Applied Energy 76 (2003) 39–54

www.elsevier.com/locate/apenergy

Importance of ISO and IEC international energy

standards and a new total approach to energy
statistics and forecasting
Gustav R. Grob1*
CMDC-WSEC World Sustainable Energy Coalition, POB 200, CH-1211, Geneva 20, Switzerland

Accepted 2 February 2003

Abstract
International standards are playing a crucially important role in all industries for rational
production, international terminologies, safety and health protection, measurement, analysis,
quality control and environmental protection, particularly in the energy field, where standards
for the interfaces in energy flows are indispensable, such as electric connectors, fuelling devices,
calibration methods and electrical safety. Of particular significance is the SI system of units and
the OSI standards which allow the world-wide harmonization of data exchanges and computers.
International standardization is shared between the International Organization for Standardiza-
tion (ISO) for all non-electric matters, founded just after World War II as the successor to ISA
and the much older International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) both based in Geneva,
Switzerland, in the same building. Besides the specific standards for petroleum, coal, nuclear and
hydro-power, solar energy, wind-power, hydrogen and the vast field of electricity, the energy
standards series ISO13600 allows the characterization, analysis and comparison of all energy sys-
tems and soon will issue a global energy statistics and planning matrix for the transition to envir-
onmentally-sound sustainable economics. These standards allow integrated resource planning,
including all new renewable options, such as the increasingly important direct and indirect solar
energy, co-generation, hybrid systems, small decentralized units, bio-energy, ambient temperature
use by heat pumps and substitutions of muscle-powered systems or vice versa, besides the more
efficient production and use of conventional finite and renewable energy-sources.
# 2003 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Keywords: International energy standards; Complete energy matrix

* Fax: +41-22-910-3014.
E-mail address: info@icec.ch, http://www.cmdc.net (G. R. Grob).
URL: http://www.cmdc.net.
1
Board Member International Energy Foundation IEF, President International Clean Energy Consortium
ICEC, CH 6315 Morgarten-Zug, President CMDC-WSEC World Sustainable Energy Coalition, POB 200,
CH-1211 Geneva 20, Initiator of ISO/TC197 (Hydrogen), Chairman of ISO/TC203/WG3 (Energy Systems).

0306-2619/03/$ - see front matter # 2003 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

doi:10.1016/S0306-2619(03)00045-X
40 G.R. Grob / Applied Energy 76 (2003) 39–54

1. Energy usefulness and drawbacks—a brief history

For millions of years man had to rely only on renewable energy offered by nature:
sunshine made biomass for peat and fuel wood grow for direct use or to make
charcoal to warm dwellings, grill meat or cook meals of sun-grown food for human
or feed for animal muscle power. Oxen were pulling carts and ploughs in some areas
and elephants were moving timber and doing other heavy work elsewhere, while
horses, camels, mules or sledge dogs made mobility easier than by using man’s own
muscles. Sun-powered air and water movements made wind and water mills turn,
sail-ships allowed man to travel across oceans and discover new lands. Still today, a
large part of the energy comes in the form of muscle power with 40 million bicycles
produced annually in China alone and many more in other countries with the
increasing popularity of city bikes, mountain bikes and electric bikes in indus-
trialized countries; also an increasing number of nations are relying on biomass and
other renewables to save foreign exchange and curb pollution.
This happy sustainable era came to an end when the dark age of energy started
with the discovery of coal which sparked the industrial revolution turning commu-
nities black and making life miserable by diseases from pollution.
Unfortunately coal was used to run James Watt’s steam engine which started an
unprecedented change in human life. Steamships started ploughing the waters and
steam locomotives were the forerunners of modern railway systems for a hundred
years before diesel engines and electrification took over. Internal combustion
engines—the first ones running on hydrogen in the early 1800—started the revolu-
tion of mass mobility by displacing horses, long before the technical unit ‘‘horse
power’’ or HP was replaced by the SI unit kW. An energy quantum leap occurred
when crude oil was discovered and refined to fuel engines and heating systems. Pet-
roleum and gas were taking over nearly everything needing cheap energy from ocean
vessels, to motor bikes, cars, trucks, airplanes, power stations and stoves, but, tra-
gically, it enabled man also to fight the most disastrous wars in history with bom-
bers, tanks and warships, not to mention the nuclear bomb, leading to many wars
for energy reserves but also to the equally disastrous nuclear-power stations, besides
the fatal effects on the health of life, environment and climate—a blessing of tech-
nology in disguise.
Fig. 1 shows the energy development over the last 3000 years and what is pre-
dictable in the next three millennia.
The vertical scale shows the prime-energy usage of the world economy in PWh (1
PWh=1000 TWh=1 trillion kWh).
The declining broad line on top signifies the total usable energy on Earth, i.e. the
assumed sum of all available forms of prime energy within the reach of humankind
over time. It is declining because of the depletion of non-renewable energy resources
and the irreversible and worsening damage to some of the renewable sources of
energy, like biomass due to desertification, erosion and slowly depleting geo-energy.
The non-renewable energy curve started to peak in the late 18th century, when the
first coal was exploited industrially. It shows also the steep growth of the fossil and
fissile energy sector, with the former accelerating before and the latter after the 2nd
 G.R. Grob / Applied Energy 76 (2003) 39–54 41

Fig. 1. Energy history and forecast.

world war. They all would soon be completely depleted with incalculable risks to the
health, climate and environment, if cleaner renewable substitutes are not introduced
soon. The shown climax of the non-renewable energy sector is inevitable because of
the finite quantity of these resources.
The renewable energy curve commenced at the dawn of human history with the
slowly increasing use of passive solar-energy, fuel wood, ancient wind- and water-
mills at a moderate level, whereas transportation had to rely on muscles and wind.
Cooking was done by firewood for millennia. This curve increased in parallel with
the fossil and fissile peak, while renewable forms of energy represented less than a
quarter of total prime-energy use in recent years.
From ISO Standards Handbook / ISO 31-3 (1992)

Quantity Symbol Definition Name Symbol Conversion factors

of unit for unit and remarks
Energy E All kinds of energy Joule J 1 J=1 Nm =the work
done when the point of
application of a force of
1 N is displaced through
a distance of 1 m in the
direction of the force
42 G.R. Grob / Applied Energy 76 (2003) 39–54
Ð
Work W, (A) W= F dr
Ð
Potential Ep, V, Ep= F dr where F is a
energy
conservative force
Kinetic Ek, T Ek=1/2 mv2
energy
Power P Rate of energy transfer Watt W 1 W=1 J/s
Efficiency  Ratio of an output power
to an input power

After the turn of the 20th century, there will be two choices without much room
for compromise:

A. Go down to the austerity level of the pre-industrial period, if not enough

renewable energy is generated

or

B. Increase the renewable energy sector, to allow economies to grow further in a

sustainable way.

The possible further growth of total energy consumption has a maximum sus-
tainable energy limit, depending on the carrying capacity of the Earth, which can be
reached only by renewable energy of various types, if population growth will slow
down and huge investments go into the renewable energy sector.
Optimistic assumption B is only going to happen, if politicians, planners, entre-
preneurs and banks commence, without delay, to re-channel available human,
technical and financial resources into the mass production of renewable energy
technologies. From the turn of the century, this long-term survival scenario will
necessitate growing annual investments to the extent of over one Trillion Dollars
into sustainable energy systems; this will exceed past non-renewable energy invest-
ments and world military expenditures. ISO and IEC offer most of the needed
standards to achieve this goal.

2. Future energy options

The increasing energy demand caused by an incessantly rising world population

and improving standards of living can be satisfied by the two aforementioned energy
categories. The presently predominant category consists of the finite natural-
resources coal, petroleum, fossil gas and radioactive materials. The older but longer
term category is made up of the renewable, i.e. sustainable natural-energy sources
delivered by the sun like solar energy in various forms: wind, hydropower, tidal and
 G.R. Grob / Applied Energy 76 (2003) 39–54 43

wave power, biomass and geothermal energy. Fig. 2 shows the energy family tree
with its relevant ISO and IEC Committees.

3. Definition of ‘‘energy service’’ as common denominator of energy systems

The enormous amount of prime-energy used now—approaching 100 PWh or 360

EJ per year—is meaningless in terms of useful energy, if the overall energy efficiency
of an energy system is not known according to Fig. 3, which shows the generalized
definition of ISO 13602. In other words, to the energy user, it does not matter how
much coal or gas is used to run a power station, nor the amount of kWh or ener-
gyware produced, but rather how much useful heat comes out of a kettle to make a
cup of tea or how many miles a vehicle can drive with a given payload.
Hence only the composite efficiency of the fuel production, power station, power
transmission and final consumption system determine the quantity of prime energy
needed to render the desired service like a cup of hot tea or driving to work. There
were long arguments in TC203 about the definition of ‘‘energy service’’ or ‘‘useful
energy’’, because some experts did not want to distinguish the clearly defined mea-
surable energy system output, like the luminous flux of a light bulb measured in
Lumens, from the many interpretations of what this output could achieve for the
user like projecting films of a doubtful cultural value or illumination quality of a
work-place. Other vagueries were the effectiveness of a radiator, which depends on
the insulation of the heated space and the leaks through doors and windows due to
human behaviour or the comfort and acceleration of a car. However in all these
cases, the measurable energy consumption systems output—called energy service—is

Fig. 2. ISO and IEC in the energy family-tree.

44 G.R. Grob / Applied Energy 76 (2003) 39–54

Fig. 3. Energy flows within technical energy systems.

the common denominator for the user, who can make the best use of this service or
waste it with unreasonable car accelerations, sleep in heated rooms with open win-
dows or abuse it for perverse purposes.
The energy service or useful energy is measured in SI units that relate to the
quantity of energy leaving the energy consumption system, such as mechanical
work, e.g. see below:
Energy service: Useful energy output of any final technical energy-consumption
system. Examples of energy services:

 mechanical work, transportation, force

 pumping, venting and vacuum applications
 thermal uses (specific heating and cooling)
 audio and ultrasound applications
 vibrations for useful purposes
 lighting/illumination/magnification
 magnetic applications
 data processing, information
 telecommunication, television, visual displays
 G.R. Grob / Applied Energy 76 (2003) 39–54 45

 physical therapy and diagnostics

 measurement and control
 electrochemical and physical processing

4. ISO and IEC technical committees on energy production and use

From the early days of ISO, energy was a dominant subject for standardization
and in the much older IEC, it was even the ‘‘raison d’être’’ of the commission itself,
since electricity is one of the main energy-carriers. Fifty years of energy related
standardization in specific areas of ISO and IEC are culminating now in the all-
embracing TC203 Technical Energy Systems, which started work in 1991, defining
common denominators like ‘‘energy service‘‘ for the final output of an energy con-
sumption system, ‘‘gray energy‘‘ for the embedded energy in products and ‘‘energy
ware‘‘ for tradable energy carriers. ISO/TC203 and its advanced methods for ana-
lysis are elaborated in the last chapter of TC203.

Embedded energy: the sum of the needed energy to produce or process inputs to
be embedded in technical energy systems which may be partly reclaimable.
Note : Gross embedded, in German called ‘‘gray’’, energy is the total energy needed
to produce or process any such inputs. Net embedded-energy is the difference
between the gross embedded-energy and the reclaimed embedded, i.e. saved energy
from technical energy systems decommissioning and through recycling.

Some of the technical committees of ISO and IEC, which are related to energy
generation are shown in Fig. 2. Historically energy standardization started in ISO
just after the 2nd world war in 1947 with ISO/TC 27 on solid mineral fuels, i.e. coal
and coke with its related TC 82 on mining. TC 28 on petroleum products and
lubricants started also in 1947 with its related TC 67 on materials, equipment and
offshore structures for petroleum and natural-gas industries. TC 85 on nuclear
energy started in 1956 and TC 180 on solar thermal-energy in 1980. Natural gas
followed in 1988 with TC 193 and gas turbines are dealt with in TC 192, and—last
but not least—with ISO/TC 197 work started in 1990 on the cleanest of all fuels
hydrogen.
IEC covers with TC 2 rotating-machinery in general and with TC 4 hydraulic
turbines for electricity generation in particular; TC 45 covers nuclear instrumenta-
tion, TC 82 is dealing with photovoltaics and TC 88 with wind turbines.
Fields like energy from biomass, which is the fourth largest energy-supply sector
representing over one seventh of total prime-energy production, the large geother-
mal sector and the advancing tidal and wave-power systems are not yet covered by
any international technical standard committees, but should be dealt with soon by
ISO in view of their future energy generation potential.
On the energy transportation and demand side, there are many active ISO com-
mittees: ISO/TC 8 is dealing with ships and marine technology, TC 11 covers boilers
46 G.R. Grob / Applied Energy 76 (2003) 39–54

and pressure vessels, TC 20 aircraft and space vehicles, TC 22 road vehicles, TC 23

tractors and machinery for agriculture and forestry, TC 29 small tools, TC 39
machine tools, TC 58 gas cylinders, TC 70 internal-combustion engines, TC 72 tex-
tile machinery, TC 86 refrigeration, TC96 cranes, TC 100 chains and wheels-for-
power transmission, TC 101 continuous mechanical-handling equipment, TC 110
industrial trucks, TC 112 vacuum technology, TC 115 pumps, TC 116 space heating,
TC 117 industrial fans, TC 118 compressors, pneumatic tools and machines, TC 127
earth-moving machinery, TC 131 fluid-power systems, TC 148 sewing-machines, TC
149 cycles (in connection with muscle power), TC 178 lifts, escalators and passenger
conveyers, TC 188 small craft including their propulsion and gaseous-fuel systems,
TC204 transport information and control systems and TC 28 thermal turbines for
industrial applications.
IEC’s TC 9 covers electric traction equipment, TC 17 switchgear and control gear,
TC 18 electrical installations of ships and offshore units, TC 20 electric cables, TC
21 secondary cells and batteries, TC 22 power electronics, TC 26 electric welding,
TC 27 industrial electroheating equipment, TC 34 lamps & related equipment, TC
35 primary cells & batteries, TC 59 electrical household-appliances, TC 69 electrical
road vehicles & industrial trucks and TC 90 superconductivity, to mention just the
more important subjects, apart from the many related standards on materials,
components, measurement and testing and electricity installations.

5. Energy safety, health and environment protection through ISO and IEC

Most technical energy-concepts affect the life, climate and environment if they are
not safely engineered and monitored. Both ISO and IEC run many technical com-
mittees, which produced hundreds of international standards helping to better pro-
tect the life, biosphere and climate from adverse effects of energy systems.
ISO’s TC 21 covers equipment for fire protection & fire fighting, TC 30 measure-
ment of fluid flow in closed conduits for fuels, TC 43 acoustics and their effects on
humans and the environment, TC 92 fire safety, TC 94 personal safety, TC 108
mechanical vibration and shocks, TC 113 hydrometric determinations, TC 135 non-
destructive testing, TC 138 plastic pipes, fittings & valves for fluids, TC 146 air
quality, TC 158 analysis of gases, TC 161 control & safety devices for non-industrial
gas-fired appliances & systems, TC 163 thermal insulation related to energy services
in the form of heat, TC 176 covers the all-important quality management & assur-
ance with its ISO9000 standards series, TC 185 safety devices for protection against
excessive pressure; TC 190 soil quality needed to protect soils from the effects of
energy releases, TC 205 building environment design helping the energy conservation
and efficiency and- last but not least- TC 207 with its crucially important ISO 14000
series on environmental management, auditing, labeling and life-cycle assessment.
IEC’s most relevant bodies related to electrical energy-safety, efficiency and
environment protection are IEC/TC 13 on electrical energy measurement & control,
important for energy management systems, TC 31 on electrical apparatus for
explosive atmospheres and for the detection of flammable gases, TC 50 on environ-
 G.R. Grob / Applied Energy 76 (2003) 39–54 47

mental testing, TC 56 on dependability of electrical systems, TC 61 on safety of

household appliances and TC 75 on classification of environmental conditions.

6. The challenge of sustainable energy development

The term energy-sustainability emerged from the United Nations Conference on

Environment and Development in Rio in 1992, when Agenda 21 was formulated
and the Global Energy Charter proclaimed. Emission reductions, total energy cost-
ing, improved energy efficiency and sustainable energy-systems are the four funda-
mental principles of the Charter. These principles can be implemented in the
proposed financial, legal, technical and educational framework.
A lot was done in many countries towards the implementation of the Global
Energy Charter, but progress was not fast enough to ease the disastrous effects of the
many ill-conceived energy systems on the environment, climate and health. Global
warming is accelerating and pollution is worsening, especially in developing countries
with their hunger for energy to meet the needs of development. Asian cities are beating
all pollution records and ‘‘Greenhouse‘‘ gases are visibly changing the climate with
rising sea-levels, retracting glaciers and record weather disasters at a frightening pace.
Energy investments, research money and standardization efforts have to be re-
channeled into sustainable energy, rather than into the business-as-usual of deplet-
ing, unsustainable energy concepts exceeding one trillion dollars per year. This lar-
gest of all investment sectors needs much more attention also by ISO and IEC. For
example, there is no ISO/TC yet on biomass energy, which is the fourth largest
energy resource after the three short-lived fossil options. Biomass will increase in
importance again—as it was over the last millennia—when fossil fuels are nearing
depletion.
It was stressed often enough in the media and by experts that emissions from
energy systems must drastically be reduced. Everybody knows, by now, the terrible
effects of traffic emissions on the health in big cities, where daily thousands of lung
patients need medical care. Everybody knows of the disastrous effects of fossil fuels
on the environment and climate, especially insurance companies with their sky-
rocketing payments for weather catastrophes. The rising ocean-levels, which are
measured year-by-year, endanger coastal zones and islands. No longer can one
ignore these man-made energy problems and the more rigid enforcement of ISO and
IEC standards is essential in solving them. ISO standards on air, water and soil will
help curb the harm caused by finite energies.
The steep increase of the total energy-consumption in the last 100 years is nearly
identical with the exponential population growth. This phenomenon has to be
drastically changed, if we do not want to exceed the carrying capacity of our planet.
Since the average energy intensity per capita has incessantly grown for over a cen-
tury, the task of implementing sustainable development is a prerequisite for world-
wide prosperity and well-being.
Energy-efficiency investments have the best return and produce the cleanest
energy. Energy which is not used, instead of being wasted on inefficient generation
48 G.R. Grob / Applied Energy 76 (2003) 39–54

or applications, is in fact the most viable option. Therefore energy-efficiency invest-

ments must rank on top of the investment agenda, ranging from advanced light
sources, saving over 80% energy compared with incandescent or halogen light-
bulbs, to healthy muscle power, improved building and refrigerator insulations and
load control, to save the base load and peak energy.
Taking the external cost of environmental and health damage of energy systems
into account, the presently-dominant fossil and fissile options have no chance to
compete with renewable energy systems. Ask insurance companies about their pre-
miums for nuclear-power stations; the answer is: ‘‘infinite’’, because of the incalcul-
able risks of human or material failures. Ask governments, how much they spent on
nuclear-waste disposal measures. Answer: billions of citizen’s tax-money.
Ask some of the coal-producing countries from Germany to China how much
subsidies they give for coal production and how much health cost this is causing. It
is a waste of over 10 Billion $ in the case of Germany and a multiple of it in China
with their artificially low coal price at only one quarter of world market prices to the
detriment of their environment and citizens’ health. The unit costs, even of solar sys-
tems are lower than nuclear systems despite their low efficiencies. Once solar systems
are produced on the same GW scale as fossil and fissile energy systems, they will beat all
records. The actual annual solar-capacity increase is less than 100 MW, compared with
the rising Gigawatts of their unsustainable competitors. However, clean hydro and
wind power are still unchallenged as the cheapest renewable energy sources.
After the Rio Conference on Environment and Development in 1992, the book
‘‘Changing Course’’ by Swiss industrialist Dr. Stephan Schmidheiny, who acted as
Chief Editor and Chairman of the Business Council of Sustainable Development,
alerted the world about the enormous task of investing on a much larger scale into
sustainable systems. In 1996, he published the book ‘‘Financing Sustainable Devel-
opment’’, pointing to the key problem of redirecting investments into sustainable
systems. Energy, with over one trillion $ per year; is indeed the largest investment
segment needing urgent redirection. Another good side of sustainable energy sys-
tems is that they create more jobs than any conventional energy option, since they
are more labour intensive than the exhaustible resource-intensive fossil and fissile
systems—good news for the millions of unemployed.

7. ISO methods for energy-systems analysis (ISO13602)

Energy should always have a useful purpose in terms of the actual service ren-
dered to humankind, which can be expressed and measured in SI units. The aim of
an energy system is not to produce or use as much ‘‘energy ware’’, by-products and
releases as possible, but rather to serve its final purpose as efficiently and sustainably
as possible at minimum cost to the user at minimum harm to the community. The
common denominator of an overall energy system is the widely-used English-
American term ‘‘energy service’’ or ‘‘Nutzenergie’’ (useful energy) in German.
The new standard ISO13602 methods for analysis of technical energy systems
allows one to analyze and compare all energy systems from the natural resource
 G.R. Grob / Applied Energy 76 (2003) 39–54 49

input to their useful output, equitably based on their common denominator ‘‘energy
service‘‘ and with all their positive and detrimental outside effects. The total cost of
their emissions, their net gray i.e. re-usable embedded energy can be determined,
total and relative efficiencies can be calculated and their life cycles and risks can be
assessed with this new standard tool in conjunction with the many existing and
emerging standards on specific energy systems or parts thereof (Fig. 4).

8. ISO and IEC will help save our planet for future generations!

8.1. Why is a more complete energy data-base needed?

The world’s energy supply will be undergoing fundamental change in the near
future due to the depletion of mineral resources and environmental constraints. For
the enhancement of social and economic development, more clean, sustainable-
energy sources must be harnessed at an accelerating pace, besides more efficient
energy uses, if humankind wants to maintain the comforts of modern technology
and mobility. Fig. 1 shows the history of energy sources with the forthcoming
restructuring process. The mineral-resource depletion mid-point peak will be
reached early in the 21st Century.
Hydropower and geothermal energy were often the only specifically mentioned
renewable-energy resources, sometimes complemented by the growing wind-power
and biomass with the remark that not much statistical evidence existed about non-
commercial energy sources like fuel wood or private wind water-pumps.
Millions of muscle-powered vehicles and work animals were missing in the
statistics and thus were not part of any energy models in spite of their huge TWh
contribution.
The most important figures for national energy-planning are the columns ‘‘max’’,
where the maximum practical potential of each indigenous energy type has to be
estimated.
A new energy statistics data–base methodology and forecasting matrix is needed,
which includes all energy sources in order to make complete energy planning and
forecasting possible, based on all viable energy-supplies, taking also into account all
transport options, since transport represents one of the main energy-demand sectors
and hitherto worst polluters.

Fig. 4. ISO model.

 50
G.R. Grob / Applied Energy 76 (2003) 39–54
Fig. 5. New international energy statistics and forecasting matrix.
 G.R. Grob / Applied Energy 76 (2003) 39–54 51

8.2. New energy data-base matrix

For the 1997 columns of Fig. 5, some data can be found in IEA, WEC and other
statistics, especially for the traditional energy-resources. The same might be true for
the forecasts for 2000 and 2010 in many countries. In the explanatory notes 3.01 to
3.17 reference is made to the relevant IEA statistics questionnaires (see later).
The first 4 lines comprising the finite energy-resources can be filled in from existing
statistical information sources such as national inputs for IEA and WEC, com-
plemented by the total estimated co-generation (CHP) energy from all these energy
options, including of course all private co-generation stations.
General explanations about the main headings for what occurs subsequently:-

(1) Total number of units=number of coal and nuclear power-stations, refi-

neries, oil and gas fields and vehicles or animals etc. (estimated until there are
precise data).
(2) Total generation capacity is the generation capacity of the respective electric
power-stations (incl. CHP co-generation) and/or the separate heating systems.
(3) Total Final energy delivered to the users.
(4) ‘‘max” is the maximum available indigenous energy for each option, i.e. the
limits of the domestic energy and energy export capability of each country,
considering both the depletion of non-renewable energy-resources and the
ultimate limits to renewable-energy harnessing. Consult specialized NGOs,
Universities and/or Institutes if necessary to quantify some of these energy
sources and systems.

Special advice on some of the energy options is given with the following matrix
references:

3.01 Total calorific value of coal and peat for energy uses only (derived from IEA
‘‘COAL’’ questionnaire).
3.02 Total calorific value of crude oil to refineries in 1st column. Total calorific
value of petroleum products to users including power stations in last column
(derived from IEA ‘‘OIL’’ questionnaire).
3.03 Total gross calorific value of inland finite gas-consumption delivered to users
including power station consumption (see also IEA questionnaire ‘‘NAT-
URAL GAS’’ item IB p.2).
3.04 Estimated total calorific value of fissile matter in 1st column and total net
electric energy delivered from power stations in last column (see IEA ques-
tionnaire ‘‘ELECTRICITY & HEAT’’ p. 3).
3.05 Co generation is expressed as the total additional energy content
from fossil and Fissile power stations delivered to the heat users (see also
CHP in IEA questionnaire ‘‘ELECTRICITY & HEAT’’ p.7).
3.06 Biomass is a complex matter. Partly it is commercially traded, but partly it is
internally used on farms, in sugar mills, saw mills, private homes, etc.: it must
be estimated for this forecast.
52 G.R. Grob / Applied Energy 76 (2003) 39–54

Biomass includes wood-fuels, agricultural energy crops and residues, municipal

waste, black liquor, commercial & non-commercial, liquid and gaseous bio-fuels (see
also IEA questionnaire ‘‘COAL’’ p.14)
Wood fuels include fuelwood, forestry and mill residues, energy plantations like
willow, poplar, eucalyptus, etc. and charcoal and pellets made from such wood-fuels.
Agricultural energy crops and residues include herbaceous and perennial plants
like miscantus, reed grass, rapeseed, bagasse, straw, stalks, husks and dung and
pellets made thereof.
3.07 Bio Gas comprises an estimate of all commercial and non-commercial
sources directly used or supplied to pipelines, fuel-cells stations, etc. Its
calorific value is part of total biomass (3.06). Biogas includes landfill and
sludge gas, digester gas, gasified biomass, etc. as sub-products of total bio-
mass (to be included in total biomass energy content of 3.06).
3.08 Bio Fuels (liquid) comprise all options such as ethanol from sugar cane,
bio-diesel from rapeseed, methanol from any biomass, etc. Their calorific
value is part of the total biomass under 3.06, i.e. the liquid bio-fuels ethanol,
methanol, bio-diesel, alcohols, etc. are sub-products of total biomass (to be
included in total biomass of 3.06).
3.09 Co generation from any biomass energy systems (see also CHP in IEA
questionnaire ‘‘ELECTRICITY & HEAT’’).
3.10 Hydrogen in liquefied or gaseous form from any sources. It is only an energy
carrier. Hydrogen may come from renewable or fossil sources listed in the
respective lines and is indicative only.
3.11 Hydropower maximum potential can be derived from hydrological maps and
statistics. The viability of possible sites as regards accessibility, distances to
electricity consumers or the environmental acceptability are other con-
siderations, which can be explained in an annexe. The Wave and Tidal power
potential can be derived from coastline configurations and their topography.
Hydro, wave, tidal and wind powers are mostly for electricity generation and
expressed as such. Direct mechanical uses should be expressed in GW and TJ.
(see also IEA ‘‘ELECTRICITY’’ Tables 1 and 2).
3.12 Hydro Pumping capacity helps to generate peak power. Indicate the
maximum potential and explain the energy sources, such as excess base load
power capacity, mid-day PV capacity, etc. Hydro pumping capacity is indi-
cative only because it uses electric energy solely for hydraulic energy storage
and re-use in peak hours
3.13 Wind power including also mechanical wind pumps and mills—see wind-
energy potential in national wind atlases.
3.14 Geothermal Power potential must not only include natural aquifer resources,
but also include the deep-well options, which make geothermal power
available at most locations on Earth. Quantify here geothermal power only (if
there is co-generation heat—see 3.15). See also IEA questionnaire ‘‘ELEC-
TRICITY & HEAT’’, Tables 1 and 2.
3.15 Geothermal heat used directly without heat pumps—see also 3.20 and IEA
questionnaire ELECTRICITY & HEAT, Tables 1 and 2.
 G.R. Grob / Applied Energy 76 (2003) 39–54 53

3.16 Solar power potential comprises the total solar-power from PV collectors,
solar thermal-power generation and solar chimneys. The total potential
comprises all sun-oriented roofs and other practically usable-surfaces. Use
average insolation figures and available surfaces in each country to arrive at
an estimate of the total solar-power. Apply a realistic average solar system
efficiency to get the total maximum solar thermal power generation capacity.
The prime energy is the solar radiation which is not quantified here (see also
IEA questionnaire ‘‘ELECTRICITY’’).
3.17 Solar Heat potential comprises all sun-oriented roofs and other free surfaces
suitable for solar thermal collectors. Use the same surface figures as for solar
power for hybrid solar-collectors, which harvest both simultaneously. Include
solar-pond systems, salt drying ponds and solar dryers of any kind (see also
IEA ‘‘ELECTRICITY and HEAT’’).
3.18 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) comprises tropical areas where
the yield is sufficient. Besides electricity, OTEC may also produce heat and/or
refrigeration- see 3.19. OTEC-CHP example used for cooling and farming
applications as on Big Island in Hawaii.
3.19 Ocean Heat (or cooling) comes from OTEC co-generation. See also 3.18.
3.20 Heat by Heat Pumps comprise all systems using temperature differentials
from air, water or soil. See also distinction with geothermal heat 3.15.
3.21 Individual fossil-fuel vehicles comprise individual land vehicles propelled by
gasoline, diesel or any type of fossil gas (for public transport, see entries
below).
3.22 Electric vehicles (individual) comprise land vehicles driven by batteries and/
or PV cells not for public transport (public transport see entries below).
3.23 Renewable fuel vehicles (individual) comprise land vehicles propelled by bio-
fuels, biogas, methanol, hydrogen, etc. from renewable energy-sources
including hybrid vehicles using such fuels, even if the motors are electric (here
not for public transport- see separate entry below).
3.24 Bicycles & Tricycles : Estimate of total population and their average daily use
for practical purposes (not for sports) to be multiplied by estimated average
hourly muscle-energy applied.
3.25 Work Animals : the average power performed and bio-energy physically
applied for practical purposes by animals, such as horses, oxen, elephants,
camels, sledge dogs, etc., used for transport and work based on average
annual mileage and moved mass with TJ equivalent.

For all types of energy indicate the final energy delivered to the users based on the
best possible estimates beyond 1997.

9. Methods for energy systems analysis—ISO 13600 Series

In the context of a more complete energy-data-base, another useful tool must be

mentioned here, since in the past century, energy modelling and planning were
54 G.R. Grob / Applied Energy 76 (2003) 39–54

mainly based on the predominant non-renewable i.e. finite, fossil and fissile energy
resources with a 80–90% share in the energy economy.
This new ISO 13602 standard, created by Working Group 3 of the Technical
Committee ISO/TC203, allows the complete analysis of all energy systems ranging
from micro systems like light bulbs or simple kettles to macro systems from complex
hydro-power stations to complete national fuel infrastructures.
With this new energy-evaluation and planning tool, all energy system input
and output variables can be identified, quantified and analyzed to determine the
energy-system’s efficiency, efficacy and environmental compatibility in terms of
external cost, risks, climate influences and health impacts. The net embedded-
energy balance can be determined with this standard in the LCA context, as
well the usefulness of energy systems in terms of produced energy services and
by-products.
The ISO13600 standards series is a practical means for the implementation of the
globally harmonized integrated resource planning, not only for the depleting, finite
energy resources but—more importantly—for the transition to decentralized sus-
tainable energy systems, co-generation and hybrid concepts.
An ISO standard ISO13603 for a methodology on energy statistics and forecasting
is under preparation. It will cover all possible energy supply-and-demand options
based on the world-wide terminology as described above.