What is Frequency Response?

The response of a system can be partitioned into both the transient response and the steady state response.
We can find the transient response by using Fourier integrals. The steady state response of a system for an
input sinusoidal signal is known as the frequency response. In this chapter, we will focus only on the
steady state response.

If a sinusoidal signal is applied as an input to a Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) system, then it produces the
steady state output, which is also a sinusoidal signal. The input and output sinusoidal signals have the same
frequency, but different amplitudes and phase angles.

Let the input signal be −

r(t)=Asin(ω0t)r(t)=Asin⁡(ω0t)

The open loop transfer function will be −

G(s)=G(jω)G(s)=G(jω)

We can represent G(jω)G(jω) in terms of magnitude and phase as shown below.

G(jω)=|G(jω)|∠G(jω)G(jω)=|G(jω)|∠G(jω)

Substitute, ω=ω0ω=ω0 in the above equation.

G(jω0)=|G(jω0)|∠G(jω0)G(jω0)=|G(jω0)|∠G(jω0)

The output signal is

c(t)=A|G(jω0)|sin(ω0t+∠G(jω0))c(t)=A|G(jω0)|sin⁡(ω0t+∠G(jω0))


The amplitude of the output sinusoidal signal is obtained by multiplying the amplitude of the input
sinusoidal signal and the magnitude of G(jω)G(jω) at ω=ω0ω=ω0 .
 The phase of the output sinusoidal signal is obtained by adding the phase of the input sinusoidal
signal and the phase of G(jω)G(jω) at ω=ω0ω=ω0 .
Where,

 A is the amplitude of the input sinusoidal signal.

 ω0 is angular frequency of the input sinusoidal signal.

We can write, angular frequency ω0ω0 as shown below.

ω0=2πf0ω0=2πf0

Here, f0f0 is the frequency of the input sinusoidal signal. Similarly, you can follow the same procedure for
closed loop control system.

Frequency Domain Specifications

The frequency domain specifications are resonant peak, resonant frequency and bandwidth.

Consider the transfer function of the second order closed loop control system as,
 T(s)=C(s)R(s)=ω2ns2+2δωns+ω2nT(s)=C(s)R(s)=ωn2s2+2δωns+ωn2

Substitute, s=jωs=jω in the above equation.

T(jω)=ω2n(jω)2+2δωn(jω)+ω2nT(jω)=ωn2(jω)2+2δωn(jω)+ωn2

⇒T(jω)=ω2n−ω2+2jδωωn+ω2n=ω2nω2n(1−ω2ω2n+2jδωωn)⇒T(jω)=ωn2−ω2+2jδωωn+ωn2=ωn2ωn2(1−ω
2ωn2+2jδωωn)

⇒T(jω)=1(1−ω2ω2n)+j(2δωωn)⇒T(jω)=1(1−ω2ωn2)+j(2δωωn)

Let, ωωn=uωωn=u Substitute this value in the above equation.

T(jω)=1(1−u2)+j(2δu)T(jω)=1(1−u2)+j(2δu)

Magnitude of T(jω)T(jω) is -
M=|T(jω)|=1(1−u2)2+(2δu)2−−−−−−−−−−−−−−√M=|T(jω)|=1(1−u2)2+(2δu)2

Phase of T(jω)T(jω) is -
∠T(jω)=−tan−1(2δu1−u2)∠T(jω)=−tan−1(2δu1−u2)

Resonant Frequency
It is the frequency at which the magnitude of the frequency response has peak value for the first time. It is
denoted by ωrωr . At ω=ωrω=ωr , the first derivate of the magnitude of T(jω)T(jω) is zero.
Differentiate MM with respect to uu .
dMdu=−12[(1−u2)2+(2δu)2]−32[2(1−u2)(−2u)+2(2δu)(2δ)]dMdu=−12[(1−u2)2+(2δu)2]−32[2(1−u2)(
−2u)+2(2δu)(2δ)]

⇒dMdu=−12[(1−u2)2+(2δu)2]−32[4u(u2−1+2δ2)]⇒dMdu=−12[(1−u2)2+(2δu)2]−32[4u(u2−1+2δ2)]

Substitute, u=uru=ur and dMdu==0dMdu==0 in the above equation.

0=−12[(1−u2r)2+(2δur)2]−32[4ur(u2r−1+2δ2)]0=−12[(1−ur2)2+(2δur)2]−32[4ur(ur2−1+2δ2)]

⇒4ur(u2r−1+2δ2)=0⇒4ur(ur2−1+2δ2)=0

⇒u2r−1+2δ2=0⇒ur2−1+2δ2=0

⇒u2r=1−2δ2⇒ur2=1−2δ2

⇒ur=1−2δ2−−−−−−√⇒ur=1−2δ2

Substitute, ur=ωrωnur=ωrωn in the above equation.

ωrωn=1−2δ2−−−−−−√ωrωn=1−2δ2

⇒ωr=ωn1−2δ2−−−−−−√⇒ωr=ωn1−2δ2

Resonant Peak
It is the peak (maximum) value of the magnitude of
T(jω)T(jω) . It is denoted by MrMr .
At u=uru=ur , the Magnitude of T(jω)T(jω) is -
Mr=1(1−u2r)2+(2δur)2−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−√Mr=1(1−ur2)2+(2δur)2
Substitute, ur=1−2δ2−−−−−−√ur=1−2δ2 and 1−u2r=2δ21−ur2=2δ2 in the above equation.
Mr=1(2δ2)2+(2δ1−2δ2−−−−−−√)2−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−√Mr=1(2δ2)2+(2δ1−2δ2)2

⇒Mr=12δ1−δ2−−−−−√⇒Mr=12δ1−δ2

Resonant peak in frequency response corresponds to the peak overshoot in the time domain transient
response for certain values of damping ratio δδ . So, the resonant peak and peak overshoot are correlated to
each other.

Bandwidth
It is the range of frequencies over which, the magnitude of T(jω)T(jω) drops to 70.7% from its zero
frequency value.
At ω=0ω=0 , the value of uu will be zero.
Substitute,u=0u=0 in M.
M=1(1−02)2+(2δ(0))2−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−√=1M=1(1−02)2+(2δ(0))2=1

Therefore, the magnitude ofT(jω)T(jω) is one at ω=0ω=0 .

At 3-dB frequency, the magnitude of T(jω)T(jω) will be 70.7% of magnitude of T(jω)T(jω) at ω=0ω=0 .
i.e., at ω=ωB,M=0.707(1)=12√ω=ωB,M=0.707(1)=12
⇒M=12–√=1(1−u2b)2+(2δub)2−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−√⇒M=12=1(1−ub2)2+(2δub)2

⇒2=(1−u2b)2+(2δ)2u2b⇒2=(1−ub2)2+(2δ)2ub2

Let, u2b=xub2=x
⇒2=(1−x)2+(2δ)2x⇒2=(1−x)2+(2δ)2x

⇒x2+(4δ2−2)x−1=0⇒x2+(4δ2−2)x−1=0

⇒x=−(4δ2−2)±(4δ2−2)2+4−−−−−−−−−−−√2⇒x=−(4δ2−2)±(4δ2−2)2+42

Consider only the positive value of x.

x=1−2δ2+(2δ2−1)2+1−−−−−−−−−−−√x=1−2δ2+(2δ2−1)2+1

⇒x=1−2δ2+(2−4δ2+4δ4)−−−−−−−−−−−−√⇒x=1−2δ2+(2−4δ2+4δ4)

Substitute, x=u2b=ω2bω2nx=ub2=ωb2ωn2
ω2bω2n=1−2δ2+(2−4δ2+4δ4)−−−−−−−−−−−−√ωb2ωn2=1−2δ2+(2−4δ2+4δ4)

⇒ωb=ωn1−2δ2+(2−4δ2+4δ4)−−−−−−−−−−−−√−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−√⇒ωb=ωn1−2δ2+(2−4
δ2+4δ4)

Bandwidth ωbωb in the frequency response is inversely proportional to the rise time trtr in the time domain
transient response.
The Bode plot or the Bode diagram consists of two plots −

 Magnitude plot

 Phase plot
In both the plots, x-axis represents angular frequency (logarithmic scale). Whereas, yaxis represents the
magnitude (linear scale) of open loop transfer function in the magnitude plot and the phase angle (linear
scale) of the open loop transfer function in the phase plot.

The magnitude of the open loop transfer function in dB is -

M=20log|G(jω)H(jω)|M=20log⁡|G(jω)H(jω)|

The phase angle of the open loop transfer function in degrees is -

ϕ=∠G(jω)H(jω)ϕ=∠G(jω)H(jω)

Note − The base of logarithm is 10.

Basic of Bode Plots

The following table shows the slope, magnitude and the phase angle values of the terms present in the open
loop transfer function. This data is useful while drawing the Bode plots.

Type of Slope(dB/
G(jω)H(jω) Magnitude (dB) Phase angle(degrees)
term dec)

Consta
nt
KK 00 20logK20log⁡K 00

Zero
at jωjω 2020 20logω20log⁡ω 9090
origin

‘n’
zeros
at
(jω)n(jω)n 20n20n 20nlogω20nlog⁡ω 90n90n
origin

Pole at
origin 1jω1jω −20−20 −20logω−20log⁡ω −90or270−90or270

‘n’
poles −20n−2
at 1(jω)n1(jω)n −20nlogω−20nlog⁡ω −90nor270n−90nor270n
0n
origin

Simpl 0forω<1r0forω<1r 0forω<1r0forω<1r

e zero 1+jωr1+jωr 2020
20logωrforω>1r20log⁡ωrforω>1r 90forω>1r90forω>1r

Simpl
0forω<1r0forω<1r 0forω<1r0forω<1r
e pole 11+jωr11+jωr −20−20 −20logωrforω>1r−20log⁡ωrforω −90or270forω>1r−90or
>1r 270forω>1r
Secon ω2n(1−ω2ω2n+2jδωωn)ωn2(1−ω2 4040 40logωnforω<ωn40logωnforω<ωn 0forω<ωn0forω<ωn
 d ωn2+2jδωωn) 20log(2δω2n)forω=ωn20log(2δω 90forω=ωn90forω=ωn
order n2)forω=ωn 180forω>ωn180forω>ωn
derivat 40logωforω>ωn40logωforω>ωn
ive
term

Secon
−40logωnforω<ωn−40logωnforω<
d ωn −0forω<ωn−0forω<ωn
1ω2n(1−ω2ω2n+2jδωωn)1ωn2(1−ω2ωn2 −20log(2δω2n)forω=ωn−20log(2 −90forω=ωn−90forω=ωn
order −40−40
integra +2jδωωn) δωn2)forω=ωn −180forω>ωn−180forω>
l term −40logωforω>ωn−40logωforω>ω ωn
n
Consider the open loop transfer functionG(s)H(s)=KG(s)H(s)=K .
Magnitude M=20logKM=20log⁡K dB
Phase angle ϕ=0ϕ=0 degrees
If K=1K=1 , then magnitude is 0 dB.
If K>1K>1 , then magnitude will be positive.
If K<1K<1 , then magnitude will be negative.
The following figure shows the corresponding Bode plot.
The magnitude plot is a horizontal line, which is independent of frequency. The 0 dB line itself is the
magnitude plot when the value of K is one. For the positive values of K, the horizontal line will shift
20logK20log⁡K dB above the 0 dB line. For the negative values of K, the horizontal line will shift
20logK20log⁡K dB below the 0 dB line. The Zero degrees line itself is the phase plot for all the positive
values of K.
Consider the open loop transfer function G(s)H(s)=sG(s)H(s)=s .
Magnitude M=20logωM=20log⁡ω dB
Phase angle ϕ=900ϕ=900
At ω=0.1ω=0.1 rad/sec, the magnitude is -20 dB.
At ω=1ω=1 rad/sec, the magnitude is 0 dB.
At ω=10ω=10 rad/sec, the magnitude is 20 dB.
The following figure shows the corresponding Bode plot.
The magnitude plot is a line, which is having a slope of 20 dB/dec. This line started at ω=0.1ω=0.1 rad/sec
having a magnitude of -20 dB and it continues on the same slope. It is touching 0 dB line at ω=1ω=1
rad/sec. In this case, the phase plot is 900 line.
Consider the open loop transfer function G(s)H(s)=1+sτG(s)H(s)=1+sτ .
Magnitude M=20log1+ω2τ2−−−−−−−√M=20log1+ω2τ2 dB
Phase angle ϕ=tan−1ωτϕ=tan−1⁡ωτ degrees
For ω<1τω<1τ , the magnitude is 0 dB and phase angle is 0 degrees.
For ω>1τω>1τ , the magnitude is 20logωτ20log⁡ωτ dB and phase angle is 900.
The following figure shows the corresponding Bode plot.
The magnitude plot is having magnitude of 0 dB upto ω=1τω=1τ rad/sec. From ω=1τω=1τ rad/sec, it is having
ω=1τω=1τ rad/sec
a slope of 20 dB/dec. In this case, the phase plot is having phase angle of 0 degrees up to
and from here, it is having phase angle of 900. This Bode plot is called the asymptotic Bode plot.
As the magnitude and the phase plots are represented with straight lines, the Exact Bode plots resemble the
asymptotic Bode plots. The only difference is that the Exact Bode plots will have simple curves instead of
straight lines.

Similarly, you can draw the Bode plots for other terms of the open loop transfer function which are given in
the table.

In this chapter, let us understand in detail how to construct (draw) Bode plots.

Rules for Construction of Bode Plots

Follow these rules while constructing a Bode plot.

 Represent the open loop transfer function in the standard time constant form.

 Substitute, s=jωs=jω in the above equation.

 Find the corner frequencies and arrange them in ascending order.

 Consider the starting frequency of the Bode plot as 1/10 th of the minimum corner frequency or 0.1
rad/sec whichever is smaller value and draw the Bode plot upto 10 times maximum corner frequency.

 Draw the magnitude plots for each term and combine these plots properly.

 Draw the phase plots for each term and combine these plots properly.

Note − The corner frequency is the frequency at which there is a change in the slope of the magnitude plot.

Example
Consider the open loop transfer function of a closed loop control system

G(s)H(s)=10s(s+2)(s+5)G(s)H(s)=10s(s+2)(s+5)

Let us convert this open loop transfer function into standard time constant form.
 G(s)H(s)=10s2(s2+1)5(s5+1)G(s)H(s)=10s2(s2+1)5(s5+1)

⇒G(s)H(s)=s(1+s2)(1+s5)⇒G(s)H(s)=s(1+s2)(1+s5)

So, we can draw the Bode plot in semi log sheet using the rules mentioned earlier.

Stability Analysis using Bode Plots

From the Bode plots, we can say whether the control system is stable, marginally stable or unstable based on
the values of these parameters.

 Gain cross over frequency and phase cross over frequency

 Gain margin and phase margin

Phase Cross over Frequency

The frequency at which the phase plot is having the phase of -1800 is known as phase cross over
frequency. It is denoted by ωpcωpc . The unit of phase cross over frequency is rad/sec.
Gain Cross over Frequency
The frequency at which the magnitude plot is having the magnitude of zero dB is known as gain cross over
frequency. It is denoted by ωgcωgc . The unit of gain cross over frequency is rad/sec.
The stability of the control system based on the relation between the phase cross over frequency and the gain
cross over frequency is listed below.

 If the phase cross over frequency ωpcωpc is greater than the gain cross over frequency ωgcωgc , then
the control system is stable.
 If the phase cross over frequency ωpcωpc is equal to the gain cross over frequency ωgcωgc , then the
control system is marginally stable.
 If the phase cross over frequency ωpcωpc is less than the gain cross over frequency ωgcωgc , then the
control system is unstable.

Gain Margin
Gain margin GMGM is equal to negative of the magnitude in dB at phase cross over frequency.
GM=20log(1Mpc)=20logMpcGM=20log⁡(1Mpc)=20logMpc

Where, MpcMpc is the magnitude at phase cross over frequency. The unit of gain margin (GM) is dB.
Phase Margin
The formula for phase margin PMPM is
PM=1800+ϕgcPM=1800+ϕgc

Where, ϕgcϕgc is the phase angle at gain cross over frequency. The unit of phase margin is degrees.
The stability of the control system based on the relation between gain margin and phase margin is listed
below.

 If both the gain margin GMGM and the phase margin PMPM are positive, then the control system is
stable.
  If both the gain margin GMGM and the phase margin PMPM are equal to zero, then the control
system is marginally stable.
 If the gain margin GMGM and / or the phase margin PMPM are/is negative, then the control system
is unstable.
In the previous chapters, we discussed the Bode plots. There, we have two separate plots for both magnitude
and phase as the function of frequency. Let us now discuss about polar plots. Polar plot is a plot which can be
drawn between magnitude and phase. Here, the magnitudes are represented by normal values only.

The polar form ofG(jω)H(jω)G(jω)H(jω) is

G(jω)H(jω)=|G(jω)H(jω)|∠G(jω)H(jω)G(jω)H(jω)=|G(jω)H(jω)|∠G(jω)H(jω)

The Polar plot is a plot, which can be drawn between the magnitude and the phase angle of
G(jω)H(jω)G(jω)H(jω) by varying ωω from zero to ∞. The polar graph sheet is shown in the following figure.

This graph sheet consists of concentric circles and radial lines. The concentric circles and the radial lines
represent the magnitudes and phase angles respectively. These angles are represented by positive values in
anti-clock wise direction. Similarly, we can represent angles with negative values in clockwise direction. For
example, the angle 2700 in anti-clock wise direction is equal to the angle −900 in clockwise direction.

Rules for Drawing Polar Plots

Follow these rules for plotting the polar plots.

 Substitute, s=jωs=jω in the open loop transfer function.

 Write the expressions for magnitude and the phase of G(jω)H(jω)G(jω)H(jω) .
 Find the starting magnitude and the phase of G(jω)H(jω)G(jω)H(jω) by substituting ω=0ω=0 . So,
the polar plot starts with this magnitude and the phase angle.
 Find the ending magnitude and the phase of G(jω)H(jω)G(jω)H(jω) by substituting ω=∞ω=∞ . So,
the polar plot ends with this magnitude and the phase angle.
 Check whether the polar plot intersects the real axis, by making the imaginary term of
G(jω)H(jω)G(jω)H(jω) equal to zero and find the value(s) of ωω .
 Check whether the polar plot intersects the imaginary axis, by making real term of
G(jω)H(jω)G(jω)H(jω) equal to zero and find the value(s) of ωω .
 For drawing polar plot more clearly, find the magnitude and phase of G(jω)H(jω)G(jω)H(jω) by
considering the other value(s) of ωω .
Example
Consider the open loop transfer function of a closed loop control system.

G(s)H(s)=5s(s+1)(s+2)G(s)H(s)=5s(s+1)(s+2)

Let us draw the polar plot for this control system using the above rules.

Step 1 − Substitute, s=jωs=jω in the open loop transfer function.

G(jω)H(jω)=5jω(jω+1)(jω+2)G(jω)H(jω)=5jω(jω+1)(jω+2)

The magnitude of the open loop transfer function is

M=5ω(ω2+1−−−−−√)(ω2+4−−−−−√)M=5ω(ω2+1)(ω2+4)

The phase angle of the open loop transfer function is

ϕ=−900−tan−1ω−tan−1ω2ϕ=−900−tan−1⁡ω−tan−1⁡ω2

Step 2 − The following table shows the magnitude and the phase angle of the open loop transfer function at
ω=0ω=0 rad/sec and ω=∞ω=∞ rad/sec.
Frequency (rad/sec) Magnitude Phase angle(degrees)

0 ∞ -90 or 270

∞ 0 -270 or 90

So, the polar plot starts at (∞,−900) and ends at (0,−2700). The first and the second terms within the
brackets indicate the magnitude and phase angle respectively.

Step 3 − Based on the starting and the ending polar co-ordinates, this polar plot will intersect the negative
real axis. The phase angle corresponding to the negative real axis is −180 0 or 1800. So, by equating the
phase angle of the open loop transfer function to either −180 0 or 1800, we will get the ωω value as 2–√2 .
By substituting ω=2–√ω=2 in the magnitude of the open loop transfer function, we will get M=0.83M=0.83 .
Therefore, the polar plot intersects the negative real axis when ω=2–√ω=2 and the polar coordinate is
(0.83,−1800).
So, we can draw the polar plot with the above information on the polar graph sheet.

Nyquist plots are the continuation of polar plots for finding the stability of the closed loop control systems by
varying ω from −∞ to ∞. That means, Nyquist plots are used to draw the complete frequency response of
the open loop transfer function.

Nyquist Stability Criterion

The Nyquist stability criterion works on the principle of argument. It states that if there are P poles and Z
zeros are enclosed by the ‘s’ plane closed path, then the correspondingG(s)H(s)G(s)H(s) plane must encircle
the origin P−ZP−Z times. So, we can write the number of encirclements N as,
N=P−ZN=P−Z


If the enclosed ‘s’ plane closed path contains only poles, then the direction of the encirclement in the
G(s)H(s)G(s)H(s) plane will be opposite to the direction of the enclosed closed path in the ‘s’ plane.
 If the enclosed ‘s’ plane closed path contains only zeros, then the direction of the encirclement in the
G(s)H(s)G(s)H(s) plane will be in the same direction as that of the enclosed closed path in the ‘s’
plane.
Let us now apply the principle of argument to the entire right half of the ‘s’ plane by selecting it as a closed
path. This selected path is called the Nyquist contour.

We know that the closed loop control system is stable if all the poles of the closed loop transfer function are
in the left half of the ‘s’ plane. So, the poles of the closed loop transfer function are nothing but the roots of
the characteristic equation. As the order of the characteristic equation increases, it is difficult to find the
roots. So, let us correlate these roots of the characteristic equation as follows.

 The Poles of the characteristic equation are same as that of the poles of the open loop transfer
function.

 The zeros of the characteristic equation are same as that of the poles of the closed loop transfer
function.

We know that the open loop control system is stable if there is no open loop pole in the the right half of the
‘s’ plane.

i.e.,P=0⇒N=−ZP=0⇒N=−Z
We know that the closed loop control system is stable if there is no closed loop pole in the right half of the ‘s’
plane.

i.e.,Z=0⇒N=PZ=0⇒N=P
Nyquist stability criterion states the number of encirclements about the critical point (1+j0) must be equal
to the poles of characteristic equation, which is nothing but the poles of the open loop transfer function in the
right half of the ‘s’ plane. The shift in origin to (1+j0) gives the characteristic equation plane.
 Rules for Drawing Nyquist Plots
Follow these rules for plotting the Nyquist plots.

 Locate the poles and zeros of open loop transfer function G(s)H(s)G(s)H(s) in ‘s’ plane.
 Draw the polar plot by varying ωω from zero to infinity. If pole or zero present at s = 0, then varying
ωω from 0+ to infinity for drawing polar plot.
 Draw the mirror image of above polar plot for values of ωω ranging from −∞ to zero (0− if any pole
or zero present at s=0).
 The number of infinite radius half circles will be equal to the number of poles or zeros at origin. The
infinite radius half circle will start at the point where the mirror image of the polar plot ends. And this
infinite radius half circle will end at the point where the polar plot starts.

After drawing the Nyquist plot, we can find the stability of the closed loop control system using the Nyquist
stability criterion. If the critical point (-1+j0) lies outside the encirclement, then the closed loop control
system is absolutely stable.

Stability Analysis using Nyquist Plots

From the Nyquist plots, we can identify whether the control system is stable, marginally stable or unstable
based on the values of these parameters.

 Gain cross over frequency and phase cross over frequency

 Gain margin and phase margin

Phase Cross over Frequency

The frequency at which the Nyquist plot intersects the negative real axis (phase angle is 180 0) is known as
the phase cross over frequency. It is denoted by ωpcωpc .
Gain Cross over Frequency
The frequency at which the Nyquist plot is having the magnitude of one is known as the gain cross over
frequency. It is denoted by ωgcωgc .
The stability of the control system based on the relation between phase cross over frequency and gain cross
over frequency is listed below.

 If the phase cross over frequency ωpcωpc is greater than the gain cross over frequency ωgcωgc , then
the control system is stable.
 If the phase cross over frequency ωpcωpc is equal to the gain cross over frequency ωgcωgc , then the
control system is marginally stable.
 If phase cross over frequency ωpcωpc is less than gain cross over frequency ωgcωgc , then the control
system is unstable.

Gain Margin
The gain margin GMGM is equal to the reciprocal of the magnitude of the Nyquist plot at the phase cross
over frequency.
GM=1MpcGM=1Mpc

Where, MpcMpc is the magnitude in normal scale at the phase cross over frequency.
 Phase Margin
The phase margin PMPM is equal to the sum of 1800 and the phase angle at the gain cross over frequency.
PM=1800+ϕgcPM=1800+ϕgc

Where, ϕgcϕgc is the phase angle at the gain cross over frequency.
The stability of the control system based on the relation between the gain margin and the phase margin is
listed below.

 If the gain margin GMGM is greater than one and the phase margin PMPM is positive, then the
control system is stable.
 If the gain margin GMGM is equal to one and the phase margin PMPM is zero degrees, then the
control system is marginally stable.
 If the gain margin GMGM is less than one and / or the phase margin PMPM is negative, then the
control system is unstable.

N and M Circles
M circles are called constant magnitude loci while N circles are called as constant phase angle loci. At first we will
discuss about the m -circles. The open loop transfer function G(jω) of a unity feedback control system is a complex
quantity and can be expressed as,
G(jω).1 = x + jy

On squaring both sides on the equation i and simplifying we get,

For different values of M, the equation (ii) represents a family of circles with center at x = M / ( 1-M ) , y = 0 and
2 2

radius as M /(1-M ). On a particular circle the value of M (magnitude of closed loop transfer function ) is constant,
2
therefore, these circles are called M - CIRCLES. In G(jω) plane the Nyquist plot is superimposed on M-circle and
the points of intersection give the magnitude of C( jω) / R(jω) at different values of ω.
.

Nichols plot

Constant magnitude loci that are M-circles and constant phase angle loci that are N-circles
are the fundamental components in designing the Nichols chart. The constant M and
constant N circles in G (jω) plane can be used for the analysis and design of control
systems. However the constant M and constant N circles in gain phase plane are prepared
for system design and analysis as these plots supply information with fewer manipulations.
Gain phase plane is the graph having gain in decibel along the ordinate (vertical axis) and
phase angle along the abscissa (horizontal axis). The M and N circles of G (jω) in the gain
phase plane are transformed into M and N contours in rectangular co-ordinates. A point on
the constant M loci in G (jω) plane is transferred to gain phase plane by drawing the vector
directed from the origin of G (jω) plane to a particular point on M circle and then measuring
the length in db and angle in degree.
The critical point in G (jω), plane corresponds to the point of zero decibel and -180o in the
gain phase plane. Plot of M and N circles in gain phase plane is known as Nichols chart
/plot.
The Nichols plot is named after the American engineer N.B Nichols who formulated this
plot. Compensators can be designed using Nichols plot. Nichols plot technique is however
also used in designing of dc motor. This is used in signal processing and control design.
Nyquist plot in complex plane shows how phase of transfer function and frequency variation
of magnitude are related. We can find out the gain and phase for a given frequency. Angle
of positive real axis determines the phase and distance from origin of complex plane
determines the gain. There are some advantages of Nichols plot in control system
engineering. They are: Gain and phase margin can be determined easily and also
graphically. Closed loop frequency response is obtained from open loop frequency
response. Gain of the system can be adjusted to suitable values. Nichols chart provides
frequency domain specifications.

There are some drawbacks of Nichols plot also. Using Nichols plot small changes in gain
cannot be encountered easily. Constant M and N circles in the Nichols chart are deformed
into squashed circles. The complete Nichols chart extends for the phase angle of G (jω)
from 0 to -360o. The region of ∠G(jω) used for analysis of systems in between -90o to -270o.
These curves repeat after every 180o interval. If the open loop T.F of unity feedback system
G(s) is expressed as

Closed loop T.F is

Substituting s = jω in the above eq. frequency functions are,

and

Eliminating G(jω) from above two eq.

and