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The Art of Problem Solving PDF

The document provides information about inductive reasoning and problem solving strategies. It discusses using inductive reasoning to make predictions or generalizations based on patterns in observations or specific examples. It also outlines Polya's four-step method for problem solving as understanding the problem, devising a plan, carrying out the plan, and checking the solution. Examples provided demonstrate using inductive reasoning to predict number patterns, solve word problems, and check solutions.

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428 views53 pages

The Art of Problem Solving PDF

The document provides information about inductive reasoning and problem solving strategies. It discusses using inductive reasoning to make predictions or generalizations based on patterns in observations or specific examples. It also outlines Polya's four-step method for problem solving as understanding the problem, devising a plan, carrying out the plan, and checking the solution. Examples provided demonstrate using inductive reasoning to predict number patterns, solve word problems, and check solutions.

Uploaded by

InvincibleReine
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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1.

Solving Problems by Inductive


Reasoning

2. An Application of Inductive Reasoning:


Number Patterns

3. Strategies for Problem Solving

4. Calculating, Estimating, and Reading


Graphs
 Characteristics of Inductive and Deductive
Reasoning
 Pitfalls of Inductive Reasoning
Inductive Reasoning
Draw a general conclusion (a conjecture) from
repeated observations of specific examples. There is
no assurance that the observed conjecture is always
true.

Deductive Reasoning
Apply general principles to specific examples.
Determine whether the reasoning is an
example of deductive or inductive reasoning.
All math teachers have a great sense of humor.
Patrick is a math teacher. Therefore, Patrick
must have a great sense of humor.

Solution
Because the reasoning goes from general to
specific, deductive reasoning was used.
Use the list of equations and inductive
reasoning to predict the next multiplication fact
in the list:
37 × 3 = 111 37 × 6 = 222
37 × 9 = 333 37 × 12 = 444

Solution
37 × 15 = 555
Use inductive reasoning to determine the
probable next number in the list below.
2, 9, 16, 23, 30
Solution
Each number in the list is obtained by adding 7
to the previous number.
The probable next number is 30 + 7 = 37.
One can not be sure about a conjecture until a
general relationship has been proven.

One counterexample is sufficient to


make the conjecture false.
We concluded that the probable next number
in the list 2, 9, 16, 23, 30 is 37.

If the list 2, 9, 16, 23, 30 actually represents the


dates of Mondays in June, then the date of the
Monday after June 30 is July 7 (see the figure
on the next slide). The next number on the list
would then be 7, not 37.
Find the length of the hypotenuse in a right
triangle with legs 3 and 4. Use the Pythagorean
Theorem: c 2 = a 2 + b 2, where c is the hypotenuse
and a and b are legs.

Solution
c 2 = 32 + 4 2
c 2 = 9 + 16 = 25
c=5
• Number Sequences
• Successive Differences
• Number Patterns and Sum Formulas
• Figurate Numbers
Number Sequence
A list of numbers having a first number, a second
number, and so on, called the terms of the sequence.

Arithmetic Sequence
A sequence that has a common difference between
successive terms.

Geometric Sequence
A sequence that has a common ratio between successive
terms.
Process to determine the next term of a sequence
using subtraction to find a common difference.
Use the method of successive differences to find the
next number in the sequence.
14, 22, 32, 44,...
14 22 32 44 58
8 10 12 14 Find differences
2 2 2 Find differences

Build up to next term: 58


Sum of the First n Odd Counting Numbers
If n is any counting number, then
1+ 3 + 5 + + (2n − 1) = n2 .

Special Sum Formulas


For any counting number n,
(1 + 2 + 3 + + n)2 = 13 + 23 + + n3
n(n + 1)
and 1 + 2 + 3 + + n = .
2
Use a sum formula to find the sum
1+ 2 + 3 + + 48.

Solution
n(n + 1)
Use the formula 1 + 2 + 3 + +n=
2
with n = 48:
48(48 + 1)
= 1176.
2
For any natural number n,
n(n + 1)
the nth triangular number is given by Tn = ,
2

the nth square number is given by Sn = n 2 , and

n(3n − 1)
the nth pentagonal number is given by Pn = .
2
Use a formula to find the sixth pentagonal
number

Solution
n(3n − 1)
Use the formula Pn =
2
with n = 6:
6[6(3) − 1]
P6 = = 51.
2
• A General Problem-Solving Method
• Using a Table or Chart
• Working Backward
• Using Trial and Error
• Guessing and Checking
• Considering a Similar Simpler Problem
• Drawing a Sketch
• Using Common Sense
Polya’s Four-Step Method

Step 1 Understand the problem. Read and analyze


carefully. What are you to find?
Step 2 Devise a plan.
Step 3 Carry out the plan. Be persistent.
Step 4 Look back and check. Make sure that
your answer is reasonable and that you’ve
answered the question.
A man put a pair of rabbits in a cage. During the first month the rabbits
produced no offspring but each month thereafter produced one new pair of
rabbits. If each new pair produced reproduces in the same manner, how many
pairs of rabbits will there be at the end of the 5th month?
Step 1 Understand the problem. How many
pairs of rabbits will there be at the end of five
months? The first month, each pair produces
no new rabbits, but each month thereafter
each pair produces a new pair.
Step 2 Devise a plan. Construct a table to help with
the pattern.
Month Number of Number Number of
Pairs at Start Produced Pairs at the End
Step 3 Carry out the plan.
Month Number of Number Number of
Pairs at Start Produced Pairs at the End
1st 1 0 1
2nd 1 1 2
3rd 2 1 3
4th 3 2 5
5th 5 3 8
Solution: There will be 8 pairs of rabbits.
Step 4 Look back and check. This can be checked
by going back and making sure that it has
been interpreted correctly. Double-check the
arithmetic.
Start with an unknown number. Triple it and then subtract 5. Now, take the new
number and double it but then subtract 47. If you take this latest total and
quadruple it you have 60. What was the original unknown number?
Step 1 Understand the problem. We are looking for
a number that goes through a series of
changes to turn into 60.
Step 2 Devise a plan. Work backwards to undo the
changes.

Step 3 Carry out the plan. The final amount was 60.
Divide by 4 to undo quadruple = 15.
Add 47 to get 62, then divide by 2 = 31.
Add 5 to get 36 and divide by 3 = 12.
Solution
The original unknown number was 12.

Step 4 Look back and check. We can take 12 and run


through the computations to get 60.
The mathematician Augustus De Morgan lived in the nineteenth century. He made
the following statement: “I was x years old in the year x 2.” In what year was he born?
He lived in the nineteenth century, which means during the 1800s. Find a perfect
square that is between 1800 and 1900.
42 2 = 1764
43 2 = 1849
44 2 = 1936
43 is the only natural number that works. De Morgan was 43 in 1849. Subtract 43
from 1849 to get that he was born in 1806.
Find a positive natural number that satisfies the equation below.

2
x
−4 x = x
8
Try this by guess and check:

2
4 16
If x = 4 : −4 4 = 4 → − 4(2)  4
8 8
2
9 81
If x = 9 : −4 9 =9 → − 4(3)  9
8 8
2
16 256
If x = 16 : − 4 16 = 16 → − 4(4) = 16
8 8
Solution
x = 16 satisfies the equation.
What is the ones (or units) digit in 3200?
Step 1 Understand the problem. We are looking for
the last digit if 3200 is multiplied out.
Step 2 Devise a plan. Look for a pattern with
multiplication by 3s.

Step 3 Carry out the plan.


31 = 3, 32 = 9, 33 = 27, 34 = 81
35 = 243, 36 = 729, 37 = 2187, 38 = 6561,…
Notice that if the power is divisible by 4 then
the units digit is a 1.
Solution
The units digit in 3200 is 1 because the power, 200, is divisible by 4.

Step 4 Look back and check. We can try a few more


powers of 3 to make sure that the pattern
continues and also check the multiplication.
An array of nine dots is arranged in a 3 x 3 square as shown below. Join the dots with
exactly four straight lines segments. You are not allowed to pick up your pencil from
the paper and may not trace over a segment that has already been drawn.
Through trial and error with different attempts such as

We find an answer is
Two currently minted United States coins together have a total value of $0.30. One
is not a quarter. What are the two coins?

Solution
This involves a “catch.” The two coins are a quarter and a nickel. Note that one of
the coins is not a quarter, it is a nickel.
Directions: Work together to solve the
following problems using the problem solving
strategies. Make sure at least one
member of your group records the reasoning
you used to arrive at your solution.
• Calculation
• Estimation
• Interpretation of Graphs
There are many types of calculators such as four-
function, scientific, and graphing.

There are also many different models available and


you may need to refer to your owner’s manual for
assistance. Other resources for help are instructors
and students that have experience with that model.
Below are some screen shots from a graphing
calculator.
Use your calculator to find the following:
a) 
b) 2601
4
c) 1.5

Solution
a) 3.14159265 (approximately)
b) 51
c) 5.0625
There are many times when we only need an
estimate to a problem and a calculator is not
necessary.
A 20-ounce box of cereal sells for $3.12.
Approximate the cost per ounce.

Solution
Because it is an approximation, we can say
that the cost is about $3.00 for 20 ounces.
This works out to 3.00/20 = $0.15 per
ounce.
Using graphs is an efficient way to transmit
information. Some of the common types of
graphs are circle graphs (pie charts), bar
graphs, and line graphs.
Use the circle graph below to determine how
many of the 140 students made an A or a B.
Letter Grades in College Algebra
F
D 10% A
10% 15%
B
25%
C
40%
Solution
Notice that there were 15% A’s and 25% B’s.
For 140 students this yields:
A: 0.15 x 140 = 21
B: 0.25 x 140 = 35
which is a total of 56 students.
The bar graph shows the number of cups of coffee, in
hundreds of cups, that a professor had in a given year.
10
(in hundreds)

8
6
4
Cups

2
0
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
a) Estimate the number of cups in 2004
b) What year shows the greatest decrease in cups?
Solution
a) The number of cups in 2004 appears to be
about 700.
b) The year 2005 looks to have the greatest
decrease at about 250 cups.
The line graph shows the average class size of a first grade
class at a grade school for years 2001 though 2005.
34
Students per

30
26
22
class

18
14
’01 ’02 ’03 ’04 ’05
a) In which years did the average class size increase
from the previous year?
b) How much did the average size increase from 2001
to 2003?
Solution
a) The average class size increased in years
2002, 2003, and 2004.
b) The average class size was 16 in 2001 and
28 in 2003 which would indicate an
increase of 12 students per class.

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