valve or valves.
necessary time of boiler operation. Most, if not all, of the piping included with a packaged boiler
is within the scope of BEP. This generally includes steam,
Stack Gas feedwater, blowdown, water column and instrument piping.
Section VIII of the ASME Code contains rules for unfired pres-
14. Determine any temperature limitations imposed on the
sure vessels, which may apply to deaerators, blowdown sepa-
stack gas.
rators, etc.
15. Understand the local emission requirements, which will
affect the allowable stack gas composition.

I3-5
Steam Systems System Fundamentals

STACK GAS
14. TEMPERATURE LIMITATIONS
15. EMISSION REQUIREMENTS
16. STACK/BREECHING PHYSICAL ATTRIBUTES

COMBUSTION AIR STEAM

STEAM-GENERATING
FACILITY 2. OPERATING PRESSURE
13. TEMPERATURE 3. LOAD PROFILE
STEAM-USE
HUMIDITY 4. QUALITY/DEGRE OF SUPERHEAT FACILITY
VARIANCE
17. ELECTRICAL POWER DEMANDS
AND PROFILE 1. TYPE OF APPLICATION/LOAD
18. ELECTRICAL COSTS
19. PHYSICAL LIMITATIONS
20. NOISE LEVEL REQUIREMENTS CONDENSATE RETURN
FUEL
10. TYPE(S) OF FUEL 5. TEMPERATURE
11. COMPOSITION ANALYSIS PRESSURE
12. FUEL COSTS PERCENT RETURN

WATER DISCHARGE MAKE-UP WATER

8. MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE 6. PERCENT MAKE-UP
9. SEWER CHARGES 7. WATER CHARGES

Figure I3-3. Summary of Application/Energy-Use Audit Items

Other Federal, State, Provincial and Local to each subsection of the overall system, categorized as: steam
Requirements boilers, boiler piping and valves, feedwater systems, water
treatment systems, heat exchangers and economizers, and
There are many other Codes and Standards which apply to blowdown systems. Stacks and controls are not discussed
other aspects of the design and installation of steam room since the intention here is to concentrate on the steam side of
equipment. For a listing of standards organizations of rele- the system. For information concerning controls and stacks,
vance to the design of steam systems, please refer to Section please refer to sections D and F, respectively. Considerations
I4. Local jurisdictions, insurance companies and individual concerning sizing of piping, steam traps, etc. are also not cov-
contracts often impose special requirements above and beyond ered in this section; those items are considered as a part of the
Code requirements, or may require compliance with special steam/condensate return handling and piping system design
Codes and Standards. It is essential that those responsible for and many references concerning these issues are available.
the planning of a boiler room installation be familiar with such
requirements.
Steam Boilers
EQUIPMENT CONSIDERATIONS AND The boiler selection process is based on an evaluation of the
system and load requirements as described above, and a com-
HARDWARE DESIGN parison with the different boiler types that are available. This
Having defined the application and obtained an understanding section defines a process and the considerations that can be
of the requirements and constraints of the steam system, it is used to select a boiler for a steam system application, based on
now important to consider basic equipment needs and hard- the requirements discussed in Section I1.
ware design. Here the concern deals with potential equipment The steam-use facility will have certain operating requirements
problems of the steam-generating facility in terms of perfor- that are used to establish the boiler design pressure. For exam-
mance and life. Specifically, the issues to be addressed when ple, heating systems often operate at low pressure (a steam
designing and integrating equipment into a workable system pressure of 8 - 10 psig), and would use a boiler that is designed
are: (1) equipment capacity, (2) operating characteristics and for 15 psig. The boiler design pressure must be higher than the
constraints of equipment, (3) maintenance issues and the operating pressure, and is usually based on common design
tradeoff with design/initial cost, and (4) the operational effects pressures. Steam quality, or the moisture content in the steam,
of each piece of hardware on the overall system operation. may also be a requirement of the facility.
The following is a discussion concerning considerations given The first step in determining the required boiler size is to deter-

I3-6
System Fundamentals Steam Systems

mine the number of boilers. Multiple boilers can be used to • Watertube boilers are the preferred choice for pressures
divide a seasonal load into more manageable segments, even above 350 psig.
using different boiler sizes to better match the load. Additional
• Higher turndown rates improve the boiler load response
boilers can be used to provide backup and minimize potential
because the boiler remains on line at low loads.
down time. Hospitals usually require a substantial amount of
backup capability. Increasing the number of boilers also adds • Bent tube and electric boilers can provide quick warm-up
to the initial cost, on-going maintenance costs and complexity without thermal shock.
of the system.
• Steam superheat is generally only available on the IWT
Once the number of boilers have been selected, the capacity of boiler.
the boilers can be determined. This task should not be limited
There are numerous regulatory requirements in the boiler
to matching the peak load and the total capacity of the boilers.
industry. Many boilers are listed by Underwriters Laboratories
For example, the base capacity or number of boilers should be
or a similar agency, which has tested the product to ensure that
increased if there can be a high instantaneous demand. Some
it meets their minimum standards for safety and performance.
consideration should also be given to how multiple boilers are
Emission regulations have become more common in recent
cycled to minimize the cycling and number of units in use at
years. Finally, there may be other organizations that will man-
any one time.
date requirements for an installation, such as the city, state or
• Increasing the number of boilers will: insurance carrier. These requirements may prevent the use of
some boiler types.
• Minimize down time and maximize reliability.
• Check insurance carrier for requirements.
• Provide the highest efficiency by matching load to boiler
capacity. • A “Package” listing helps insure boiler/burner compatibility.
• Increase the total installed cost of the boiler room. • Construction and operating permits are usually required by
local authorities.
• Allow the use of smaller boilers and support
components. • Federal NSPS regulations, permits and recording applies
over 200 hp.
• Increase maintenance cost.
The final stage in the selection process will be the consider-
• Increase the size and complexity of the boiler room.
ation of the operating features and efficiency of the boilers.
• Minimizing the number of boilers will: Initial cost is always a factor, but it should not be the only fac-
tor. For example, the boiler efficiency, turndown and mainte-
• Decrease total installed cost.
nance requirements can result in much higher or lower
• Reduce overall efficiency because of low-load operating costs, and can easily change the cost analysis. Some
operation. common considerations that impact overall efficiency and fuel
costs are:
• Minimize maintenance costs.
• Multiple fuel capabilities, including future conversions.
• Provide a less complex and smaller boiler room.
• More flue gas passes in a firetube boiler will increase heat
• Different sized boilers can be used for the large variation in
transfer.
seasonal loads.
• Heating surface area, usually 5 square feet per boiler hp in a
• Total boiler capacity should include future expansion
firetube boiler.
considerations.
• Higher turndown increases boiler efficiency and provides
• Emission regulations may require special controls above a
quicker load response.
certain total capacity.
• Lower excess air operation increases boiler efficiency.
At this stage of the selection process, some boiler types can be
eliminated based on the operating pressure and capacity • Economizers can be added to most boilers, which will
requirements. (Table I1-1 in Section I1 can be used as a guide increase efficiency.
in this process). In addition, the load type may also impact the
Maintenance and down time can be important considerations
selection process. For example, watertube boilers are better
in the boiler selection. Using multiple boilers helps reduce the
suited to swing loads while firetube boilers are better for loads
potential for loss of steam generating capability.
with upset conditions. Also, bent tube boilers can be used
when quick warm up is required. • Higher turndown reduces component wear and failure due to
on-off cycling.

I3-7
Steam Systems System Fundamentals

• Critical operations should include controls to keep the Relevant highlights of the ASME Code are included. However,
standby boiler hot. for complete details, the reader should review the applicable
section of the ASME Code. In addition to the ASME Code, the
• Always use duplex pumps and filters to allow maintenance
reader should determine whether there are any special, local
without shut down.
insurance or regulatory requirements.
• Consider rental boilers as potential backup, and include
required piping in the plant. Low Pressure Boilers
• Generally boilers with large water volumes and surface areas The ASME Code contains many recommendations for low
are more tolerant of feedwater treatment variations and load pressure steam systems. Here are excerpts that apply to design
surges. consideration.
The moisture content in steam from a steam generator is nor- Steam Line Expansion - “Provisions shall be made for the
mally very small. There are conditions that can upset the nor- expansion and contraction of steam and hot water mains con-
mal operation and result in some relatively high amounts of nected to boilers by providing substantial anchorage at suitable
water carry-over. In addition, there are some applications points, and by providing swing joints when boilers are installed
which require extremely dry steam for proper operation. in batteries, so there will be no undue strain transmitted to the
There are some guidelines for maintaining high quality steam, boilers.” para. HG-703.1
and methods to improve the steam quality.
Stop Valves for Single, Multiple, and Steam Boilers
Feedwater quality is the single most important element in
Steam Boilers - “When a stop valve is used in the supply pipe
steam quality. General feedwater guidelines are given in this
connection of a single steam boiler, there shall be one used in
book and others. Special considerations need to be given to
the return pipe connection.”para. HG-710.1
the type of boiler. There may be additional requirements based
on the boiler type and the conditions of the local water supply. Multiple Boiler Installations - “A stop valve shall be used in
A water specialist should be consulted for specific require- each supply and return pipe connection of two or more boilers
ments of an installation. connected to a common system.” para. HG-710.3
The steam quality from a boiler can be improved by adding an Shutoff Valves - “No shutoff of any description shall be placed
external separator or an equalizing line similar to a “Hartford between the safety relief valve and the boiler, nor on discharge
Loop.” Such special steam piping arrangements are sometimes pipes between such valves and the atmosphere.” para. HG-
used on low pressure steam boilers with small steam cham- 701.5
bers.
Safety and Safety Relief Valves - “Safety and safety relief
The industrial watertube boiler offers some additional options valves shall not be connected to an internal pipe in the boiler.”
for improving the steam quality. One option uses special drum para. HG-701.4
components to further remove solids, resulting in higher steam
Safety Valve Discharge Piping - “A discharge pipe shall be
quality. The other option is to add a superheater to provide
used. Its internal cross-sectional area shall be not less than the
superheated steam.
full area of the valve outlet or of the total of the valve outlets
• Water maintenance programs can help insure reliable steam discharging there into and shall be as short and straight as pos-
quality. sible and so arranged as to avoid undue stress on the valve or
valves. When an elbow is placed on a safety or safety-relief
• Boiler concentrations may need to be adjusted for best steam
valve discharge pipe, it shall be located close to the valve out-
quality.
let. The discharge from safety or safety-relief valves shall be so
• Special steam piping can be used with some boilers (such as arranged that there will be no danger of scalding attendants.”
the cast iron boiler) to reduce carry-over. Para. HG-701.6 Refer to Figure I3-4.
• An external separator will typically remove 90% of the Bottom Blowoff - “Each boiler shall have a bottom blowoff or
moisture in a steam line. drain pipe connection fitted with a valve or cock connected
with the lowest water space practicable. The discharge piping
• Superheated steam and special steam dryers are available on
shall be full size to the point of discharge.” para. HG-715
industrial watertube boilers.

High Pressure Boilers

Boiler Piping and Valves
The ASME Code provides many recommendations for high
This section contains information on boiler piping and valve pressure steam boilers. Here are some excerpts that apply to
requirements for low and high pressure boilers. design considerations.

I3-8
System Fundamentals Steam Systems

Figure I3-4. Recommended Safety Valve Discharge Piping

Steam Line Expansion - “Provisions shall be made for the preferably of one automatic non-return valve (set next to the
expansion and contraction of steam mains connected to boil- boiler) and a second valve of the outside-screw-and-yoke type
ers, by providing substantial anchorage at suitable points, so or two valves of the outside-screw-and-yoke type shall be
that there shall be no undue strain transmitted to the boiler.” used.” Para. 122.1.7 (A.2) (ASME B31.1)
para. PG-59.1.2
Stop-Check Valves (Non-Code Recommendations) - A prob-
Steam Stop Valves - “Each boiler discharge outlet, except lem confronting the power piping designer is the selection of
safety valves or safety relief valves, or preheater inlet and out- the best size of stop check valve for his service conditions.
let connections, shall be fitted with a stop valve located at an This type valve usually has a floating disc member, hence it is
accessible point in the steam-delivery line and as near the important that the valve be sized to provide full disc lift under
boiler nozzle as is convenient and practicable. When such out- flow conditions prevailing during the major portion of the ser-
lets are over NPS2, the valve or valves used on the connection vice life of the installation. If the valve is too large for flow
shall be of the outside-screw-and-yoke rising-stem type so as conditions, the disc will float in a partially open position; this
to indicate from a distance, by the position of its stem whether may result in fluttering of the disc and rapid wear of valve
it is closed or open, and the wheel may be carried either on the parts. Conversely, if the valve is too small for flow conditions
yoke or attached to the stem.” para. 122.1.7 (A.1) (ASME encountered, pressure drop will be excessive.
B31.1)
Safety Valves - “No valve of any description shall be placed
“When boilers are connected to a common header, the connec- between the required safety valve or valves and the boiler, nor
tion from each boiler having a manhole opening, shall be fitted the discharge pipe between the safety valve and the atmo-
with two stop valves having an ample free-blow drain between sphere. When a discharge pipe is used, the cross-sectional area
them. The discharge of this drain shall be visible to the opera- shall be not less than the full area of the valve outlet or the total
tor while manipulating the valve. The stop valves shall consist

I3-9
Steam Systems System Fundamentals

of the areas of the valve outlets discharging there into and shall An important factor in the condensate return and water make-
be as short and straight as possible and so arranged as to avoid up system is to ensure that contaminated condensate does not
undue stresses on the valve or valves. All safety valve or relief return to the boiler room and its associated equipment. Con-
valve discharges shall be so located or piped as to be carried densate contaminated with oil, dye, soap, etc. must be disposed
clear from running boards or platforms. Ample provision for of in a safe manner. Contaminated condensate will cause prob-
gravity drain shall be made in the discharge pipe at or near lems such as foaming, priming, unstable water level, and it will
each safety valve or safety relief valve, and where water of increase blowdown requirements.
condensation may collect. Each valve shall have an opening
The collection of clean steam condensate is desirable for sev-
gravity drain through the casing below the level of the valve
eral economic reasons. Condensate generally is capable of
seat. For iron-and-steel bodied valves exceeding 2-1/2 inch
being collected at temperatures higher than the temperature of
size, the drain hole shall be tapped not less than 3/8 inch pipe
raw water make-up. This results in significant fuel cost savings
size.” Para PG-71.3 Refer to Figure I3-4, Recommended
and improved overall system efficiency. Since condensate is
Safety Valve Discharge Piping.
formed from steam, it contains little or no dissolved solids.
Safety Valve Mounting - “When a boiler is fitted with two or Therefore, using collected condensate reduces chemical usage
more safety valves or safety relief valves on one connection, and associated costs as well.
this connection to the boiler shall have a cross-sectional area
Additionally, the cost of raw water make-up will be reduced by
not less than the combined area of inlet connections of all the
collecting condensate because the demand for raw water is lim-
safety valves with which it connects and shall also meet the
ited. When considering installation costs, the expected conden-
requirements of Paragraph PG-71.3.” Para. PG-71.5
sate return may allow for down-sizing of the raw water make-
Blowoff Valves - The blowoff valve or valves, the pipe up supply system and other components.
between them, and the boiler connection shall be of the same
Unfortunately, condensate flow from the system may be unpre-
size except that a larger pipe for the return of condensate may
dictable. Unpredictability of returning condensate causes a
be used.
problem for the boiler, since it should have a continuous and
For all boilers . . . with allowable working pressure in excess immediately available supply of water. However, there are sev-
of 100 psig, each bottom blowoff pipe shall have two slow- eral ways to collect and store condensate so it is readily avail-
opening valves, or one quick-opening valve or cock; at the able.
boiler nozzle followed by a slow-opening valve. A slow-open-
A collection or storage tank can be incorporated to act as a res-
ing valve is a valve which requires at least five 360 degree
ervoir. Products which serve this purpose include boiler feed-
turns of the operating mechanism from fully closed to fully
water systems, surge tanks, and deaerators.
opened. On a boiler having multiple blowoff pipes, a single
master valve may be placed on the common blowoff pipe from The function of these products in the overall condensate return
the boilers, in which case only one valve on each individual and raw water make-up system is as follows. For further infor-
blowoff is required. In such a case, either the master valve or mation on this equipment, refer to the specific product sections
the individual valves or cocks shall be of the slow-opening in The Boiler Book.
type. Para. 122.1.7 (ASME B31.1)
Feedwater Valves - “The feedwater piping for all [steam] Boiler Feed System
boilers . . . shall be provided with a check valve . . . between Boiler feedwater systems help maintain maximum efficiency
the check valve and the boiler.” Para 122.1 (B1) (ASME and prolong the life of the boiler, when investment in a deaera-
B31.1) tor cannot be justified. Consisting of one or more feed pumps
and a corrosion resistant receiver tank, the system automati-
“When two or more boilers are fed from a common source,
cally supplements condensate with make-up water to replace
there shall also be a globe or regulating valve in the branch to
system losses. When equipped with an automatic preheater,
each boiler located between the check valve and the source of
feedwater temperatures can be maintained at temperatures up
supply.” Para. 122.1.7 (B.5) (ASME B31.1)
to 210 °F (maximum). At this temperature, substantial amounts
of oxygen and carbon dioxide are released, reducing the
Boiler Feed Systems amount of chemicals required to protect the boiler and system
The transfer of heat from steam, regardless of process usage, from corrosion. Preheating is recommended if the return con-
will create condensate. The quantity of collectable condensate densate constitutes 50% or less of the required feedwater.
varies with the type of application. For instance, with humidi- Boiler feed systems typically combine one or more boiler feed
fication, the steam is released to the environment and the con- pumps with a tank to store condensate and make-up water.
densate is considered uncollectible. In industrial applications, These components are typically furnished as a complete pack-
condensate can typically be collected in large quantity. age with level, temperature, and pressure controls. Additional

I3-10
System Fundamentals Steam Systems

features such as deaeration hardware and more sophisticated water and condensate. Without deaeration, the dissolved gases
controls may be considered. can cause serious corrosion in the boiler and other system
hardware.
The purpose of the boiler feed system is to provide a reservoir
with sufficient surge capacity to accommodate intermittent Deaerators are considered essential for:
condensate flowrates, and to provide stable suction conditions
• All boiler plants operating at 75 psig or more.
for the boiler feed pump(s). The selection of a boiler feedwa-
ter system is primarily driven by surge capacity. For this rea- • All boiler plants with little or no standby capacity.
son, it is necessary to accurately estimate peak condensate
• All boilers plants where production depends on continuous
flowrates from the steam-use facility, considering also factors
operation.
due to transient conditions such as equipment startups, piping
hydraulics, and system interactions. Once this information is • All boiler plants operating with makeup water of 25% or
obtained and understood, a boiler feed tank of sufficient size more.
may be selected.
In addition to removing oxygen and carbon dioxide, deaerators
The operating characteristics of the boiler and steam-generat- also heat boiler feedwater. The large storage capacity provides
ing system have an impact on the type of controls and features an effective means for recovering heat from exhaust steam and
included in the boiler feed system. In particular, those factors hot condensate. With a deaerator, further savings result from
influencing pump selection will also have an effect on the the reduced need for oxygen-scavenging chemical treatment.
height of the boiler feedwater system, the level control system, For further information, refer to Sections H1, H2, and H3.
and suction piping design. The characteristics of the returning
condensate should also be considered when selecting feedwa- Pumps
ter system components, corrosion resistant linings, and pres-
There are five design criteria that must be considered before
sure/temperature controls.
the proper boiler feed pump can be selected.
There are many cost/benefit tradeoffs available when configur-
1. Will the pump run continuously or intermittently?
ing a boiler feed system. A partial list includes:
2. What is the temperature of the water being pumped?
• Feedwater Preheat reduces thermal shock.
3. What is the pump capacity requirement in gpm?
• Premium Lining/Galvanizing reduces corrosion.
4. What is the pump discharge pressure requirement?
• Premium Level Control reduces overflow losses.
5. What is the NPSH (net positive suction head) required?
• Code Rated Pressure Tank reduces flash steam losses.
Continuous or Intermittent Operation - Continuous or
• Deaeration Hardware reduces corrosion and thermal
intermittent operation of a pump is determined by the critical
shock.
nature of the desired water level control. The water level con-
Each of these options has a direct benefit on the long-term trol requirements are primarily based on the type of boiler, but
operating costs of the system. Their increased initial costs are also affected by the load, operating pressure, and feed
must be balanced against the overall capital cost and the water temperature. Continuous operation provides better water
expected life of the system. For more information on boiler level control, but adds cost and components to the system.
feed systems, please refer to Section H5.
Boiler types with a relatively low water volume, such as water-
tube boilers, require more precise water level control than
Surge Tanks (Condensate Receiver Tanks) boiler types with a large water volume, such as firetubes. This
Surge tanks can greatly reduce dependence on cold, untreated is due to the relationship between drum (vessel) size and gal-
raw water to replace boiler system losses by collecting con- lons of water content. For example, a fifty gallon change in a
densate by gravity return for re-use in the boiler feed system. watertube boiler might represent a one inch change in water
Surge tanks are required when no other storage exists or when level, while the same fifty gallon change in a firetube boiler
intermittent peak loads of condensate can exceed the storage might only represent a fraction of an inch change in water
capacity of the deaerator. Integrated control automatically level.
introduces makeup water to supplement condensate only when
Frequent load swings will require more accurate water level
necessary to meet boiler demand. Refer to Section H4 for
control to ensure the feedwater flow matches the steam flow
more detailed information.
requirement. Frequent load swings may require continuous
feedwater control to maintain proper water level.
Deaerators
The relationship between operating pressure and feedwater
Deaeration is widely recognized as the most acceptable temperature can make water level control more critical if the
method for removing oxygen and carbon dioxide from makeup

I3-11
Steam Systems System Fundamentals

temperatures vary or if there is a large differential between sat- tor), plus by-pass flow requirement (in gpm) for the pump. The
uration temperature and feed water temperature. Large tem- by-pass flow is usually regulated through a fixed orifice, and is
perature differentials could result in a reduction in boiler water of sufficient quantity to prevent cavitation within the pump
level when feed water is added. The reduction is caused by a under dead head conditions. The by-pass orifice must be
quenching effect, which lowers the boiler water temperature located between the pump discharge and the modulating feed-
slightly, reducing the steam/water volume, thereby lowering water valve to allow water to recirculate back to the storage
the water level. This type of water level reduction is generally tank.
more common on smaller, low pressure boilers. Pump Discharge Pressure Requirements - Pump discharge
Selection of Pump Type (Centrifugal or Turbine) - Once the pressure requirements are calculated by determining the boiler
criteria for water level control is determined, the type of feed operating pressure and calculating the line losses between the
pump can be selected. pump and the boiler. The pump discharge pressure needs to
overcome the piping line losses, and boiler pressure in order to
Highly accurate water level control can be achieved with a get water into the boiler.
centrifugal type pump, running continuously, in conjunction
with a modulating feed water valve on the boiler. All calculations need to be converted to feet of head for pump
selection purposes. Therefore, convert boiler operating pres-
An effective but less precise means of water level control can sure to feet of head, and add to that value the equivalent length
be provided using a turbine type pump, with intermittent (on- (in feet of head) of the piping and associated valves between
off) operation. With intermittent operation, larger swings in the pump discharge and the boiler.
water level control will result.
Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) - Every pump design has
Although not common, turbine pumps have been used in con- a certain requirement for net positive suction head. This is the
junction with a modulating feedwater valve to provide water amount of liquid in feet that must be above the pump suction
level control. In this application, a relief device must be centerline in order to prevent cavitation and to provide proper
included to discharge water back to the feedwater tank to pro- pump operation.
tect the pump from dead head pressures. Dead head pressures
can cause overheating, cavitation, and subsequent pump dam- Net positive suction head required (NPSH-R) by the pump
age. A concern of this design is the use of a relief device as a must be exceeded by the net positive suction head available
control valve, and the inherent performance and reliability fac- (NPSH-A) from the system.
tors. Calculation: NPSH-A = HP + HZ - HF - HVP
Pump Water Temperature - The temperature of the pumped NPSH-A - Available NPSH expressed in feet of fluid.
water must be specified to ensure proper design and construc-
tion. Pumps use packing or mechanical seals to seal the area HP - Absolute pressure on the surface of the liquid at the pump
between the pump shaft and the pump casing. These seals have suction location, expressed in feet. This could be atmospheric
temperature limitations and, if misapplied, the seals will fail. pressure or vessel pressure (pressurized tank).
Standard pump seals are adequate up to temperatures of HZ - Static elevation of the liquid above, or below the center-
approximately 215 °F. Higher temperature seals are available line of the impeller, expressed in feet.
for temperatures up to 250 °F and, for temperatures above 250
°F, external water cooling is usually employed to protect the HF - Friction and entrance head loss in the suction piping,
seals. For applications above 250 °F, contact your local expressed in feet.
Cleaver-Brooks authorized representative. HVP- Absolute vapor pressure of the fluid at the pumping tem-
Pump Capacity Requirements - Determining pumping perature, expressed in feet.
capacity requirements involves slightly different criteria for Cleaver-Brooks makes selections that are based on pumps hav-
centrifugal and turbine type pumps. For both pump types, the ing the lowest possible NPSH-R. This is done to provide the
maximum boiler capacity must be determined. The maximum lowest stand height and the lowest overall height of the tank.
boiler capacity, or evaporation rate, is usually calculated in There are some sacrifices which must be accepted in order to
pounds of steam per hour, and should be converted to gallons have low NPSH-R. Usually a selection with a low NPSH-R is a
per minute, and have blowdown added to it for pump selection pump that is larger and usually requires a greater horsepower
purposes. For assistance in this calculation, contact your local drive. Generally speaking, however, it is more important to
Cleaver-Brooks authorized representative. keep the overall height to a minimum than to select a pump
The pump capacity for turbine pumps, with intermittent opera- with a higher NPSH-R.
tion, should be equal to 2 times the maximum evaporation rate Pumps (General) - The design criteria for transfer pumps
of the boiler. (pumps which pump water to a deaerator) is the same as the
The pump capacity for centrifugal pumps, with continuous criteria just covered for boiler feed pumps.
operation, is equal to: evaporation rate times 1.15 (safety fac-

I3-12
System Fundamentals Steam Systems

Cleaver-Brooks and our authorized representatives provide a gen. Dissolved oxygen is not related to the combined oxygen
full line of pumps, and pump selection services for application contained in the water molecule H2O. All surface and rain
in both steam and hot water systems. For assistance, contact water contain dissolved oxygen, because of their contact with
your local Cleaver-Brooks authorized representative. the atmosphere. With enough contact, the dissolved oxygen
content will reach saturation for the corresponding tempera-
Water Treatment Systems ture. The solubility of oxygen is affected by solid content.
Water with a higher solid content will contain less oxygen than
General - Harmful elements are contained in surface and well distilled water. Surface water usually contains more oxygen
water. Surface and well water are also called “raw water.” A than well water. As the raw water temperature rises, dissolved
sample of the raw water should be analyzed early in the equip- oxygen is released and can cause corrosion of iron and steel.
ment planning stage. The analysis provides a clear definition Therefore, the problem caused by dissolved oxygen in boiler
of the particular threats posed by the water source. Your systems is corrosion in the boiler feedwater piping, econo-
Cleaver-Brooks representative can assist you in defining the mizer, boiler, and steam and condensate return piping.
harmful elements, and can help in planning a water treatment
program and in selecting the proper treatment equipment. Hence, the generation of steam from naturally occurring water
sources can be complicated by the presence of various chemi-
The following is a discussion of the elements commonly found cal constituents in the water supply. The American Society of
in raw water. Mechanical Engineers has published guidelines on boiler
Surface water usually has high suspended solids and dissolved water and boiler feedwater quality for steam boilers. Most
gases and low dissolved solids. Well water normally has high boiler installations will require some form of water treatment
dissolved solids and low suspended solids and dissolved gases. in order to conform to these guidelines. A few methods of
treatment are depicted in Tables I3-1 and I3-2.
Suspended solids represent the undissolved matter in water,
including dirt, silt, biological growth, vegetation, and insolu- The Objectives of Feedwater Treatment
ble organic matter.
Proper boiler feedwater treatment is an absolute necessity!
When minerals dissolve in water, ions are formed. The sum of Unless the boiler receives water of proper quality, the boiler’s
all minerals or ions in the water is the total dissolved solids or life will be shortened. The water supply for a steam system
TDS. may originate from rivers, ponds, underground wells, etc. Each
Iron can be soluble or insoluble. Insoluble iron can clog valves water supply source requires a specific analysis. Depending
and strainers and can cause excessive sludge build up in low upon the analysis, various pretreatment methods may be
lying areas of a water system. It also leads to boiler deposits employed to prepare make-up water for the boiler feedwater
that can cause tube failures. Soluble iron can interfere in many system.
processes, such as printing or the dying of cloth. In domestic The objectives of boiler water treatment in general are as fol-
water systems, porcelain fixtures can be stained by as little as lows:
0.25 ppm of iron.
1. Prevent hard scale deposits or soft sludge type deposits
Water hardness is the measure of calcium and magnesium con- which would, if present, impair the rate of heat transfer and
tent as calcium carbonate equivalents. Water hardness is the possibly result in overheating and damage to the pressure
primary source of scale in boiler equipment. vessel.
Silica in boiler feedwater can also cause hard dense scale with 2. Prevent general corrosion or pitting to assure maximum
a high resistance to heat transfer. life of the boiler at the lowest maintenance cost.
Alkalinity is a measure of the capacity of water to neutralize 3. Prevent intercrystalline cracking or caustic embrittlement
strong acid. In natural waters, the capacity is attributable to of boiler metal.
bases, such as bicarbonates, carbonates, and hydroxides; as
well as silicates, borates, ammonia, phosphates, and organic 4. Prevent carryover to assure high quality steam at an
bases. These bases, especially bicarbonates and carbonates, economical rate of continuous and intermittent blowdown.
break down to form carbon dioxide in steam, which is a major The accomplishment of these objectives will, in all cases,
factor in the corrosion of condensate lines. Alkalinity also con- involve several forms of treatment including:
tributes to foaming and carryover in boilers.
• Pretreatment of the make-up water before it enters the boiler
pH is a measure of the degree of acid or base of a solution. The feedwater system.
pH scale is from 0 to 14, with 0 being the most acidic and 14
being the most basic or alkaline. • Chemical treatment of the boiler water internally in the
boiler.
Dissolved oxygen is the amount of oxygen gas dissolved in the
raw water and is caused by the solubility of atmospheric oxy-

I3-13
Steam Systems System Fundamentals

Table I3-1. Removal of Harmful Elements with Various Types of Equipment

DISSOLVED SOFTENER CLORIDE CYCLE FILTERS DEAERATORS
CONSTITUENT DEALKALIZER

Calcium CaB 98-100% Must have soft water No Change No Change

Magnesium MgB 98-100% Must have soft water No Change No Change

HardnessA 98-100% Must have soft water No Change No Change

Sodium Na Increases No Change No Change No Change

Bicarbonate Alkalinity HCO3A No Change 90% No Change No Change

Sulfate SO4 No Change 90-95% No Change No Change

Chloride Cl No Change Increases No Change No Change

Silica SiO2 A No Change 20% No Change No Change

Soluble Iron Fe 100% Must have soft water No Change No Change

Total Dissolved SolidsA No Change No Change No Change No Change

Suspended SolidsA Must Be Removed Must be removed Down to 10 No Change

Micron

Dissolved GasesA No Change Free CO2 Only See Filter To .005 cc/liter of O2
Section
NOTE: All of the above packaged water systems can be readily integrated into existing Cleaver-Brooks boiler rooms. All are designed to
accommodate boilers of any make.
A. Specifically limited by ASME guidelines on boiler feedwater quality.
B. The sum of calcium and magnesium equal the hardness. Hardness has been listed as a separate item for those analyses showing
hardness only.

Table I3-2. Makeup Water Impurities, Limits and Treatment Methods

MAKE-UP WATER TEST TYPICAL IMPURITIES TYPICAL LIMITS TREATMENT METHOD
Oxygen 6 ppm <.007 ppmA Deaeration/Chemical

Hardness 86 ppm <1.0 ppmA Softener

Suspended Matter 0.1 ppm 0.15 ppmA Blowdown

pH 6.87 7.0-10.5A Chemical

Silica 10 ppm <150 ppmB Blowdown

Alkalinity 100 ppm <700 ppmB Blowdown/Dealkalizer

Dissolved Solids 500 µ-mho/cm <7000 µmho/cmB Blowdown

A. Limits for feedwater.

B. Limits of boiler.

In addition, the selection of pretreatment methods will depend The following are descriptions of feedwater pretreatment
upon the chemistry of the raw water and the plant operating equipment and a discussion of their functions in the overall
characteristics. In most cases, pretreatment becomes more crit- feedwater pretreatment cycle. For further information on
ical as the percentage of make-up to the system increases. equipment, refer to the specific product sections.

Raw Water Make-up Filters

Impurities in raw water make-up can be removed and con- The need for special filter equipment to remove impurities can
trolled either chemically or mechanically with various equip- be readily determined by a raw water analysis. Filters should
ment. Mechanical means of removing or controlling impurities be considered in order to remove sand, iron, chlorine, and some
will result in less chemicals being added to the boiler and sys- dissolved organics and sediments. Refer to Section H7.
tem. However, mechanical means will not remove or control
all impurities. Chemicals will still be required to provide the
desired results.

I3-14
System Fundamentals Steam Systems

Water Softeners These equipment selection economic tradeoffs are influenced

by size, criticality, and operating environment of the steam sys-
Water softeners should be used whenever raw water hardness
tem.
exceeds 5 ppm. A softener removes calcium and magnesium
and exchanges them with highly soluble sodium ions. Remov-
ing hardness prevents scale buildup on heat transfer surfaces Economizers
and helps maintain peak boiler efficiency. A water softener During boiler operation in typical commercial and industrial
also is the base for many sophisticated pretreatment processes applications, approximately 10-20% of the heating value of
that require the control of water hardness for proper operation. fuel is expelled with the stack gases to the atmosphere. Stack
Refer to Section H8. economizers are designed to recover significant amounts of
this stack gas energy loss, thereby vastly improving boiler sys-
Dealkalizers tem efficiency, as shown in Section G, Tables G-5 and G-6.
Dealkalizers use softened water and remove negatively There are several considerations when selecting an econo-
charged ions of bicarbonate, carbonate, sulfate nitrate, and sil- mizer:
ica. They are replaced with chloride ions. Removal of bicar-
bonate alkalinity controls formation of carbon dioxide and • Gas-side Pressure Drop. Added back-pressure on the boiler
reduces the corrosion of condensate piping. Dealkalization stack affects the combustion air fan throughput capability.
reduces the need for neutralizing chemicals by as much as The economizer and combustion air fan(s) must be sized
90% and cuts fuel costs by minimizing blowdown. Refer to properly in order to assure a suitable system operation and
Section H9. capacity.
• Feedwater Temperature. The feedwater to the economizer
Chemical Feed Systems must be deaerated and the temperature setpoint minimally at
Chemical feed systems treat feedwater, boiler water, and con- 220oF to prevent tube corrosion.
dition blowdown sludge where an additional measure of pro- • Water-side Pressure Drop. Feedwater pumps must be sized
tection against corrosion and scaling is required. Refer to to accommodate the economizer pressure drop.
Section H6. Additionally, a continuous modulating feedwater system is
In summary, the benefits of water treatment equipment include required to ensure proper flow rates through the economizer.
improved boiler efficiency, corrosion reduction and therefore A full product line description of Cleaver-Brooks Boilermate
component life, and improved steam purity. The selection and Economizers, including sizing and performance information, is
sizing of water treatment equipment is dictated by the capacity offered in Section G.
of the steam system, the chemical constituents in the make-up
water supply, and the operating characteristics of the overall
Blowdown Systems
system. Generally speaking, the greater the treatment load (in
units of lb/hr removal), the larger the equipment. It is impor- A number of factors determine the need for boiler blowdown.
tant when designing a water treatment system that a detailed As mentioned earlier, the amount of total dissolved solids
water analysis be available as a guide. (TDS) is one. The American Boiler Manufacturers Association
(ABMA) has developed recommended limits for total and sus-
The design of the water treatment system is influenced by cost/ pended solids for different boiler operating pressures. Refer to
benefit tradeoffs in equipment selection. These influences Table I3-3 for recommended limits for total and suspended sol-
may include: ids.
• Chemical Feed Systems which have low initial costs, but Other controlling factors for determining blowdown require-
significant operating costs. ments are alkalinity, suspended solids, and other chemical fac-
• Component Duplexing which tends to ensure uninterrupted tors. In boilers operating over 600 psig, silica content could be
operation. the limiting factor.
• Chloride Cycle Dealkalizers which reduce blowdown Solids are brought into the boiler by the feedwater. Even
losses. though the water is treated, either mechanically or chemically,
neither means of treatment is capable of removing all sub-
• Filters which also reduce blowdown losses and stances. A small amount of crystallized solids will be present in
maintenance. the boiler water, which can tend to encrust surfaces.
• Skid Mounting which decreases installation costs. That is, solids become less soluble in the high temperature of
• Premium Regeneration Controls which may decrease the boiler water and tend to crystallize and concentrate on heat-
operating costs.

I3-15
Steam Systems System Fundamentals

Table I3-3. Recommended Limits for Total Suspended Solids

A controlled orifice valve is used to allow a continual, yet con-
OPERATING TOTAL SUSPENDED trolled, flow of concentrated water. Periodic adjustments are
PRESSURE SOLIDS SOLIDS
PSIG PPM PPM made to the valve in order to increase or decrease the amount
of blowdown in accordance with test analysis.
0-300 3500 300
There are a few considerations when designing a blowdown
301-450 3000 250
system:
451-600 2500 150
• Local Code Requirements: If necessary, a blowdown
601-750 2000 100
aftercooler should be incorporated to bring the blowdown
751-900 1500 60 water temperature to a level acceptable to the sewer system
901-1000 1250 40 and local code requirements.
• Blowdown Heat Recovery: Since the blowdown water is
ing surfaces. Internal chemical treatment is therefore required discharged at the saturated steam temperature, a significant
in order to keep harmful scale and sludge from forming. amount of energy may be expelled during blowdown. A
well-designed blowdown heat recovery system can control
Scale has a low heat transfer value and acts as an insulating blowdown rates and dissolved solids concentration while
barrier. Insulation retards heat transfer, which not only results recovering heat for make-up water preheating.
in lower operating efficiency but, more importantly, can cause
overheating of boiler metal. Overheating of boiler metal When selecting a blowdown heat recovery system, two factors
results in tube failure or other pressure vessel metal damage. should be considered: (1) tube materials and construction, and
(2) blowdown flowrate control. The high velocities and abra-
Scale is caused primarily by calcium and magnesium salts, sil- sive nature of blowdown water necessitates quality construc-
ica, and oil. Any calcium and magnesium salts, along with tion materials such as stainless steel, as well as design for
organic materials in the boiler water, are generally precipitated vibration damping. Secondly, it is important to control blow-
by the use of sodium phosphate in order to maintain these pre- down rate so as to match makeup water flow rates for optimal
cipitates or “sludge” in a fluid form. heat recovery.
Solids, such as sodium salts and suspended dirt, do not readily In most cases, the intermittent nature of bottom blowdown will
form scale. However, as boiler water boils, forming relatively preclude recovery of the blowdown energy losses. Moreover,
pure steam, the remaining water becomes increasingly thicker the bottom blowdown can contain suspended matter or sludge
with solids. If the concentration is permitted to accumulate, that will tend to clog a heat exchanger. With a continuous
foaming and priming will occur and the sludge can cause blowdown system, heat may certainly be recovered, transferred
harmful deposits that potentially result in overheating of the to make-up water, before the blowdown is cooled and sent to
metal. Therefore, lowering or removing concentrated solids sewer.
requires the use of boiler water blowdown.
• Flash Tank Heat Exchangers: Flash tank heat exchangers
Types of Blowdown are also designed to recover heat from blowdown water, but
provide an added feature of producing low-pressure steam
There are two principal types of blowdown: manual (intermit- for deaeration. The portion of blowdown water which is not
tent) bottom blowdown and surface (continuous) blowdown. flashed either enters a blowdown heat recovery system for
Manual (Intermittent) Bottom Blowdown - Bottom blow- make-up water preheating or is discharged to sewer.
down is necessary for the proper operation of the boiler. Bot-
tom blowdown removes sludge and controls the level of TDS. SYSTEM INTEGRATION AND
On a manual system, the blowdown tappings are located at the
bottom or lowest part of the boiler, so that the dissolved solids
OPTIMIZATION
in the boiler water are lowered, and a portion of the sludge that The discussion in this section attempts to provide to the reader
accumulates in the lower portion of the boiler is removed. assistance to approach in designing and integrating various
equipment into a workable system. A workable system is one
Surface (Continuous) Blowdown - Surface blowdown
that meets the requirements and purposes of the system, has
involves a continuous, low flow of boiler water extracted from
satisfactory life and maintenance costs, and abides by all con-
the surface of the water level in order to skim off sediment, oil
straints such as pressures, temperatures, footprint, noise, emis-
and other impurities. The blowdown is regulated by a flow
sions, etc. In summary, a workable system performs the
control valve, which is adjusted as needed to control the TDS
assigned duty, given the imposed constraints and requirements.
level. The surface blowdown opening is on the top center line
of the pressure vessel and is provided with an internal collect- System optimization, on the other hand, is the process of deter-
ing pipe terminating slightly below the working water level. mining system configuration and state point conditions which
provideamaximizationofsomeobjectivesuchasthenet
I3-16
 System Fundamentals Steam Systems

present value of overall life costs. Optimized design may offer $68.04/month service charge
the steam-user significant savings over the life of the steam-
$0.833/ccf consumption charge
generating facility. It is the design which maximizes profit-
ability for the owner over time. 8. Water Discharge Max. Temp: 120 °F
For a given application, there are many workable designs, but 9. Sewer Charges:
only one optimal design. The discussion in this section entails
$13.72/month service charge
a “search” method to approaching the optimal design. Com-
ponents/equipment are added arbitrarily and evaluated for $0.573/ccf use charge
effect on system performance and ultimately cost/benefit to
10. Types of Fuel:
the steam system owner. Obtaining the optimum design is
more involved than that presented in this section and is beyond Natural Gas
the scope of this discussion.
Light Oil considered as a back-up

EXAMPLE - STEAM SYSTEMS 11. Fuel Analysis:

The following is an example of a relatively simple low pres- Natural Gas

sure steam heating system. The entire steam-generating facil- Methane: 86.0% (vol.)
ity of an existing heating system is evaluated for replacement.
An application/energy-use audit results in the following infor- Ethane: 7.2% (vol.)
mation. Nitrogen: 6.8% (vol.)
1. Type of Application/Load: Heating SG: 0.619
2. Nominal Steam Pressure: 10 psig HHV: 21,100 Btu/lb (1000 Btu/scf)
3. Steam Load Characteristics/Profile: No. 2 Oil
The steam system operates 5 months/year. Carbon: 85.8% (wt.)
During 3 months (2160 hours) Hydrogen: 12.7% (wt.)
Minimum load: 0 Sulfur: 0.2% (wt.)
Maximum load: 5,600 kBtu/hr HHV: 19,420 Btu/lb
Average load:650 kBtu/hr 12. Fuel Costs:
During 2 months (1440 hours) Natural Gas: $4.50/MMBtu ($3.50 MMBtu interruptible)
Minimum load: 0 No. 2 Oil: $4.20/MMBtu
Maximum load: 8,100 kBtu/hr 13. Combustion Air Conditions:
Average load: 2,500 kBtu/hr Avg Temp1: 80 °F
Transient loads, instantaneous demand, and sudden load Rel Hum: 60%
swings do not exist.
14. Stack Gas Temperature Limits: N/A
4. Steam Quality Requirements: 98% steam quality at boiler
pressure vessel exit 15. Emission Regulations:

5. Condensate Return Conditions: There are none currently, but requirements are in the
expected future. Site is located in a non-attainment zone.
Temperature: 200 °F
16. Stack/Breeching Physical Attributes:
Pressure: 2 psig
A new single stack is to be designed by the boiler supplier.
% Return: 90%
17. Electrical Power Demand: Not applicable in this case
6. Make-up Water Requirement: 10%
7. Water Charges:
______________
1. Boiler room combustion air temperature ranges from 60 °F to
100 °F.

I3-17
Steam Systems System Fundamentals

18. Electrical Power Costs: Boiler Selection

$0.0345/kWhr on-peak As this steam generating facility is replacing an existing one,
pressure is already set at 10 psig. This system operating con-
$0.0245/kWhr off-peak
straint allows the use of a 15 psi boiler which falls under Sec-
19. Physical Limitations of Facility: None tion IV of the ASME code. In addition to pressure require-
ments, steam quality requirements need to be met. The cus-
20. Noise Level Requirements: <90 dBA
tomer’s system/application requirement is 98%. Most boilers
When designing a steam generating facility, necessary system offer 98.5% steam quality at low pressure; therefore this is not
capacity and approximate fuel costs need to be considered. a limitation.
This will for allow both qualitative and quantitative economic
The large amount of idle time and low-load firing apparently
analyses of different installation alternatives.
suggest a two boiler installation (boilers operate most effi-
First, required system capacity should be calculated. This is ciently near their rated capacity), with a large boiler for winter
the maximum load. and a smaller model for spring and fall. Reviewing the fuel
bill, however, indicates that an improvement in efficiency
A total capacity of 241 horsepower is required for this applica-
would not justify increased installation, maintenance and capi-
tal costs that the customer wishes to minimize. Furthermore,
there is no need for back-up in this application. Therefore, the
8100 kBtu
hour ( 33.475
hp hour
kBtu
) = 241 hp recommendation is to install a single boiler. However, high-
turndown would be desirable to prevent excessive cycling.
With the necessary capacity calculated, and the number of
tion. Next, approximate fuel costs are calculated using the fol- boilers to be installed decided, several boiler types can be ruled
lowing:2 out immediately. Neither the Vertical Firetube nor the Model 4
Watertube Boilers are available in sufficient size for this sys-
tem. At the opposite extreme, the load is far too small for an
industrial watertube boiler. Remaining boilers include the fire-
total load = å (loadi) (hoursi) box, firetube, flextube, electric and cast iron boilers. The cast
iron boiler may be ruled out because of its higher initial cost;
total load = 2160 hrs • 650 kBtu/hr + 1440 • 2500 kBtu/hr the electric may be ruled out because of higher operating costs.
The remaining boilers, the firebox, firetube and flextube all are
= 5,004,000 kBtu
good choices for heating loads requiring low pressure steam.
(total load) ($/MMBtu) Instantaneous load is not an issue with a heating load. Like-
total fuel cost = h wise, there are no large load swings to consider.
where h = system efficiency (decimal)
An application under federal emission regulations (NSPS)
needs to be submitted because this installation is capable of
$4.50 1
MMBtu
(5,004,000 MBtu) 0.6 ( ) = $37,530 using over 10 MMBTU/hr. There are no federal emissions
requirements for this boiler because of the fuels selected. Local
permits for construction and operation will also be required.
Furthermore, it is desirable that the boiler be UL listed. There
__________ are no current local emission requirements, although they are
2. Efficiency should be set to 80% for process loads and 60% for expected to occur in the near future as the site is located in an
heating loads. In a heating application such as this one, the ozone nonattainment area.
operating efficiency of the system may be much lower than the
stack efficiency of the boiler. The reason for this is that the boiler
To minimize maintenance, a boiler with 5 square feet of heat-
may fire for only a few minutes in the morning. During the long
ing area per horsepower should be selected. The large water
off-cycle, heat is transferred from the boiler to its surroundings,
chamber and surface area reduce the need for cleaning, and
allowing the steam contained within the boiler to cool and con-
minimize upsets caused in water treatment. A turndown capa-
dense. When steam is again required, this lost heat must be
bility increased from the standard 4-1 would further reduce
replaced through several minutes of operation before steam may
maintenance and prolong boiler life. A 10-1 turndown, stan-
be supplied. Typical efficiencies for this type of operation range
dard on the CB and CB (LE) [low emission] Firetube Boilers
from 50 to 75%.
(250-800 hp), would result in significant fuel savings in this

I3-18
 System Fundamentals Steam Systems

application. In a heating system such as this, eight to twelve A rule of thumb for tanks is to have a fifteen minute water sup-
cycles per hour are common. The 10-1 turndown drastically ply for boiler feed systems and a ten minute supply for deaerat-
reduces such excessive cycling and decreases purge energy ing systems. A larger tank may be used for systems with high
losses and cycling wear on components. condensate return, and a smaller tank for systems with a high
percentage of make-up. In this system, a fifteen minute water
Both the CB and CB (LE) Firetube Boilers guarantee steam
supply corresponds to 2100 lb, or 253 gallons. A 270 gallon
quality above the system requirements.
tank will be specified, allowing for the high percentage con-
The certainty of a future tightening of emission regulations densate return.
leads to a decision in favor of the 60 ppm CB (LE) Firetube
In a heating system with a firetube boiler there is neither a
Boiler3. Although both the firebox and flextube boilers may
large load swing nor a necessity for precise boiler water level
be retrofitted with low NOx burners, it is done at considerable
control. Therefore, an intermittent operation turbine style
cost. The CB (LE) Firetube Boiler’s ability to meet all future
pump will be selected to minimize system cost. As the feed-
emission regulations, along with its fuel savings, 10-1 turn-
water temperature is well below 215 °F, there is no need for
down, and low cost for emissions reduction, make it the best
high temperature pump seals. Duplex pumps will be specified
choice.
to minimize maintenance downtime.
The customer currently carries uninterruptable gas service,
paying $4.50/MMBtu. The customer has the opportunity for Water Treatment
savings by switching to a dual fuel burner, which would allow
for interruptible service. With the gas cost reduced to $3.50/ Water treatment options include chemical, deaeration, soften-
MMBtu, and assuming that light oil at $4.20/MMBtu would ing and filtering. A test result yielded the results in Table I3-4
be used 20% of the time, the resultant fuel bill is $30,490, or a The limits for silica, alkalinity and dissolved solids are all lim-
$7,040 savings. its for the boiler water itself. These can be controlled through
The final choice in this example will be a 250 horsepower 60 blowdown (described below). The decision to control oxygen
ppm CB (LE) Firetube Boiler with a dual fuel burner. As this through chemicals has already been made. It will be necessary
is a heating load, and no expansion is foreseen, the 20% over- to include a water softener in the water treatment system to
sizing used in boiler selection for some systems is not neces- remove hardness.
sary here. In this application, the CB (LE) Firetube Boiler was
selected due to high turndown capability and the ability to Blowdown
meet future emissions regulations. These features compensate
Manual bottom blowdown should be specified. The low fuel
for the higher capital costs of other boiler choices which could
bills preclude the option of continuous blowdown with heat
meet demand.
recovery. Additional equipment necessary includes a bottom
blowdown separator and aftercooler. These are necessary to
Condensate Return And Feedwater System reduce the blowdown water temperature to the maximum
This system has 90% condensate return. This yields a make- 120°F.
up water requirement of 10%. If we assume a constant spe-
cific heat, and a make-up water temperature of 40 °F, a direct
mixing would result in a feedwater temperature of 184 °F. Table I3-4. Water Test Results and Limits
It must first be decided whether to use a boiler feed system or a SUBSTANCE TEST RESULT LIMITS
deaerating system. In either case, this system must consist of a
Oxygen 6 ppm <0.007 ppm
water reservoir, a stand (to provide sufficient net positive suc-
tion head for the pump) and a pump. In this system, the per- Hardness 86 ppm <5.0 ppm
centage of make-up water is low, and the feedwater mix
temperature is relatively high. Oxygen in the system may be Suspended Matter 0.1 ppm <0.15 ppm
controlled by chemicals. These conditions, coupled with an pH 6.8 7.0-10.5
already low annual fuel cost, decide against additional spend-
ing for a deaerating system. Silica 10 ppm <150 ppm

Total Alkalinity 100 ppm <700 ppm

________________ Dissolved Solids 500 µmho/cm <7000 µmho/cm
3. The 60 ppm CB (LE) Boiler may be converted to 30 or 20 ppm
at low cost. The 60 ppm model has lower electric demands and is
predicted to meet all future requirements.

I3-19
Steam Systems System Fundamentals

Efficiency Enhancement
The small annual fuel bills rule out a reasonable return on
investment for efficiency enhancing equipment such as an
economizer, oxygen trim or blowdown heat recovery. On
large systems selecting such options may be the wise eco-
nomic decision.

System Schematic
A schematic of the resulting system in shown in Figure I3-5.

MAKE-UP WATER
90% CONDENSATE RETURN
200

STACK

WATER
SOFTENER STEAM HANDLING, HEATING
10 PSIG STEAM AND CONDENSATE RETURN
SYSTEMS

250 HP
CB (LE) BOILER

PACKAGED
BOILER FEED
SYSTEM BOTTOM BLOWDOWN

STEAM
COLD WATER SEPARATOR/
SUPPLY BLOWDOWN
CHEMICAL
FEED SYSTEM AFTERCOOLER

TO DRAIN

Figure I3-5. Example of System Configuration

I3-20