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AN MPPT CHARGE CONTROLLER

FOR SOLAR POWERED PORTABLE
DEVICES
2016-2017 WORCESTER POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE MAJOR QUALIFYING PROJECT

Advisor: Fred J. Looft, ECE

Student Authors:
Joseph A. Agresta, ECE
jaagresta@wpi.edu

Nicole A. Mikolajczak, ECE

namikolajczak@wpi.edu

Updated: 4/26/2017
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements................................................................................................................................... 3
1. Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 4
2. Background Research................................................................................................................................ 6
2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 6
2.2 Energy Collection ................................................................................................................................ 6
2.3 Energy Conversion Optimization ........................................................................................................ 9
2.4 Energy Conversion Implementation ................................................................................................. 17
2.5 Energy Storage .................................................................................................................................. 37
2.6 Summary ........................................................................................................................................... 40
3. Problem Statement ................................................................................................................................. 42
3.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 42
3.2 Project Statement, Goals, and Objectives ........................................................................................ 42
3 Requirements ....................................................................................................................................... 42
4 Summary .............................................................................................................................................. 43
4. System Design ......................................................................................................................................... 45
4.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 45
4.2 MPPT Integrated Circuit .................................................................................................................... 45
4.3 Summary ........................................................................................................................................... 48
5. Simulation ............................................................................................................................................... 49
5.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 49
5.2 Buck Converter Simulation ............................................................................................................... 49
5.3 Boost Converter Simulation .............................................................................................................. 51
5.4 Boost-then-Buck Converter Simulation ............................................................................................ 53
5.5 Full-Bridge Synchronous DC-DC Converter Simulation ..................................................................... 56
5.6 Summary ........................................................................................................................................... 66
6. Implementation ...................................................................................................................................... 67
6.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 67
6.2 Texas Instrument SM72445 Integrated Circuit ................................................................................. 67
6.3 Component Selection........................................................................................................................ 68
6.4 Summary ......................................................................................................................................... 69
7. Discussion and Conclusions .................................................................................................................... 70
7.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 70
7.2 Results ............................................................................................................................................... 70

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 7.3 Findings and Conclusions .................................................................................................................. 73
7.4 Summary ........................................................................................................................................... 74
References .................................................................................................................................................. 75
Appendix A: General Power Stage Component Calculations...................................................................... 78
Appendix B: Increasing Efficiencies at Low Loads....................................................................................... 80
Appendix C: Voltage Mode vs. Current Mode Checklist ............................................................................. 81
Appendix D: Difference between Synchronous Rectification and Non-synchronous Rectification ........... 82
Appendix E: Discontinuous Conduction Mode ........................................................................................... 84
Appendix F: MPPT IC Comparison Chart ..................................................................................................... 85
Appendix G: Component Selection Calculation Sheet ................................................................................ 89
Appendix H: Buck Converter Simulation Data ............................................................................................ 90
Appendix I: Boost Converter Simulation Data ............................................................................................ 91
Appendix J: Cascaded Boost-Buck Converter Simulation Data................................................................... 92
Appendix K: Full-Bridge Converter Simulation Data ................................................................................... 93
Appendix L: Testing Results and Log ........................................................................................................... 96
Appendix M: Implementation Circuit Schematic ........................................................................................ 99

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Acknowledgements

We would like to thank our advisor Professor Fred J. Looft for guiding and mentoring us through our
project. We would also like to thank Bill Appleyard and Xu Keshuai for their assistance and technical
advice.

3
1. Introduction
With increasing markets for portable devices such as
smartphones, field research equipment, and navigational
devices, an easily transportable solar powered battery charger
is an anticipated, off-grid energy supply option as seen in
Figure 1. Most affordable solar chargers harvest solar power
using photovoltaic (PV) solar panels with a simple buck (step-
down) voltage regulator. Unfortunately, this type of solar
charger has significant power loss during conversion due to
underutilizing the maximum potential power output of the PV
panel. This inefficiency occurs because a simple step down
solar charger does not have a controller to determine the
optimal output voltage and current levels to maximize PV panel Figure 1. Portable Solar Charger
efficiency. Also, buck only solar chargers typically operate at voltages that adhere to a[] buck voltage
regulator’s voltage requirements (in particular, PV input voltages have to be higher than the required
load voltage) instead of compensating for the fluctuating panel output voltage levels produced by
varying irradiance and temperature conditions on the PV panel when a PV panel optimal operating
voltage can be either above or below the desired output load voltage. Consequently, if portable devices
do not receive consistent maximum power output from solar panels, the result is premature battery
failure or battery capacity loss from the absence of an appropriate “end-of-charge” voltage (or
consistent current). Thus, current designs of solar chargers are poor investments for users because of
the resulting costs of replacing batteries and wasted power. [14]

Fortunately, there are solar charge controller designs that have addressed the inefficiencies of solar
chargers. These solar charge controller designs utilize Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) to
operate a solar charge controller at maximum panel power peak efficiency. MPPT is a method of
adjusting the load presented to a PV panel to compensate for changes in temperature and irradiation of
a PV panel to produce maximum output power to a load from the panel. Using sensors and an algorithm
to compare the input solar power with the output power on the load, current and voltage settings for a
DC-DC converter (voltage regulator) are adjusted to extract the maximum output power possible from
the PV panel. Figure 2 illustrates how a charge controller using only a step-down (buck) DC-DC converter
topology harvests only 50%-70% of the power from the PV panel, whereas, a system with an MPPT
controller can provide about 90% of the PV panel’s power.

Unfortunately, existing portable solar charge controller companies have yet to implement MPPT-
centered designs affordably in their products. If a portable device was connected to an MPPT driven

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solar charger, the battery would receive at
least 90% of the panel's available power
making an MPPT charge controller design a
better investment than a PWM-driven solar
charge controller. [14]

The efficiency of an MPPT charge controller

is dependent on both the MPPT algorithm
and the type of voltage regulation
implemented. The typical buck topology is
unable to provide power efficiently because
this typology can only work efficiently with
input PV panel voltages that are higher than
the desired output load voltage. Similar
input voltage restrictions apply to a step-up
(boost) converter because the input PV
voltage can only be lower than the desired
output load voltage. Because buck and
boost controllers require a specific range of
input voltages, these individual typologies
do not enable the PV cell modules to
Figure 2. Power Comparison of MPPT vs. Non-MPPT
produce maximum output power with a Solar Charging [5]
varying input voltage range. Since most
portable, small capacity (10W) PV panels are subjected to varying amounts of sunlight (irradiance), the
PV array can produce voltages higher or lower than the desired load voltage. In order for a solar charge
controller to efficiently use a PV panel as a power supply for a portable device, the portable solar charge
controller needs to be capable of regulating supply voltages that are both higher and lower than the
desired load voltage. In addition, the portable charge controller should extract maximum power from
the panel and meet the battery load requirements.

The purpose of our senior project was to design and prototype an MPPT charge controller for small
capacity PV panels under varying temperature and irradiance conditions to charge portable devices. In
this paper we discuss our research, simulation, design, and testing to develop an MPPT solar charge
controller. Furthermore, we present out results and findings from testing our design.

5
2. Background Research
2.1 Introduction
This section aims to provide background research to describe the components necessary for the
solar charger to function and how these components operate together to charge a battery. Figure 3
displays the four steps that occur within a solar charger. Each step is explored within this section in
terms of fundamental components and operational processes for that topic.

Energy Energy
Energy Energy
Conversion Conversion
Collection Storage
Optimization Implementation

Figure 3. Energy Processes within a Solar Charger

2.2 Energy Collection

The first major step in a solar charger is energy collection. The energy harvested will be converted
and used to charge a battery. Solar charge controllers use Photovoltaic (PV) panels to collect energy
from the sun. Photovoltaic (PV) panels are made of PV cells, which are semiconductor devices that are
designed to produce a current when exposed to light. To produce current, incident photons are
absorbed within the PV cells by a semiconductor material (usually silicon) causing the excitation of
valence electrons within the atoms of that material. By absorbing energy from photons, electrons are
elevated in energy level from the valence band to the conduction band of an atom. Figure 4 shows how
electron-hole pairs are formed if the incident
photons provide enough energy for the
electrons to surpass the band gap between the
valence and conduction bands. [23]

If the energy of an incident photon is greater

than or equal to the band gap energy, an
electron-hole pair is formed and the charge
carriers are separated. The affected silicon Figure 4.Excitation of Electrons across Band Gap
atoms of a typical PV cell form a PN junction,
which forces charge carriers to flow in one direction. In this way, the flow of electrons becomes
available power as a form of current to charge a battery load. Figure 5 illustrates how current is supplied
by PV cells once electron hole-pairs are combined. [23, 24]

6
 A solar cell can be modeled as a light dependent
current source in parallel with a diode PN junction
as in Figure 6. To account for non-ideal conditions
such as shading on the panel, the model also
includes both a series resistance and a parallel
shunt resistance. The PV circuit model illustrated in
Figure 6 can be described with a photovoltaic
current (Iph), a PN junction diode current (Id), a
diode (D), the parallel shunt resistance (Rp), a
series resistance(Rs), the load current (IL), and the
load voltage (VL). Equation 1 expresses the load
current as described by current analysis of the
model. [24, 15]

𝑉+𝐼𝐿 × 𝑅𝑆
𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝑝ℎ − 𝐼𝑑 − (1)
𝑅𝑝
From Equation 1, the photovoltaic current ( 𝐼𝑝ℎ )
and the diode current (𝐼𝑑 .) depends on the solar
cell irradiance and temperature. Thus, the power
generated from the PV panel depends on the
variation of irradiance and temperature upon the
PV cell. Equation 2 expresses the PN junction
characteristic of a PV cell as the diode current
through Shockley’s Diode Equation. [15]
Figure 5 Generation of current in a PV Cell

𝑞(𝑉+𝐼𝐿 𝑅𝑠 )
𝐼𝑑 = 𝐼𝑜 ∗ [(𝑒 𝑛𝐾𝑇𝐶
− 1] (2)

In Equation 2, Id, represents the diode current, Io, the diode saturation current, q, the charge constant of
an electron (1.602x10-19 C), V, the load
output voltage, n, a form factor
(usually a value of 1 or 2), K, the
Boltzmann Constant (1.381x10-23 K), RS,
the PV cell series resistance, TC, the
junction temperature, and IL, the load
current. [24, 15]

Modeling PV cell efficiency depends on

the influence of temperature and
irradiance seen in Equation 1. With an Figure 6 PV Cell Circuit Model Created in Multisim
increase in cell temperature, the output voltage of the PV cell decreases resulting in lower output
power. If temperature is decreased relative to the reference temperature, the voltage increases, but

7
there is a slight decrease in current, and an overall increase in output power. [19] Equation 3 provides
the solar cell power conversion efficiency in terms of solar irradiance:

𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∗ 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝜂𝐶 = = (3)
𝑃𝑖𝑛 𝐼(𝑡)∗𝐴𝑐
Where the maximum power current and voltage are represented as 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 and 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 , and solar
intensity and the area of the solar cell are represented as 𝐼(𝑡) and 𝐴𝑐 .

Equation 4 describes the relationship of cell temperature and solar cell conversion efficiency. By
observing Equation 4, the relationship between ambient temperature and efficiency is linear with
efficiency decreasing as temperature increases. [19]

𝜂𝐶 = 𝜂𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 [1 − 𝛽𝑟𝑒𝑓 (𝑇𝑐 − 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 ) + 𝛾𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ∗ 𝐼(𝑡) ] (4)

In Equation 4, 𝜂𝐶 is defined as the PV electrical efficiency at the PV cell temperature ( TC), 𝜂 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 f is the
efficiency of the PV cell at the reference temperature, 𝛽𝑟𝑒𝑓 and Tref are the solar temperature coefficient
and the reference temperature, respectively. [19] In Equation 5, the temperature coefficient depends on
the PV material, PV reference temperature, and at TO the efficiency of the PV cell drops to zero.
𝛽𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 1/(𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 ) (5)

From the efficiency equations above, the dependency of the temperature and irradiance conditions on
the PV cell affect both the overall power generation and power efficiency of the PV panel. Considering
this dependency, to obtain the maximum power from a PV cell, an MPPT controller must be able to
account for variations in both cell temperature and solar irradiance. Both factors will result in changes to
the voltage and current characteristics of the solar cell, as well as overall efficiency.

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2.3 Energy Conversion Optimization
Varying temperature and irradiance conditions influence the power voltage and power current
ultimately produced by the PV panel. To efficiently utilize the maximum output power of the panel, a
solar charger requires a step between the panel providing power and the DC-DC converter receiving
power, or broadly, energy conversion optimization. In this process, Maximum Power Point Tracking
(MPPT) is implemented within the solar charger to detect and determine the maximum power point
voltage and current that can be provided by the PV panel. By adjusting the voltage and current set-
points to maintain the maximum power point (MPP), maximum power output can be achieved under
dynamically varying conditions of temperature, cell shading, and solar irradiance. By using MPPT, the
charge controller can communicate to the DC-DC converter the amount of voltage it will receive and
how it should handle it. The following section introduces how MPPT operates in a solar charger.

2.3.1 Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT)

Before explaining MPPT, it is important to understand the current and voltage (I-V)
characteristics of the PV panel. Equation 6 shows that the product of voltage and current is power:
𝑃 = 𝐼 ∗ 𝑉 (6)

From Equation 6 we can understand that fluctuations in power also means changes in the
current and voltage values. Since the power delivered by the panel is dependent on the irradiance,
temperature, and shadowing conditions imposed upon it, the power voltage and power current are
dependent on the dynamic changes from these conditions. [39] Thus, the panel can operate at a range
of voltages and currents depending on the irradiance level and the load current of the circuit as
previously explained. We can now
define the maximum power point using
the specific coordinates of the voltage
value and current value associated
with the maximum power output of
the PV panel as seen in the PV panel’s
I-V curve illustrated in Figure 7. The
point where the product of the load
current and the output voltage is
greatest is designated as the maximum
power point (MPP). Figure 7 shows
that the MPP is often located close to
the knee of the PV I-V curve.
Figure 7. Typical PV Cell I-V Characteristic for MPPT [10]
There are three important
factors that are considered when
extracting the maximum amount of power from a PV panel [36]:

 Irradiance: changes PV panel current operating point

 Temperature: changes PV panel voltage operating point
 Load: used as a reference for the current and voltage
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From understanding the PV panel power relation to power voltage and power current, we can define a
Maximum power point tracker (MPPT) as a system that optimizes voltage input and voltage output
matching between the PV panel and the battery to achieve maximum panel efficiency. Using current
sensors and voltage sensors to detect the operating conditions of the PV panel, various sampling
algorithms can be used to calculate the MPP. To perform many simple MPPT algorithms, the four
following parameters are measured to operate controllers and are typically provided in PV datasheets:

 VOC – open circuit voltage

 ISC – short circuit current

 VMPP – max power point voltage

 IMPP – max power point current

The open circuit voltage is the maximum output voltage of the panel with no power drawn. The short
circuit current is the absolute maximum current provided by the panel. These two values can be used to
calculate their respective MPPT values without a microcontroller. Maximum power point voltage, VMPP,
is linearly dependent on the open circuit voltage under varying irradiance and temperature conditions.
VMPP determines the maximum power point by periodically disconnecting the system from the load to
measure VOC and can be calculated using Equation 7, where the constant kv represents the configuration
of the PV panel. [36]

𝑉𝑀𝑃𝑃 = 𝑘𝑣 ∗ 𝑉𝑜𝑐 (7)

This method of calculating the maximum power point, or fractional open circuit voltage, typically causes
temporary loss of power and is not typically advised to use as an MPPT method. Similarly, there is a
fractional short circuit method in which the maximum power point current is linearly dependent on the
short circuit current and can be calculated using Equation 8:

𝐼𝑀𝑃𝑃 = 𝑘𝑖 ∗ 𝐼𝑠𝑐 (8)

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To determine the short circuit current using this method is also disadvantageous. The short circuit
current method results in increased power loss and heat dissipation. Also, the circuit would require an
additional switch and current sensor to properly
extract the value. [36]

It is important, however, to note that the two

current values, ISC and IMPP, are proportional to the
irradiance. More specifically, Isc is proportional to
irradiance, while IMPP changes in proportion to
irradiance as demonstrated in Figure 8. The
power current’s relationship with irradiance is
important for mobile applications since the angle
of incidence of irradiance varies especially when
the PV panel will be moved to different locations
and angles relative to available sunlight. As seen in Figure 8. Angle of Incidence vs Relative Output
Figure 8, if the angle of incidence is not zero, the Current [20]
amount of effective irradiance is reduced resulting
in a decrease in current. This mobile situation would require a faster tracking system due to the
potential angle changes. [20]

The parameters VOC, ISC , VMPP, IMPP and their relationship with irradiance determines the type of MPPT
algorithm necessary to compute to maximum power output of the PV panel. Different combinations of
these parameters characterizes algorithm efficiency and capability to determine the MPPT. [10]

2.3.2 MPPT Control Algorithms

There are many ways to maximize the power of a PV system such as using a simple method of
voltage relationships to complicated sample based analysis. [20] Most commonly implemented MPPT
algorithms include, but are not limited to, the constant voltage (CV), perturb & observe (P&O),
incremental conductance (INC), open-circuit voltage (VOC), and short-circuit current (ISC) methods. The
type of method chosen for a system is typically based on the level of expected irradiance. For instance,
methods such as VOC and ISC are better for low levels of irradiance and are usually more immune to
noise. Iterative methods are usually better when the PV cells are arranged in series. Searching methods
are implemented when the angle of incidence changes or for a panel that will experience shade. In the
case of portable devices, our system needs to perform efficiently under dynamic irradiance conditions
and under the occurrence of the shadow effect. [20] A comparison on how each method operates and
achieves MPP can be seen in Table 1.

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 Characteristics of methods P&O INC VOC CV ISC
Choose a maximum power point using a predetermined value or x x x
ratio of values
Measurements of the PV open circuit voltage are taken, and an x x
approximation for VMPP is calculated as approximately 0.76-0.78 of
VOC
Determines IMPP as a ratio of Isc to locate the maximum power x
point (MPP)
Provide dynamic MPPT under changing irradiance, temperature, x x
and voltage conditions
Table 1: Comparison of P&O, INC, CV, VOC, and ISC characteristics of each method

From Table 1, we can observe that three of the algorithms, CV, VOC, and ISC, choose a maximum
power point using a predetermined value or ratio of values. For the CV and VOC methods,
measurements of the PV open circuit voltage are taken and an approximation for VMPP is calculated as
0.76-0.78 of VOC. [39] The ISC method works similarly to the CV and VOC techniques but instead
determines IMPP as a ratio of Isc to locate the maximum power point (MPP). The primary issue with the
CV, VOC, and ISC methods is that they rely on assumed values for VMPP and IMPP, which do not accurately
or efficiently account for changes in PV panel conditions. Only the P&O and INC methods provide
dynamic MPPT under changing irradiance, temperature, and voltage conditions and are therefore
addressed in detail within this paper.

Perturb and Observe (P&O)

To efficiently perform MPPT under varying input conditions, the Perturb & Observe algorithm is
commonly used in MPPT controllers. P&O maintains maximum power by introducing a change in the
panel’s output voltage and observing if the output power increases or decreases in response. The
algorithm then provides the appropriate modifications to the duty cycle of the DC-DC converter to
account for modifying the panel voltage.

Figure 9 indicates that if the change in

power is positive on the left side of the
MPP, dP/dV > 0, then the output has
moved closer to the MPP, and the
controller will continue to perturb the PV
panel in the same direction. If dP/dV < 0
on the right side of the MPP, the output
has moved further from the MPP, and
the controller switches to perturb the
voltage in the opposite direction. The
size of the step is proportional to the size
of deviation, or oscillation, around the Figure 9. Signs of dP/dV with reference to MPP [38]
MPP. [39, 36]

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More clearly, the P&O method uses a fixed step to increase or decrease the voltage in attempt to match
MPP:

 By decreasing voltage on
right side of MPP, power
increases towards MPP

 By increasing the voltage on

left side of MPP, power
increases towards MPP

The decision making process of

the P&O method described
previously can be visually
described through the flowchart
as shown in Figure 10. P&O is a
simple algorithm to implement, Figure 10 .Flowchart of P&O MPPT method [36]
however, sudden changes in
irradiance can cause the algorithm to perturb in the wrong direction, and the algorithm can also be
prone to steady-state error from oscillations around the MPP. [39]

Incremental Conductance (INC)

The incremental conductance (INC) algorithm is a method similar to P&O in that INC also can
𝑑𝑃
handle dynamic irradiance and temperature conditions. Instead of directly calculating 𝑑𝑉 like P&O
𝑑𝐼 𝐼
method, INC uses compares the incremental conductance, 𝑑𝑉, to the instantaneous conductance, 𝑉. The
𝑑𝐼 𝐼
INC algorithm will regulate the duty cycle signals until MPP (when +, = 0) is reached . In other
𝑑𝑉 𝑉
words, when the incremental conductance equates the instantaneous conductance, the maximum
power point has been reached. In general, the INC method calculates the relation of the power curve
derivative and the voltage at zero which indicates the MPP. Any value on the left side of MPP is a
positive slope and anything on the right side of MPP is a negative slope. Thus, the comparison is actually
the positive incremental conductance versus the negative instantaneous conductance.

Equation 9 shows the derivation of the incremental conductance equality to instantaneous conductance
𝑑𝑃
from the principle: when the MPP is reached, 𝑑𝑉 = 0. [39, 36]

13
 Equation 9. Derivation of Incremental Conductance Condition

Figure 11 shows the group of INC conditions in terms of power curve derivative as Equation 1
and Equation 2 the group of INC conditions in terms of incremental conductance and
instantaneous conductance after the derivation shown in Equation 9. [36] As seen in Equation
9, the INC algorithm requires both the panel’s output voltage values and output current values.
Because of the more complicated method, this algorithm typically needs the higher processing
ability of a PIC or DSP.

Figure 11, INC Conditions in Power Curve Derivative Form and Incremental Conductance Form [36]

14
The complex decision making process of the INC method described previously can be visually
described through the flowchart shown in Figure 12. Most INC algorithms use a fixed step size
for the panel output voltage updates.

Figure 12. Flowchart of INC MPPT method [39]

From the comparing the flow chart in Figure 12 to the flowchart for P&O, the difference between INC
𝑑𝑃
and P&O can be observed. Because INC can compute the sign of without perturbation, steady-state
𝑑𝑡
error is reduced near the MPP meaning there is less oscillation around the MPP. The decrease in error of
INC gives this method an advantage over P&O, but at the cost of complexity of implementation.

INC and P&O Comparison

From a study regarding the performance of P&O and INC methods under dynamic weather
conditions, the INC and P&O methods were compared in a simulation and graphed as in Figure 13. In
this case, MPPT efficiency was weighed against insolation slopes, and the averaged results are shown in
Figure 13. By observing the results, the INC insolation slope has a higher efficiency curve than the P&O
insolation slope. Although the P&O graph has a lower efficiency, due to a slower MPPT algorithm than
INC, it provides overall better efficiency in medium to high insolation. INC proves to operate more
efficiently at the extreme ends of isolation, and it is relatively steady through the range of insolation
slopes. The INC, overall, performs more efficiently under dynamic conditions than P&O. The sensitivity
range of INC is conducive for a portable device that will be exposed to dynamic irradiance and
temperature conditions. Nevertheless, INC and P&O are relatively close in MPPT efficiency rating,
where even at high slopes the INC efficiency is 98.6% and P&O is 98.45% with a difference of 0.15%. [25]
15
Thus, depending on the expected weather conditions for the panel, either choice is a reasonable
method to implement in a solar charger.

Figure 13. Average MPPT slope efficiency a. P&O and b. INC [25]

16
2.4 Energy Conversion Implementation
The implementation of MPPT involves the MPPT algorithm communicating the input voltage that
the DC-DC converter will receive and instructions to the converter about to handle the input voltage
appropriately. More specifically, the MPPT algorithm is executed through a controller, and the controller
changes the duty cycle of the converter to regulate the input voltage to the required load voltage. The
power conversion efficiency depends on voltage converter typology and how it is controlled. Therefore,
it is necessary to explore the different typology configurations that would increase the output power
efficiency. It is also necessary to understand how the DC-DC converter and controller communicate and
produce an output voltage to match the load requirement. In this section, DC-DC converter typologies
are discussed and their characteristics, parameters, and drawbacks are compared. In addition, once the
components are described, the control and feedback of the system is explored to understand how the
MPPT and the DC-DC converter operate as a unit.

To convert PV energy to the desired load, a DC-DC converter needs to be employed in the system. To
account for varying conditions, the DC-DC converter should either increase or decrease the voltage level
from the PV panel with minimal power loss to meet the requirements of the load. In our case the load is
likely a battery.

2.4.1 Switched Mode Power Supplies: Typologies and Operation

DC-to-DC converters are a type of switched mode power supply (SMPS) that converts a DC
power source, which either has a higher or lower power voltage than the load requirement, to a stable
DC voltage that matches the load. SMPSs consist of using power switches, inductors, capacitors, and
diodes to adjust and transfer the input power to the load. [35, 11]

Typologies

DC-to-DC converters are divided into two typologies: Non-isolated and Isolated. Isolation refers
to the separation between the input and output of the converter. An isolated DC-DC converter users a
transformer to break the electrical path between the input and output. A non-isolated DC-DC converter
retains the electrical path between the input and output by using an integrated controller. [11] The
focus of this paper will be on non-isolated DC-to-DC converters which are typically applied to lower
voltage, portable devices, whereas an isolated typology is useful for higher voltage and power
distribution applications. In addition, a converter’s typology can determine if the voltage output will be
the negative of the input, “inverted”, or remain positive, “non-inverted”. The output requirements of
our project will be connected to a charge controller and needs to have a positive output voltage
meaning that the converter requires a non-inverting typology. [18]

There are five general types of DC-to-DC isolated converters that were considered: Buck, Boost, Buck-
Boost, SEPIC, and Cύk. With consideration of our project goal, Buck-Boost and SEPIC topologies are
discussed in this paper due to their ability to both step-up and step-down voltage, and their capability to
produce a non-inverting output. The reasoning to focus on Buck-Boost and SEPIC is based on elimination
of the typology characteristics as seen in Figure 14, with the orange blocks representing the typologies
that are suitable for portable device charging and the grey blocks representing the typologies that
cannot achieve charging for portable devices.
17
 Isolated Step Up
(Boost)
DC-DC
Conversion Step Down
Non-Isolated Inverted
(Buck) Cuk
Output

Both
Non- SEPIC
inverted
Ouput Buck-Boost

Figure 14. Hierarchy of Voltage Regulator Typology in Relation to Focused Design Selection

Operation

Since the typologies are characterized by their components and the way they are driven, it is important
to discuss the basic principles of how a DC-DC converter operates. Considering a simple buck –boost
circuit in Figure 15, the main
components are a MOSFET (metal-oxide
semiconductor field-effect transistor)
switch, an inductor, a diode, and an
output capacitor. By studying the
voltage flow of the circuit, we can
derive the basic operation of a buck-
boost converter. The fundamental
Figure 15. Typical Single Switch Buck-Boost Converter [1]
principle of operation for a DC-DC
converter, to transform voltage, is
based on the PWM controlled high frequency switching of the MOSFETs and the voltage it passes to the
inductor. During this time the capacitor is either charging or discharging the regulated voltage to the
load, while the diode dictates the direction of current when switching ON and OFF. [30] Table 2 explains
how the voltage across the inductor drives the voltage conversion process through the inductor charging
and discharging cycles.

18
 Inductor Charging Cycle Inductor Discharging Cycle

 Inductor current increases linearly  Energy stored to inductor flows to capacitor

 Capacitor in discharging state supplies and to load
output current to load  Capacitor in charging state
 Inductor voltage decreases linearly

Figure 16b. Left. Inductor charge mode Q1, Q3 ON,

Q2, Q4 OFF Figure 16c. Right. Inductor discharge
mode Q1, Q3 OFF, Q2, Q4 ON

Figure 16a.Inductor voltage and current

during charging (T1) and discharging (T2)
modes

𝑉𝑆 = 𝐿(𝐼2 − 𝐼1 )/ 𝑇1 ∆𝐼
𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 = (𝐿 ) (10b)
∆𝐼 𝑇2
𝑉𝑆 = ( 𝐿 ) (10a)
𝑇1
Table 2. Description of Inductor Charging and Discharging Cycles for DC-DC Converter [26]

From observing Equation 10a and Equation 10b, and relating these to Equation 11 and Equation 12,
where 𝑇 = 𝑇1 + 𝑇2 and the duty cycle is 𝐷 = 𝑇1/𝑇,

𝑇1 = 𝐷 ∗ 𝑇 (11)
𝑇2 = (1 − 𝐷) ∗ 𝑇 (12)

We can define the average output voltage as:

𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 = (𝐷/1 − 𝐷) ∗ 𝑉𝑆 (13)

With Equation 13, duty cycle’s relationship to the output and input voltage is defined as the ratio of the
time on (ON) or time off (OFF) over the total switching time period. Due to the function of the duty
cycle, by controlling the period of the inductor charging cycle and discharging cycle, the circuit can
operate in buck mode and boost mode under one duty cycle.

19
 Since the duty cycle, or the fraction of the time period when the signal is active, of the switches
determines the ON and OFF time of the switch, it also regulates how much power is transferred to the
output. The configuration of the components and the duty cycle characterizes the different DC-DC
converter typologies as step-up, step-down, or both. Because SMPSs require a higher operation
frequency, voltage ripple, current ripple, and EMI become limiting parameters when considering designs
for DC-to- DC converters. [35, 11]

2.4.2 Buck-Boost Converter

Unlike the inverting buck-boost converter that can only use buck-boost mode, a non-inverting
buck-boost converter can operate using characteristics of a buck converter and boost converter
separately, or in a combined buck-boost mode. These modes are available for either a two or four-
switch buck-boost typology. The buck-boost design is a cascaded combination of a buck converter leg
followed by a boost converter leg. To understand the functions of a buck-boost converter, we shall
briefly define the difference between buck and boost:
 buck: adjusts input voltages higher than output voltage as current increases
 boost: adjusts input voltages lower than output voltage as current decreases
Due to strict input voltage range requirements to operate, both the buck circuit and the boost circuit
cannot handle variability of input voltages outside of their restricted input range. Since the buck-boost
circuit includes both the step-up and step-down conversion abilities, it can handle input variability above
or below the output. [11, 18] In addition, the buck-boost circuit can handle a situation where the supply
voltage is relatively close to the load voltage. This operational mode is considered the buck-boost mode,
and it is possible because the converter has both buck and boost legs.

Two-switch Buck-Boost Converter

Figure 16 demonstrates the different operational modes of the two-switch buck-boost typology
with their respective ideal voltage and current waveforms at each component. The two-switch buck-
boost converter uses two MOSFETs as the active switches and two diodes as the passive switches.
Conversely, the inverting buck-boost converter which only uses a single MOSFET and a single diode as
the switching components. The two switch approach enables this typology to perform the three
operational modes: buck mode, boost mode, and buck- boost mode as seen in Figure 16 a, b, c. These
modes are defined by the duty cycles of the two MOSFETS, Q1 and Q2.

To operate the buck-boost circuit in Figure 16a, all the power components need to be ON. Q1 and
Q2 switch ON and OFF simultaneously allowing either a buck or boost operation to occur when provided
a specific duty cycle. During this operation, the diode, D1, ensures that the current is directed towards
the load during the OFF cycle to prevent reverse current from entering Q1. Similarly, D2 directs the flow
of the current from Q2 towards the load. The buck and boost circuits seen in Figure16b and Figure 16c
use less power components during operation. For the buck circuit, Q2 is always OFF inhibiting the boost
leg of the circuit. D2 restricts the flow of the current from accessing Q2 when the inductor discharges
and only allows the buck leg to be active. For the boost circuit, D1 is always off inhibiting the buck leg of
the circuit, but still allows current and voltage flow to the boost leg.

20
 Figure 16a.Two-switch buck-boost in buck-boost mode

Figure 16b. Two-switch buck-boost in buck mode

Figure 16c. Two-switch buck-boost in boost mode [18]

21
Table 3 explains the three different modes from Figure 16 in terms of the MOSFET operation and the
voltage conversion ratios calculated using the duty cycles, D. [18]
Operational Mode Q1 and Q2 states Voltage Conversion Ratios
Buck-boost Turn Q1 and Q2 ON and OFF 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐷
=
simultaneously 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝐷−1

Buck Q2 is always OFF, output 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡

=𝐷
voltage is regulated by Q1 𝑉𝑖𝑛

Boost Q1 is always on, D1 is reverse 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 1

=
biased and stays OFF, output 𝑉𝑖𝑛 1−𝐷
regulated by Q2

Table 3. Buck-boost Operational Modes Defined by Q1 & Q2 States and Voltage Conversion Ratios
[18]
The voltage conversion ratios in Table 3 characterize the inductor charging relationship between
the duty cycle, the output voltage, and the supply voltage. For the buck converter, the current will
increase linearly and decrease linearly because the supply voltage (𝑉𝑖𝑛 ) is linearly proportional to the
output voltage (𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 ). However, for the boost and buck-boost modes, the inductor will not charge
linearly, affecting the output voltage in terms of the duty cycle. The difficultly in non-linear voltage
charging of the inductor impacts the efficiency of the power conversion from the supply to the load. [26]
Thus, these operational modes are the foundation to the converter’s efficiency. The number of power
devices and the high current stress in the buck-boost mode limits the converter from being efficient.
[18] However, if the operational modes are used in response to the provided input voltage, such as buck
mode would be used if the input voltage is consistently higher than the load, the two-switch buck-boost
converter will have higher efficiency than the inverted design. The full-buck and full-boost modes are
inherently more efficient operational modes than simply the buck-boost mode because the single
operational modes use fewer power devices which lowers the overall current stress on the components.
Thus, it is important to consider which combinations of operational modes should be implemented for
the converter to be efficient in the system. However, control circuitry, which would complement the
desired operational mode capabilities, must be in place to execute these combinations. Table 4
describes the operational modes of the two-switch buck-boost in reference to control complexity and
efficiency when performing a step-up and step-down.

Operation Modes Control Complexity Efficiency (Vin > Vout) Efficiency (Vin < Vout)
Buck-boost Simple Low Low
Buck and buck-boost Moderate High Low
Buck-boost and boost Moderate Low High
Buck, buck-boost, Boost Complicated High High

Table 4 Comparison of Operating Modes in Terms of Control Complexity and Efficiency [18]

22
 From examining Table 4, we can observe that although controlling buck-boost mode is the most
simple to implement, this mode is the least efficient when bucking or boosting the input voltage. All
three operation modes used separately is the most efficient in bucking and boosting. However, this
operational capability requires the control to handle multiple modes of operation and performing the
transitions accurately between each mode. We further discuss the control complexity of the buck-boost
converter with respect to the operational modes in Section 4.5.

Non-Inverting Synchronous Buck-Boost Converter

Another typology of buck-

boost is a four-switch buck-boost
converter. In this typology instead of
one MOSFET and one diode, two
MOSFETs each are used to form the
buck leg and boost leg of the circuit as
denoted in Figure 17. This type of
design implementation is referred to as
synchronous rectification. Synchronous
rectification is defined as using a
rectifying transistor, typically a
MOSFET, to perform current Figure 17. Non-inverting Synchronous Buck-Boost
rectification, or driving the current in a Converter Design [44]
specific direction. For the leg to work
in a complimentary manner, one of the MOSFETS is ON and the other is OFF in the pair [44]. In this way,
the buck-boost converter can operate in either buck, boost, or buck-boost mode to handle variations of
voltage supply by controlling the MOSFETs. [26]

Figure 18, Figure 19, and Figure 20 demonstrate the buck mode, boost mode, and buck-boost mode of
the non-inverting synchronous buck-boost converter during inductor charging and discharging.

Figure 18. Buck mode (a) Inductor Charging (b) Inductor Discharging [26]

23
 Figure 19. Boost mode (a) Inductor Charging (b) Inductor Discharging [26]

Figure 20. Buck-Boost mode (a) Inductor Charging (b) Inductor Discharging [26]

Table 5 explains how the MOSFETs are driven to set up the different operational modes of the buck-
boost converter. During inductor charge, the supply voltage is charging the inductor, and the capacitor is
discharging current to the load. During the inductor discharge, the inductor’s voltage and current
charges the capacitor and the load. During the inductor charging and discharging cycle, a pair of
switches remains either always ON or always OFF to direct the supply voltage to the designated leg of
the circuit to create the necessary operational mode.

Operational Inductor Charge and Inductor Charge Inductor Discharge

Mode Discharge
Buck  Q3 is always OFF  Q1 is closed  Q1 is open
 Q4 is always ON  Q2 is open  Q2 is closed
Boost  Q1 is always ON  Q3 is closed  Q3 is open
 Q2 is always OFF  Q4 is open  Q4 is closed
Buck-boost  Q1 and Q3 work  Q1 and Q3 are closed  Q1 and Q3 are
together  Q2 and Q4 are open open
 Q2 and Q4 work  Q2 and Q4 are
together closed
Table 5. Operational Modes of Synchronous Buck-Boost Converter during Inductor Charge and Discharge
[26]

Similar to the two-switch buck-boost converter, the voltage conversion ratios are the same for the
operational modes of the four-switch buck-boost converter. The voltage conversion ratios define the
24
operational modes for any typology. As long as the converter has the voltage conversion ratio of the
buck mode, it will perform power conversion like a buck converter, and similarly for the other
operational modes. However, the control mechanisms behind inducing the operational mode will be
different for each typology. In this case, we can reproduce the buck, boost, and buck-boost modes using
four MOSFETs instead of two MOSFETs and two diodes. It is then possible to compare efficiencies of
typologies by comparing how efficient the typology performs power conversion in their operational
modes. We further examined the control mechanisms of synchronous rectification in Section 2.4.5. In
order for the four-switch buck-boost converter to be driven efficiently, conduction losses and switching
losses need to be adjusted such that they are balanced between the components of both legs of the
circuit. In addition the controller used to drive the circuit requires the ability to access all three
operational modes similar to the two-switch circuit. The advantages of synchronous rectification is
discussed further in Appendix B, “Increasing Efficiencies during Low Loads”. From observing both the
two-switch and the four-switch buck-boost converters, a controller must be chosen to meet the
requirements of the operational modes desired for the buck-boost converter. The limitations of the
buck-boost design is the number of power components and the current stress on the circuit.

Variations of Two-Switch Buck-Boost Typology

In addition to the two-switch and four-switch buck-boost configurations, there are different
configurations of buck-boost converters that can produce a non-inverted output with varying
efficiencies. Examples of modified buck-boost typologies can be seen in Table 6, where L denotes
inductor, C denotes capacitor, S denotes switches, CR denotes diodes, and D1 and D2 are the duty ratios
of S1 and S2.

25
 Example 1: Boost followed by Buck

Boost: drive S1 with PWM, hold S2 ON

continuously

Buck: drive S2 with PWM, hold S1 OFF

Vin=Vout: no switched mode power

processing required
Figure 21a. Boost-Buck Example 1
Limitations: C2 has discontinuous current from
CR1 (boost) and from S2 (buck)
Example 2: Buck followed by Boost

Boost: drive S2 with PWM, hold S1 off

Buck: drive S1 with PWM, hold S2 off

Vin=Vout: no switched mode power

processing required

Figure 21b. Buck-Boost Example 2 Limitations: input and output currents are
discontinuous
Example 3: Buck followed by Boost

Boost: drive S2 and S1 with PWM

Buck: drive S2 and S1 with PWM

Vin=Vout: inductor conducts twice input

current

Figure 21c. Buck-Boost Example 3 Limitations: more complex and less efficient
due to both switches being driven, causing all
switching components (S1, S2, CR1 and CR2)
conduct twice the current resulting in power
losses
Table 6. Examples of Different Buck-Boost Configurations with Functional Descriptions [32]

These examples were simulated and analyzed through PSPICE as seen in reference 32. Mullet
concluded that the Example 2 buck-boost converter is the most efficient circuit typology when the input
voltage is close to the output voltage, and the Example 1 boost-buck converter displayed best
performance with a larger range of input voltages. Further discussion to compare these results with a
SEPIC converter will be seen in Section 2.4.4 Typology Comparison. We will first establish the
functionality and characteristics of a SEPIC Converter before discussing comparisons.

26
2.4.3 Single-ended Primary Inductor Converter (SEPIC)
A SEPIC converter is a type of DC-DC voltage regulator, similar to a non-inverting buck-boost
converter that can accept a wide range of input voltages. We can observe the similarity in the typology
by considering the voltage conversion ratio in Equation 14.
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐷
𝑀= = (14)
𝑉𝑖𝑛 1−𝐷

Contrary to a buck-boost converter, SEPIC has a different configuration to perform step-up and step-
down regulation. [27] More specifically, a SEPIC converter uses two magnetic windings which can be
wound on a common inductive core or on two separate cores, and an extra capacitor. Similar to an
inverting buck-boost, a SEPIC only requires a single MOSFET, and a single diode. Since the configuration
of a SEPIC is similar to the inverting buck-boost design, the SEPIC converter will have similar voltage and
current requirements and will experience similar power losses to the inverting typology. [18]However,
with an additional capacitor and inductor, the design becomes a non-inverting SEPIC. The extra
capacitor inhibits DC components between the input and output, but requires a second inductor to
cause the diode to direct current toward the load [27].

Because the same voltage is applied to the two inductors, some designs suggest to couple the inductors
on the same core to reduce the number of components in the design. However, this approach is more
expensive because winding both inductors on same core requires a customized component that is not
typically sold.

As illustrated and explained in Figure 22 and Table 7, the SEPIC operates by being driven by a simple
controller applying PWM to the switch transistor (Q1). In Figure 22, L1 and L2 denotes the two
inductors, C1 and C2 are the capacitors, and D1 is a Schottky diode.

Figure 22. An Example of a SEPIC Converter [32]

27
 Transistor state: Q1 ON Transistor state: Q1 OFF
 Current flows from the input across L1 to  Current stored in L1 flows through C1
Q1 to ground to D1 and to the output
 Current increases and energy is stored in L1  Inductor L2 provides stored current to
 If a previous cycle has already occurred, C1 D1
would have been charged, during this state,
C1 would discharge to charge L2
 D1 is reversed biased allowing C2 to
discharge if previously charged

Table 7 States of Switching Transistor and Corresponding Components [32, 34]

The average inductor currents of L1 and L2, IL1 and IL2, are equal to the input current and output
current. The capacitors C1 and C2 can be coupled as an ac-coupling capacitor or they can be left
separately. The choice in either capacitor implementation will cause extra power loss and reduce the
converter’s overall efficiency. In order to minimize power loss from these components, ceramic
capacitors with low Equivalent Series Resistance (ESR) should be used but are more expensive. Both the
additional inductor and capacitor increase the PCB board size and increases the overall cost of the
converter. Advantageously, SEPIC converters experience reduced noise, because SEPIC uses a clamped
switching waveform.

2.4.4 Topology Comparison

Having described the non-inverting buck-boost typology and SEPIC typology, we compare the
advantages and disadvantages of these typologies. From these comparisons, an appropriate converter
can be evaluated based on the most advantageous for a portable solar charger.

The following compares the non-inverting buck-boost typologies mentioned in Table 6 against the SEPIC
converter mentioned in the
previous section. From Figure 23
we observe that the boost-buck
model performs most efficiently
over a range of input voltages
compared to SEPIC and buck-
boost.

The two inductors of the boost-

buck model smooth the input and
output current, which reduces the
Figure 23. An Efficiency comparison of Example 1 Boost-Buck,
component stress caused by
Example 2 Buck-Boost, and a SEPIC [32]
28
current ripple. The boost-buck model and the buck-boost model perform with efficiencies around 92%
to 93% when an input voltage is close to the output voltage (24V), whereas the SEPIC, although efficient,
only handles the input voltage at an efficiency around 90% to 91%. [32, 27]Typically, the SEPIC is less
efficient than the buck-boost model because of the parasitic capacitances and impedances. Table 8
compares the advantages and disadvantages previously discussed in the buck-boost section and SEPIC
section of this paper.

Typology Non-Inverting Buck Boost SEPIC

Advantages  Typically less components than SEPIC  Non-inverting output design
 High efficiency over a large range of  Less active components and only
input voltages uses one controller
 Different configuration styles and  Clamped switching waveform
different order of buck or boost reduces noise caused by high-
mode allow variety in operation frequency switching

Disadvantages  More complex design, requires an  Complex design due to inductors

accurate controller for better  Reduced efficiency due to
efficiency parasitic capacitances and
 Higher power loss and more noise due inductances
to more power components

Table 8. An Efficiency comparison of Example 2 Buck-Boost, and a SEPIC Converter [32]

By comparing these two converters, it is evident that the non-inverting buck-boost converter has
multiple possible typologies available to implement and higher efficiency with a larger input voltage
range, whereas the SEPIC only has a couple of typologies to implement with lower efficiency and
narrower supply voltage range. In the case of a portable solar charger, implementation of the buck-
boost would be easier but the cost and controlling complexity are limiting factors. Although the SEPIC
converter has lower efficiency, it requires less components. Nevertheless, the limitations of the non-
inverting buck- boost are trade-offs for its higher efficiency and wider supply voltage range. We can
further observe the differences in component selection for the calculations for determining the
component values as seen in Appendix A. These equations define how these structural parameters
characterize the behaviors of each typology.

29
2.4.5 Control and Feedback
After establishing the basic typologies of buck-boost and SEPIC converters, the control and feedback
mechanisms of the DC-DC
controller are explored to
understand how the DC-DC
converter is controlled by an
MPPT algorithm and together
acts as a system. In general, we
consider the controller, power
stage, and feedback loop as the Figure 24. Control Operation of DC-DC converter in Three Steps:
major components of the system. Controller, Power stage, Feedback loop
Figure 24 illustrates the flow of
this process. The controller manages the switching operation to regulate the output voltage. The power
stage involves the switching elements converting the input voltage to the desired output voltage. The
feedback loop connects the power stage and controller by comparing the actual output voltage to the
desired output voltage and communicates the difference (error) to the controller. In this way, a
feedback loop is necessary to provide information about the output for the controller to calculate
appropriate adjustments that will drive the power stage. [28] By understanding this system flow, we
can conceptualize how the input voltage is converted to a regulated output voltage in relation to the
system elements.

Controller: Microcontroller and Driver

The controller maintains the stability and precision of the input voltage supplied by the PV
panel. In typical applications, controllers use Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) to regulate the power
voltage. There are two components that define the controller: microcontroller and driver. These
components and methods define how the controller operates and its efficiency of operation.

Operating a non-inverting DC-DC converter requires a PWM driver and a microcontroller to determine
the value of the PWM. Either a half-bridge driver or full bridge driver can be employed depending if the
converter circuit uses two MOSFETs or four MOSFETs for either non-synchronous or synchronous
applications. These drivers provide the duty cycle by driving the PWM signal from the microcontroller to
the N-Channel MOSFETs. The driver can employ a few methods to generate the PWM. The PWM

Figure 25. Operation of Controller: Microcontroller and Driver

30
successively turns the MOSFETs ON, OFF, and switches them at specific frequencies and duty cycles. It is
important to distinguish that the microcontroller determines the duty cycles of the PWM outputs to
indicate which operational buck-boost mode should handle the input voltage. The driver simply provides
the microcontroller-specified PWM to the MOSFETs. In this way, the microcontroller is the bridge
between the sensors and the circuit, since the microcontroller uses the MPPT algorithm with
information from the input sensors to calculate the appropriate operational mode to meet the MPP
demands of the PV panel. [26, 40] The controller defined for a non-inverting DC-DC converter is
illustrated in Figure 25.

Driver Control Scheme

The driver circuit’s purpose is to provide enough current to control the transistor and limit each
MOSFET’s drain-source voltage. The pulse of the PWM sent to the MOSFET gate controls how the
MOSFET operates. [26, 40] There are two different conduction modes in which the driver can provide
the appropriate duty cycle control:
 Continuous conduction mode (CCM): current in energy transfer never goes to zero between
switching cycles
 Discontinuous conduction mode (DCM): current goes to zero between switching cycles

We have previously provided the buck-boost typology operation in CCM in Section 2.4.2 when we first
presented the inductor charging and discharging cycle. Appendix E has detailed conditions which buck
mode and boost mode enter DCM, as well as operational consequences of DCM. As seen in Table 2 in
Section 2.4.2 and Appendix E, entering CCM or DCM is dependent on the current through the inductor.
Due to this dependency, it is important to choose the converter’s inductor based on the load variation
and how much time the converter will spend in low-power mode. Although a larger inductor can be
employed to reduce the peak-to-peak current, a larger inductor also requires more circuit surface area,
is more expensive, and can reduce the converter’s efficiency. [30]
There are two typically applied methods to generate PWM in either CCM or DCM: voltage-mode control
and current-mode control. Both usually use a fixed frequency PWM, or constant switching, to limit

Figure 26. System Diagrams of Voltage-Mode (top) and Current-Mode Control (bottom)
31
electromagnetic interference from the power supply. Figure 26 illustrates the basic system diagram used
for voltage-mode control and current-mode control.
Voltage-mode control was developed first, and it had operational limitations such as slow response to
load variation and varying loop gain with input voltage. The current mode control was developed
afterwards to address the voltage-mode limitations. However, current-mode control had its own
limitations such as requiring two feedback loops and limiting duty cycles to 50% or less which restricts
the input voltage range of the source. Table 9, briefly describes the how each method functions, their
advantages and disadvantages. It is important to choose the appropriate method of control based on its
application so that the control method operates most effectively for the application. Appendix C
provides a detailed checklist to assess which control method to implement in a system based on the
advantages and limitations previously described. From this checklist, current-mode control method is
the most suitable for a portable solar charger application because it has a fast response time, handles
dynamic regulation, and is compatible with high frequency switching.

Method Voltage-Mode Control Current-Mode Control

Functionality  PWM generated by connecting a  PWM generated by adding a

control voltage (Vc) to positive end of second feedback loop indicating
a comparator and a sawtooth voltage inductor current
waveform (Vramp) of fixed frequency  Feedback signal includes both AC
 Duty cycle of PWM is proportional to ripple current and DC inductor
Vc current
 Vc (or error voltage) is the difference  Feedback signal is amplified and is
between actual output and reference connected to a comparator and
voltage compared to the error voltage
Advantages  Single feedback loop design allows  Decreases response time due to
easier circuit analysis immediate response of line-or-
 Large amplitude waveform allows load voltage changes
reasonable noise margin for stable  Eliminates loop-gain variation with
modulation input
 Higher gain bandwidth than
voltage-mode
Disadvantages  Slower response time  Two feedback loops complicate
 Requires an output filter that is unable circuit design and analysis
to handle loop gain variation  Limited duty cycle to <50% and
limited input voltage range
 Resonances from inductor can
increase loop noise
Table 9. Descriptions, Advantages, and Disadvantages of Voltage-Mode and Current-Mode Control
[30]

32
Feedback: Current and Voltage Sensors

For MPPT algorithms to acquire the current and voltage panel operational values, sensors are
used to bridge information about current and voltage values between the PV panel, the load, and the
microcontroller coded with the MPPT algorithm. Because the sensors provide input and output
information, the sensors create the feedback loop for the system. The type of sensors chosen for the
system directly affects the accuracy of the MPPT method’s step size. For an accurate and efficient MPPT,
it is ideal to have a fast update rate and a small increment step size.

A sensor’s ability to provide information to the algorithm is driven by the PI loop which is
essentially the microcontroller’s error calculation between the set point and the measured value. The
speed of the calculation depends on how long it takes for the sensor to measure the load voltage and
the PV panel output voltage, and directly affects the MPPT update rate. The MPPT update rate
determines the efficiency of reading a new panel operational value. The PI loop update rate has the
most impact on the MPPT update rate because between MPPT updates, the PI loop needs to have
enough steps to direct the panel output voltage towards the maximum power point voltage and to
determine its difference between the set load voltage. Thus, sensors update rate must be faster than
the MPPT update rate, typically around 25 times faster. For example if the MPPT update is running at
40Hz, then the PI loop needs to operate at 1 kHz. These frequencies also help determine which
microcontroller has a fast enough processing power necessary to meet the needs of the PI loop, MPPT
update, and the algorithm calculations. The other significant limiting factor to the MPPT update rate is
the input capacitor. The input capacitor affects the accuracy of the algorithm in low irradiance
conditions, for it will slow down the variations in the panel output voltage. [36]Along with these design
limitations of the MPPT, the choice in typology of the DC-DC converter affects the system’s power
efficiency.

Power Stage: Dynamic Characteristic

In order to ensure efficient voltage regulation of the DC-DC converter, typically a stability analysis of the
converter’s duty cycle is conducted for each operational mode. For the scope of this project, we do not
need to know exactly how the stability analysis is performed, but it is important to understand how the
stability of a buck-boost converter’s dynamic characteristics affects the control and operation of the
converter, which affects the efficiency of voltage regulation. By using state-space averaging techniques,
Reference 26 derived the dynamic characteristic equations of a non-inverting synchronous buck boost
converter, and Reference 40 derived the transfer function form as seen in Equation 15, where D is the
duty cycle, D’ = 1-D, 𝑣𝑜 is the desired output voltage, 𝑣𝑠 is the supply voltage, 𝑅𝐶 , is the capacitor’s
resistance, 𝐼𝐿 is the current over the inductor, L is the inductor inductance, and C is the capacitor
capacitance.
(𝐷𝐷′ 𝑅𝐶 ) 1 1 𝐷′𝑉𝑜
∗(𝑠+( )) 𝐼𝐿 𝑅𝐶 (𝑠+( ))(𝑠−( )
𝐿 𝑅𝐶 𝐶 𝑅𝐶 𝐶 𝐷𝐿 𝐼𝐿
𝑣𝑜 (𝑠) = 1 𝐷 2 ∗ 𝑣𝑠 (𝑠) − 1 𝐷2
∗ 𝑑(𝑠) (15)
(𝑠 2 + 𝑠+ ) (𝑠 2 + 𝑠+ )
𝑅𝐶 𝐿𝐶 𝑅𝐶 𝐿𝐶
From Equation 15, we can observe that the system is characterized by the inductor and the capacitor.
Since the system is dependent of the inductor and the capacitor, the stability margins of the system also
depend on them and the load condition. Due to this dependence, by increasing the capacitance or
33
decreasing the inductance within the design limits, the stability margins can be improved. [26]The
dependence on inductance and capacitance was previously discussed using circuit analysis in Section 4.2
and Section 4.3. When determining these values there are important factors that need to be considered
for each component as outlined in Table 10.

Factors to Determine Inductor (L) Factors to Determine Capacitor (C)

 Input Voltage range  Inductor current ripple

 Output Voltage  Switching frequency
 Maximum inductor current  Desired output voltage ripple
 Switching frequency

Table 10.Factors that Determine Inductor Inductance and Capacitor Capacitance [26]

The transfer function also reveals that the system has a zero in the Left Half Plane (LHP) and a Right Half
Plane (RHP) zero due to the duty cycle, d(s). A detailed explanation of the significance of the RHP zero is
found in Reference 6, but we will summarize the RHP zero’s effects for a buck-boost converter. In buck-
boost systems there is a right-half-plane (RHP) zero in CCM which is not present in DCM. The RHP zero
causes the system to have two effects:
1. Over compensates duty cycle: The system temporarily uses a larger duty cycle than
necessary which increases the inductor peak current with every switching cycle. The
result is a higher average inductor current delivered to the load.
2. Current delivered is below load requirement: Due to the increase in duty cycle, the
amount of conduction time for the passive switch (diode or MOSFET’s diode) decreases.
The passive switch current, which drives the output current, decreases with an increase
of the duty cycle. The result is the output current being 180 degrees out of phase with
d(s). In terms of the transfer function, the result is the RHP zero. [6]
These effect makes it more difficult to stabilize a converter with dynamic response to switch between
buck mode, boost mode, and buck-boost mode as previously mentioned in Section 4.3. To fix phase
margin, a compensator loop is usually employed. The compensator’s function is to cross at frequency
lower than the RHP zero frequency. The crossover frequency may be limited by at least a decade of the
actual operational frequency restricting full dynamic response of the converter. A simple
implementation is choosing one operational mode since the power stage frequency will maintain about
the same. A more complex implementation is using all three operational modes because the power
stage frequency will change significantly when switching between these modes [40].

Since the location of the transfer function’s poles and zeros vary with the duty cycle, the converter
requires compensation for the lowest frequency poles and zeros, or when the duty cycle is at its peak.
Duty Cycle limiting using slow-start and dynamic reference control bypass circuit, and dead time control
in the synchronous typology are two methods of frequency compensation. [37] Descriptions of the

34
compensation technique’s implementation to prevent inherent frequency-caused problems is found in
Table 11.

Compensation Problem Implementation

Technique
Duty Cycle  During startup and transients, the  Provides a supply voltage to the
Limiting duty cycles varies between it feedback control that is less than
extremes the peak value of the reference
 can be seen if the reference voltage, which limits the duty cycle
voltage is higher than the to less than unity or less than its
feedback voltage peak
 PWM comparator output would  slow-start circuit: when the supply
reach the negative rail during the is turned on, the reference voltage
entire switching period causing for the converter is the output
switching M1 and M3 to be ON voltage from a slow charging
and the output voltage will stay capacitor
the same  Once the converter’s reference
 Since inductor current can still voltage reaches the predetermined
increase, it can damage the power threshold, the controller initiates
components dc-dc converter operation.

Dead Time  Shoot-through current occurs  Synchronous rectification

Control when both the rectifier switch and  Advanced designs of dead time can
complementary passive switch are be employed to reduce body-diode
both conducting current conduction, gate-drive, and
simultaneously switching losses
Table 11. Descriptions of Compensation Techniques: Duty Cycle Limiting and Dead Time Control [37]

Power Stage: Synchronous Rectification Control

Efficiency of the power stage can be improved for low voltage applications by using MOSFETs instead of
rectifying diodes. Using four MOSFETs instead of two MOSFETs and two rectifying diodes in a design is
known as synchronous converter typology.

There is a time delay known as dead time between TON and TOFF to prevent shoot-through current.
During dead time, the inductor current passes through the diodes of the MOSFETS, M2 and M4. Figure
27 explains delay time operation through the duty cycles of each MOSFET (T1, T2, T3, T4) as the
following:

35
  Dead time: short periods of time
between switching that the MOSFETS
are off
 d1: time when T1 is ON, T2 is OFF
 1- d1: time when T1 is OFF, T2 is ON

The association of d1 and 1- d1 with T1 and T2

is similar to that for d2 and 1- d2 with T3 and
T4. The duty cycles d1 and d2 can also be
shifted relative to each other by inserting a
phase between them which determines the
amount of energy transferred, and affects
the behavior of the converter to adjust to the
desired output voltage. [44] Having control Figure 27. Gate signals sent to (a) buck leg ,T1 and T2
of all four duty cycles increases the overall
(b) boost leg, T3 and T4 [44]
performance of the converter because it
provides more accurate control of the different operational states that the converter can achieve.

We derived that the relationship of the duty cycle with TON and TOFF in Equation 16 where T is the
switching period of the cycle.

𝑇𝑂𝑁 𝑇𝑂𝑁 𝐷
𝐷𝑢𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = (𝑇 = = 1−𝐷 (16)
𝑂𝑁 +𝑇𝑂𝐹𝐹 ) 𝑇

Because the duty cycle affects the switching of the MOSFETs, the duty cycle’s value determines the
operational mode, buck, boost, or buck boost, for a non-inverting synchronous buck-boost converter
[37]:

 Duty Cycle = 0.5, VOUT = VIN

 Duty Cycle < 0.5, VOUT < VIN (buck)
 Duty cycle > 0,5, VOUT < VIN (boost).

From these relationships we observe that to adjust the output voltage in the power stage, the duty cycle
must change. With more control over the duty cycle, the converter can utilize full dynamic response,
and appropriately convert the power to the desired load.

36
2.5 Energy Storage
The final step for the solar charger to perform is “energy storage”. For the application of a portable
solar charger, the solar charge controller must connect to a battery of a device so that the power
collected from the PV panel can be stored and be used by the device. There are several steps that occur
for the storage (charging) process. To store energy in a portable Li-ion battery pack, the charge flow is
determined by a USB bus and the state of charge must be appropriately determined by through Li-ion
charge controller. Output voltage regulation is important in battery charging since the batteries require
a specific charging method with various voltage and current level for each specific stage. The charging
methods determine the battery life and the battery performance. The charge controller performs the
voltage and current adaptations to allow long battery life.

2.5.1 Lithium-ion Battery Charging

A Li-ion battery is charged from a current-limited fixed voltage source, also referred to as constant
voltage charging. A constant voltage (C-V) charging is described in the following two steps:

 C-V charger provides current to the battery as to force the battery’s voltage to a predetermined
value (set-point voltage)

 After the set-point voltage is reached, charger provides only enough current to maintain the
value of the set-point voltage constant [41]

Currently, Li-ion specifications recommends about 4.2 V set point voltage, and 1 A-hr (1c) maximum
charging current rate. Coulomb counting estimates the state of charge (SoC) by measuring the in-and-
out flowing current by one coulomb per second (1C/s = 1 Amp) or in one hour discharging at 1A will be
3,600 C. This works well with Li-Ion batteries that offer high coulombic efficiency and low self-discharge.
[3] The accuracy of the set-point voltage directly affects the battery life, i.e., if the voltage is too high,
the battery life shortens, and if the voltage is too low, the cell will never fully charge. The typical charge
profile for a Li-ion under recommended operating specifications is shown in Figure 28.

37
 Figure 28.Typical C-V Charge Profile using 1c Constant Voltage Charging [2]

From Figure 28, we can observe how the constant charging cycle is divided into two phases: current limit
phase and the constant voltage phase. Table 12 describes both phases in relation to the charging state
of the battery.

Current Limit Phase Constant Voltage Phase

 Maximum charging current  Begins once charger senses that set-point is

flows into the battery reached (4.2V)
 Battery voltage below set point  Charger reduces charging current to maintain
 Charger tries to force battery constant voltage, resulting in exponential decay
voltage up waveform
 About 65% of total charge  Decrease in current causes charge time during
delivered constant voltage phase is about two hours
 Assuming 1c charging current,  About 35% of total charge delivered
maximum charge time is 40
minutes
Table 12.Descriptions of Current Limit Phase and Constant Voltage Phase of Charging Cycle [41]

By comparing the two phases from Table 12, the constant voltage phase, although only 35% the
charging cycle, takes twice as long to charge the battery then when in the current limit phase which is
65% of the charging cycle. The limited constant voltage phase occurs because every Li-ion cell has an
internal ESR (Equivalent Series Resistance), and voltage sensed by the charger is the sum of voltage drop
across the ESR and the cell voltage. During the voltage limit phase, the internal ESR is negligible since
there is barely any current flowing through it, and the cell-voltage is 4.2V. During current limit phase,
the ESR is not negligible, so the battery reaches 4.2V over 65% of the charge capacity delivered. [41]

38
2.5.2 Lithium-ion Battery Charger
One of the most common ways to connect to electronic portable devices is through a Universal Serial
Bus (USB). Each USB connection contains a power bus with a maximum power rating of 5.25V/500mA,
which is optimal for charging a single-cell Li-Ion battery. Figure 30 illustrates the steps of charging a Li-
Ion battery using USB power bus for an electronic portable device receiving the power. [13]
From the block diagram, the voltage bus provides the necessary power voltage to the power switch. The

Figure 30. Block Diagram of USB-powered Li-ion Battery Charger

power switch isolates the battery charging circuit from the bus during start-up as to prevent overloading
the bus with charge current. The USB control indicates when the USB power switch can connect the
power from the voltage bus to the charge circuit. The power is then sent to the Li-ion Charger Controller
which controls a switch based on the state-of charge of the battery, and the switch that allows the
current to flow into the Li-ion battery.

There are some restrictions of using the USB power bus as a charging device as stated in its
specifications. Some of these limitations include:

 Only 500mA at a maximum can be drawn from the bus during normal operation for a high-
power function. Typically, only 400mA is drawn from the bus by implementing a current-limit
resistor, and the remaining 100 mA allows other functions, such as USB control to operate.

 During device start-up or when the device initially connects to the USB bus, the device cannot
draw more than 100mA until USB system is configured.[13]

In addition, the charging time is restricted by the USB specification of input voltage to the battery
charger controller. The input voltage specification takes into account that the USB cable and connectors
resistive drops equate to about 350 mV. The system with a USB supply voltage closer to the minimum
requirement will charge the battery slowly, or can prevent a full battery charge. Thus, to charge the
battery within an optimal charge time, the maximum charge current should be sent to the battery until
it achieves full-charge voltage. For example, the optimal charge time for a 4.2V battery occurs if the
input voltage to the charge circuit is at or above 4.7V. If the input voltage to the USB is at 4.6V, the
available charge current will be reduced by 50% which results in slower charging time. At 4.5V input

39
voltage, the battery will not reach a full 4.2V charge. [13] To prevent the slow charging event and the
under-charging event, the voltage at the input to the charging circuit must be high enough. Thus, in
order to have optimal charge time for a portable device, the solar charge controller circuit must provide
the USB with a constant supply voltage high enough to charge the battery consistently.

2.6 Summary
In the background section, we have explored the fundamental processes of a solar charger:
energy collection, energy conversion optimization, energy implementation, energy storage. By
considering each major process, we have described the essential components or procedures that occur
within each solar charger process and how these components must operate together to achieve
charging a Li-ion battery. The characteristics of each process affects the whole energy conversion
process. By understanding how the processes relate to each other, we can understand how to design an
efficient solar charger. Table 13 displays the key concepts of each process discussed and the importance
of each with respect to our project.

Energy Processes Key Concepts Why it’s important

Collection  PV cells are similar to PN junction  Because PV cells absorb photons
of photodiode. (energy and convert energy to
current like a photodiode, we can
 PV output current depends on solar model a PV panel to observe
cell irradiance and temperature. output current or voltage.

 Power conversion efficiency of

panel depends on temperature and
irradiance. The dynamic conditions
determine the supply voltage range
of panel.
Conversion  MPPT detects and determines the  MPPT allows solar charger to
Optimization maximum voltage and current that extract as much available power
can be provided by PV panel under from PV panel from a wide supply
dynamic conditions. voltage range and utilize it to
charge the load.
 V-I characteristic of PV panel shows
where MPP is located.  We need to understand how the PV
panel operates in terms of voltage
 MPPT calculates the MPP and current in order to create an
depending on both load input and MPPT method.
PV panel output.
 To determine the MPP, sensors are
required to monitor both PV supply
 P&O and INC are two examples of and the power delivered to load.
MPPT algorithms that are typically
implemented.
 We found that INC is more efficient
over a larger range of input voltage
under dynamic conditions.

40
 Implementation  The fundamental principle of  By controlling the duty cycle of
operation for a voltage regulation the inductor charging cycle and
is based on the PWM-controlled discharging cycle, the circuit can
high frequency switching of the operate in different modes: buck
MOSFETs and the voltage it passes mode, boost mode, and buck-
to the inductor. boost mode.
 By comparing SEPIC and non-
inverting buck-boost typologies, it  The limitations of the non-
is evident that the non-inverting inverting buck- boost is a trade-off
buck-boost has higher efficiency for its higher efficiency and wider
with a larger input voltage range, supply voltage range.
whereas the SEPIC has lower
efficiency and narrower supply
voltage range.
 A non-inverting synchronous
buck-boost converter is able to
 With more control over the duty provide an efficiently regulated
cycle, the converter can utilize full voltage under dynamic conditions
dynamic response, and due to its control complexity.
appropriately convert the power
to the desired load.
Storage  Charge time for a portable device is  . Output voltage regulation is
dependent on the constant supply important in battery charging since
voltage high enough to charge the the batteries require a specific
battery consistently. voltage and current level for each
charging stage.
 To charge the battery within an
optimal charge time, the maximum  The charging methods determine
charge current should be sent to the battery life and the battery
the battery until it achieves full- performance.
charge voltage.
Table 13. Main Energy Processes within a Solar Charger

41
3. Problem Statement
3.1 Introduction
After studying and exploring the fundamental system dynamics and processes of a solar charge
controller, we found many design improvements that can be made to current on the market portable
solar charge controllers. In this section, we present our problem statement in detail based on our
findings from our previous section. We also provide our objectives and requirements of our project.

3.2 Project Statement, Goals, and Objectives

The typical portable solar charger is inefficient and underutilizes the power output of the solar
panel under varying temperature and irradiance because the voltage regulator used can only handle
voltages above the battery load requirement, and the regulator is connected to a simple controller that
drives the regulator only within the converter’s designated range. The result of using a simple buck solar
charge controller are potentially premature battery failure and wasted potential solar power due to
inconsistent charging and limitations of the converter’s design.

Project Goal
Our project was to research, simulate, design, and prototype a solar charge controller that regulates
power small PV panels (5-15W) using Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) with a wide range input
voltage DC-DC converter under dynamic panel conditions to charge Li-Ion battery connected portable
devices.

Objectives
To accomplish our goals, we developed the following objectives:
 Test the power capabilities of a portable PV panel
 Evaluate different non-isolated switched mode power supply typologies and several MPPT
algorithms based on handling dynamic and wide range supply voltages
 Simulate and study the power conversion efficiencies of different converter typologies using
Multisim
 Design, build, and test an MPPT solar charge controller application circuit similar to our design
and compare the power efficiency measured to the simulated power efficiency

3 Requirements
The following requirements of the solar charge controller are based on the foundation of our
research conducted for energy collection, energy conversion optimization, energy conversion
implementation, and energy storage. Each of these major stages are associated with the main
components that create the solar charge controller.

42
 With regard to these fundamental processes, the charge controller should provide power
conversion under dynamic irradiance and temperature while achieving the following requirements:
● Power conversion efficiency >95%
● Wide Input voltage range of 2V to 23V
● Output voltage of 5V± 0.25V (USB)
● Minimum output current of 500mA
Specific requirements associated with each energy stage of the solar charge controller are displayed in
Table 14.

Energy Process Design Requirements Justification

Collection  PV Panel should be rated as 5W –  PV panel size needs to be small
15W enough to be transportable.
 PV panel should produce about 1W  PV panel power needs to be testable
under indoor testing conditions. under artificial lighting.
Conversion  MPPT algorithm needs to calculate  The supply voltage and current will
Optimization MPP with at least 90% efficiency vary due to changing irradiance and
under dynamic conditions. temperature conditions on the
panel.
Conversion  DC-DC converter should handle an  Due to dynamic panel conditions,
Implementation input voltage range of about 2V to the input voltage will vary. To
23V. efficiently use the available power
 Power conversion efficiency of voltage, the converter should
converter should be at least 90%. respond to a wide input voltage
 DC-DC converter should provide a range.
consistent output voltage of 4.75V  Typical solar charge controllers
to 5.25V, and minimum output using MPPT have at least 90% power
current of 500mA conversion efficiency.
 The load of the converter should
provide a charge for typical portable
device battery requirements.
Storage  5V USB connected to Li-ion  Portable devices use Li-ion batteries
battery. as a power source that are charged
over a 5V USB cable connection.
Table 14. Requirements and Justification for Each Energy Stage of the Solar Charge Controller Operation

Additional requirements of the solar charge controller are listed as:

 Size of solar charge controller system should be compact and portable.

 Total cost of the solar charge controller should be affordable: between $10 to $15

By following these system requirements, a portable solar charge controller that handles dynamic
conditions can be designed.

4 Summary
From our project statement, we established the guidelines to design a solar charge controller as
summarized in Figure 31.

43
 Figure 31. Project Statement Summary: Goals, Objectives, Requirements
From Figure 31, achieving our project goals depends on our system requirements. These system
requirements are examined in the following section.

44
4. System Design
4.1 Introduction
Based on our design goals and requirements, and our background research, we developed a generalized
system diagram of the solar charge controller as illustrated in Figure 32.

By understanding a general system

operation of the solar charge controller,
we applied our design parameters to our
research and concluded that using
Incremental Conductance as an MPPT
algorithm with a non-inverting
synchronous buck-boost converter was
the most power efficient under dynamic
conditions for portable application.
However, for the scope of our project,
we took the significant parameters of
the proposed design, created a checklist,
and researched an IC (integrated circuit)
that was most similar to our proposed
design criteria. In this section, we discuss
why and how we determined our design Figure 32. Proposed MPPT Charge Controller System
choices for our actualized system Design
implementation as illustrated in Figure 33.

4.2 MPPT Integrated Circuit

To test the effects of an MPPT
algorithm and dynamically driven DC-DC
converter on power efficiency, we decided
to employ an IC that had features such as
MPPT algorithm, synchronous four-switch
buck-boost converter compatibility, and Li-
ion battery charging capability. Also, we
chose an IC that met the most of our
system requirements. Our decision making
process to choose our implementation is
seen in Appendix F.
Figure 33. Actualized MPPT Charge Controller System
The IC that we chose was the Design
SM72445 from Texas Instruments. In this
section we only discuss the IC implementation in terms of system design. Technical details of the system
design can be found in Section 6. Implementation. In order to understand how our implementation
functions, it is important to discuss the differences between our ideal system design and our IC
implementation in terms of our system requirements. Before we explore the differences, we first
establish the key components and specifications of the ideal system design.

45
Ideal System Design

The key aspects of the ideal system design can be seen as two major parts: the infrastructure
and the operational efficiency. By considering the design in two parts, we assessed the infrastructure as
separate components and how they operate together as described in Table 15, and we evaluated which
components had significant impact on system power loss and efficiency as described in Table 16.

Component PV Sensors Microcontroller H-Bridge DC-DC USB

Panel Driver Converter Port
Operation Power Monitor Perform MPPT Controls buck- Regulates Delivers
Requirement Source system calculations and boost charge and power
current general correct and discharge transforms to
and duty cycle to current to DC- supply to external
voltage driver DC converter constant load battery
Table 15. System Design Described in Terms of Components and Requirement for System Operation

From our research, we found that the MPPT algorithm, the PWM driver, and the DC-DC converter
impacted the system’s efficiency and power loss the most. More explicitly as described in Table 16, the
impact of these components by how they operate or by their internal parameters directly affects the
overall system power conversion efficiency and power losses.

Component Effect on Efficiency or Power Loss

MPPT  Increase power converted by calculating the voltage at which the PV panel
Algorithm can produce the MPP
 By determining the duty cycle, adjusts voltage to current ratios of converter
to deliver higher rated charge to load
PWM Driver  Efficient control depends on driver method and complexity of operation
 Power loss occurs when not driving converter in appropriate operation mode
DC-DC  Typology determines operational modes
Converter  Operation determines power conversion efficiency
 Values of inductor and capacitor determine power loss
 Power components contribute to power loss
Table 16. Components and How Their Operation Affects Efficiency and Power Loss

From Table 16, we observe the dependency of each of the three components and how each component
affects the next in terms of efficiency and operation. The MPPT algorithm can increase power
conversion efficiency by calculating the adjustment values of the voltage to current ratios for the
converter. The driver then uses the duty cycle value to produce the associated PWM. When the driver
delivers the PWM to the converter, the driver controls the operational mode of the DC-DC converter.
The driver and the DC-DC converter should be chosen based on the types of operational modes are
required of the DC-DC converter and the type of control required for those modes.

The components’ effects on efficiency and power loss define the requirements of the ideal components.
In addition, the system requirements for these components should also be compatible for portable
application. Portability implies that the system can handle dynamic conditions such as temperature and
irradiance, and should charge a battery load. Based on our research and the system requirements, we
found that the Incremental conductance algorithm, the current- mode controlled full-bridge driver, and
46
the synchronous non-inverting four-switch buck-boost converter are the ideal key components of the
system. Each of these components increase the system efficiency and decrease power loss as required.
Table 17 contains brief description of each component and how their characteristics fulfill the
component requirement for increased efficiency, reduced power loss, and portability.

Component Operation Effect on System

Incremental Conductance Algorithm  Efficiently calculates and accurately determines
MPP under dynamic conditions and with wide
range of supply voltage
Current-Mode Controlled Full-Bridge Driver  Stable feedback loop with current sensing
 Fast transient response to dynamic change in
power supply
 Compatible for synchronous application and
could reduce switching losses
Synchronous Non-inverting Buck-Boost  Using all MOSFETs for switches eliminates diode
Converter conduction losses and diode inefficiencies, and
maintains low power dissipation
 All three operational modes available: buck,
boost, buck-boost
Table 17. Ideal Components and Their Impact on the System

Having defined the key components of our ideal solar charge controller in Table 17, we describe the
similarities and differences in our realized application compared to the ideal system design.

Final System Design

Using the ideal key components and the system requirements as a checklist, we evaluated that
we should employ the SM72445 IC; however, the IC design only meets some of the system
requirements. We compare the ideal system design and the final system design in terms of
infrastructure and key components as done previously. Figure 34 highlights the changes in the system
design infrastructure when including our IC implementation.

From Figure 34, we observe that the

major differences include the
following:

 Microcontroller interfaces with

IC for I2C applications only
such as battery charging and
reading sensor values
 IC implements the MPPT
algorithm, not the
microcontroller
 Sensors feed into the IC
instead of I2C
 IC provides PWM, not the
microcontroller
Figure 34.Final MPPT Charge Controller System Design:
Differences Highlighted

47
These differences display how the IC is the major operator as a solar charge controller by reading in
sensor values to control the MPPT algorithm, generating the correct duty cycle value to the driver, and
communicating with an external microcontroller to monitor battery charge states.

Comparing the ideal key components to the implementation, the IC agrees with two of the three
requirements. The IC is compatible to operate a synchronous non-inverting four-switch buck-boost
converter by using a full bridge driver with current-mode control. However, the MPPT algorithm used by
the IC is Perturb and Observe, which is less efficient than INC but still more efficient than most
algorithms as asserted in Section 2.3.2 MPPT Control Algorithms. We determined that a different
algorithm was our trade-off to have the synchronous non-inverting four-switching buck boost converter,
because P&O is still over 90% efficient for the mid-range of input voltages. Additionally, the IC is
compatible with the following system design requirements: Li-ion battery charging, switching frequency
at least 100 kHz, power conversion efficiency of at least 90%, and wide input voltage range (about 5V to
60V).

4.3 Summary
The ideal system design and the implemented system design were outlined and compared in
terms of infrastructure and key components. We found an IC compatible with most of the system
requirements and the ideal system design. One of our trade-offs was the MPPT algorithm being Perturb
and Observe rather than Incremental Conductance. The ideal system and IC implemented system
comparison is summarized in Table 18.

System Component/ Ideal Actual

Requirement
Controller Microcontroller (Arduino) Integrated Circuit
MPPT Algorithm Incremental Conductance Perturb and Observe
Driver and Control Mechanism Current-Mode Controller Full Current-Mode Controller Full
Bridge Driver Bridge Driver
DC-DC Converter Synchronous Non-inverting Synchronous Non-inverting
Buck-boost Buck-boost
Sensing Current and Voltage Current and Voltage
Load Li-ion Battery Li-ion Battery or Lead Acid
Switching Frequency 100 kHz 100 kHz
Handle Dynamic Conditions Yes Yes
Wide Input range About 2V-23V About 5V- 60V
Expected Power Conversion 90% 90%
Efficiency
Table 18. Summary of Ideal System Design and Implemented System Design Comparison

With the specified requirements of both the ideal system design and actual system design, it was
possible to explore and observe how we might expect our system to work using simulation. Through
simulating our system designs, we could study the potential efficiencies and power losses expected of
our design, and verify if our system design will meet the system requirements.

48
5. Simulation
5.1 Introduction
To simulate the DC-DC converter circuit topologies, models of Buck, Boost, cascaded Boost-Buck,
and Full-Bridge Synchronous Buck-Boost converters were created in NI Multisim 13.0. Simulations of
each topology were performed for the following purposes:

 Confirm theoretical behavior of the selected topologies

 Assist in component value selection for a DC-DC converter application circuit
 Identify sources of converter inefficiency
The construction, testing, and results of the four simulations are discussed in this section.

5.2 Buck Converter Simulation

The simulated buck DC-DC converter model was constructed in Multisim as shown in Figure 35.
The converter used an inductor of 120µH, an input capacitor of 0.1µF, and an output capacitor of 15uF.
Each component was connected in series with a 0.1Ω resistor to simulate an equivalent series
resistance. The component values for the buck converter were based off of the calculations provided in
Reference 21. The diode model chosen was the 1N5821G Schottky Diode with a forward bias voltage of
0.34V at 1A.

Figure 35. Multisim Buck Converter Model

To drive the converter, a 100kHz PWM signal, D1, was generated using a comparator and a sawtooth
wave generator with a peak amplitude of 1V and a period of 10µs. By setting the comparator reference
voltage (V4 in Figure 35) between 0V and 1V, the duty cycle of the PWM waveform was directly
controllable between 0 and 1. The PWM waveform output connected to the gate of an n-channel
enhancement mode MOSFET, with body diode, S1. The Multisim four-channel oscilloscope tool was
used to observe the input and output voltages of the converter.

49
Testing & Results

The converter was tested at duty cycle values of D1 that were between 0 and 1. For each test the duty
cycle was incremented by 0.1, and the input and output voltage levels were measured after a runtime of
5ms. The 5ms simulation runtime, before measurement, allowed for any transients in the converter to
settle before the measurement was taken. A constant DC input voltage of 7V served as the input of the
converter to test the gain of the circuit using a constant source. Figure 36 shows the converter input and
output voltages at D1 = 0.5.

At D1 = 0.5, the
converter produced an
output voltage of 3.45V
from a DC 7V input; a
gain ratio of
approximately 0.493.
For a buck converter,
the output was
expected to be equal to
the input voltage
multiplied by the duty
cycle (see Table 3,
Section 2.4.2). In this
case, the measured
output voltage of 3.45V
was close to the
expected value of 3.5V, Figure 36. Buck Converter Voltage, D1 = 0.5
and the gain ratio of
0.493 had an error of 1.4%
from the expected ratio of
0.5. For D1 = 0.5, the output
also had an initial transient
that rose to 7V but settled
within 1.5ms to a steady-
state value of 3.45V. Figure
37 shows the complete
range of output voltages
produced from values of D1
between 0 and 1.

The buck converter

behaved closely to the
theoretical operation of a
buck converter, however,
Figure 37. Buck Converter Output Testing
the simulated converter
produced a slightly higher than expected voltage for all duty cycles except for D1 = 0.9.
50
5.3 Boost Converter Simulation
The Multisim boost converter simulation consisted of the same component values as the buck
converter simulation (L = 120 µH, C_IN = 0.1µF, C_OUT = 15µF) but with a different layout of
components. The inductor in the boost converter was placed in series between the input and the
Schottky diode. Instead of being connected to the input directly, such as in the buck converter, the
switching MOSFET, S2, connected from the inductor output to GND. The MOSFET S2 was driven by a
100kHz PWM signal similarly to the buck converter. The boost simulation circuit is shown in Figure 38.

Figure 38. Multisim Boost Converter Model

Testing & Results

The boost converter was tested at duty cycles between 0 and 1 in increments of 0.1. Like the buck
converter, the boost converter was measured after 5ms of runtime to allow for transients in the output
voltage to settle to a steady-state value. Figure 39 captures the output and input voltages of the
simulated boost converter at a duty cycle D1 = 0.5. For D1 = 0.5, the converter produced an output
voltage of 13.525V from a 7V input; a ratio of 1.93. For the boost converter, the theoretical value of the
output voltage is equal to the input voltage multiplied by 1/1-D1 (see Table 3, Section 2.4.2). The
measured gain ratio of 1.93 had an error of 3.39% from the expected gain of 2.

51
 Figure 39. Multisim Boost Converter Voltage, D1 = 0.5

In Figure 40, the results of the converter output for a range of D1 values from 0 to 1 are shown, and the
input voltage starts at 7V.

Figure 40. Multisim Boost Converter Output Testing

52
The boost converter performed close to the expected behavior with the exception of duty cycle D1 =
0.9. At D1 = 0.9, the converter hit a maximum output voltage of 30.945V. The resulting gain of 4.42 had
an error of approximately 55.8% compared to the expected gain of 10.

5.4 Boost-then-Buck Converter Simulation

From the boost and buck circuit topologies, a cascaded boost-buck converter simulation was
constructed as seen in Figure 41. The boost-buck converter consisted of a two switch (two MOSFET)
topology with S2 controlling the boost leg of the circuit and S1 controlling the buck leg of the circuit. Like
in the buck and boost simulations, equivalent series resistances of 0.1Ω were added in series with each
inductor and capacitor. The first input capacitor, C_IN1, was set to 0.1µF to filter transients in the input
voltage. The second input capacitor, C_IN2, was set to 10µF and acted as the output capacitor for the
boost leg of the circuit. The output capacitor, C_OUT, was again set to 15µF. Both the boost and buck leg
inductors were selected to have values of 120µH.

Figure 41. Multisim Boost-Buck Converter Model

To control the operation of the boost-buck converter, two independent PWM generation circuits were
constructed using comparators and sawtooth wave generators. Reference voltages V1 and V2 controlled
the duty cycles D1 and D2 respectively. A constant 7V DC source acted as the input to the converter.

Testing & Results

To test the functionality of the converter, the simulated circuit was tested in both the buck and boost
modes. In buck mode, D1 was set to 0 to keep the switching MOSFET, S2, from conducting to GND. In
this way, the input voltage was unaffected by the boost leg and only the buck leg of the circuit was
activated. Figure 42 shows the converter input and output voltages while the converter is in buck mode
with a D2 = 0.5.

53
 Figure 42. Multisim Boost-Buck Converter, Buck Operation, D1 = 0, D2 = 0.5

As shown in Figure 42, the converter produced a steady-state output voltage of 3.558V from an input
voltage of 7V. For buck mode the circuit was expected to produce an output voltage equal to the input
voltage multiplied by D2 (see Table 3, Section 2.4.2). The measured gain ratio of 0.508 had an error of
approximately 1.69% of the expected gain ratio of 0.5. To test the buck operation of the circuit across a
range of values, duty cycle D2 was incremented in increments of 0.1 from 0 to 1. Figure 43 shows the
converter output
voltages across the
range of duty cycles
that operate in buck
mode.

As shown in Figure 43,

the converter
produced close to the
expected output in
most situations,
however at D2 = 0.1,
the output voltage
(1.625V) was 132%
higher than the
expected voltage of Figure 43. Multisim Boost-Buck Converter, Buck Operation Testing, D1 = 0
0.7V. Duty cycles for
D2 below 0.7 produced slightly higher than expected output voltages while duty cycles above D2 = 0.8
produced slightly lower voltages than expected.
54
To test the boost functionality of the circuit, D2 was set to 1 to deactivate the buck leg of the circuit.
With S1 constantly open, D1 was varied between 0 and 1 to provide different levels of voltage boost
without buck operation. Figure 44 shows an example case where D1 = 0.5. The circuit produced an
output voltage of 13.374V from an input of 7V. The measured valued had an error of 4.47% from the
expected voltage of 14V.

Figure 44. Multisim Boost-Buck Converter, Boost Mode Operation, D1 = 0.5, D2 = 1

Figure 45 shows the operation

of the converter in boost mode
across a range of values for
duty cycle D1 from 0 to 1. For
duty cycles below D1 = 0.5, the
converter output voltages were
within 6% or less of the
theoretical output value. Above
D1 = 0.5, the error increased
and the output voltage was
limited to a maximum of
29.842V. At D1 = 0.9, the
converter produced an output
voltage with an approximate
error of 57.4% from the
theoretical output voltage. Figure 45. Multisim Boost-Buck Converter, Boost Mode Operation
Testing, D2 = 1

55
5.5 Full-Bridge Synchronous DC-DC Converter Simulation
Multisim Advanced PV Panel Model Parameters

To demonstrate the Full-Bridge

Synchronous converter model in relation to
solar MPPT, a photovoltaic panel model
was used to simulate the characteristics of
a PV panel input. [7] The Multisim
Advanced PV Model was acquired from
National Instruments’ online forums and
was edited to have characteristics close to
the Goal Zero Nomad 7W Solar Panel. The
parameters used in the PV panel model are
Table 19. Multisim Advanced PV Model Parameters
listed in Table 19.

The model short-circuit current, ISC, was set to be identical to the tested current of 0.960 A. The open-
circuit voltage, VOC, was set at 8.85V, slightly higher than the tested VOC of 8.51V, as the model was
shown to operate at a slightly lower voltage than given. The series resistance, Rseries, and shunt
resistance, Rshunt, were selected through trial and error to closely approximate the I-V characteristic of
the Nomad 7W Panel. Ns, the number of PV cells was set to 28, the number counted on the Nomad 7W
Panel. Nd, kv, and ki were ideality constants left to their default values.

To operate the PV model in Multisim, the pins of the PV model were connected to three elements: an
irradiance voltage, V_Irrad (pin 1), V_Bias (pin 3), and GND (pin 2) as shown in Figure 46.

The irradiance voltage simulates the level

of sunlight incident in the solar cell with
1000V equal to 1000W/m2. [37] V_Bias is
used to hold the panel output to a voltage
for testing. To use the circuit with a
converter, pin 3 is connected as the input
voltage source to the converter instead of
V_Bias.

Figure 46. Multisim Advanced PV Panel Model

Model Comparison to Nomad 7W PV Panel

To check the accuracy of the Multisim Advanced PV Model, a DC sweep analysis of V_Bias was
conducted to determine the I-V characteristic of the model. The model I-V curve and the GoalZero
Nomad 7W I-V curve are compared in Figure 47.

56
 Figure 47. PV Model Comparison to GoalZero Nomad 7W PV Panel

The simulated I-V characteristic was shown to approximately follow the tested Nomad 7W Panel I-V
characteristic with the exception of part of the low-voltage, high-current section of the curve (< 5V). The
irregularity of the Nomad 7W Panel around 1V was caused by a mixture of temperature variation and
accidental shading of PV cells during testing.

Full-Bridge Converter Construction

To simulate a full-bridge synchronous DC-DC converter used for MPPT, the NI Multisim
Advanced PV Model with a Virrad value of 1000V was connected as the input voltage to the converter. A
15uF input capacitor, CIn, with an equivalent series resistance of 0.1Ω, was connected in parallel to the
input voltage. The input voltage was then wired to the buck leg of the circuit, which consisted of two
MOSFETs (S2, S1). From the S2 source and the S1 drain node, a 120µH inductor and an equivalent series
resistance of 0.1Ω connected the buck leg of the circuit to the boost leg. For the boost leg, the source of
S3 and the drain of S4 were wired to the inductor, with the drain of S3 wired to the load, and the source
of S4 wired to GND. The load was connected in parallel with a 10µF output capacitor, Cout, and a
Schottky diode, D1, to handle reverse current with minimal switching losses. Watt-meters XWM7 and
XWM1 were attached to the input and output, respectively, to measure converter efficiency. The
simulated full-bridge converter circuit is shown in Figure 48.

57
 Figure 48. Multisim Full-Bridge Synchronous DC-DC Converter Model

To control the output voltage of the full-bridge circuit, four 100kHz PWM signals were generated as the
gate inputs to S1, S2, S3, and S4 as shown in Figure 49.

Figure 49. PWM Generation & Dead-Times Circuit

The PWM signals were generated using a comparator with a 100kHz, 1V-peak triangle wave input on the
positive input compared to a constant reference voltage on the negative input. By modulating the
reference voltages between 0V and 1V, the PWM duty cycles D1 and D2 were directly controlled
between 0 and 1. To prevent cross-conduction, the signals for complementary MOSFETs were inverted
and dead-times were added to all four signals. The dead-times were generated through the charging and
discharging of an RC circuit as the input to a NAND gate. The NAND gate provided hysteresis such that
dead-times were added to both the rising and falling edges of the PWM waveforms. The NAND gates

58
and inverters were implemented by using Multisim models of 7400 Series TTL (transistor-transistor
logic) components.

Typical outputs from the PWM generation circuit are given in Figure 50.

Figure 50. 100kHz PWM Signal Generation, D1 = 0.8, D2 = 0.4

For the buck leg, the two MOSFETs were controlled by the PWM waveform with duty cycle D1 (S2) and
its respective complement (S1). For the boost leg, the MOSFETs were controlled by a PWM signal with
duty cycle D2 (S4) and its complement (S3).

Testing & Results

To test if the simulated full-bridge circuit was funcitoning properly, the configured ciruit was
tested at different combinations of duty cycles D1 and D2. At each combination, the voltage and power
was measured in Multisim for both the input and output of the converter. To allow for transients in the
converter to settle, the simulation end time was set to 3ms and measurements were taken at the end of
the simulation run time. To change the duty cycles, the reference voltages of the PWM generation
circuit were independently incremented by 0.1V for a corresponding 0.1 change in duty cycle. To be
operating properly, the full-bridge converter is designed to produce an output voltage equal to the input
voltage multiplied by the ratio of the duty cycles, D1/D2. The ratio of the two duty cycles, in this way, is
equal to the theoretical voltage gain of the converter.

59
Buck Operation

To test the buck operation of the circuit, an example is shown in Figure 51 of a duty cycle combination of
D1 = 0.3 and D2 = 0.6. The combination, with a ratio of D1/D2 = 0.5, was calculated to produce an
output voltage that should be exactly half of the input voltage.

Figure 51. Simulated Full-Bridge DC-DC Buck Operation

The results of the combination of D1 = 0.3 and D2 = 0.6, produced an output voltage of 4.114V from a
PV panel input of 8.438V. The resulting voltage was almost exactly as expected with a ratio of
approximately 0.488 of the input voltage. The buck operation example combination had an efficiency of
98.8% and an output ripple voltage of 60mV peak-to-peak.

Boost Operation

To test the boost operation of the circuit, an example is shown in Figure 52 which depicts the output of
the duty cycle combination of D1 = 0.8 and D2 = 0.5. The resulting ratio of duty cycles is 1.6 with the
output voltage expected to be 1.6 times the input voltage. The simulation produced an output voltage of
11.288V from an input voltage of 7.251V; a ratio of about 1.56. The duty cycle combination of D1 = 0.8
and D2 = 0.5 also had an efficiency of 98% and an output ripple voltage of approximately 240mV peak-
to-peak.

60
 Figure 52. Simulated Full-Bridge DC-DC Boost Operation

Buck-Boost Operation

A third example combination of duty cycles D1 = 0.5 and D2 = 0.5 was chosen to demonstrate the cicuit
in buck-boost operation. The resulting ratio of duty cycles was 1:1 and the circuit was expected to
produce the same voltage out as the input voltage. Figure 53 shows the output of the converter during
buck-boost operation.

Figure 53. Simulated Full-Bridge DC-DC Boost Operation

61
When simulated the buck-boost unity gain configuration produced an output voltage of 7.846V from an
input of 8.125V; a ratio of 0.97. The output voltage also had a voltage ripple of 106mV.

Converter Accuracy & Efficiency

To get a comprehensive idea of the operation of the simulated converter, all combinations of duty cycles
in 0.1 increments between 0 and 1 were simulated and the results recorded. For simpler visualization of
results, only the D2 values of 0.1, 0.3, 0.5, 0.7, and 0.9 are plotted. A full table of results can be found in
Appendix F. Figure 54 shows the expected gain of each duty cycle combination compared to the
measured voltage gain of the simulated converter.

Figure 54. Simulated Full-Bridge DC-DC Converter Voltage Gain Results

For combinations of duty cycles where D2 = 0.1, there was an average error from the expected gain of
26.6%. For D2 = 0.3, the average was 11%, and for D2 = 0.5, D2 = 0.7, and D2 = 0.9, the combinations
resulted in average error values of 7.2%, 6.1%, and 5.6%, respectively. The results showed that low
values of duty cycle D2 (<0.3) resulted in larger deviation from the expected gain. Figure 55 provides the
efficiency of the converter at different combinations of D1 and D2.

62
 Figure 55. Simulated Full-Bridge DC-DC Converter Efficiency Results
As shown in Figure 55, duty cycle combinations with D2 = 0.1 resulted in efficiencies below 75%. There
was also a significant pattern of decreased efficiency where D1 was equal to 0.9. For D2 = 0.9, there
were also dramatic drops in efficiency for the values of D1 = 0.4 (31.9%) and D1 = 0.5 (70.3%).
To determine the cause for drops in efficiency, the transient behavior of some of the most inefficient
combinations of duty cycler were observed using the Multisim oscilloscope tool. Figure 56 shows the
resulting input and output voltages for the duty cycles, D1= 0.4 and D2 = 0.9.

Figure 56. Simulation of Full-Bridge Converter Input and Output Voltages, D1 = 0.4, D2 = 0.9
.
63
At the combination D1 = 0.4 and D2 = 0.9, periodic drops in the input voltage of the converter occurred
from a steady state value of 8.295V down to approximately 1.6V. After some investigation, the cause of
the voltage drops was determined to be a regularly occurring short circuit across S2 and S1. The short
circuit was caused by overlap of the ON time of the PWM signals used to drive the gates of MOSFETs S2
and S1. Due to the PWM generation at D1 = 0.4 and D2 = 0.9, both MOSFETs were being turned on
simultaneously for approximately 15 ns per period. Figure 57 provides a snapshot of the S2 and S1 drive
voltages during a short circuit condition.

Figure 57. Full-Bridge Simulation Short-Circuit Condition, D1 = 0.4, D2 = 0.9

The short circuit issue was a result of missed dead times during some combinations of duty cycles. The
missed dead times were most likely to occur when one of the duty cycles was in the range of 0.8 to 0.9.
As shown in Figure 49 (PWM Generation & Dead-Times Circuit), the dead times were generated using an
RC circuit and a NAND gate to prevent short circuit conditions during switching transitions. At high duty
cycles, the capacitor of the RC circuit did not have adequate time to fully discharge before the next
period of the PWM waveform. The partial discharging of the capacitor thus interfered with the
generation of the dead times, leading to short circuit conditions and losses in efficiency. The short circuit
problem was shared by the other outliers of low efficiency as well, however, the missed dead times
often occurred inconsistently.

Efficiency Comparison
To determine the difference in efficiency between the cascaded boost-buck topology and the full-bridge
topology, efficiency of the converters was tested at duty cycle combinations that would produce the
same voltage gains in both converters. For comparison, the 7V DC source used in the boost-buck
converter simulation was replaced with a Multisim Advanced PV Panel Model identical to the model

64
used in the full-bridge simulation. Duty cycle combinations from both converter simulations were
selected for identical boost-mode voltage gains are shown in Figure 58.

Figure 58. Converter Boost-Mode Efficiency Comparison

From the comparison, the cascaded boost-buck converter was consistently less efficient than the full-
bridge model. The boost-buck converter had an average efficiency of 84.3% in boost mode, while the
full-bridge had an average efficiency of 94.6%.

For buck-mode, another comparison was performed as shown in Figure 59.

Figure 59. Converter Buck-Mode Efficiency Comparison

65
To compare the cascaded and full-bridge topologies in buck operation mode, the efficiency of each
converter was tested at buck-mode duty cycle combinations that produced the same gain ratios in each
converter. The average efficiency for the buck-mode, cascaded boost-buck converter was 90.8%
compared to 99.1% for the full-bridge converter. Because of the increases in efficiency using the full-
bridge design, the full-bridge topology was favored over the cascaded boost-buck design.

5.6 Summary
In testing the operation of the Multisim simulated buck, boost, cascaded boost-buck, and full-
bridge buck boost converters, all of the converters were shown to behave closely to their theoretical
values of voltage and efficiency. Only under certain combinations of duty cycle was efficiency and
accuracy shown to be reduced. After the simulations of the four converter topologies were completed,
the full-bridge converter was shown to be more efficient than the cascaded boost-buck topology while
still being capable of both boosting and bucking voltage. Despite the full-bridge converter often
operating at efficiencies above 90%, the simulated converter implementation still had difficulty
generating PWM driver signals. To prevent cross conduction across adjacent MOSFET switches in the
converter, dead times were added to the PWM waveforms, yet under certain combinations of duty
cycles, the circuit still suffered from periods of cross-conduction and drops in efficiency of up to 30-60%.
The simulation, in this way, was limited by the generation of MOSFET driver signals in the methods
presented in this section. For physical implementation, using a pre-made MPPT integrated circuit or a
microcontroller operated driver could prevent the cross conduction problem, and prevent losses of
efficiency in real applications.

The simulation also had some limitations because we only simulated the DC-DC converter circuit
without the MPPT algorithm. We did not implement MPPT into the simulation due to time constraints
and the overall complexity of building a feedback loop that could respond to changes in the DC-DC
converter’s output voltage and current levels and perform MPPT. By implementing MPPT, the
simulation could provide more useful information into how to optimize MPPT for low-capacity PV
panels. Although the simulation did not simulate MPPT, the simulation was still useful for confirming the
component values that would work for a physical application circuit. The inductor value (120µH) and
capacitor values (input: 15µF, output: 10µF) were chosen from the results of the simulations. During
trials of different component values, changes in the output voltage ripple, transient settling time, and
accuracy of the converter all influenced component selection. By performing the simulations, the
converter application circuit component values were chosen in confidence that the converter would
operate in the voltage range required for MPPT of low-capacity solar panels.

66
6. Implementation
6.1 Introduction
We chose the Texas Instrument SM72445 “Programmable Maximum Power Point Tracking
Controller for Photovoltaic Solar Panels” IC for our implementation. In this section, we describe how we
examined the SM72445 datasheet and application notes to calculate the necessary external
components of the circuit.

6.2 Texas Instrument SM72445 Integrated Circuit

From Section 4: System Design, we discussed important component parameters and system
requirements that characterize our ideal design. From our research, we found that the Texas Instrument
SM72445 was the most compatible IC for our intended application for an MPPT-driven, portable solar
charge controller. Considering our outlined system design from Section 4, Figure 33, we will now
describe the SM72445 IC more specifically in terms of the IC’s features and how we designed the
supporting circuit required for implementation.

As seen previously in Figure 33, the MPPT IC replaces the microcontroller’s function to execute the
MPPT algorithm and communicate with the full bridge driver. Specifically, the functionality of the
SM72445 is to implement a Perturb and Observe MPPT algorithm, use sensors to collect data for the
MPPT calculation, communicate with the full bridge driver, and communicate with a microcontroller. A
block diagram of the SM72445 with the IC’s required external components is seen in Figure 60.

Figure 60. Block Diagram of SM72445 and External Components

Figure 60 is a representation of the detailed circuit diagram proposed in the SM72445 datasheet. The
blocks illustrated in Figure 60 relate to key components that create a solar charge controller: solar panel,
controller to implement MPPT algorithm, full-bridge (H-bridge) driver, DC-DC converter, sensors, and
load. The configurable resistor divider and the Arduino Uno are additional necessary components to
drive the SM72442. The configurable resistor divider allows the user to designate specific settings for
67
the SM72445. Similarly, the Arduino Uno (a microcontroller) can be programmed to configure the
SM72445 digitally through an I2C bus. Also, the Arduino Uno can read from or write to the SM72445
using an I2C bus. In our implementation, we configured the SM72445 using the resistor divider design,
and used the Arduino Uno to read values from the SM72445. Some of the configuration options are
slew rate limit, MPPT exit threshold, maximum output voltage, and current limit. I2C interfacing with the
Arduino include reading the configured values, and reading or writing values such as input voltage and
output voltage, voltage and current offsets, and current thresholds. More details on the configuration
options, I2C read or write options, and additional features can be found in SM72445 IC’s datasheet from
TI. The configurability and I2C communication bus are a couple of the SM72445 features.

6.3 Component Selection

For our implementation, we needed to design the recommended external components to drive
the SM72445. From Figure 60, we have calculated component values for each block interfacing with the
SM2445. We will briefly outline the components required for each external component block in Table
20. Specific component values calculated is found in Appendix G: Component Selection Calculation
Sheet.

External Circuit Representation Component Description

Component Block
Configurable  Set of resistor dividers to configure
Resistor Divider SM72442 pins
 Resistor values based on specific
voltage settings for configuration as
described in SM7224 datasheet

Four Switch  Buck-boost converter typology using

Inverting Buck- four MOSFETs and single inductor
Boost Converter  To address voltage ripple, input and
output capacitors recommended
 Inductor and capacitor values based
on simulation results
Current Sensors  SM72442 has internal current sensing
amplifier
 requires a resistor between the
positive and negative terminals
Voltage Sensors Voltage divider circuit recommended
for input and output voltage sensing
 Circuit directly connects to SM7224
Table 20. External Component Selection Description and Circuit Representation [8]

The configurable resistor divider, four-switch inverting buck-boost converter, current sensors, and
voltage sensors were designed using the circuit diagrams in Table 20 as reference and additional
information provided by the SM72445 datasheet and the Solar Magic Application Note. The Arduino
Uno block and the Full-bridge driver block were not included in Table 20 because they do not have a
circuit representation, but rather the Arduino Uno is a microcontroller and the full-bridge driver is an
68
integrated circuit. The Arduino and driver were selected but not designed. The Arduino Uno was
selected because it is easily programmable using computer software and can interface with I2C bus. The
SM72295 full-bridge driver IC was recommended by the SM72445 datasheet to implement synchronous
control, and the driver is designed to be compatible with the SM72445 IC.

6.4 Summary
Our implementation of our system
design was employing Texas Instrument’s
SM72445 Integrated Circuit and designing its
external components. We chose the SM72445
IC because the SM72445 IC’s features and
capabilities were compatible with our system
design requirements. Because we used the
SM72445 IC, we had to design the
accompanying external components such as
the four-switching buck-boost converter, the
configurable resistor divider, and the voltage
and current sensors. The components
selected were based on recommendations
from the SM72445 datasheet and the Solar
Magic Evaluation Board Application Note.
Using the datasheet, application note, and
simulation results, we bought and built our
solar charge controller as seen in Figure 61.

Figure 61. Our Solar Charge Controller

Implementation

69
7. Discussion and Conclusions
7.1 Introduction
In this section, we present our findings from our tested results with our simulation results and
expected functionality of the circuit. We discuss our conclusions based on our research, simulations, and
testing. Also, we suggest potential improvements to apply to the MPPT solar charge controller.

7.2 Results
In order to determine the functionality of our implementation, we used the simulation and the
SM72445 IC’s datasheet and application notes to outline the criteria under which our circuit should be
considered functional. We first establish the main differences between the simulation circuit and our
implementation circuit. We employed a similar inductor value and capacitor values as the simulation for
our DC-DC converter implementation. However, the simulation is not driven by a control loop, but
rather the control of the DC-DC converter is determined by set parameters as briefly discussed in
Section 5. Thus, the efficiencies provided in Section 5 are expected to be higher than our tested circuit.

By establishing the main differences between the simulation and implementation, we developed a
general basis for which we can determine our actualized circuit as functional: if the control or PWM is
communicating to the converter whether to buck or boost while the SM72445 IC is in MPPT mode, it is
considered functional no matter the
efficiency output of the circuit.

In addition to our generalized functionality

statement, we expected the following:

 PWM to be 110kHz in MPPT

operating mode
 Predetermined calibration resistor
divider values to match read values
and associated calibrated mode of
operation (as calculated in
Appendix G)
 The implementation to be less
efficient than the simulation
 The output voltage to be a
regulated around 5V

With the expectations and criteria for

functionality, we built and tested our circuit
as seen in Figure 62 and Appendix M. Our
implementation seen in Figure 62. The
points of interest are highlighted in Figure
55 including the MPPT IC, the driver IC, the
buck-boost converter, the USB output, and
Figure 62. Actualized Circuit with (A) SM72445 IC, (B)
the configuration resistor divider which
Driver IC, (C) Buck-boost Converter, (D) USB Output,
were all checked during testing.
(E) Configured Resistor Divider

70
During our testing, we found many errors in our soldering and component setup as compared to the
datasheets of the MPPT IC and the driver IC. We also discovered that the set values for pins A0 through
A6 could be configured through the resistor divider or the Arduino (microcontroller). Thus, we
determined not to focus on implementing the Arduino through I2C, but to just focus on the analog
components When we consulted the datasheets of the SM72445 and SM72295 to check our circuit, the
datasheets and application notes were vague as to how to implement the ICs into our circuit design and
the circuit diagrams provided by the datasheets did not present how or why certain components should
be connected together. Due to the setback of consistently adjusting our circuit design and the time
constraint, we were only able to perform a few tests. We recorded our tests, circuit adjustments, and
findings which is found in Appendix L: Testing Results and Log. We focused most of our testing on
checking if the MPPT IC was functional because the MPPT IC determined the PWM waveforms that
would determine the DC-DC converter mode. In order to test the MPPT IC, connected the 5V and 10V
power supply to the circuit, provided the circuit an input voltage ranging between 0V and 10V, and
probed the circuit using a Tektronix oscilloscope and two digital multi-meters (DMM) to read the input
and output voltages.

From reviewing our log and test data, we achieved observing the SM72442 IC in panel mode, boost
mode, and buck mode. When we were testing, we were only able to observe the panel mode, buck
mode, boost mode until the last couple of changes were made to the circuit as documented in Appendix
L. We saw that the criteria for the SM72445 to enter Panel mode (all switches in 50 kHz PWM, and
enter panel mode when RST pin was high) in our testing agreed with the datasheet, but we were unsure
how we were able to observe the boost mode. More specifically, we were able to recreate the Panel
Mode (when voltage is close to the desired load, that the MPPT IC does not enter any operational mode)
during all of our testing, but we were not able to recreate the test set-up for the boost mode to occur
because its occurrence seemed to have been an accident. We assumed that the boost mode was caused
by a misconnection on the board to the 10V power supply, but we cannot fully conclude the cause of the
boost mode. The boost mode observations showed that it was capable for the whole circuit to enter
boost mode, but because we could not recreate the test setup or have a significant reason for its
occurrence, we could not affirm that the circuit was functional.

After the boost mode event, we found that the MPPT IC was limited in its functions due to more circuit
design disagreements with the MPPT IC’s datasheet. The MPPT IC was limited to only observe panel
mode and buck mode waveforms. Figure 63 displays the set of PWM waveforms of the buck mode for
the MPPT IC’s pins LIA, HIA, LIB, HIB where buck leg of the DC-DC converter was driven by the LIA and
HIA pins, and the boost leg was driven by LIB and HIB. Agreeing with our expected results, the actively
switching waveforms had the same frequency of about 105 kHz, and the complementing waveforms
have one switch ON and one switch OFF. In addition, we observed that the buck waveforms only
appeared when the input voltage was above 5V and if we reduced the voltage after this threshold was
reached, the waveform would become thinner until it reached around 2V where the waveform was at
zero. Thus, the MPPT IC was also satisfying the criteria to buck the voltage. When we probed the driver
IC, we found that the driver was either not producing the waveform at all or producing a waveform
dissimilar to the MPPT IC waveforms. Thus, the DC-DC converter did not buck the input voltage and we
saw about the same voltage values on the input and output.

71
(a) Pin LIA 100 kHz around 4.4 V (b) Pin HIA 100Kz around 4.4 V

(c) Pin LIB ON (d) Pin HIB OFF

Figure 63. Waveforms of Pins LIA, HIA, LIB, HIB on SM72445 IC

Before the last couple adjustments were made to the circuit (as noted in Appendix L), we determined
that the MPPT IC was functional, but the driver IC was not producing the appropriate PWM waveforms.
We determined that it was possible that the 10V rail and the 5V rail were not connected properly,
potentially causing the boost mode event, and also preventing the boost mode to occur again. We found
that to enter MPPT mode (not panel mode), there is an output current threshold that is supposed to be
set but that the pin was not connected correctly for MPPT mode to occur. Thus, we assumed that due to
the misconnections between components, we were able to enter MPPT mode. Also, we observed a
“start-up” time when the circuit was first turned on, but we questioned if the soft start feature of the
MPPT IC was truly working since we had no real measured data to prove our observation. Also from our
log, we can see that there were many changes that were made to our circuit. The MPPT IC and driver IC
datasheets did not clearly present information about to how to implement the driver and the IC

72
together in one circuit. The lack of clarity led to us questioning some of the connections that we
soldered on the board between the two ICs. Although there was some soldering issues, we found that in
general the IC was functional but the driver was not.

7.3 Findings and Conclusions

From our research, simulation, and testing, we found that implementing a portable MPPT solar
charger is realizable and affordable. From our research we found that the Incremental Conductance
algorithm would be the ideal algorithm for the solar charge controller system because INC performs
more efficiently than Perturb and Observe from low (2V) to high (20V) voltages. For our
implementation, we were limited to use an IC using a Perturb and Observe algorithm. Although this was
not our recommendation for the algorithm, P&O was efficient and simple for our prototype
implementation.

Also from our research, we found that in order to effectively use MPPT in the system, the system
required using a DC-DC converter that would complement the MPPT algorithm. According to our
research, a synchronous, non-inverting buck-boost converter was the DC-DC converter that is
compatible with MPP and varying weather conditions on the panel. The synchronous, non-inverting
buck-boost converter can provide the desire load voltage by taking in voltages above or below the load
value. Thus, the buck-boost converter can handle dynamic input voltage variation due to fluctuating
irradiance, temperature, and shading conditions seen by the PV panel. By simulating different DC-DC
converter typologies as discussed Section 5, we confirmed our research finding that the non-inverting
buck-boost converter was the most efficient converting power over most duty cycles. We suggest to
design the DC-DC converter as a synchronous, non-inverting buck-boost converter for a successful MPPT
implementation.

After designing and prototyping our proposed circuit design, we determined that an MPPT IC based
circuit application was feasible, but we do not recommend using an MPPT IC unless the IC is researched
in-depth. If provided more time for investigation and testing of our circuit, we should have been able to
have the whole circuit functional. Still, we were able to show that the MPPT IC itself was functional.
From our testing, we suggest that to integrate both the MPPT and driver IC requires extensive
knowledge of how both the ICs should operate and how to connect them. Also, we suggest to build the
application circuit on a PCB and with the recommended system design. We found that working with an
MPPT IC would be more difficult to include INC algorithm and appropriate control system for the DC-DC
converter. Nevertheless, the SM72445 IC and SM72295 IC were designed to work in the same circuit.
Using the ICs is simpler than designing a whole MPPT solar charge controller because the driver and the
control loop are already designed within the ICs.

In addition, from buying our components (including the two ICs), we estimated that for a PCB
application of an MPPT charge controller would only cost around $5. The $5 implies manufacturing the
PCB in large quantities, considering that most resistors and capacitors costs for PCBs are negligible and
that most of the cost will come from the MPPT IC, the driver IC, inductors, and MOSFETs. For the MPPT
solar charge controller to be sold with a PV panel, most companies would charge around $20 to $50 for
the whole system. Comparatively, solar chargers without MPPT can cost $15-50, and usually MPPT solar
charge controller without a PV panel is typically $50 or more. Thus, our MPPT solar charge controller for
portable devices would be affordable compared to solar chargers lacking MPPT. Also, our MPPT solar
charge controller design would be a returned investment because our design would provide more

73
efficient use of the PV panel, more time and power to charge a portable device, and less potential
damage to the battery.

7.4 Summary
Although our proposed MPPT solar charge controller was not operational, we found that
operating the Texas Instrument’s SM72445 MPPT IC was at least possible under our time constraint. From
our research and simulation results, we concluded that integrating MPPT with a synchronous non-
inverting buck-boost converter would increase panel efficiency and power conversion efficiency. After
testing our MPPT solar charge controller, we made the following suggestions:

 If using an MPPT IC in circuit design, contact the manufacturer to understand how the IC
works and how it should be implemented with other IC’s and components.
 Using a microcontroller instead of an MPPT IC is possible, but it would be more difficult
to design the control and feedback circuitry and the MPPT algorithm.
 Employing an MPPT IC is a more convenient method to integrate MPPT into the solar
charge controller system design.
 To effectively employ MPPT in solar charge controller for portable devices, a synchronous,
non-inverting buck-boost converter is recommended because it can transfer power under
dynamic input voltage conditions. However, the buck-boost converter is more difficult to
control.

In considering our suggestions, an MPPT solar charge controller is feasible and affordable if implemented
on a PCB board. Due to MPPT’s affordability and increased efficiency under dynamic conditions, an MPPT
solar charge controller for portable devices would be more effective than solar chargers currently sold
without MPPT.

74
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77
 Appendix A: General Power Stage Component Calculations
To observe discrete differences in the component implementation for a buck-boost circuits and
SEPIC converter, equations derived for determining component values for both typologies are presented
in Table 21. The equations for buck-boost is to calculate the power stage of a non-inverting buck-boost,
and the equations for SEPIC is to calculate the power stage of a SEPIC converter. These equations and
further discussion of the equations can be found in Reference 21 and Reference 16.

Component Buck-Boost Equation SEPIC Equation

Consideration
Duty Cycle (𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 ∗ 𝜂)
𝐷𝐵𝑢𝑐𝑘 = (𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛 )

(𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ∗ 𝜂)
(𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑉𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑒 )
𝐷𝐵𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 𝐷=
(𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 ) (𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑉𝑖𝑛 + 𝑉𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑒 )

Inductor 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 ∗ (𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 )

𝐿𝐵𝑢𝑐𝑘 =
𝐼𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒 ∗ 𝑓𝑠𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 ∗ 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∗ 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐿1𝑎 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐿1𝑏 𝑚𝑖𝑛
1 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 ∗ (𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥 )
=
2
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ∗ (𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑥 )
2 𝐼𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒 ∗ 𝑓𝑠𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝐿𝐵𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 2
𝐼𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒 ∗ 𝑓𝑠𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 ∗ 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 ∗ 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡
Input Based on data sheet, RMS Current rating, and Based on data sheet, RMS Current rating,
Capacitor ripple voltage : and ripple voltage :
𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝐼𝐶𝑖𝑛(𝑟𝑚𝑠) = 𝐼𝐶𝑖𝑛(𝑟𝑚𝑠) =
√12 √12

Output 𝐼𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒 ∗ 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡

Capacitor 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑡 min _𝑏𝑢𝑐𝑘 =
8 ∗ 𝑓𝑠𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 ∗ 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒
𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 ∗ 𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑡 ≥
2
(𝐼𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒 ∗ 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 ) 𝑉𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒 ∗ 𝑓𝑠𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑡 overshoot _𝑏𝑢𝑐𝑘 =
2 ∗ 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 ∗ 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒

𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 ∗ 𝐷max 𝑏𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑡

𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑡 min _𝑏𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑡 =
𝑓𝑠𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 ∗ 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒

Table 21. Key Parameters that Characterize Buck-Boost Converters and SEPIC Converters [16, 21]

Where:

 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = maximum input voltage

 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = desired output voltage
 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 = desired maximum output current
 𝑓𝑠𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 = switching frequency of converter
 𝐿 = value of inductor
 𝐿1𝑎 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = minimum inductance of first inductor of coupled inductor
 𝐿1𝑏 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = minimum inductance of second inductor of coupled inductor

78
 𝐷 = duty cycle: the maximum occurs at 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ; minimum occurs at 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑥
 𝐼𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒 = ripple current across inductor; value usually chosen between 20% to 40% of input current
at worst case efficiency
 𝑉 𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒 = ripple voltage across capacitor, there is a ripple voltage across both the input and
output capacitors
 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑡 = output capacitor: 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑡 min _𝑏𝑢𝑐𝑘 is the minimum output capacitance required;
𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑡 overshoot _𝑏𝑢𝑐𝑘 is the minimum output capacitnce required for desired overshoot

79
Appendix B: Increasing Efficiencies at Low Loads
Battery-powered, portable devices tend to be in standby or sleep mode to save energy; however, at
these low currents, the DC-DC converter is relatively inefficient and causes the power saving modes to
be an insufficient application.

The efficiency of a DC-DC

converter in relation to loads is
illustrated in Figure 64. From
Figure 64, the loads are divided
into 3 parts: High load, Light
Load, and Very Light Load. In
High Load, the power losses are
caused by high conduction
losses from the load current. In
Light Load, the power losses are
caused by current-ripple
conduction losses and switching Figure 64. Efficiency Curve of a DC-DC Converter [28]
losses from V-I overlap due to
high frequency switching. In
very light load, power losses are mainly due to current ripple.

There are design techniques that can be implemented in converter modules that can extend battery life
that efficiently address low load operation such as soft switching, and discontinuous operation.
Techniques about limiting switching DC/DC converter inefficiencies from Reference 28 is discussed in
Table 22.

Technique/ Feature Description

Discontinuous Operation: Synchronous rectification is a MOSFET-based switching converter design.
Synchronous Synchronous rectifier switch opens when the main switch is closed and
Rectification the other way around. To prevent cross conduction (both switches are
ON simultaneously), only one switch must turn OFF before the other
switch turns ON. A diode is still required to conduct during “dead time” or
the interval when switching occurs. When used in synchronous operation,
current flows from source to drain so that the diode can conduct during
the dead time. When “dead time” interval is done, current flows through
MOSFET. Since MOSFET has low channel resistance, the forward drop of
the rectifying diode is reduced to millivolt; thus, the peak efficiency
increases to 90%.
Soft Switching : Zero When the switch is turning On, the switch voltage is first dropped to zero
Voltage Switching before applying the gate voltage which creates a zero-loss transition. To
turn OFF the switch, a parallel capacitor is used to suppress voltage spikes
and enable low loss transition. Soft switching is a preferred application
for high frequency switching MOSFETs. Soft switching limits inefficiency
during low and very load lows because it prevents overlap losses by
switching the MOSFET only when it is at zero voltage or current. Soft
switching limiting improves efficiency and lowers EMI to allow high
frequency operation.
Table 22. Descriptions of Two Techniques for Reducing DC-DC Converter Inefficiencies during Low Loads
80
Appendix C: Voltage Mode vs. Current Mode Checklist
The following checklist is used to help determine which method of control should be implemented in a
design based on the characteristics of Voltage-Mode Control and Current-Mode Control. The list in Table
23 was modified from Reference 31.

Current Mode Voltage Mode

 Power supply output will be used as  Wide input line and/or output load
current source or very high output variations
voltage.
 Light load conditions where current
 Given a switching frequency, requires ramp is insufficient to provide stable
fastest dynamic response PWM operation.

 Application is for a DC/DC converter  High power and/or noisy applications

with relatively constrained input voltage
 Multiple output voltages with cross-
 Modular applications requiring parallel regulation
load sharing
 Saturable reactor controllers used as
 Push-pull circuits that require auxiliary secondary-side regulators
transformer flux balancing
 Applications that cannot afford the
 Low-cost applications using least complexities of dual feedback loops
amount of components and/or slope compensation.

Table 23. Checklist for Systems to Employ Current Mode or Voltage Mode 31.

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Appendix D: Difference between Synchronous Rectification and
Non-synchronous Rectification
Non-isolated buck-boost has two typologies: synchronous rectification and non-synchronous
rectification.
 Rectification: driving the current in a specific direction (Alternate current is made usable for
direct current requirement)
 Efficiency comparison:
o Nonsynchronous: 80%
o Synchronous: 95%
 Synchronous has higher efficiency which is better for battery-power applications
A detailed comparison of both typologies is provided in Table 24.

Nonsynchronous Rectification Synchronous Rectification

Figure 65a. Circuit Representation of Figure 65b. Circuit Representation of

Nonsynchronous Rectification [4] Synchronous Rectification [4]

Operation: Operation:
 S1 is transistor, D1 is Schottky diode  S1 and S2 are transistors
 S1 =ON, no current in D1 (OFF)  S1 = ON, S2 =OFF
 S1 = OFF, forward current in D1 (ON)  S1 = OFF, S2 = ON

Advantages & Limitations Advantages & Limitations

 Current flow dictated by S1  Current path same as nonsynchronous, but
 More simple circuit requires control circuit to dictate current flow
 Less efficiency  More complex circuit and control: requires
dead time
 Achieve higher efficiency because by using
MOSFET for low side switch, can eliminate

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 conduction losses from a diode and allows
optimal timing control

Figure 66a. Diode Conduction Operation

Figure 66b. Synchronous Rectification and
[4]
Nonsynchronous Waveforms [4]

Losses and Efficiencies Losses and Efficiencies

 When Step-down ratio = high, D1 =  Under light load, inductor current = 0A
long conduction time  Transistor losses due to saturation voltage
 Diode losses due to forward voltage (on-resistance) = 50mΩ
(𝑉𝐹 ) which increases with current: o 50mV at 1A, much lower than

o 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑠 ∗ 𝑒^(𝑉𝐹 /𝑛𝑉𝑇 ) forward voltage of diode

 During 90% period, operation  For high step down ratio (ex. 12V to 1.5V),
on-time for S2 is longer, about 90% of cycle
produces loss = 𝑉𝐹 (ex. 0.5V loss
 In light load, remains in continuous
relative to 1.5V output)
conduction mode because it can create
 In light loads, enters discontinuous
reverse flows so that current in negative
conduction mode, current goes to
region still operates instead of going to zero
zero
 Continuous mode creates ringing in switching
voltage, producing harmonic noise
 Efficiency loss due to reserve current flow
from output capacitor

Table 24. Differences Between Non-Synchronous Rectification and Synchronous Rectification [4]

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Appendix E: Discontinuous Conduction Mode
Discontinuous operation typically occurs at low loads when the inductor current reaches zero. The point
at which the inductor current reaches zero can be calculated. Once calculated, a condition is set when a
discontinuous event occurs as seen in Figure 67a and Figure 67b, and in Equation 17 and Equation 18 for
buck mode and boost mode, respectively. Buck and boost modes enter DCM similarly and experiences
similar loss in efficiency:
 MOSFET =ON, inductor current increases
 MOSFET = OFF, inductor current decreases similarly to CCM, but since output current is low due
to low load, inductor current approaches zero
 Ringing occurs due to inductor resonance from stray diode and switch capacitance reducing
efficiency [30]
However, boost mode has a different threshold for entering DCM due to boost requiring a different duty
cycle than buck. The Table 25 provides the condition to enter DCM for each operational mode and its
corresponding waveform.
Buck (DCM) Boost (DCM)

Condition to enter DCM: Condition to enter DCM:

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 2 (𝑉
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡 −𝑉𝐼𝑁 )
𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 < 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 (1 − ( ))/2𝐿𝑓 (17) 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 < 2 ∗ 2𝐿𝑓 (18)
𝑉𝐼𝑁 𝑉𝑖𝑛

Figure 67a. Waveform of Buck when Inductor

Figure 67b.Waveform of Boost when Inductor
current Reaches Zero
current Reaches Zero
Table 25. Characteristics of Buck and Boost during DCM [30]

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Appendix F: MPPT IC Comparison Chart
After we established specific criteria for our ideal system, we applied the specifications to an IC (integrated circuit) application. In Table 26 is
our research and comparison of different MPPT ICs. By using the comparison chart we determined an IC that was most compatible with our ideal
system requirements. We both ranked all of the IC’s with 1 being the most compatible and 6 being the worst compatible. We also had a set of
questions as a ranking criteria which is also based on the system requirements:

● Within wide input voltage range (2V- 23V)?

● MPPT algorithm programmable?
● Switching Frequency Range (at least above 100kHz)?
● Synchronous Rectification (implies four switch buck boost)?
● Within output current in range (< 5A)?
● Current mode control?
● Handles over-current, over-voltage, and battery charging compatible?
The MPPT Design Name highlighted green is the selected IC we chose for our application.

MPPT Design Name Advantages Concerns Features Link

LT8490 - High ● Buck boost typology ● Vin minimum is 6V, ● VIN Range: 6V to 80V http://www.li
Voltage, High ● Synchronizable Fixed which is kinda high ● Single Inductor Allows VIN Above, Below, or near.com/pro
Current Buck-Boost Frequency: 100kHz to 400kHz for what we need. Equal to VBAT duct/LT8490
Battery Charge ● Four Integrated Feedback ● No Software or ● VBAT Range: 1.3V to 80V
Controller with Loops Firmware ● Automatic MPPT for Solar Powered
Maximum Power ● Input and Output Current Development Charging
Point Tracking Monitor Pins Required (fixed ● Automatic Temperature Compensation
(MPPT) software) ● Operation from Solar Panel or DC Supply
● Uses P&O ● constant-current constant-voltage (CCCV)
Ranking: charging profile for lithium-ion
● STATUS and FAULT pins containing charger
Nikki- Rank 2
information can be used to drive LED
Joe- Rank 3 indicator lamps
● device is available in a low profile (0.75mm)
7mm × 11mm 64-lead QFN package

85
LTC4020 - 55V Buck- ● 4.5V to 55V ● Needs at least 4.5V ● Li-Ion and Lead-Acid Charge Algorithms http://www.linea
Boost Multi- ● Adjustable to different battery to turn on ● ±0.5% Float Voltage Accuracy r.com/product/LT
C4020
Chemistry Battery charging voltages based on ● MPPT based on ● ±5% Charge Current Accuracy
Charger reference voltage Input Voltage ● Instant-On for Heavily Discharged Batteries
● Synchronous Buck-Boost Regulation ● Ideal Diode Controller Provides Low Loss
DC/DC Controller Reference PowerPath When Input Power is Limited
Ranking: ● Input Voltage Regulation for ● Onboard Timer for Protection and
High Impedance Input Termination
Nikki- Rank 3 Supplies and Solar Panel Peak ● Bad Battery Detection with Auto-Reset
Joe- Rank 2 Power Operation ● NTC Input for Temperature Qualified
● Maximum battery charge Charging
current is programmable ● Binary Coded Open-Collector Status Pins
● Power Path: VOUT powers ● Low Profile (0.75mm) 38-Pin 5mm × 7mm
both the linear battery QFN Package
charger and the system load
with priority going to the
system load
● Program Switching Frequency:
50KHz to 500KHz.

Ultra Low Power ● -0.3V to 5.5V is a good low ● Not enough on the high ● Battery Good Output Flag http://www.ti.co
Harvester Power end range for PV output range ● Battery Charging and Protection m/lit/ds/symlink/

voltage ● Energy can be Stored to Re-chargeable Li- bq25570.pdf

Management IC ● Overall good if we had
with Boost Charger, ● Low power a way to accommodate ion Batteries, Thin-film Batteries,
and Nanopower ● Switching MOSFETs are voltages >5.5V. Supercapacitors, or Conventional
Buck Converter internal. Capacitors
● Continuous Energy Harvesting ● Full Operating Quiescent Current of 488 nA
Ranking: From VIN as Thermoelectric ● Cold-start Voltage: VIN ≥ 330 mV
Nikki- Rank 6 Generator (TEG) Harvesting
● designed to
low as 100 mV
● efficiently extract microwatts (μW) to
Joe- Rank 6 ● Programmable MPPT
milliwatts (mW) generated from a variety of
high output impedance DC sources like
photovoltaic

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Programmable ● programmable with I2C (the ● Does require 5V ● Renewable Energy Grade http://www.ti.co
Maximum Power output voltage can be set) source to run IC ● Panel Mode pin for optional bypass switch m/product/sm72
445?keyMatch=m
Point Tracking ● Drives 4-switch PWM with however. control
ppt%20controller
Controller with single inductor ● We would have to ● Photovoltaic solar panel voltage and &tisearch=Search
Adjustable PWM ● 110kHz,135kHz or 215kHz somehow get 5V current diagnostic -EN-Products
Frequency PWM operating frequency out of the PV at all ● Output overvoltage protection
● Programmable maximum times or have some ● Over-current protection
Ranking: power point tracking other way to ● efficiencies up to 99.5%
Nikki- Rank 1 power it. ● include maximum output voltage and
current
Joe- Rank 1 ● programmable settings for slew rate, soft-
start and Panel Mode

Ultra low power ● Ideal voltage range of 0.5V to ● Limited output ● High efficiency for any harvesting source http://www.st.co
energy harvester 18V battery charging ● 2.2 V to 3.6 V trimmable battery discharge m/en/power-
management/spv
and battery charger ● Programmable MPPT by current to only voltage level (± 1% accuracy)
1050.html
with embedded external resistors 70mA ● Two fully independent LDOs (1.8 V and 3.3
MPPT and LDOs ● Fully integrated buck-boost ● Not sure if V output)
DC-DC converter synchronous ● 2.6 V to 5.3 V trimmable battery charge
typology voltage level (± 1% accuracy)
Ranking: ● Enable/disable LDO (low dropout regulator)
control pins
Nikki- Rank 4 ● Battery disconnect function for battery
protection
Joe- Rank 5
● Battery connected and ongoing charge logic
open drain indication pins

Semtech TS52001 Li- ● Up to 1.5A of continuous ● Vin range: 4V to ● Utilizes a temperature-independent http://www.mou
Ion Battery Chargers output current in Constant 8.1V ● PV MPPT-Lite™ regulation scheme ser.com/new/se
mtech/semtech-
Current (CC) mode ● temperature ● VOUT reverse current blocking
ts52001/
● User programmable charging independent ● Programmable temperature-compensated
Ranking: current photovoltaic termination voltage with ±1% tolerance
● synchronous switching Li-ion (MPPT-Lite™) ● High efficiency - up to 92% at typical load
Nikki- Rank 5 Battery Charger calculator to ● Current mode PWM control in constant

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Joe- Rank 4 ● fully integrated power optimize power voltage Datasheet:
switches output ● Supervisor for VBAT reported at the nFLT pin http://www.mou
● Synchronous typology ● switching ● Input supply under voltage lockout ser.com/ds/2/413
frequency of 1MHz ● Full protection for over-current, over-temp, /TS52001-
(facilitates low-cost VBAT over-voltage, and charging timeout 1124.pdf
LC filter ● Charge status indication
combination) ● I²C program interface with EEProm registers

Table 26. Comprehensive Comparison between Different MPPT Integrated Circuits with Group Member’s Ranking of Each Integrated Cirucit

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Appendix G: Component Selection Calculation Sheet
Table 27 displays our calculation worksheet performed in excel. We determined the component values based on the equations and information
provided by the SM72442 datasheet, and Texas Instrument Solar Magic Evaluation Board Application Note.

Table 27. Component Calculation Excel Sheet

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Appendix H: Buck Converter Simulation Data
The simulated buck converter output voltage was measured at duty cycle (D1) increments of 0.1 from 0 to 1. The output voltage was compared to the
input voltage to determine the gain of the converter. All gains were less than or equal to 1 indicating buck operation. Voltages were measured using
the oscilloscope tool in NI Multisim 13.0 after a runtime of 5ms. Table 28 presents the data of the buck converter simulation.
D1 VIN (V) VOUT (V) Expected Gain (V/V) Actual Gain (V/V) Error
0 7 0 0 0 #DIV/0!
0.1 7 1.013 0.1 0.1447142857 44.71428571
0.2 7 2 0.2 0.2384285714 19.21428571
0.3 7 2.574 0.3 0.3677142857 22.57142857
0.4 7 3.305 0.4 0.4721428571 18.03571429
0.5 7 4.027 0.5 0.5752857143 15.05714286
0.6 7 4.752 0.6 0.6788571429 13.14285714
0.7 7 5.093 0.7 0.7275714286 3.93877551
0.8 7 5.817 0.8 0.831 3.875
0.9 7 6.248 0.9 0.8925714286 0.8253968254
1 7 7 1 1 0
Table 28. Buck Converter Simulation Expected Gain vs. Actual Gain

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Appendix I: Boost Converter Simulation Data
The simulated boost converter output voltage was measured at duty cycle (D1) increments of 0.1 from 0 to 1. The output voltage was compared to the
input voltage to determine the gain of the converter. All gains were greater than or equal to 1 indicating boost operation. Voltages were measured
using the oscilloscope tool in NI Multisim 13.0 after a runtime of 5ms. Table 29 presents the data of the boost converter simulation.

D1 VIN (V) VOUT (V) Expected Gain (V/V) Actual Gain (V/V) Error
0 7 6.645 1 0.9492857143 5.071428571
0.1 7 7.089 1.111111111 1.012714286 8.855714286
0.2 7 8.549 1.25 1.221285714 2.297142857
0.3 7 9.705 1.428571429 1.386428571 2.95
0.4 7 11.436 1.666666667 1.633714286 1.977142857
0.5 7 13.525 2 1.932142857 3.392857143
0.6 7 17.021 2.5 2.431571429 2.737142857
0.7 7 20.402 3.333333333 2.914571429 12.56285714
0.8 7 30.88 5 4.411428571 11.77142857
0.9 7 30.945 10 4.420714286 55.79285714
1 7 0.406 #DIV/0! 0.058 #DIV/0!
Table 29. Boost Converter Simulation Expected Gain vs. Actual Gain

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Appendix J: Cascaded Boost-Buck Converter Simulation Data
The simulation model of the cascaded boost-buck converter was tested in two different modes, boost and buck. For boost mode, duty cycle, D2, was
held at 1 and D1 was varied by 0.1 increments between 0 and 1. For buck, D1 was held at 0 and D2 was incremented by 0.1 intervals between 0 and 1.
The output voltage for each test was compared to the input voltage supplied by the Multisim Advanced PV Panel Model. The input and output power
values were also measured using Multisim’s wattmeter tool. All measurements were taken after a runtime of 5ms. Table 30 presents the data of the
boost converter simulation.

Table 30. Buck-Boost Converter Simulation Expected Gain vs. Actual Gain

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Appendix K: Full-Bridge Converter Simulation Data
The simulated full-bridge converter circuit was tested at all combinations of duty cycles D1 and D2. The duty
cycles were varied between 0 and 1 in 0.1 increments. Input and output power was measured using Multisim’s
wattmeter tool, and all measurements were taken after a runtime of 3ms. Table 31 presents the data of the
full-bridge converter simulation.

93
94
 Table 31. Full-Bridge Converter Simulation Expected Gain vs. Actual Gain

95
Appendix L: Testing Results and Log
For our initial testing, we recognized that there were some components that were disconnected or not connected at all. Once we were able to get
some of the expected waveforms from the SM72445 IC, we investigated our implementation for more building errors and reasons to why our circuit
may or may not work. We present our initial results after major building errors were addressed seen in Table 32 , and our testing log that recorded a
couple of significant testing results and findings for our conclusions.

Table 32. Initial Testing Results and Expected Values for Each Pin on SM72445 IC an SM72295 IC

96
Circuit Testing Log

Date: 4/23/2017

 Connected 12C0 to GND, NC2 to 5V, and pulled back in Arduino wires.
 Performed Test 1 as seen in Table 33.
 Changed the circuit to have a shared GND.
 Trying to isolate input voltage, saw that input voltage and PV+ were shorting each other. Found a tiny wire between the input voltage pin and
the PV+ pin. Unsoldered the short.
 Showed PWM for HIA and LIA (210 kHz): “boosting”- from 0.29V to 1.29 V, gates HIB and LIB (26 kHz).
 Drawing 40mA at beginning and up to 200mA once IC fully powered “ON”.
 Performed Test 2 as seen in Table 33 that showed a random occurrence of Boosting.
 When producing same output as input: IC is off, all four produce 50kHz PWM. Duty cycle on HIA and HIB are high (about 98%) and LIB and LIA
are low. Perhaps in Panel mode?
 HIA and LIA are 105 kHz, HIB full ON and LIB full OFF.

Test 1 Column1 Test 2

Input Voltage (V) Output Voltage (V) Input Voltage (V) Output Voltage (V) Gain
0.54 0.24 1.05 2.5 2.38
0.98 0.68 2.02 5.57 2.76
1.5 1.16 3.01 8.61 2.86
1.98 1.61 3.97 11.41 2.87
2.5 2.12 5 14.25 2.85
2.99 2.6 5.98 16.8 2.81
3.53 3.13 6.97 19.26 2.76
3.99 3.58 7.98 21.6 2.71
4.49 4.08 9.02 23.8 2.64
5.02 4.61
5.51 5.27
5.98 5.61
6.55 6.19
Table 33. Test 1 Results Showing PM Mode and Test 2 Results Showing Boost Mode

97
Date: 4/24/2017
 Attached four potentiometers onto the configurable resistor divider to get exact voltage values for the pins A0-A6. Attempted testing but no
significant results.
Date: 4/25/2017
 Above 5V (about 5.3) 105.3 kHz waveform appeared on LIA , HIA, LIB full ON, LIB full OFF, once in MPPT, as you reduce it after entering MPPT
mode, the waveform shrinks and when it hits 3.2 V the waveform shuts off.
 If you hit the RST pin, it enters panel mode, where all four are in 50 kHz.
 Connected current sense things the according to the SM7445 and SM72997 datasheet include AIOUT AIOUT, AIN to IIN, SOB and SIB to the
driver where moved to be across current sense resistor.
 Took out the diode all together, connect the output of the MOSFET from the full bridge to go into the current sense R and have Current Sense
to Vout, connect SOB anjd SIB to measure the voltage across the current sense resistor

98
Appendix M: Implementation Circuit Schematic
Figure 68 displays the schematic of our implemented circuit. All of the connections presented in the schematic are exactly the same in the physical
implementation.

Figure 68. Circuit Schematic of Our Actualized Implementation

99